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1.1 Formation from a supercooled liquid </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_from_a_supercooled_liquid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occurrence_in_nature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occurrence_in_nature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Occurrence in nature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occurrence_in_nature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Physical properties </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physical_properties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Physical properties subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Physical_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Optical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Optical </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Other </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reputed_flow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reputed_flow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Reputed flow </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reputed_flow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Types </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Types subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Silicate_glasses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silicate_glasses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Silicate glasses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silicate_glasses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Soda–lime_glass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soda–lime_glass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Soda–lime glass </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soda–lime_glass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Borosilicate_glass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Borosilicate_glass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Borosilicate glass </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Borosilicate_glass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lead_glass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lead_glass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 Lead glass </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lead_glass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aluminosilicate_glass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aluminosilicate_glass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.4 Aluminosilicate glass </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aluminosilicate_glass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_oxide_additives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_oxide_additives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.5 Other oxide additives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_oxide_additives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glass-ceramics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glass-ceramics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.6 Glass-ceramics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glass-ceramics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fibreglass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fibreglass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.7 Fibreglass </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fibreglass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-silicate_glasses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-silicate_glasses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Non-silicate glasses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-silicate_glasses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Amorphous_metals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amorphous_metals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Amorphous metals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amorphous_metals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polymers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polymers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 Polymers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polymers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Molecular_liquids_and_molten_salts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molecular_liquids_and_molten_salts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Molecular liquids and molten salts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molecular_liquids_and_molten_salts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Production </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Production-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Production subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Colour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Colour </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Uses </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Uses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Uses subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Architecture_and_windows" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture_and_windows"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Architecture and windows </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture_and_windows-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tableware" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tableware"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Tableware </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tableware-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Packaging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Packaging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Packaging </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Packaging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laboratories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laboratories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Laboratories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laboratories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Optics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Optics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Glass</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 146 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-146" aria-hidden="true" > 146 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B4%D0%B6" title="Абдж – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Абдж" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas" title="Glas – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Glas" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas" title="Glas – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Glas" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%A5%E1%88%AD%E1%8C%AD%E1%89%86" title="ብርጭቆ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ብርጭቆ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AC" title="زجاج – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="زجاج" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidre" title="Vidre – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Vidre" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%99%DC%93%DC%98%DC%93%DC%9D%DC%AC%DC%90" title="ܙܓܘܓܝܬܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܙܓܘܓܝܬܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidru" title="Vidru – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Vidru" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itavera" title="Itavera – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Itavera" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D3%80%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80" title="ЦӀвер – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="ЦӀвер" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9E%C3%BC%C5%9F%C9%99" title="Şüşə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Şüşə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%87" title="شوشه – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="شوشه" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelas" title="Gelas – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Gelas" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A" title="কাচ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কাচ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaca" title="Kaca – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Kaca" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po-l%C3%AA" title="Po-lê – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Po-lê" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Быяла – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Быяла" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Шкло – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Шкло" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Шкло – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Шкло" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%8A%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Стъкло – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Стъкло" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staklo" title="Staklo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Staklo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwer" title="Gwer – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Gwer" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Шэл – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Шэл" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidre" title="Vidre – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Vidre" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%C4%83%D0%BA" title="Кантăк – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Кантăк" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sklo" title="Sklo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sklo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwydr" title="Gwydr – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gwydr" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas" title="Glas – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Glas" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AC" title="جاج – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="جاج" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas" title="Glas – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Glas" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaas" title="Klaas – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Klaas" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CF%85%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AF" title="Γυαλί – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γυαλί" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%93der" title="Vēder – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Vēder" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidrio" title="Vidrio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Vidrio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitro" title="Vitro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vitro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidriu" title="Vidriu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Vidriu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beira" title="Beira – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Beira" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B4%D9%87" title="شیشه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شیشه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass" title="Glass – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Glass" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas" title="Glas – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Glas" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verre" title="Verre – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Verre" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloine" title="Gloine – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Gloine" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidro" title="Vidro – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Vidro" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Шил – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Шил" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EB%A6%AC" title="유리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%AB" title="Ապակի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ապակի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9A" title="कांच – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कांच" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staklo" title="Staklo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Staklo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitro" title="Vitro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Vitro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarming_(materiales)" title="Sarming (materiales) – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Sarming (materiales)" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaca" title="Kaca – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kaca" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitro" title="Vitro – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Vitro" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitre" title="Vitre – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Vitre" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B3" title="Авг – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Авг" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhlaka" title="Inhlaka – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Inhlaka" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gler" title="Gler – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gler" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetro" title="Vetro – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Vetro" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%AA" title="זכוכית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="זכוכית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%81" title="ಗಾಜು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಗಾಜು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="მინა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მინა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Әйнек – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Әйнек" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gweder" title="Gweder – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Gweder" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kioo" title="Kioo – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kioo" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A8_(materyo)" title="Vè (materyo) – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Vè (materyo)" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A8r" title="Vèr – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Vèr" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cam" title="Cam – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Cam" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Айнек – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Айнек" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipa" title="Scipa – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Scipa" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitrum" title="Vitrum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Vitrum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stikls" title="Stikls – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Stikls" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiklas" title="Stiklas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Stiklas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veddro" title="Veddro – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Veddro" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaas" title="Glaas – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Glaas" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9der" title="Véder – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Véder" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Cveg" title="Üveg – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Üveg" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Стакло – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Стакло" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AB%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%82" title="സ്ഫടികം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സ്ഫടികം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%A6%C4%A1ie%C4%A1" title="Ħġieġ – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Ħġieġ" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A" title="काच – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="काच" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="ازاز – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ازاز" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaca" title="Kaca – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kaca" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaco" title="Kaco – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Kaco" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Шил – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Шил" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%96%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA" title="ဖန် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဖန်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iloilo" title="Iloilo – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Iloilo" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas" title="Glas – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Glas" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%9A" title="काँच – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="काँच" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81)" title="खा (वस्तु) – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="खा (वस्तु)" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AC%E3%83%A9%E3%82%B9" title="ガラス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ガラス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrito" title="Vrito – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Vrito" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Ангали – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Ангали" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%A4%C3%A4s" title="Glääs – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Glääs" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass" title="Glass – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Glass" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas" title="Glas – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Glas" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veire" title="Veire – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Veire" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shisha" title="Shisha – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Shisha" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%9A" title="ਕੱਚ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕੱਚ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%DA%86" title="کنچ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کنچ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%9A%D9%8A%DA%9A%D9%87" title="ښيښه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ښيښه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaas" title="Glaas – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Glaas" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas" title="Glas – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Glas" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szk%C5%82o" title="Szkło – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Szkło" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidro" title="Vidro – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Vidro" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sticl%C4%83" title="Sticlă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sticlă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%27ispillu" title="Q'ispillu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Q'ispillu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Скло – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Скло" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Стекло – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Стекло" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D1%81%D1%82%D2%AF%D3%A9%D0%BA%D2%AF%D0%BB%D1%8D" title="Өстүөкүлэ – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Өстүөкүлэ" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bidru" title="Bidru – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Bidru" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gless" title="Gless – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Gless" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qelqi" title="Qelqi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Qelqi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitru" title="Vitru – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Vitru" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass" title="Glass – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Glass" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%B4%D9%88" title="شيشو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="شيشو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sklo" title="Sklo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sklo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steklo" title="Steklo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Steklo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B4%DB%95" title="شووشە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شووشە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Стакло – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Стакло" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staklo" title="Staklo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Staklo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaca" title="Kaca – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kaca" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lasi" title="Lasi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Lasi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas" title="Glas – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Glas" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamin_(materyales)" title="Salamin (materyales) – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Salamin (materyales)" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF" title="கண்ணாடி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கண்ணாடி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamzukt" title="Tamzukt – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tamzukt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Пыяла – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Пыяла" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%81_(%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A5%E0%B0%82)" title="గాజు (పదార్థం) – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="గాజు (పదార్థం)" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%A7" title="แก้ว – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แก้ว" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-to mw-list-item"><a href="https://to.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sio%CA%BBata" title="Sioʻata – Tongan" lang="to" hreflang="to" data-title="Sioʻata" data-language-autonym="Lea faka-Tonga" data-language-local-name="Tongan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lea faka-Tonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cam" title="Cam – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Cam" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Скло – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Скло" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%81" title="شیشہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="شیشہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%95%D9%83" title="ئەينەك – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئەينەك" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohliz" title="Bohliz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Bohliz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9ro" title="Véro – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Véro" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B6kol" title="Stökol – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Stökol" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A7y_tinh" title="Thủy tinh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thủy tinh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maraaja" title="Maraaja – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Maraaja" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wayuunaiki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E7%92%83" title="玻璃 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="玻璃" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaming" title="Salaming – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Salaming" data-language-autonym="Winaray" 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected due to vandalism"><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Transparent non-crystalline solid material</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the material. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Glass_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Glass (disambiguation)">Glass (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fassade_Wilhelmstrasse_65,_Berlin-Mitte,_160417,_ako.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Refer to caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Fassade_Wilhelmstrasse_65%2C_Berlin-Mitte%2C_160417%2C_ako.jpg/300px-Fassade_Wilhelmstrasse_65%2C_Berlin-Mitte%2C_160417%2C_ako.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Fassade_Wilhelmstrasse_65%2C_Berlin-Mitte%2C_160417%2C_ako.jpg/450px-Fassade_Wilhelmstrasse_65%2C_Berlin-Mitte%2C_160417%2C_ako.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Fassade_Wilhelmstrasse_65%2C_Berlin-Mitte%2C_160417%2C_ako.jpg/600px-Fassade_Wilhelmstrasse_65%2C_Berlin-Mitte%2C_160417%2C_ako.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3619" data-file-height="2413" /></a><figcaption>A glass building facade</figcaption></figure> Glass is an <a href="/wiki/Amorphous" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorphous">amorphous</a> (<a href="/wiki/Non-crystalline_solid" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-crystalline solid">non-crystalline</a>) solid. Because it is often <a href="/wiki/Transparency_and_translucency" title="Transparency and translucency">transparent</a> and chemically inert, glass has found widespread practical, technological, and decorative use in <a href="/wiki/Window" title="Window">window</a> panes, <a href="/wiki/Tableware" title="Tableware">tableware</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>. Some common objects made of glass are named after the material, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Tumbler_(glass)" title="Tumbler (glass)">"glass"</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Glasses" title="Glasses">glasses</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Magnifying_glass" title="Magnifying glass">magnifying glass</a>". Glass is most often formed by rapid cooling (<a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">quenching</a>) of the <a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">molten</a> form. Some glasses such as <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_glass" title="Volcanic glass">volcanic glass</a> are naturally occurring, and <a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">obsidian</a> has been used to make arrowheads and knives since the <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a>. Archaeological evidence suggests glassmaking dates back to at least 3600 BC in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>. The earliest known glass objects were <a href="/wiki/Beads" class="mw-redirect" title="Beads">beads</a>, perhaps created accidentally during <a href="/wiki/Metalworking" title="Metalworking">metalworking</a> or the production of <a href="/wiki/Faience" title="Faience">faience</a>, which is a form of pottery using lead glazes. Due to its ease of <a href="/wiki/Formability" title="Formability">formability</a> into any shape, glass has been traditionally used for vessels, such as <a href="/wiki/Bowl_(vessel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowl (vessel)">bowls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vase" title="Vase">vases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bottle" title="Bottle">bottles</a>, jars and drinking glasses. <a href="/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass" title="Soda–lime glass">Soda–lime glass</a>, containing around 70% <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silica</a>, accounts for around 90% of modern manufactured glass. Glass can be coloured by adding metal salts or painted and printed with <a href="/wiki/Vitreous_enamel" title="Vitreous enamel">vitreous enamels</a>, leading to its use in <a href="/wiki/Stained_glass" title="Stained glass">stained glass</a> windows and other <a href="/wiki/Glass_art" title="Glass art">glass art</a> objects. The <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refractive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reflection_(physics)" title="Reflection (physics)">reflective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transmission_coefficient#Optics" title="Transmission coefficient">transmission</a> properties of glass make glass suitable for manufacturing <a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (optics)">optical lenses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prism_(optics)" title="Prism (optics)">prisms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Optoelectronics" title="Optoelectronics">optoelectronics</a> materials. Extruded <a href="/wiki/Glass_fiber" title="Glass fiber">glass fibres</a> have applications as <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fibres</a> in communications networks, thermal insulating material when matted as <a href="/wiki/Glass_wool" title="Glass wool">glass wool</a> to trap air, or in glass-fibre reinforced plastic (<a href="/wiki/Fiberglass" title="Fiberglass">fibreglass</a>). <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Microscopic_structure">Microscopic structure</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silica.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A graphic showing the lack of periodic arrangement in the microscopic structure of glass" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Silica.svg/220px-Silica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Silica.svg/330px-Silica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Silica.svg/440px-Silica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>The amorphous structure of <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">glassy silica (SiO2)</a> in two dimensions. No long-range order is present, although there is local ordering to the <a href="/wiki/Tetrahedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrahedral">tetrahedral</a> arrangement of oxygen (O) atoms around the silicon (Si) atoms.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystalline_polycrystalline_amorphous2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A graphic visually showing the difference between the microscopic arrangement of single crystals, polycrystals, and amorphous solids, as explained in the caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Crystalline_polycrystalline_amorphous2.svg/280px-Crystalline_polycrystalline_amorphous2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Crystalline_polycrystalline_amorphous2.svg/420px-Crystalline_polycrystalline_amorphous2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Crystalline_polycrystalline_amorphous2.svg/560px-Crystalline_polycrystalline_amorphous2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="511" data-file-height="188" /></a><figcaption>Microscopically, a <a href="/wiki/Single_crystal" title="Single crystal">single crystal</a> has atoms in a near-perfect <a href="/wiki/Periodic_function" title="Periodic function">periodic</a> arrangement; a <a href="/wiki/Polycrystal" class="mw-redirect" title="Polycrystal">polycrystal</a> is composed of many microscopic crystals; and an <a href="/wiki/Amorphous" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorphous">amorphous</a> solid such as glass has no periodic arrangement even microscopically.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Structure_of_liquids_and_glasses" title="Structure of liquids and glasses">Structure of liquids and glasses</a></div> The standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid) is a non-crystalline solid formed by rapid melt <a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">quenching</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zallen83-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cusack87-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Horst_Scholze_1991-4">[4]</a> However, the term "glass" is often defined in a broader sense, to describe any non-crystalline (<a href="/wiki/Amorphous_solid" title="Amorphous solid">amorphous</a>) solid that exhibits a <a href="/wiki/Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">glass transition</a> when heated towards the liquid state.<a href="#cite_note-Horst_Scholze_1991-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Elliot84-5">[5]</a> Glass is an <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_solid" title="Amorphous solid">amorphous solid</a>. Although the atomic-scale structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure of a <a href="/wiki/Supercooled_liquid" class="mw-redirect" title="Supercooled liquid">supercooled liquid</a>, glass exhibits all the mechanical properties of a solid.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gibbs-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> As in other <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_solid" title="Amorphous solid">amorphous solids</a>, the atomic structure of a glass lacks the long-range periodicity observed in <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystalline solids</a>. Due to <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bonding" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical bonding">chemical bonding</a> constraints, glasses do possess a high degree of short-range order with respect to local atomic <a href="/wiki/Polyhedra" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyhedra">polyhedra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The notion that glass flows to an appreciable extent over extended periods well below the glass transition temperature is not supported by empirical research or theoretical analysis (see <a href="/wiki/Viscosity#In_solids" title="Viscosity">viscosity in solids</a>). Though atomic motion at glass surfaces can be observed,<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> and viscosity on the order of 1017–1018 Pa s can be measured in glass, such a high value reinforces the fact that glass would not change shape appreciably over even large periods of time.<a href="#cite_note-Elliot84-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation_from_a_supercooled_liquid">Formation from a supercooled liquid</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">Glass transition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glass_formation" title="Glass formation">Glass formation</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1233989161">.mw-parser-output .unsolved{margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;border:#ccc solid;padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.35em 2.2em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle);background-image:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Question%2C_Web_Fundamentals.svg");background-position:top 50%left 0.35em;background-size:1.5em;background-repeat:no-repeat}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .unsolved{clear:right;float:right;max-width:25%}}.mw-parser-output .unsolved-label{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .unsolved-body{margin:0.35em;font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output .unsolved-more{font-size:smaller}</style> <div role="note" aria-labelledby="unsolved-label-physics" class="unsolved"> <div>Unsolved problem in physics :</div> <div class="unsolved-body">What is the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">transition</a> between a fluid or regular solid and a glassy phase? "The deepest and most interesting unsolved problem in solid state theory is probably the theory of the nature of glass and the glass transition." —<a href="/wiki/Philip_Warren_Anderson" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Warren Anderson">P.W. Anderson</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> </div> <div class="unsolved-more"><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics" title="List of unsolved problems in physics">(more unsolved problems in physics )</a></div> </div> For melt quenching, if the cooling is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic <a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization">crystallization</a> time) then crystallization is prevented and instead, the disordered atomic configuration of the <a href="/wiki/Supercooled" class="mw-redirect" title="Supercooled">supercooled</a> liquid is frozen into the solid state at Tg. The tendency for a material to form a glass while quenched is called glass-forming ability. This ability can be predicted by the <a href="/wiki/Rigidity_theory_(physics)" title="Rigidity theory (physics)">rigidity theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-phillips1979-13">[13]</a> Generally, a glass exists in a structurally <a href="/wiki/Metastability_in_molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Metastability in molecules">metastable</a> state with respect to its <a href="/wiki/Crystallinity" title="Crystallinity">crystalline</a> form, although in certain circumstances, for example in <a href="/wiki/Atactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atactic">atactic</a> polymers, there is no crystalline analogue of the amorphous phase.<a href="#cite_note-Folmer-14">[14]</a> Glass is sometimes considered to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase transition</a><a href="#cite_note-Gibbs-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> where certain <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermodynamic variable">variables</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">volume</a>, <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">enthalpy</a> are discontinuous through the glass transition range. The <a href="/wiki/Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">glass transition</a> may be described as analogous to a second-order phase transition where the intensive thermodynamic variables such as the <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">thermal expansivity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">heat capacity</a> are discontinuous.<a href="#cite_note-Zallen83-2">[2]</a> However, the equilibrium theory of phase transformations does not hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as one of the classical equilibrium phase transformations in solids.<a href="#cite_note-Horst_Scholze_1991-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Elliot84-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Occurrence_in_nature">Occurrence in nature</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_glass" title="Volcanic glass">Volcanic glass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Impactite" title="Impactite">Impactite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fulgurite" title="Fulgurite">Fulgurite</a></div> Glass can form naturally from volcanic magma. <a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">Obsidian</a> is a common volcanic glass with high silica (SiO2) content formed when felsic lava extruded from a volcano cools rapidly.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/Impactite" title="Impactite">Impactite</a> is a form of glass formed by the impact of a <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorite</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Moldavite" title="Moldavite">Moldavite</a> (found in central and eastern Europe), and <a href="/wiki/Libyan_desert_glass" title="Libyan desert glass">Libyan desert glass</a> (found in areas in the eastern <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Libyan_desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Libyan desert">deserts of eastern Libya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_(Egypt)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Desert (Egypt)">western Egypt</a>) are notable examples.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vitrification" title="Vitrification">Vitrification</a> of <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a> can also occur when <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a> strikes <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a>, forming hollow, <a href="/wiki/Dendrite_(crystal)" title="Dendrite (crystal)">branching rootlike</a> structures called <a href="/wiki/Fulgurite" title="Fulgurite">fulgurites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Trinitite" title="Trinitite">Trinitite</a> is a glassy residue formed from the desert floor sand at the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinity test">Trinity</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear testing">nuclear bomb test</a> site.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edeowie_glass" title="Edeowie glass">Edeowie glass</a>, found in <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a>, is proposed to originate from <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> grassland fires, <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a> strikes, or <a href="/wiki/Hypervelocity_impact" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypervelocity impact">hypervelocity impact</a> by one or several <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroids</a> or <a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">comets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-nolines"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Lipari-Obsidienne_(5).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A piece of volcanic obsidian glass"><img alt="A piece of volcanic obsidian glass" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Lipari-Obsidienne_%285%29.jpg/120px-Lipari-Obsidienne_%285%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Lipari-Obsidienne_%285%29.jpg/180px-Lipari-Obsidienne_%285%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Lipari-Obsidienne_%285%29.jpg/240px-Lipari-Obsidienne_%285%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A piece of volcanic <a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">obsidian</a> glass</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Moldavite_Besednice.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Moldavite, a natural glass formed by meteorite impact, from Besednice, Bohemia"><img alt="Moldavite, a natural glass formed by meteorite impact, from Besednice, Bohemia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Moldavite_Besednice.jpg/120px-Moldavite_Besednice.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Moldavite_Besednice.jpg/180px-Moldavite_Besednice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Moldavite_Besednice.jpg/240px-Moldavite_Besednice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="717" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Moldavite" title="Moldavite">Moldavite</a>, a natural glass formed by <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorite</a> impact, from <a href="/wiki/Besednice" title="Besednice">Besednice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bohemia_proper" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohemia proper">Bohemia</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Fulgurites-algeria.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tube fulgurites"><img alt="Tube fulgurites" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Fulgurites-algeria.jpg/119px-Fulgurites-algeria.jpg" decoding="async" width="119" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Fulgurites-algeria.jpg/179px-Fulgurites-algeria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Fulgurites-algeria.jpg/239px-Fulgurites-algeria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2242" data-file-height="2252" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Tube <a href="/wiki/Fulgurites" class="mw-redirect" title="Fulgurites">fulgurites</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Trinitite_from_Trinity_Site.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Trinitite, a glass made by the Trinity nuclear-weapon test"><img alt="Trinitite, a glass made by the Trinity nuclear-weapon test" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Trinitite_from_Trinity_Site.jpg/120px-Trinitite_from_Trinity_Site.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Trinitite_from_Trinity_Site.jpg/180px-Trinitite_from_Trinity_Site.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Trinitite_from_Trinity_Site.jpg/240px-Trinitite_from_Trinity_Site.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2256" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Trinitite" title="Trinitite">Trinitite</a>, a glass made by the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity nuclear-weapon test</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Libyan_Desert_Glass.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Libyan desert glass"><img alt="Libyan desert glass" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Libyan_Desert_Glass.jpg/120px-Libyan_Desert_Glass.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Libyan_Desert_Glass.jpg/180px-Libyan_Desert_Glass.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Libyan_Desert_Glass.jpg/240px-Libyan_Desert_Glass.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Libyan_desert_glass" title="Libyan desert glass">Libyan desert glass</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_glass" title="History of glass">History of glass</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_diatretglas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Refer to caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Roman_diatretglas.jpg/170px-Roman_diatretglas.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Roman_diatretglas.jpg/255px-Roman_diatretglas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Roman_diatretglas.jpg/340px-Roman_diatretglas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3080" data-file-height="3952" /></a><figcaption>Roman <a href="/wiki/Cage_cup" title="Cage cup">cage cup</a> from the 4th century</figcaption></figure> Naturally occurring <a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">obsidian</a> glass was used by <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a> societies as it fractures along very sharp edges, making it ideal for cutting tools and weapons.<a href="#cite_note-Harvey09-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Glassmaking dates back at least 6000 years, long before humans had discovered how to <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelt</a> iron.<a href="#cite_note-Harvey09-21">[21]</a> Archaeological evidence suggests that the first true synthetic glass was made in <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> and the coastal north <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Henderson_ancient_glass-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The earliest known glass objects, of the mid-third millennium BC, were <a href="/wiki/Glass_beadmaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass beadmaking">beads</a>, perhaps initially created as accidental by-products of <a href="/wiki/Metalworking" title="Metalworking">metalworking</a> (<a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slags</a>) or during the production of <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_faience" title="Egyptian faience">faience</a>, a pre-glass <a href="/wiki/Vitreous_enamel" title="Vitreous enamel">vitreous</a> material made by a process similar to <a href="/wiki/Ceramic_glaze" title="Ceramic glaze">glazing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Early glass was rarely transparent and often contained impurities and imperfections,<a href="#cite_note-Harvey09-21">[21]</a> and is technically faience rather than true glass, which did not appear until the 15th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> However, red-orange glass beads excavated from the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley Civilization</a> dated before 1700 BC (possibly as early as 1900 BC) predate sustained glass production, which appeared around 1600 BC in Mesopotamia and 1500 BC in Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Bronze Age">Late Bronze Age</a>, there was a rapid growth in <a href="/wiki/Glassmaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Glassmaking">glassmaking</a> technology in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">Western Asia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Henderson_ancient_glass-23">[23]</a> Archaeological finds from this period include coloured glass <a href="/wiki/Ingots" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingots">ingots</a>, vessels, and beads.<a href="#cite_note-Henderson_ancient_glass-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Much early glass production relied on grinding techniques borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Stonemasonry" title="Stonemasonry">stoneworking</a>, such as grinding and carving glass in a cold state.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The term glass has its origins in the late <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_glass" title="Roman glass">Roman glass</a> making centre at <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a> (located in current-day Germany) where the <a href="/wiki/Late-Latin" class="mw-redirect" title="Late-Latin">late-Latin</a> term glesum originated, likely from a <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a> word for a <a href="/wiki/Transparent_materials" class="mw-redirect" title="Transparent materials">transparent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lustrous" class="mw-redirect" title="Lustrous">lustrous</a> substance.<a href="#cite_note-douglas-31">[31]</a> Glass objects have been recovered across the Roman Empire<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> in domestic, <a href="/wiki/Funerary" class="mw-redirect" title="Funerary">funerary</a>,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> and industrial contexts,<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> as well as trade items in marketplaces in distant provinces.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Examples of <a href="/wiki/Roman_glass" title="Roman glass">Roman glass</a> have been found outside of the former <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>,<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_region" title="Baltic region">Baltics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, and <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The Romans perfected <a href="/wiki/Cameo_glass" title="Cameo glass">cameo glass</a>, produced by <a href="/wiki/Etching_(microfabrication)" title="Etching (microfabrication)">etching</a> and carving through fused layers of different colours to produce a design in relief on the glass object.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-glass-39">[39]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vitrail-Passion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Elaborate stained glass windows in the choir of the Basilica of Saint Denis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Vitrail-Passion.jpg/220px-Vitrail-Passion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Vitrail-Passion.jpg/330px-Vitrail-Passion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Vitrail-Passion.jpg/440px-Vitrail-Passion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Windows in the choir of the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Saint-Denis" title="Basilica of Saint-Denis">Basilica of Saint-Denis</a>, one of the earliest uses of extensive areas of glass (early 13th-century architecture with restored glass of the 19th century)</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Post-classical" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-classical">post-classical</a> West Africa, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a> was a manufacturer of glass and glass beads.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Glass was used extensively in Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_glass" title="Anglo-Saxon glass">Anglo-Saxon glass</a> has been found across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> From the 10th century onwards, glass was employed in <a href="/wiki/Stained_glass_windows" class="mw-redirect" title="Stained glass windows">stained glass windows</a> of churches and <a href="/wiki/Cathedral" title="Cathedral">cathedrals</a>, with famous examples at <a href="/wiki/Chartres_Cathedral" title="Chartres Cathedral">Chartres Cathedral</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Saint-Denis" title="Basilica of Saint-Denis">Basilica of Saint-Denis</a>. By the 14th century, architects were designing buildings with walls of <a href="/wiki/Stained_glass" title="Stained glass">stained glass</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Sainte-Chapelle" title="Sainte-Chapelle">Sainte-Chapelle</a>, Paris, (1203–1248) and the East end of <a href="/wiki/Gloucester_Cathedral" title="Gloucester Cathedral">Gloucester Cathedral</a>. With the change in architectural style during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture" title="Renaissance architecture">Renaissance</a> period in Europe, the use of large stained glass windows became much less prevalent,<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> although stained glass had a major revival with <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic Revival architecture</a> in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> During the 13th century, the island of <a href="/wiki/Murano" title="Murano">Murano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, became a centre for glass making, building on medieval techniques to produce colourful ornamental pieces in large quantities.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-glass-39">[39]</a> <a href="/wiki/Venetian_glass" title="Venetian glass">Murano glass</a> makers developed the exceptionally clear colourless glass <a href="/wiki/Cristallo" title="Cristallo">cristallo</a>, so called for its resemblance to natural crystal, which was extensively used for windows, mirrors, ships' lanterns, and lenses.<a href="#cite_note-Harvey09-21">[21]</a> In the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, enamelling and <a href="/wiki/Gilding" title="Gilding">gilding</a> on glass vessels were perfected in Egypt and Syria.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-incorp-44">[44]</a> Towards the end of the 17th century, <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a> became an important region for glass production, remaining so until the start of the 20th century. By the 17th century, glass in the Venetian tradition was also being produced in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>. In about 1675, <a href="/wiki/George_Ravenscroft" title="George Ravenscroft">George Ravenscroft</a> invented <a href="/wiki/Lead_crystal" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead crystal">lead crystal</a> glass, with <a href="/wiki/Cut_glass" title="Cut glass">cut glass</a> becoming fashionable in the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-glass-39">[39]</a> Ornamental glass objects became an important art medium during the <a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a> period in the late 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-glass-39">[39]</a> Throughout the 20th century, new <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a> techniques led to the widespread availability of glass in much larger amounts, making it practical as a building material and enabling new applications of glass.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In the 1920s a <a href="/wiki/Glass_casting" title="Glass casting">mould</a>-etch process was developed, in which art was etched directly into the mould so that each cast piece emerged from the mould with the image already on the surface of the glass. This reduced manufacturing costs and, combined with a wider use of coloured glass, led to cheap glassware in the 1930s, which later became known as <a href="/wiki/Depression_glass" title="Depression glass">Depression glass</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> In the 1950s, <a href="/wiki/Pilkington" title="Pilkington">Pilkington Bros.</a>, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, developed the <a href="/wiki/Float_glass" title="Float glass">float glass</a> process, producing high-quality distortion-free flat sheets of glass by floating on molten <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Harvey09-21">[21]</a> Modern multi-story buildings are frequently constructed with <a href="/wiki/Curtain_wall_(architecture)" title="Curtain wall (architecture)">curtain walls</a> made almost entirely of glass.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <a href="/wiki/Laminated_glass" title="Laminated glass">Laminated glass</a> has been widely applied to vehicles for windscreens.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Optical glass for spectacles has been used since the Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> The production of lenses has become increasingly proficient, aiding <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomers</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> as well as having other applications in medicine and science.<a href="#cite_note-glassalliance-51">[51]</a> Glass is also employed as the aperture cover in many <a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar energy</a> collectors.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> In the 21st century, glass manufacturers have developed different brands of <a href="/wiki/Chemically_strengthened_glass" title="Chemically strengthened glass">chemically strengthened glass</a> for widespread application in <a href="/wiki/Touchscreen" title="Touchscreen">touchscreens</a> for <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tablet_computer" title="Tablet computer">tablet computers</a>, and many other types of <a href="/wiki/Information_appliance" title="Information appliance">information appliances</a>. These include <a href="/wiki/Gorilla_Glass" title="Gorilla Glass">Gorilla Glass</a>, developed and manufactured by <a href="/wiki/Corning_Inc." title="Corning Inc.">Corning</a>, <a href="/wiki/AGC_Inc." title="AGC Inc.">AGC Inc.</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Dragontrail" title="Dragontrail">Dragontrail</a> and <a href="/wiki/Schott_AG" title="Schott AG">Schott AG</a>'s Xensation.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-gensix-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_properties">Physical properties</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optical">Optical</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Optical_glass" title="Optical glass">Optical glass</a></div> Glass is in widespread use in optical systems due to its ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light following <a href="/wiki/Geometrical_optics" title="Geometrical optics">geometrical optics</a>. The most common and oldest applications of glass in optics are as <a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (optics)">lenses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Window" title="Window">windows</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mirror" title="Mirror">mirrors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prism_(optics)" title="Prism (optics)">prisms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bach12-56">[56]</a> The key optical properties <a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)" title="Dispersion (optics)">dispersion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transparency_and_translucency" title="Transparency and translucency">transmission</a>, of glass are strongly dependent on chemical composition and, to a lesser degree, its thermal history.<a href="#cite_note-Bach12-56">[56]</a> Optical glass typically has a refractive index of 1.4 to 2.4, and an <a href="/wiki/Abbe_number" title="Abbe number">Abbe number</a> (which characterises dispersion) of 15 to 100.<a href="#cite_note-Bach12-56">[56]</a> The refractive index may be modified by high-density (refractive index increases) or low-density (refractive index decreases) additives.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Glass transparency results from the absence of <a href="/wiki/Grain_boundary" title="Grain boundary">grain boundaries</a> which <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_reflection" title="Diffuse reflection">diffusely scatter light</a> in polycrystalline materials.<a href="#cite_note-Carter-Norton-58">[58]</a> Semi-opacity due to crystallization may be induced in many glasses by maintaining them for a long period at a temperature just insufficient to cause fusion. In this way, the crystalline, devitrified material, known as Réaumur's glass <a href="/wiki/Porcelain" title="Porcelain">porcelain</a> is produced.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-incorp-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mysen05-59">[59]</a> Although generally transparent to visible light, glasses may be <a href="/wiki/Opacity_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Opacity (optics)">opaque</a> to other <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">wavelengths of light</a>. While silicate glasses are generally opaque to <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> wavelengths with a transmission cut-off at 4 μm, heavy-metal <a href="/wiki/Fluoride_glass" title="Fluoride glass">fluoride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chalcogenide_glass" title="Chalcogenide glass">chalcogenide</a> glasses are transparent to infrared wavelengths of 7 to 18 μm.<a href="#cite_note-brittanica-industrial-60">[60]</a> The addition of metallic oxides results in different coloured glasses as the metallic ions will absorb wavelengths of light corresponding to specific colours.<a href="#cite_note-brittanica-industrial-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_physical_properties_of_glass" title="List of physical properties of glass">List of physical properties of glass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corrosion#Corrosion_of_glass" title="Corrosion">Corrosion § Corrosion of glass</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_glass" title="Strength of glass">Strength of glass</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artesan%C3%ADa_en_vidrio_(Unsplash).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Artesan%C3%ADa_en_vidrio_%28Unsplash%29.jpg/220px-Artesan%C3%ADa_en_vidrio_%28Unsplash%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Artesan%C3%ADa_en_vidrio_%28Unsplash%29.jpg/330px-Artesan%C3%ADa_en_vidrio_%28Unsplash%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Artesan%C3%ADa_en_vidrio_%28Unsplash%29.jpg/440px-Artesan%C3%ADa_en_vidrio_%28Unsplash%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="3168" /></a><figcaption>Glass can be fairly easily melted and manipulated with a heat source</figcaption></figure> In the manufacturing process, glasses can be poured, formed, extruded and moulded into forms ranging from flat sheets to highly intricate shapes.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> The finished product is brittle but can be <a href="/wiki/Laminated_glass" title="Laminated glass">laminated</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tempered_glass" title="Tempered glass">tempered</a> to enhance durability.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Glass is typically inert, resistant to chemical attack, and can mostly withstand the action of water, making it an ideal material for the manufacture of containers for foodstuffs and most chemicals.<a href="#cite_note-Harvey09-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gardner-1949-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Nevertheless, although usually highly resistant to chemical attack, glass will corrode or dissolve under some conditions.<a href="#cite_note-Gardner-1949-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bengisu_2013-66">[66]</a> The materials that make up a particular glass composition affect how quickly the glass corrodes. Glasses containing a high proportion of <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">alkali</a> or <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaline earth element">alkaline earth</a> elements are more susceptible to corrosion than other glass compositions.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chawla93-68">[68]</a> The density of glass varies with chemical composition with values ranging from 2.2 grams per cubic centimetre (2,200 kg/m3) for <a href="/wiki/Fused_quartz" title="Fused quartz">fused silica</a> to 7.2 grams per cubic centimetre (7,200 kg/m3) for dense flint glass.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Glass is stronger than most metals, with a theoretical <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a> for pure, flawless glass estimated at 14 to 35 gigapascals (2,000,000 to 5,100,000 psi) due to its ability to undergo reversible compression without fracture. However, the presence of scratches, bubbles, and other microscopic flaws lead to a typical range of 14 to 175 megapascals (2,000 to 25,400 psi) in most commercial glasses.<a href="#cite_note-brittanica-industrial-60">[60]</a> Several processes such as <a href="/wiki/Toughened_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Toughened glass">toughening</a> can increase the strength of glass.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Carefully drawn flawless <a href="/wiki/Glass_fibre" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass fibre">glass fibres</a> can be produced with a strength of up to 11.5 gigapascals (1,670,000 psi).<a href="#cite_note-brittanica-industrial-60">[60]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information on the tiny glass flakes formed during glass vial manufacturing: <a href="/wiki/Spicule_(glass_manufacture)" title="Spicule (glass manufacture)">Spicule</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reputed_flow">Reputed flow</h3></div> The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> This assumption is incorrect, as once solidified, glass stops flowing. The sags and ripples observed in old glass were already there the day it was made; manufacturing processes used in the past produced sheets with imperfect surfaces and non-uniform thickness (the near-perfect <a href="/wiki/Float_glass" title="Float glass">float glass</a> used today only became widespread in the 1960s).<a href="#cite_note-Gibbs-7">[7]</a> A 2017 study computed the rate of flow of the medieval glass used in <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a> from the year 1268. The study found that the room temperature viscosity of this glass was roughly 1024 <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">Pa</a>·<a href="/wiki/Second" title="Second">s</a> which is about 1016 times less viscous than a previous estimate made in 1998, which focused on soda-lime silicate glass. Even with this lower viscosity, the study authors calculated that the maximum flow rate of medieval glass is 1 <a href="/wiki/Nanometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanometer">nm</a> per billion years, making it impossible to observe in a human timescale.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Silicate_glasses">Silicate glasses</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quartz_sand.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Close-up photograph of sand" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Quartz_sand.jpg/220px-Quartz_sand.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Quartz_sand.jpg/330px-Quartz_sand.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Quartz_sand.jpg/440px-Quartz_sand.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">Quartz sand</a> (silica) is the main raw material in commercial glass production</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">Silicon dioxide</a> (SiO2) is a common fundamental constituent of glass. <a href="/wiki/Fused_quartz" title="Fused quartz">Fused quartz</a> is a glass made from chemically pure silica.<a href="#cite_note-Chawla93-68">[68]</a> It has very low thermal expansion and excellent resistance to <a href="/wiki/Thermal_shock" title="Thermal shock">thermal shock</a>, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot, resists high temperatures (1000–1500 °C) and chemical weathering, and is very hard. It is also transparent to a wider spectral range than ordinary glass, extending from the visible further into both the <a href="/wiki/UV" class="mw-redirect" title="UV">UV</a> and <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">IR</a> ranges, and is sometimes used where transparency to these wavelengths is necessary. Fused quartz is used for high-temperature applications such as furnace tubes, lighting tubes, melting crucibles, etc.<a href="#cite_note-Seafriends-1994-74">[74]</a> However, its high melting temperature (1723 °C) and viscosity make it difficult to work with. Therefore, normally, other substances (fluxes) are added to lower the melting temperature and simplify glass processing.<a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-explained-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Soda–lime_glass">Soda–lime glass</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass" title="Soda–lime glass">Soda–lime glass</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Sodium_carbonate" title="Sodium carbonate">Sodium carbonate</a> (Na2CO3, "soda") is a common additive and acts to lower the glass-transition temperature. However, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_silicate" title="Sodium silicate">sodium silicate</a> is <a href="/wiki/Water_solubility" class="mw-redirect" title="Water solubility">water-soluble</a>, so <a href="/wiki/Lime_(mineral)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lime (mineral)">lime</a> (CaO, <a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide" title="Calcium oxide">calcium oxide</a>, generally obtained from <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>), along with <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_oxide" title="Magnesium oxide">magnesium oxide</a> (MgO), and <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_oxide" title="Aluminium oxide">aluminium oxide</a> (Al2O3), are commonly added to improve chemical durability. Soda–lime glasses (Na2O) + lime (CaO) + magnesia (MgO) + alumina (Al2O3) account for over 75% of manufactured glass, containing about 70 to 74% silica by weight.<a href="#cite_note-Chawla93-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-ullmann-76">[76]</a> Soda–lime–silicate glass is transparent, easily formed, and most suitable for window glass and tableware.<a href="#cite_note-Spence-2016-77">[77]</a> However, it has a high thermal expansion and poor resistance to heat.<a href="#cite_note-Spence-2016-77">[77]</a> Soda–lime glass is typically used for <a href="/wiki/Window" title="Window">windows</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bottle" title="Bottle">bottles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Light_bulb" class="mw-redirect" title="Light bulb">light bulbs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jar" title="Jar">jars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-explained-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Borosilicate_glass">Borosilicate glass</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Measuring_cup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Refer to caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Measuring_cup.jpg/220px-Measuring_cup.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Measuring_cup.jpg/330px-Measuring_cup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Measuring_cup.jpg/440px-Measuring_cup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="452" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Pyrex" title="Pyrex">Pyrex</a> <a href="/wiki/Borosilicate_glass" title="Borosilicate glass">borosilicate glass</a> <a href="/wiki/Measuring_cup" title="Measuring cup">measuring cup</a> </figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Borosilicate_glass" title="Borosilicate glass">Borosilicate glasses</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Pyrex" title="Pyrex">Pyrex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duran_(glass)" title="Duran (glass)">Duran</a>) typically contain 5–13% <a href="/wiki/Boron_trioxide" title="Boron trioxide">boron trioxide</a> (B2O3).<a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-explained-75">[75]</a> Borosilicate glasses have fairly low <a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_thermal_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Coefficient of thermal expansion">coefficients of thermal expansion</a> (7740 Pyrex CTE is 3.25×10−6/°C<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> as compared to about 9×10−6/°C for a typical soda–lime glass<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a>). They are, therefore, less subject to <a href="/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)" title="Stress (mechanics)">stress</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">thermal expansion</a> and thus less vulnerable to <a href="/wiki/Crack_propagation" class="mw-redirect" title="Crack propagation">cracking</a> from <a href="/wiki/Thermal_shock" title="Thermal shock">thermal shock</a>. They are commonly used for e.g. <a href="/wiki/Labware" class="mw-redirect" title="Labware">labware</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cookware" class="mw-redirect" title="Cookware">household cookware</a>, and sealed beam car <a href="/wiki/Head_lamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Head lamp">head lamps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-explained-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lead_glass">Lead glass</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lead_glass" title="Lead glass">Lead glass</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead poisoning</a></div> The addition of <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_oxide" title="Lead(II) oxide">lead(II) oxide</a> into silicate glass lowers the melting point and <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a> of the melt.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> The high density of lead glass (silica + lead oxide (PbO) + potassium oxide (K2O) + soda (Na2O) + zinc oxide (ZnO) + alumina) results in a high electron density, and hence high refractive index, making the look of glassware more brilliant and causing noticeably more <a href="/wiki/Specular_reflection" title="Specular reflection">specular reflection</a> and increased <a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)" title="Dispersion (optics)">optical dispersion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chawla93-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-2002-81">[81]</a> Lead glass has a high elasticity, making the glassware more workable and giving rise to a clear "ring" sound when struck. However, lead glass cannot withstand high temperatures well.<a href="#cite_note-Seafriends-1994-74">[74]</a> Lead oxide also facilitates the solubility of other metal oxides and is used in coloured glass. The viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda glass); this allows easier removal of bubbles and working at lower temperatures, hence its frequent use as an additive in <a href="/wiki/Vitreous_enamel" title="Vitreous enamel">vitreous enamels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glass_solder" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass solder">glass solders</a>. The high <a href="/wiki/Ionic_radius" title="Ionic radius">ionic radius</a> of the Pb2+ ion renders it highly immobile and hinders the movement of other ions; lead glasses therefore have high electrical resistance, about two orders of magnitude higher than soda–lime glass (108.5 vs 106.5 Ω⋅cm, <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">DC</a> at 250 °C).<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aluminosilicate_glass">Aluminosilicate glass</h4></div> Aluminosilicate glass typically contains 5–10% <a href="/wiki/Alumina" class="mw-redirect" title="Alumina">alumina</a> (Al2O3). Aluminosilicate glass tends to be more difficult to melt and shape compared to borosilicate compositions but has excellent thermal resistance and durability.<a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-explained-75">[75]</a> Aluminosilicate glass is extensively used for <a href="/wiki/Fiberglass" title="Fiberglass">fibreglass</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Askeland-2008-83">[83]</a> used for making glass-reinforced plastics (boats, fishing rods, etc.), top-of-stove cookware, and halogen bulb glass.<a href="#cite_note-Seafriends-1994-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-explained-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_oxide_additives">Other oxide additives</h4></div> The addition of <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a> also increases the refractive index. <a href="/wiki/Thorium_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorium oxide">Thorium oxide</a> gives glass a high refractive index and low dispersion and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a> has been replaced by <a href="/wiki/Lanthanum_oxide" title="Lanthanum oxide">lanthanum oxide</a> in modern eyeglasses.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> radiation, for example in heat-absorbing filters for movie projectors, while <a href="/wiki/Cerium(IV)_oxide" title="Cerium(IV) oxide">cerium(IV) oxide</a> can be used for glass that absorbs <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> wavelengths.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">Fluorine</a> lowers the <a href="/wiki/Dielectric_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Dielectric constant">dielectric constant</a> of glass. Fluorine is highly <a href="/wiki/Electronegative" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronegative">electronegative</a> and lowers the polarizability of the material. Fluoride silicate glasses are used in the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> as an insulator.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Glass-ceramics">Glass-ceramics</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Glass-ceramic" title="Glass-ceramic">Glass-ceramic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ceranfeld.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A cooktop with two of its eyes turned on" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Ceranfeld.jpg/220px-Ceranfeld.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Ceranfeld.jpg/330px-Ceranfeld.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Ceranfeld.jpg/440px-Ceranfeld.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2618" data-file-height="1413" /></a><figcaption>A high-strength glass-ceramic <a href="/wiki/Cooktop" title="Cooktop">cooktop</a> with negligible <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">thermal expansion</a> </figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Glass-ceramic" title="Glass-ceramic">Glass-ceramic</a> materials contain both non-crystalline glass and <a href="/wiki/Crystallinity" title="Crystallinity">crystalline</a> <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramic</a> phases. They are formed by controlled nucleation and partial crystallisation of a base glass by heat treatment.<a href="#cite_note-Holand-glass-ceramics-87">[87]</a> Crystalline grains are often embedded within a non-crystalline intergranular phase of <a href="/wiki/Grain_boundary" title="Grain boundary">grain boundaries</a>. Glass-ceramics exhibit advantageous thermal, chemical, biological, and dielectric properties as compared to metals or organic polymers.<a href="#cite_note-Holand-glass-ceramics-87">[87]</a> The most commercially important property of glass-ceramics is their imperviousness to thermal shock. Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking and industrial processes. The negative <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">thermal expansion</a> coefficient (CTE) of the crystalline ceramic phase can be balanced with the positive CTE of the glassy phase. At a certain point (~70% crystalline) the glass-ceramic has a net CTE near zero. This type of <a href="/wiki/Glass-ceramic" title="Glass-ceramic">glass-ceramic</a> exhibits excellent mechanical properties and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 1000 °C.<a href="#cite_note-MOD-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-Holand-glass-ceramics-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fibreglass">Fibreglass</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fiberglass" title="Fiberglass">Fiberglass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glass_wool" title="Glass wool">Glass wool</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Fibreglass" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibreglass">Fibreglass</a> (also called glass fibre reinforced plastic, GRP) is a <a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">composite material</a> made by reinforcing a plastic <a href="/wiki/Resin" title="Resin">resin</a> with <a href="/wiki/Glass_fibre" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass fibre">glass fibres</a>. It is made by melting glass and stretching the glass into fibres. These fibres are woven together into a cloth and left to set in a plastic resin.<a href="#cite_note-Parkyn-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-propertiesofmatter-91">[91]</a> Fibreglass has the properties of being lightweight and corrosion resistant and is a good <a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">insulator</a> enabling its use as <a href="/wiki/Building_insulation_materials" class="mw-redirect" title="Building insulation materials">building insulation material</a> and for electronic housing for consumer products. Fibreglass was originally used in the United Kingdom and United States during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> to manufacture <a href="/wiki/Radome" title="Radome">radomes</a>. Uses of fibreglass include building and construction materials, boat hulls, car body parts, and aerospace composite materials.<a href="#cite_note-brittanica-fibreglass-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Parkyn-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-propertiesofmatter-91">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/Glass_wool" title="Glass wool">Glass-fibre wool</a> is an excellent <a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">thermal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sound_insulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound insulation">sound</a> insulation material, commonly used in buildings (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Attic" title="Attic">attic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cavity_wall_insulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cavity wall insulation">cavity wall insulation</a>), and plumbing (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Pipe_insulation" title="Pipe insulation">pipe insulation</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Soundproofing" title="Soundproofing">soundproofing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-brittanica-fibreglass-92">[92]</a> It is produced by forcing molten glass through a fine mesh by <a href="/wiki/Centripetal_force" title="Centripetal force">centripetal force</a> and breaking the extruded glass fibres into short lengths using a stream of high-velocity air. The fibres are bonded with an adhesive spray and the resulting wool mat is cut and packed in rolls or panels.<a href="#cite_note-brittanica-industrial-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-silicate_glasses">Non-silicate glasses</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CD-RW_bottom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A CD" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/CD-RW_bottom.jpg/220px-CD-RW_bottom.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/CD-RW_bottom.jpg/330px-CD-RW_bottom.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/CD-RW_bottom.jpg/440px-CD-RW_bottom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/CD-RW" title="CD-RW">CD-RW</a> (CD). <a href="/wiki/Chalcogenide_glass" title="Chalcogenide glass">Chalcogenide glass</a> forms the basis of rewritable CD and DVD solid-state memory technology.<a href="#cite_note-Greer05-93">[93]</a></figcaption></figure> Besides common silica-based glasses many other <a href="/wiki/Inorganic" class="mw-redirect" title="Inorganic">inorganic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic</a> materials may also form glasses, including <a href="/wiki/Metallic_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallic glass">metals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aluminate" title="Aluminate">aluminates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Borate" title="Borate">borates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chalcogenide_glass" title="Chalcogenide glass">chalcogenides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluorides</a>, germanates (glasses based on <a href="/wiki/Germanium_oxide" title="Germanium oxide">GeO2</a>), tellurites (glasses based on TeO2), antimonates (glasses based on Sb2O3), arsenates (glasses based on As2O3), titanates (glasses based on TiO2), tantalates (glasses based on Ta2O5), <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastics">plastics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acrylic_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrylic glass">acrylic</a>, and many other substances.<a href="#cite_note-Elliot84-5">[5]</a> Some of these glasses (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Germanium_dioxide" title="Germanium dioxide">Germanium dioxide</a> (GeO2, Germania), in many respects a structural analogue of silica, <a href="/wiki/Fluoride_glass" title="Fluoride glass">fluoride</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aluminate" title="Aluminate">aluminate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphate_glass" title="Phosphate glass">phosphate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Borate_glass" title="Borate glass">borate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chalcogenide_glass" title="Chalcogenide glass">chalcogenide</a> glasses) have physicochemical properties useful for their application in <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">fibre-optic</a> <a href="/wiki/Waveguide" title="Waveguide">waveguides</a> in communication networks and other specialised technological applications.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Silica-free glasses may often have poor glass-forming tendencies. Novel techniques, including containerless processing by <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic_levitation" title="Aerodynamic levitation">aerodynamic levitation</a> (cooling the melt whilst it floats on a gas stream) or <a href="/wiki/Splat_quenching" title="Splat quenching">splat quenching</a> (pressing the melt between two metal anvils or rollers), may be used to increase the cooling rate or to reduce crystal nucleation triggers.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Amorphous_metals">Amorphous metals</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_metal" title="Amorphous metal">Amorphous metal</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bulk_Metallic_Glass_Sample.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Refer to caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Bulk_Metallic_Glass_Sample.jpg/220px-Bulk_Metallic_Glass_Sample.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Bulk_Metallic_Glass_Sample.jpg/330px-Bulk_Metallic_Glass_Sample.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Bulk_Metallic_Glass_Sample.jpg/440px-Bulk_Metallic_Glass_Sample.jpg 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>Samples of amorphous metal, with millimetre scale</figcaption></figure> In the past, small batches of <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_metal" title="Amorphous metal">amorphous metals</a> with high surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films, etc.) have been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling. Amorphous metal wires have been produced by sputtering molten metal onto a spinning metal disk.<a href="#cite_note-klement60-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-lieb76-100">[100]</a> Several alloys have been produced in layers with thicknesses exceeding 1 millimetre. These are known as bulk metallic glasses (BMG). <a href="/wiki/Liquidmetal" title="Liquidmetal">Liquidmetal Technologies</a> sells several <a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">zirconium</a>-based BMGs. Batches of amorphous steel have also been produced that demonstrate mechanical properties far exceeding those found in conventional steel alloys.<a href="#cite_note-ponn04-101">[101]</a> Experimental evidence indicates that the system Al-Fe-Si may undergo a first-order transition to an amorphous form (dubbed "q-glass") on rapid cooling from the melt. <a href="/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy" title="Transmission electron microscopy">Transmission electron microscopy</a> (TEM) images indicate that q-glass nucleates from the melt as discrete particles with uniform spherical growth in all directions. While <a href="/wiki/X-ray_diffraction" title="X-ray diffraction">x-ray diffraction</a> reveals the isotropic nature of q-glass, a <a href="/wiki/Nucleation" title="Nucleation">nucleation</a> barrier exists implying an interfacial discontinuity (or internal surface) between the glass and melt phases.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Polymers">Polymers</h4></div> Important <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a> glasses include amorphous and glassy pharmaceutical compounds. These are useful because the solubility of the compound is greatly increased when it is amorphous compared to the same crystalline composition. Many emerging pharmaceuticals are practically insoluble in their crystalline forms.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Many polymer <a href="/wiki/Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">thermoplastics</a> familiar to everyday use are glasses. For many applications, like <a href="/wiki/Glass_bottles" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass bottles">glass bottles</a> or <a href="/wiki/Eyewear" title="Eyewear">eyewear</a>, polymer glasses (<a href="/wiki/Acrylic_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrylic glass">acrylic glass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">polycarbonate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">polyethylene terephthalate</a>) are a lighter alternative to traditional glass.<a href="#cite_note-Carraher-polymer-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Molecular_liquids_and_molten_salts">Molecular liquids and molten salts</h3></div> Molecular liquids, <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molten_salt" title="Molten salt">molten salts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aqueous_solution" title="Aqueous solution">aqueous solutions</a> are mixtures of different <a href="/wiki/Molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecules">molecules</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> that do not form a covalent network but interact only through weak <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force" title="Van der Waals force">van der Waals forces</a> or transient <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">hydrogen bonds</a>. In a mixture of three or more ionic species of dissimilar size and shape, crystallization can be so difficult that the liquid can easily be supercooled into a glass.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Examples include LiCl:RH2O (a solution of <a href="/wiki/Lithium_chloride" title="Lithium chloride">lithium chloride</a> salt and water molecules) in the composition range 4<R<8.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sugar_glass" title="Sugar glass">sugar glass</a>,<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> or Ca0.4K0.6(NO3)1.4.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Glass electrolytes in the form of Ba-doped Li-glass and Ba-doped Na-glass have been proposed as solutions to problems identified with organic liquid electrolytes used in modern lithium-ion battery cells.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Glass_production" title="Glass production">Glass production</a>, <a href="/wiki/Float_glass" title="Float glass">Float glass</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Glassblowing" title="Glassblowing">Glassblowing</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skansen,_Stockholm,_Sweden_(Unsplash).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Skansen%2C_Stockholm%2C_Sweden_%28Unsplash%29.jpg/220px-Skansen%2C_Stockholm%2C_Sweden_%28Unsplash%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Skansen%2C_Stockholm%2C_Sweden_%28Unsplash%29.jpg/330px-Skansen%2C_Stockholm%2C_Sweden_%28Unsplash%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Skansen%2C_Stockholm%2C_Sweden_%28Unsplash%29.jpg/440px-Skansen%2C_Stockholm%2C_Sweden_%28Unsplash%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2636" /></a><figcaption>A red hot piece of glass being blown</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Float_Glass_Unloading.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Float_Glass_Unloading.jpg/220px-Float_Glass_Unloading.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Float_Glass_Unloading.jpg/330px-Float_Glass_Unloading.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Float_Glass_Unloading.jpg/440px-Float_Glass_Unloading.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Industrial robots unloading float glass</figcaption></figure> Following the <a href="/wiki/Glass_batch" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass batch">glass batch</a> preparation and mixing, the raw materials are transported to the furnace. <a href="/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass" title="Soda–lime glass">Soda–lime glass</a> for <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a> is melted in <a href="/wiki/Glass_melting_furnace" title="Glass melting furnace">glass-melting furnaces</a>. Smaller-scale furnaces for speciality glasses include electric melters, pot furnaces, and day tanks.<a href="#cite_note-ullmann-76">[76]</a> After melting, homogenization and <a href="/wiki/Refining_(glass)" title="Refining (glass)">refining</a> (removal of bubbles), the glass is <a href="/wiki/Template:Glass_forming" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Glass forming">formed</a>. This may be achieved manually by <a href="/wiki/Glassblowing" title="Glassblowing">glassblowing</a>, which involves gathering a mass of hot semi-molten glass, inflating it into a bubble using a hollow blowpipe, and forming it into the required shape by blowing, swinging, rolling, or moulding. While hot, the glass can be worked using hand tools, cut with shears, and additional parts such as handles or feet attached by welding.<a href="#cite_note-Brittanica-glass-blowing-112">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Flat_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Flat glass">Flat glass</a> for windows and similar applications is formed by the <a href="/wiki/Float_glass" title="Float glass">float glass</a> process, developed between 1953 and 1957 by Sir <a href="/wiki/Alastair_Pilkington" title="Alastair Pilkington">Alastair Pilkington</a> and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers, who created a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity. The top surface of the glass is subjected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a polished finish.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Container_glass" title="Container glass">Container glass</a> for common bottles and jars is formed by <a href="/wiki/Glass_container_production#Forming_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass container production">blowing and pressing</a> methods.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> This glass is often slightly modified chemically (with more alumina and calcium oxide) for greater water resistance.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Once the desired form is obtained, glass is usually <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(glass)" title="Annealing (glass)">annealed</a> for the removal of stresses and to increase the glass's hardness and durability.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-116">[116]</a> Surface treatments, coatings or <a href="/wiki/Lamination" title="Lamination">lamination</a> may follow to improve the chemical durability (<a href="/wiki/Glass_production#Coatings" title="Glass production">glass container coatings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glass_production#Internal_treatment" title="Glass production">glass container internal treatment</a>), strength (<a href="/wiki/Toughened_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Toughened glass">toughened glass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulletproof_glass" title="Bulletproof glass">bulletproof glass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Windshield" title="Windshield">windshields</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a>), or optical properties (<a href="/wiki/Insulated_glazing" title="Insulated glazing">insulated glazing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-reflective_coating" title="Anti-reflective coating">anti-reflective coating</a>).<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because the cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure <a href="/wiki/Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical">chemicals</a> are used. Care must be taken that the raw materials have not reacted with moisture or other chemicals in the environment (such as <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">alkali</a> or <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">alkaline earth metal</a> oxides and hydroxides, or <a href="/wiki/Boron_trioxide" title="Boron trioxide">boron oxide</a>), or that the impurities are quantified (loss on ignition).<a href="#cite_note-pnnl-119">[119]</a> Evaporation losses during glass melting should be considered during the selection of the raw materials, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Sodium_selenite" title="Sodium selenite">sodium selenite</a> may be preferred over easily evaporating <a href="/wiki/Selenium_dioxide" title="Selenium dioxide">selenium dioxide</a> (SeO2). Also, more readily reacting raw materials may be preferred over relatively <a href="/wiki/Chemically_inert" title="Chemically inert">inert</a> ones, such as <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_hydroxide" title="Aluminium hydroxide">aluminium hydroxide</a> (Al(OH)3) over <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_oxide" title="Aluminium oxide">alumina</a> (Al2O3). Usually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to reduce contamination from the crucible material. Glass <a href="/wiki/Homogeneous_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Homogeneous (chemistry)">homogeneity</a> is achieved by homogenizing the raw materials mixture (<a href="/wiki/Glass_batch" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass batch">glass batch</a>), stirring the melt, and crushing and re-melting the first melt. The obtained glass is usually <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(glass)" title="Annealing (glass)">annealed</a> to prevent breakage during processing.<a href="#cite_note-pnnl-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colour">Colour</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Glass_coloring_and_color_marking" title="Glass coloring and color marking">Glass coloring and color marking</a></div> Colour in glass may be obtained by addition of homogenously distributed electrically charged ions (or <a href="/wiki/Transparent_materials#Absorption_of_light_in_solids" class="mw-redirect" title="Transparent materials">colour centres</a>). While ordinary <a href="/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass" title="Soda–lime glass">soda–lime glass</a> appears colourless in thin section, <a href="/wiki/Iron(II)_oxide" title="Iron(II) oxide">iron(II) oxide</a> (FeO) impurities produce a green tint in thick sections.<a href="#cite_note-Mukherjee13-121">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Manganese_dioxide" title="Manganese dioxide">Manganese dioxide</a> (MnO2), which gives glass a purple colour, may be added to remove the green tint given by FeO.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> FeO and <a href="/wiki/Chromium(III)_oxide" title="Chromium(III) oxide">chromium(III) oxide</a> (Cr2O3) additives are used in the production of green bottles.<a href="#cite_note-Mukherjee13-121">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Iron_(III)_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron (III) oxide">Iron (III) oxide</a>, on the other-hand, produces yellow or yellow-brown glass.<a href="#cite_note-Langhamer03-123">[123]</a> Low concentrations (0.025 to 0.1%) of <a href="/wiki/Cobalt_oxide" title="Cobalt oxide">cobalt oxide</a> (CoO) produce rich, deep blue <a href="/wiki/Cobalt_glass" title="Cobalt glass">cobalt glass</a>.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Chromium</a> is a very powerful colouring agent, yielding dark green.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sulphur" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulphur">Sulphur</a> combined with <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> and iron salts produces amber glass ranging from yellowish to almost black.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> A glass melt can also acquire an amber colour from a reducing combustion atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_sulfide" title="Cadmium sulfide">Cadmium sulfide</a> produces imperial <a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">red</a>, and combined with selenium can produce shades of yellow, orange, and red.<a href="#cite_note-Mukherjee13-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-Langhamer03-123">[123]</a> Addition of <a href="/wiki/Copper(II)_oxide" title="Copper(II) oxide">copper(II) oxide</a> (CuO) produces a <a href="/wiki/Turquoise_(color)" title="Turquoise (color)">turquoise</a> colour in glass, in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Copper(I)_oxide" title="Copper(I) oxide">copper(I) oxide</a> (Cu2O) which gives a dull red-brown colour.<a href="#cite_note-Nicholson00-128">[128]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-nolines"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Bottle,_wine_(AM_1997.80.28-1).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Iron(II) oxide and chromium(III) oxide additives are often used in the production of green bottles.[121]"><img alt="A green glass bottle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bottle%2C_wine_%28AM_1997.80.28-1%29.jpg/80px-Bottle%2C_wine_%28AM_1997.80.28-1%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bottle%2C_wine_%28AM_1997.80.28-1%29.jpg/120px-Bottle%2C_wine_%28AM_1997.80.28-1%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bottle%2C_wine_%28AM_1997.80.28-1%29.jpg/160px-Bottle%2C_wine_%28AM_1997.80.28-1%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5792" data-file-height="8688" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Iron(II)_oxide" title="Iron(II) oxide">Iron(II) oxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chromium(III)_oxide" title="Chromium(III) oxide">chromium(III) oxide</a> additives are often used in the production of green bottles.<a href="#cite_note-Mukherjee13-121">[121]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Bristol.blue.glass.arp.750pix.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cobalt oxide produces rich, deep blue glass, such as Bristol blue glass."><img alt="Several examples of deep blue glass" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Bristol.blue.glass.arp.750pix.jpg/120px-Bristol.blue.glass.arp.750pix.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Bristol.blue.glass.arp.750pix.jpg/180px-Bristol.blue.glass.arp.750pix.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Bristol.blue.glass.arp.750pix.jpg/240px-Bristol.blue.glass.arp.750pix.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="534" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_oxide" title="Cobalt oxide">Cobalt oxide</a> produces rich, <a href="/wiki/Cobalt_glass" title="Cobalt glass">deep blue glass</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Bristol_blue_glass" title="Bristol blue glass">Bristol blue glass</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Colour_Eclipse,_Danny_Lane.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Different oxide additives produce the different colours in glass: turquoise (copper(II) oxide),[128] purple (manganese dioxide),[121] and red (cadmium sulfide).[121]"><img alt="Three glass disks, with one coloured turquoise, another purple, and a third coloured red" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Colour_Eclipse%2C_Danny_Lane.jpg/80px-Colour_Eclipse%2C_Danny_Lane.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Colour_Eclipse%2C_Danny_Lane.jpg/120px-Colour_Eclipse%2C_Danny_Lane.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Colour_Eclipse%2C_Danny_Lane.jpg/160px-Colour_Eclipse%2C_Danny_Lane.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1363" data-file-height="2048" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Different oxide additives produce the different colours in glass: <a href="/wiki/Turquoise_(color)" title="Turquoise (color)">turquoise</a> (<a href="/wiki/Copper(II)_oxide" title="Copper(II) oxide">copper(II) oxide</a>),<a href="#cite_note-Nicholson00-128">[128]</a> purple (<a href="/wiki/Manganese_dioxide" title="Manganese dioxide">manganese dioxide</a>),<a href="#cite_note-Mukherjee13-121">[121]</a> and red (<a href="/wiki/Cadmium_sulfide" title="Cadmium sulfide">cadmium sulfide</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Mukherjee13-121">[121]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_snuff_bottle,_Qing_dynasty,_glass_bottle_with_amber_stopper,_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Red glass bottle with yellow glass overlay"><img alt="Red glass bottle with yellow glass overlay" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Chinese_snuff_bottle%2C_Qing_dynasty%2C_glass_bottle_with_amber_stopper%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.JPG/79px-Chinese_snuff_bottle%2C_Qing_dynasty%2C_glass_bottle_with_amber_stopper%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.JPG" decoding="async" width="79" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Chinese_snuff_bottle%2C_Qing_dynasty%2C_glass_bottle_with_amber_stopper%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.JPG/119px-Chinese_snuff_bottle%2C_Qing_dynasty%2C_glass_bottle_with_amber_stopper%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Chinese_snuff_bottle%2C_Qing_dynasty%2C_glass_bottle_with_amber_stopper%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.JPG/158px-Chinese_snuff_bottle%2C_Qing_dynasty%2C_glass_bottle_with_amber_stopper%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1420" data-file-height="2152" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Red glass bottle with yellow glass overlay</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Glass_ornaments.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Amber-coloured glass"><img alt="Amber-coloured glass" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Glass_ornaments.JPG/120px-Glass_ornaments.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Glass_ornaments.JPG/180px-Glass_ornaments.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Glass_ornaments.JPG/240px-Glass_ornaments.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Amber-coloured glass</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Glass_garland_bowl_MET_DP122006.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Four-colour Roman glass bowl, manufactured c. 1st century B.C."><img alt="Four-colour Roman glass bowl, manufactured c. 1st century B.C." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Glass_garland_bowl_MET_DP122006.jpg/89px-Glass_garland_bowl_MET_DP122006.jpg" decoding="async" width="89" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Glass_garland_bowl_MET_DP122006.jpg/134px-Glass_garland_bowl_MET_DP122006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Glass_garland_bowl_MET_DP122006.jpg/178px-Glass_garland_bowl_MET_DP122006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2970" data-file-height="4000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Four-colour Roman glass bowl, manufactured <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1st century B.C.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture_and_windows">Architecture and windows</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Architectural_glass" title="Architectural glass">Architectural glass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Window" title="Window">Window</a></div> Soda–lime <a href="/wiki/Plate_glass" title="Plate glass">sheet glass</a> is typically used as a transparent <a href="/wiki/Glazing_in_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Glazing in architecture">glazing</a> material, typically as <a href="/wiki/Window" title="Window">windows</a> in external walls of buildings. Float or rolled sheet glass products are cut to size either by <a href="/wiki/Scoring_(industrial_process)" title="Scoring (industrial process)">scoring</a> and snapping the material, <a href="/wiki/Laser_cutting" title="Laser cutting">laser cutting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_jet_cutter" title="Water jet cutter">water jets</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Diamond_blade" title="Diamond blade">diamond-bladed</a> saw. The glass may be thermally or chemically <a href="/wiki/Tempered_glass" title="Tempered glass">tempered</a> (strengthened) for <a href="/wiki/Safety_glass" title="Safety glass">safety</a> and bent or curved during heating. Surface coatings may be added for specific functions such as scratch resistance, blocking specific wavelengths of light (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a>), dirt-repellence (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Self-cleaning_glass" title="Self-cleaning glass">self-cleaning glass</a>), or switchable <a href="/wiki/Electrochromism" title="Electrochromism">electrochromic</a> coatings.<a href="#cite_note-Weller12-129">[129]</a> Structural glazing systems represent one of the most significant architectural innovations of modern times, where glass buildings now often dominate the <a href="/wiki/Skyline" title="Skyline">skylines</a> of many modern <a href="/wiki/Cities" class="mw-redirect" title="Cities">cities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-glass-times-130">[130]</a> These systems use stainless steel fittings countersunk into recesses in the corners of the glass panels allowing strengthened panes to appear unsupported creating a flush exterior.<a href="#cite_note-glass-times-130">[130]</a> Structural glazing systems have their roots in iron and <a href="/wiki/Conservatory_(greenhouse)" title="Conservatory (greenhouse)">glass conservatories</a> of the nineteenth century<a href="#cite_note-Patterson-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tableware">Tableware</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Tableware" title="Tableware">Tableware</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_glassware" title="List of glassware">List of glassware</a></div> Glass is an essential component of tableware and is typically used for water, <a href="/wiki/Beer_glassware" title="Beer glassware">beer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wine_glass" title="Wine glass">wine</a> drinking glasses.<a href="#cite_note-glassalliance-51">[51]</a> Wine glasses are typically <a href="/wiki/Stemware" title="Stemware">stemware</a>, i.e. goblets formed from a bowl, stem, and foot. Crystal or <a href="/wiki/Lead_glass" title="Lead glass">Lead crystal</a> glass may be cut and polished to produce decorative drinking glasses with gleaming facets.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Other uses of glass in tableware include <a href="/wiki/Decanters" class="mw-redirect" title="Decanters">decanters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jug" title="Jug">jugs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plate_(dishware)" title="Plate (dishware)">plates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bowl" title="Bowl">bowls</a>.<a href="#cite_note-glassalliance-51">[51]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-nolines"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Jubilee_Campus_MMB_%C2%AB62_Melton_Hall_Christmas_Dinner.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wine glasses and other glass tableware"><img alt="Wine glasses and other glass tableware" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Jubilee_Campus_MMB_%C2%AB62_Melton_Hall_Christmas_Dinner.jpg/120px-Jubilee_Campus_MMB_%C2%AB62_Melton_Hall_Christmas_Dinner.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Jubilee_Campus_MMB_%C2%AB62_Melton_Hall_Christmas_Dinner.jpg/180px-Jubilee_Campus_MMB_%C2%AB62_Melton_Hall_Christmas_Dinner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Jubilee_Campus_MMB_%C2%AB62_Melton_Hall_Christmas_Dinner.jpg/240px-Jubilee_Campus_MMB_%C2%AB62_Melton_Hall_Christmas_Dinner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3834" data-file-height="2658" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Wine glasses and other glass tableware</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:British_dimpled_glass_pint_jug_with_ale.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dimpled glass beer pint jug"><img alt="Dimpled glass beer pint jug" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/British_dimpled_glass_pint_jug_with_ale.jpg/90px-British_dimpled_glass_pint_jug_with_ale.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/British_dimpled_glass_pint_jug_with_ale.jpg/135px-British_dimpled_glass_pint_jug_with_ale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/British_dimpled_glass_pint_jug_with_ale.jpg/180px-British_dimpled_glass_pint_jug_with_ale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Dimpled glass beer pint jug</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_glass.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="lead crystal cut glass"><img alt="lead crystal cut glass" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Crystal_glass.jpg/120px-Crystal_glass.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Crystal_glass.jpg/180px-Crystal_glass.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Crystal_glass.jpg/240px-Crystal_glass.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Cut_glass" title="Cut glass">lead crystal cut glass</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Decanter_and_Stopper_LACMA_56.35.29a-b.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A glass decanter and stopper"><img alt="A glass decanter and stopper" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Decanter_and_Stopper_LACMA_56.35.29a-b.jpg/77px-Decanter_and_Stopper_LACMA_56.35.29a-b.jpg" decoding="async" width="77" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Decanter_and_Stopper_LACMA_56.35.29a-b.jpg/115px-Decanter_and_Stopper_LACMA_56.35.29a-b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Decanter_and_Stopper_LACMA_56.35.29a-b.jpg/153px-Decanter_and_Stopper_LACMA_56.35.29a-b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1343" data-file-height="2100" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A glass <a href="/wiki/Decanter" title="Decanter">decanter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bung" class="mw-redirect" title="Bung">stopper</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Packaging">Packaging</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Container_glass" title="Container glass">Container glass</a></div> The inert and impermeable nature of glass makes it a stable and widely used material for food and drink packaging as <a href="/wiki/Glass_bottle" title="Glass bottle">glass bottles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jar" title="Jar">jars</a>. Most <a href="/wiki/Container_glass" title="Container glass">container glass</a> is <a href="/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass" title="Soda–lime glass">soda–lime glass</a>, produced by <a href="/wiki/Glass_production#Forming_process" title="Glass production">blowing and pressing</a> techniques. Container glass has a lower <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_oxide" title="Magnesium oxide">magnesium oxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sodium_oxide" title="Sodium oxide">sodium oxide</a> content than flat glass, and a higher <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide" title="Calcium oxide">calcium oxide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aluminum_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminum oxide">aluminium oxide</a> content.<a href="#cite_note-seward-134">[134]</a> Its higher content of water-insoluble oxides imparts slightly higher <a href="/wiki/Chemical_durability" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical durability">chemical durability</a> against water, which is advantageous for storing beverages and food. Glass packaging is sustainable, readily recycled, reusable and refillable.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> For electronics applications, glass can be used as a substrate in the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Integrated_passive_devices" title="Integrated passive devices">integrated passive devices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_bulk_acoustic_resonator" title="Thin-film bulk acoustic resonator">thin-film bulk acoustic resonators</a>, and as a <a href="/wiki/Hermetic_seal" title="Hermetic seal">hermetic sealing</a> material in device packaging,<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> including very thin solely glass based encapsulation of integrated circuits and other semiconductors in high manufacturing volumes.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laboratories">Laboratories</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_glassware" title="Laboratory glassware">Laboratory glassware</a></div> Glass is an important material in scientific laboratories for the manufacture of experimental apparatus because it is relatively cheap, readily formed into required shapes for experiment, easy to keep clean, can withstand heat and cold treatment, is generally non-reactive with many <a href="/wiki/Reagent" title="Reagent">reagents</a>, and its transparency allows for the observation of chemical reactions and processes.<a href="#cite_note-Zumdahl-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_glassware" title="Laboratory glassware">Laboratory glassware</a> applications include <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_flask" title="Laboratory flask">flasks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petri_dish" title="Petri dish">Petri dishes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Test_tube" title="Test tube">test tubes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pipette" title="Pipette">pipettes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graduated_cylinder" title="Graduated cylinder">graduated cylinders</a>, glass-lined metallic containers for chemical processing, <a href="/wiki/Fractionation_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Fractionation column">fractionation columns</a>, glass pipes, <a href="/wiki/Schlenk_line" title="Schlenk line">Schlenk lines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gauge_(instrument)" title="Gauge (instrument)">gauges</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thermometer" title="Thermometer">thermometers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BASUDEB-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zumdahl-139">[139]</a> Although most standard laboratory glassware has been mass-produced since the 1920s, scientists still employ skilled <a href="/wiki/Glassblower" class="mw-redirect" title="Glassblower">glassblowers</a> to manufacture bespoke glass apparatus for their experimental requirements.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-nolines"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Vigreux_column_lab.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Vigreux column in a laboratory setup"><img alt="A Vigreux column in a laboratory setup" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Vigreux_column_lab.jpg/70px-Vigreux_column_lab.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Vigreux_column_lab.jpg/105px-Vigreux_column_lab.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Vigreux_column_lab.jpg/141px-Vigreux_column_lab.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2852" data-file-height="4857" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A Vigreux <a href="/wiki/Fractionating_column" title="Fractionating column">column</a> in a laboratory setup</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Double_vac_line_front_view.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Schlenk line with four ports"><img alt="A Schlenk line with four ports" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Double_vac_line_front_view.jpg/120px-Double_vac_line_front_view.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Double_vac_line_front_view.jpg/180px-Double_vac_line_front_view.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Double_vac_line_front_view.jpg/240px-Double_vac_line_front_view.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2308" data-file-height="1678" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Schlenk_line" title="Schlenk line">Schlenk line</a> with four ports</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Different_types_of_graduated_cylinder-_10ml,_25ml,_50ml_and_100_ml_graduated_cylinder.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Graduated cylinders"><img alt="Graduated cylinders" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Different_types_of_graduated_cylinder-_10ml%2C_25ml%2C_50ml_and_100_ml_graduated_cylinder.jpg/95px-Different_types_of_graduated_cylinder-_10ml%2C_25ml%2C_50ml_and_100_ml_graduated_cylinder.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Different_types_of_graduated_cylinder-_10ml%2C_25ml%2C_50ml_and_100_ml_graduated_cylinder.jpg/143px-Different_types_of_graduated_cylinder-_10ml%2C_25ml%2C_50ml_and_100_ml_graduated_cylinder.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Different_types_of_graduated_cylinder-_10ml%2C_25ml%2C_50ml_and_100_ml_graduated_cylinder.jpg/191px-Different_types_of_graduated_cylinder-_10ml%2C_25ml%2C_50ml_and_100_ml_graduated_cylinder.jpg 2x" data-file-width="583" data-file-height="733" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Graduated_cylinder" title="Graduated cylinder">Graduated cylinders</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:250_mL_Erlenmeyer_flask.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Erlenmeyer flask"><img alt="Erlenmeyer flask" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/250_mL_Erlenmeyer_flask.jpg/81px-250_mL_Erlenmeyer_flask.jpg" decoding="async" width="81" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/250_mL_Erlenmeyer_flask.jpg/121px-250_mL_Erlenmeyer_flask.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/250_mL_Erlenmeyer_flask.jpg/162px-250_mL_Erlenmeyer_flask.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1525" data-file-height="2262" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Erlenmeyer <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_flask" title="Laboratory flask">flask</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optics">Optics</h3></div> Glass is a ubiquitous material in <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a> because of its ability to <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refract</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reflection_(physics)" title="Reflection (physics)">reflect</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transmittance" title="Transmittance">transmit</a> light. These and other optical properties can be controlled by varying chemical compositions, thermal treatment, and manufacturing techniques. The many applications of glass in optics include <a href="/wiki/Glasses" title="Glasses">glasses</a> for eyesight correction, imaging optics (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Lens" title="Lens">lenses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mirror" title="Mirror">mirrors</a> in <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescopes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscopes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">cameras</a>), <a href="/wiki/Fibre_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibre optics">fibre optics</a> in <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a> technology, and <a href="/wiki/Photonic_integrated_circuit" title="Photonic integrated circuit">integrated optics</a>. <a href="/wiki/Microlens" title="Microlens">Microlenses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gradient-index_optics" title="Gradient-index optics">gradient-index optics</a> (where the <a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a> is non-uniform) find application in e.g. reading <a href="/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">optical discs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laser_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Laser printer">laser printers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photocopier" title="Photocopier">photocopiers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Laser_diode" title="Laser diode">laser diodes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bach12-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Studio_glass" title="Studio glass">Studio glass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art_glass" title="Art glass">Art glass</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Glass_art" title="Glass art">Glass art</a></div> Glass as art dates to least 1300 BC shown as an example of natural glass found in Tutankhamun's pectoral,<a href="#cite_note-BBC-143">[143]</a> which also contained <a href="/wiki/Vitreous_enamel" title="Vitreous enamel">vitreous enamel</a>, that is to say, melted coloured glass used on a metal backing. <a href="/wiki/Enamelled_glass" title="Enamelled glass">Enamelled glass</a>, the decoration of glass vessels with coloured glass paints, has existed since 1300 BC,<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> and was prominent in the early 20th century with <a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau_glass" title="Art Nouveau glass">Art Nouveau glass</a> and that of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Faberg%C3%A9" title="House of Fabergé">House of Fabergé</a> in St. Petersburg, Russia. Both techniques were used in <a href="/wiki/Stained_glass" title="Stained glass">stained glass</a>, which reached its height roughly from 1000 to 1550, before a revival in the 19th century. The 19th century saw a revival in ancient glassmaking techniques including <a href="/wiki/Cameo_glass" title="Cameo glass">cameo glass</a>, achieved for the first time since the Roman Empire, initially mostly for pieces in a <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">neo-classical</a> style. The <a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a> movement made great use of glass, with <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Lalique" title="René Lalique">René Lalique</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Gall%C3%A9" title="Émile Gallé">Émile Gallé</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Daum_(studio)" title="Daum (studio)">Daum of Nancy</a> in the first French wave of the movement, producing coloured vases and similar pieces, often in cameo glass or <a href="/wiki/Lustre_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Lustre glass">lustre glass</a> techniques.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> <a href="/wiki/Louis_Comfort_Tiffany" title="Louis Comfort Tiffany">Louis Comfort Tiffany</a> in America specialised in <a href="/wiki/Stained_glass" title="Stained glass">stained glass</a>, both secular and religious, in panels and his famous lamps. The early 20th century saw the large-scale factory production of glass art by firms such as <a href="/wiki/Waterford_Crystal" title="Waterford Crystal">Waterford</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lalique" title="Lalique">Lalique</a>. Small studios may hand-produce glass artworks. Techniques for producing glass art include <a href="/wiki/Glassblowing" title="Glassblowing">blowing</a>, kiln-casting, fusing, slumping, <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A2te_de_verre" class="mw-redirect" title="Pâte de verre">pâte de verre</a>, flame-working, hot-sculpting and cold-working. Cold work includes traditional stained glass work and other methods of shaping glass at room temperature. Objects made out of glass include vessels, <a href="/wiki/Paperweight_collecting" class="mw-redirect" title="Paperweight collecting">paperweights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marbles" class="mw-redirect" title="Marbles">marbles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bead" title="Bead">beads</a>, sculptures and <a href="/wiki/Installation_art" title="Installation art">installation art</a>.<a href="#cite_note-V&A_A-Z-146">[146]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-nolines"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n5.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Portland Vase, Roman cameo glass, about 5–25 AD"><img alt="The Portland Vase, Roman cameo glass, about 5–25 AD" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n5.jpg/79px-Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n5.jpg" decoding="async" width="79" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n5.jpg/119px-Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n5.jpg/158px-Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="3333" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Portland_Vase" title="Portland Vase">Portland Vase</a>, Roman <a href="/wiki/Cameo_glass" title="Cameo glass">cameo glass</a>, about 5–25 AD</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Medallion_St_Demetrios_Louvre_OA6457.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Byzantine cloisonné enamel plaque of St Demetrios, c. 1100, using the senkschmelz or "sunk" technique"><img alt="Byzantine cloisonné enamel plaque of St Demetrios, c. 1100, using the senkschmelz or "sunk" technique" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Medallion_St_Demetrios_Louvre_OA6457.jpg/119px-Medallion_St_Demetrios_Louvre_OA6457.jpg" decoding="async" width="119" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Medallion_St_Demetrios_Louvre_OA6457.jpg/179px-Medallion_St_Demetrios_Louvre_OA6457.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Medallion_St_Demetrios_Louvre_OA6457.jpg/238px-Medallion_St_Demetrios_Louvre_OA6457.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1106" data-file-height="1113" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Cloisonn%C3%A9_enamel" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloisonné enamel">cloisonné enamel</a> plaque of <a href="/wiki/St_Demetrios" class="mw-redirect" title="St Demetrios">St Demetrios</a>, c. 1100, using the senkschmelz or "sunk" technique</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gall%C3%A9,_nancy,_vaso_clematis,_1890-1900.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Émile Gallé, Marquetry glass vase with clematis flowers (1890–1900)"><img alt="Émile Gallé, Marquetry glass vase with clematis flowers (1890–1900)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Gall%C3%A9%2C_nancy%2C_vaso_clematis%2C_1890-1900.JPG/83px-Gall%C3%A9%2C_nancy%2C_vaso_clematis%2C_1890-1900.JPG" decoding="async" width="83" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Gall%C3%A9%2C_nancy%2C_vaso_clematis%2C_1890-1900.JPG/125px-Gall%C3%A9%2C_nancy%2C_vaso_clematis%2C_1890-1900.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Gall%C3%A9%2C_nancy%2C_vaso_clematis%2C_1890-1900.JPG/167px-Gall%C3%A9%2C_nancy%2C_vaso_clematis%2C_1890-1900.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1266" data-file-height="1821" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Gall%C3%A9" title="Émile Gallé">Émile Gallé</a>, Marquetry glass vase with clematis flowers (1890–1900)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Vase_(Perruches)_by_Ren%C3%A9_Jules_Lalique,_1922,_blown_four_mold_glass_-_Cincinnati_Art_Museum_-_DSC04355.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Glass vase by Art Nouveau artist René Lalique"><img alt="Glass vase by Art Nouveau artist René Lalique" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Vase_%28Perruches%29_by_Ren%C3%A9_Jules_Lalique%2C_1922%2C_blown_four_mold_glass_-_Cincinnati_Art_Museum_-_DSC04355.JPG/120px-Vase_%28Perruches%29_by_Ren%C3%A9_Jules_Lalique%2C_1922%2C_blown_four_mold_glass_-_Cincinnati_Art_Museum_-_DSC04355.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Vase_%28Perruches%29_by_Ren%C3%A9_Jules_Lalique%2C_1922%2C_blown_four_mold_glass_-_Cincinnati_Art_Museum_-_DSC04355.JPG/180px-Vase_%28Perruches%29_by_Ren%C3%A9_Jules_Lalique%2C_1922%2C_blown_four_mold_glass_-_Cincinnati_Art_Museum_-_DSC04355.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Vase_%28Perruches%29_by_Ren%C3%A9_Jules_Lalique%2C_1922%2C_blown_four_mold_glass_-_Cincinnati_Art_Museum_-_DSC04355.JPG/240px-Vase_%28Perruches%29_by_Ren%C3%A9_Jules_Lalique%2C_1922%2C_blown_four_mold_glass_-_Cincinnati_Art_Museum_-_DSC04355.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3593" data-file-height="3541" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Glass vase by <a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a> artist <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Lalique" title="René Lalique">René Lalique</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Clara_driscoll_per_tiffany_studios,_lampada_laburnum,_1910_ca._02.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Clara Driscoll Tiffany lamp, laburnum pattern, c. 1910"><img alt="Clara Driscoll Tiffany lamp, laburnum pattern, c. 1910" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Clara_driscoll_per_tiffany_studios%2C_lampada_laburnum%2C_1910_ca._02.jpg/120px-Clara_driscoll_per_tiffany_studios%2C_lampada_laburnum%2C_1910_ca._02.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Clara_driscoll_per_tiffany_studios%2C_lampada_laburnum%2C_1910_ca._02.jpg/180px-Clara_driscoll_per_tiffany_studios%2C_lampada_laburnum%2C_1910_ca._02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Clara_driscoll_per_tiffany_studios%2C_lampada_laburnum%2C_1910_ca._02.jpg/240px-Clara_driscoll_per_tiffany_studios%2C_lampada_laburnum%2C_1910_ca._02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2688" data-file-height="2145" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Clara_Driscoll_(glass_designer)" title="Clara Driscoll (glass designer)">Clara Driscoll</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiffany_lamp" title="Tiffany lamp">Tiffany lamp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laburnum" title="Laburnum">laburnum</a> pattern, c. 1910</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Glass.sculpture.kewgardens.london.arp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A glass sculpture by Dale Chihuly, The Sun, at the "Gardens of Glass" exhibition in Kew Gardens, London"><img alt="A glass sculpture by Dale Chihuly, The Sun, at the "Gardens of Glass" exhibition in Kew Gardens, London" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Glass.sculpture.kewgardens.london.arp.jpg/112px-Glass.sculpture.kewgardens.london.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Glass.sculpture.kewgardens.london.arp.jpg/168px-Glass.sculpture.kewgardens.london.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Glass.sculpture.kewgardens.london.arp.jpg/224px-Glass.sculpture.kewgardens.london.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1432" data-file-height="1536" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A glass sculpture by <a href="/wiki/Dale_Chihuly" title="Dale Chihuly">Dale Chihuly</a>, The Sun, at the "Gardens of Glass" exhibition in Kew Gardens, London</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:GlassFlowers1HMNH.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Glass Flowers by Leopold and Rudolf Blaschka, exhibited at the Harvard Museum of Natural History"><img alt="The Glass Flowers by Leopold and Rudolf Blaschka, exhibited at the Harvard Museum of Natural History" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/GlassFlowers1HMNH.jpg/92px-GlassFlowers1HMNH.jpg" decoding="async" width="92" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/GlassFlowers1HMNH.jpg/139px-GlassFlowers1HMNH.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/GlassFlowers1HMNH.jpg/185px-GlassFlowers1HMNH.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1610" data-file-height="2090" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Glass_Flowers" title="Glass Flowers">Glass Flowers</a> by <a href="/wiki/Leopold_and_Rudolf_Blaschka" title="Leopold and Rudolf Blaschka">Leopold and Rudolf Blaschka</a>, exhibited at the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="Harvard Museum of Natural History">Harvard Museum of Natural History</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_oxynitride" title="Aluminium oxynitride">Aluminium oxynitride</a> transparent ceramic</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_glass" title="Fire glass">Fire glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flexible_glass" title="Flexible glass">Flexible glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_in_green_buildings" title="Glass in green buildings">Glass in green buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimberley_points" title="Kimberley points">Kimberley points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Rupert%27s_drop" title="Prince Rupert's drop">Prince Rupert's drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_glass" title="Smart glass">Smart glass</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a href="/wiki/ASTM" class="mw-redirect" title="ASTM">ASTM</a> definition of glass from 1945 </li> <li id="cite_note-Zallen83-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zallen83_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zallen83_2-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFZallen1983" class="citation book cs1">Zallen, R. (1983). The Physics of Amorphous Solids. New York: John Wiley. pp. 1–32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-01968-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-01968-8"><bdi>978-0-471-01968-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Physics+of+Amorphous+Solids&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1-32&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-471-01968-8&rft.aulast=Zallen&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cusack87-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Cusack87_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCusack1987" class="citation book cs1">Cusack, N.E. (1987). The physics of structurally disordered matter: an introduction. Adam Hilger in association with the University of Sussex press. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85274-829-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85274-829-9"><bdi>978-0-85274-829-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+physics+of+structurally+disordered+matter%3A+an+introduction&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Adam+Hilger+in+association+with+the+University+of+Sussex+press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-85274-829-9&rft.aulast=Cusack&rft.aufirst=N.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Horst_Scholze_1991-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Horst_Scholze_1991_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horst_Scholze_1991_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horst_Scholze_1991_4-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScholze1991" class="citation book cs1">Scholze, Horst (1991). 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Oxford University Press. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973578-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973578-5"><bdi>978-0-19-973578-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Archaeology&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-973578-5&rft.aulast=Silberman&rft.aufirst=Neil+Asher&rft.au=Bauer%2C+Alexander+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxeJMAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DRA2-PA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica-glass-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-britannica-glass_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-britannica-glass_39-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-britannica-glass_39-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-britannica-glass_39-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/glass">"glass | Definition, Composition, & Facts"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=glass+%26%23124%3B+Definition%2C+Composition%2C+%26+Facts&rft.date=2023-10-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftechnology%2Fglass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Oliver, Roland, and Fagan, Brian M. Africa in the Iron Age, c500 B.C. to A.D. 1400. New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 187. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20598-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20598-0">0-521-20598-0</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKellerPriceJackson2014" class="citation book cs1">Keller, Daniel; Price, Jennifer; Jackson, Caroline (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=idAVBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1">Neighbours and Successors of Rome: Traditions of Glass Production and use in Europe and the Middle East in the Later 1st Millennium AD</a>. Oxbow Books. pp. 1–41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78297-398-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78297-398-0"><bdi>978-1-78297-398-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neighbours+and+Successors+of+Rome%3A+Traditions+of+Glass+Production+and+use+in+Europe+and+the+Middle+East+in+the+Later+1st+Millennium+AD&rft.pages=1-41&rft.pub=Oxbow+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-78297-398-0&rft.aulast=Keller&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Price%2C+Jennifer&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Caroline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DidAVBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTutagHamilton1987" class="citation book cs1">Tutag, Nola Huse; Hamilton, Lucy (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/discoveringstain0000tuta">Discovering Stained Glass in Detroit</a>. Wayne State University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/discoveringstain0000tuta/page/11">11</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-1875-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-1875-1"><bdi>978-0-8143-1875-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discovering+Stained+Glass+in+Detroit&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-1875-1&rft.aulast=Tutag&rft.aufirst=Nola+Huse&rft.au=Hamilton%2C+Lucy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdiscoveringstain0000tuta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPackardKorabHunt1980" class="citation book cs1">Packard, Robert T.; Korab, Balthazar; Hunt, William Dudley (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofam00hunt">Encyclopedia of American architecture</a>. McGraw-Hill. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofam00hunt/page/268">268</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-048010-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-048010-0"><bdi>978-0-07-048010-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+American+architecture&rft.pages=268&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-07-048010-0&rft.aulast=Packard&rft.aufirst=Robert+T.&rft.au=Korab%2C+Balthazar&rft.au=Hunt%2C+William+Dudley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediaofam00hunt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB1911-incorp-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911-incorp_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911-incorp_44-1">b</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /> One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Glass" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Glass">Glass</a>". <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 86.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Glass&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=86&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreiman2007" class="citation book cs1">Freiman, Stephen (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jm9hGqECbXcC&pg=PA705">Global Roadmap for Ceramic and Glass Technology</a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 705. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-10491-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-10491-0"><bdi>978-0-470-10491-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Roadmap+for+Ceramic+and+Glass+Technology&rft.pages=705&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-470-10491-0&rft.aulast=Freiman&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Djm9hGqECbXcC%26pg%3DPA705&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141202110304/http://www.glassonweb.com/articles/article/201/">"Depression Glass"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.glassonweb.com/articles/article/201/">the original</a> on 2 December 2014. Retrieved 19 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Depression+Glass&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.glassonweb.com%2Farticles%2Farticle%2F201%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGelfandDuncan2011" class="citation book cs1">Gelfand, Lisa; Duncan, Chris (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b_PmZAzJecYC&pg=PT187">Sustainable Renovation: Strategies for Commercial Building Systems and Envelope</a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-10217-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-10217-6"><bdi>978-1-118-10217-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sustainable+Renovation%3A+Strategies+for+Commercial+Building+Systems+and+Envelope&rft.pages=187&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-118-10217-6&rft.aulast=Gelfand&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft.au=Duncan%2C+Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db_PmZAzJecYC%26pg%3DPT187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLimHonigsmannHawk2007" class="citation book cs1">Lim, Henry W.; Honigsmann, Herbert; Hawk, John L.M. 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CRC Press. p. 274. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-1996-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-1996-4"><bdi>978-1-4200-1996-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Photodermatology&rft.pages=274&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4200-1996-4&rft.aulast=Lim&rft.aufirst=Henry+W.&rft.au=Honigsmann%2C+Herbert&rft.au=Hawk%2C+John+L.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg-YCKEPYMpYC%26pg%3DPA274&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBachNeuroth2012" class="citation book cs1">Bach, Hans; Neuroth, Norbert (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y3nnCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA267">The Properties of Optical Glass</a>. Springer. p. 267. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-57769-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-57769-7"><bdi>978-3-642-57769-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Properties+of+Optical+Glass&rft.pages=267&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3-642-57769-7&rft.aulast=Bach&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft.au=Neuroth%2C+Norbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy3nnCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA267&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLean2008" class="citation book cs1">McLean, Ian S. 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Springer Science & Business Media. p. 78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-76582-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-76582-0"><bdi>978-3-540-76582-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electronic+Imaging+in+Astronomy%3A+Detectors+and+Instrumentation&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-540-76582-0&rft.aulast=McLean&rft.aufirst=Ian+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFGHhZf-k8SkC%26pg%3DPA78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-glassalliance-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-glassalliance_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-glassalliance_51-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-glassalliance_51-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.glassallianceeurope.eu/en/applications">"Glass Applications – Glass Alliance Europe"</a>. 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CRC Press. p. 122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-76205-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-76205-9"><bdi>978-0-203-76205-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Solar+Energy+Sciences+and+Engineering+Applications&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-203-76205-9&rft.aulast=Enteria&rft.aufirst=Napoleon&rft.au=Akbarzadeh%2C+Aliakbar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQNTKBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131106075448/http://www.physnews.com/materials-news/cluster251747226/">"Gorilla Glass maker unveils ultra-thin and flexible Willow Glass"</a>. 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Engadget.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gorilla+Glass+6+gives+phones+a+better+shot+at+surviving+multiple+drops&rft.pub=Engadget&rft.date=2018-07-19&rft.aulast=Fingas&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.engadget.com%2F2018%2F07%2F18%2Fcorning-unveils-gorilla-glass-6%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bach12-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bach12_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bach12_56-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bach12_56-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bach12_56-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBachNeuroth2012" class="citation book cs1">Bach, Hans; Neuroth, Norbert (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y3nnCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">The Properties of Optical Glass</a>. 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The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090424094929/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/29/science/29glass.html?ex=1375070400&en=048ade4011756b24&ei=5124&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink">Archived</a> from the original on 24 April 2009. Retrieved 29 July 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Nature+of+Glass+Remains+Anything+but+Clear&rft.date=2008-07-29&rft.au=Kenneth+Chang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F07%2F29%2Fscience%2F29glass.html%3Fex%3D1375070400%26en%3D048ade4011756b24%26ei%3D5124%26partner%3Dpermalink%26exprod%3Dpermalink&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGulbitenMauroGuoBoratav2017" class="citation journal cs1">Gulbiten, Ozgur; Mauro, John C.; Guo, Xiaoju; Boratav, Olus N. (3 August 2017). "Viscous flow of medieval cathedral glass". Journal of the American Ceramic Society. 101 (1): 5–11. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjace.15092">10.1111/jace.15092</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7820">0002-7820</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Ceramic+Society&rft.atitle=Viscous+flow+of+medieval+cathedral+glass&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=5-11&rft.date=2017-08-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fjace.15092&rft.issn=0002-7820&rft.aulast=Gulbiten&rft.aufirst=Ozgur&rft.au=Mauro%2C+John+C.&rft.au=Guo%2C+Xiaoju&rft.au=Boratav%2C+Olus+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGocha2017" class="citation web cs1">Gocha, April (3 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ceramics.org/ceramic-tech-today/glass-viscosity-calculations-definitively-debunk-the-myth-of-observable-flow-in-medieval-windows">"Glass viscosity calculations definitively debunk the myth of observable flow in medieval windows"</a>. The American Ceramic Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Ceramic+Society&rft.atitle=Glass+viscosity+calculations+definitively+debunk+the+myth+of+observable+flow+in+medieval+windows&rft.date=2017-08-03&rft.aulast=Gocha&rft.aufirst=April&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fceramics.org%2Fceramic-tech-today%2Fglass-viscosity-calculations-definitively-debunk-the-myth-of-observable-flow-in-medieval-windows&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Seafriends-1994-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seafriends-1994_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seafriends-1994_74-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seafriends-1994_74-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seafriends.org.nz/oceano/seasand.htm">"Mining the sea sand"</a>. 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Retrieved 15 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Seafriends&rft.atitle=Mining+the+sea+sand&rft.date=1994-02-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.seafriends.org.nz%2Foceano%2Fseasand.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chemistry-explained-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chemistry-explained_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chemistry-explained_75-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chemistry-explained_75-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chemistry-explained_75-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chemistry-explained_75-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chemistry-explained_75-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Ge-Hy/Glass.html">"Glass – Chemistry Encyclopedia"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402113454/http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Ge-Hy/Glass.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Glass+%E2%80%93+Chemistry+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chemistryexplained.com%2FGe-Hy%2FGlass.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ullmann-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ullmann_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ullmann_76-1">b</a> B.H.W.S. de Jong, "Glass"; in "Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry"; 5th edition, vol. A12, VCH Publishers, Weinheim, Germany, 1989, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-20112-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-527-20112-9">978-3-527-20112-9</a>, pp. 365–432. </li> <li id="cite_note-Spence-2016-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Spence-2016_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spence-2016_77-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpenceKultermann2016" class="citation book cs1">Spence, William P.; Kultermann, Eva (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KX5TCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA509">Construction Materials, Methods and Techniques</a>. Cengage Learning. pp. 510–526. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-305-08627-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-305-08627-2"><bdi>978-1-305-08627-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Construction+Materials%2C+Methods+and+Techniques&rft.pages=510-526&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-305-08627-2&rft.aulast=Spence&rft.aufirst=William+P.&rft.au=Kultermann%2C+Eva&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKX5TCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA509&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quartz.com/pxprop.pdf">"Properties of PYREX®, PYREXPLUS® and Low Actinic PYREX Code 7740 Glasses"</a> (PDF). Corning, Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120113050839/http://www.quartz.com/pxprop.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 13 January 2012. Retrieved 15 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Properties+of+PYREX%C2%AE%2C+PYREXPLUS%C2%AE+and+Low+Actinic+PYREX+Code+7740+Glasses&rft.pub=Corning%2C+Inc.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.quartz.com%2Fpxprop.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.us.schott.com/tubing/media/selector/datasheets/english/schott-tubing_datasheet_ar-glas_english.pdf">"AR-GLAS® Technical Data"</a> (PDF). 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Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 125. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85404-639-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85404-639-3"><bdi>978-0-85404-639-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Glass+Science+and+Technology&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=Royal+Society+of+Chemistry&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-85404-639-3&rft.aulast=Shelby&rft.aufirst=J.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZeF_QLW6-xsC%26pg%3DPA125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schwartz-2002-81"><a href="#cite_ref-Schwartz-2002_81-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz2002" class="citation book cs1">Schwartz, Mel (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0ETMBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA352">Encyclopedia of Materials, Parts and Finishes</a> (Second ed.). CRC Press. p. 352. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-1716-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-1716-8"><bdi>978-1-4200-1716-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Materials%2C+Parts+and+Finishes&rft.pages=352&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-4200-1716-8&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Mel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0ETMBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA352&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShackelfordDoremus2008" class="citation book cs1">Shackelford, James F.; Doremus, Robert H. 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Springer Science & Business Media. p. 158. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-73362-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-73362-3"><bdi>978-0-387-73362-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ceramic+and+Glass+Materials%3A+Structure%2C+Properties+and+Processing&rft.pages=158&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2008-04-12&rft.isbn=978-0-387-73362-3&rft.aulast=Shackelford&rft.aufirst=James+F.&rft.au=Doremus%2C+Robert+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DASIYuNCp81YC%26pg%3DPA158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Askeland-2008-83"><a href="#cite_ref-Askeland-2008_83-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAskelandFulay2008" class="citation book cs1">Askeland, Donald R.; Fulay, Pradeep P. 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Seward III and Terese Vascott; The American Ceramic Society, Westerville, Ohio, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57498-225-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-57498-225-7">1-57498-225-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://feve.org/about-glass/">"Why choose Glass?"</a>. 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"Design and Fabrication of Glass-based Integrated Passive Devices". 2018 19th International Conference on Electronic Packaging Technology (ICEPT). pp. 59–63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FICEPT.2018.8480458">10.1109/ICEPT.2018.8480458</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5386-6386-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5386-6386-8"><bdi>978-1-5386-6386-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52935909">52935909</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Design+and+Fabrication+of+Glass-based+Integrated+Passive+Devices&rft.btitle=2018+19th+International+Conference+on+Electronic+Packaging+Technology+%28ICEPT%29&rft.pages=59-63&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A52935909%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FICEPT.2018.8480458&rft.isbn=978-1-5386-6386-8&rft.aulast=Sun&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=et%2C+al.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLetzet2018" class="citation book cs1">Letz, M.; et, al. (2018). "Glass in Electronic Packaging and Integration: High Q Inductances for 2.35 GHZ Impedance Matching in 0.05 mm Thin Glass Substrates". 2018 IEEE 68th Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC). pp. 1089–1096. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FECTC.2018.00167">10.1109/ECTC.2018.00167</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5386-4999-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5386-4999-2"><bdi>978-1-5386-4999-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51972637">51972637</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Glass+in+Electronic+Packaging+and+Integration%3A+High+Q+Inductances+for+2.35+GHZ+Impedance+Matching+in+0.05+mm+Thin+Glass+Substrates&rft.btitle=2018+IEEE+68th+Electronic+Components+and+Technology+Conference+%28ECTC%29&rft.pages=1089-1096&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A51972637%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FECTC.2018.00167&rft.isbn=978-1-5386-4999-2&rft.aulast=Letz&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=et%2C+al.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLundénet2014" class="citation book cs1">Lundén, H.; et, al. 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Proceedings of the 5th Electronics System-integration Technology Conference (ESTC). pp. 1–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FESTC.2014.6962719">10.1109/ESTC.2014.6962719</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-4026-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-4026-4"><bdi>978-1-4799-4026-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9980556">9980556</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Novel+glass+welding+technique+for+hermetic+encapsulation&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+5th+Electronics+System-integration+Technology+Conference+%28ESTC%29&rft.pages=1-4&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9980556%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FESTC.2014.6962719&rft.isbn=978-1-4799-4026-4&rft.aulast=Lund%C3%A9n&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=et%2C+al.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zumdahl-139">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zumdahl_139-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zumdahl_139-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZumdahl2013" class="citation book cs1">Zumdahl, Steven (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5qgZBQAAQBAJ&q=laboratory%20glassware&pg=PT10">Lab Manual</a>. Cengage Learning. pp. ix–xv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-285-69235-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-285-69235-7"><bdi>978-1-285-69235-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lab+Manual&rft.pages=ix-xv&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-285-69235-7&rft.aulast=Zumdahl&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5qgZBQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dlaboratory%2520glassware%26pg%3DPT10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200310090831/https://americanhistory.si.edu/science-under-glass">"Science Under Glass"</a>. National Museum of American History. 29 July 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americanhistory.si.edu/science-under-glass">the original</a> on 10 March 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Museum+of+American+History&rft.atitle=Science+Under+Glass&rft.date=2015-07-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famericanhistory.si.edu%2Fscience-under-glass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BASUDEB-141"><a href="#cite_ref-BASUDEB_141-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBasudeb2017" class="citation book cs1">Basudeb, Karmakar (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T838DAAAQBAJ&q=uses%20of%20glass&pg=PA5">Functional Glasses and Glass-Ceramics: Processing, Properties and Applications</a>. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 3–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-805207-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-805207-5"><bdi>978-0-12-805207-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Functional+Glasses+and+Glass-Ceramics%3A+Processing%2C+Properties+and+Applications&rft.pages=3-5&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-12-805207-5&rft.aulast=Basudeb&rft.aufirst=Karmakar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT838DAAAQBAJ%26q%3Duses%2520of%2520glass%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200311145518/https://americanhistory.si.edu/science-under-glass/scientific-glassblowing">"Scientific Glassblowing | National Museum of American History"</a>. Americanhistory.si.edu. 17 December 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americanhistory.si.edu/science-under-glass/scientific-glassblowing">the original</a> on 11 March 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Scientific+Glassblowing+%26%23124%3B+National+Museum+of+American+History&rft.pub=Americanhistory.si.edu&rft.date=2012-12-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famericanhistory.si.edu%2Fscience-under-glass%2Fscientific-glassblowing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC-143"><a href="#cite_ref-BBC_143-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5196362.stm">Tut's gem hints at space impact</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>, July 19, 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ganoksin.com/article/earliest-cloisonne-enamels/">The Earliest Cloisonné Enamels</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArwas1996" class="citation book cs1">Arwas, Victor (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bZsuJ90UAtIC&pg=PP1">The Art of Glass: Art Nouveau to Art Deco</a>. Papadakis Publisher. pp. 1–54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-901092-00-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-901092-00-4"><bdi>978-1-901092-00-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Glass%3A+Art+Nouveau+to+Art+Deco&rft.pages=1-54&rft.pub=Papadakis+Publisher&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-901092-00-4&rft.aulast=Arwas&rft.aufirst=Victor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbZsuJ90UAtIC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-V&A_A-Z-146"><a href="#cite_ref-V&A_A-Z_146-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/a-z-of-glass">"A-Z of glass"</a>. Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 9 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A-Z+of+glass&rft.pub=Victoria+and+Albert+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vam.ac.uk%2Farticles%2Fa-z-of-glass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Glass at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Glass" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Glass">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Glass" class="extiw" title="q:Glass">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Glass" class="extiw" title="v:Glass">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Glass">"Glass" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). 1911.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Glass&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlass" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civilisations.ca/cmc/exhibitions/hist/verre/vemak01e.shtml">The Story of Glass Making in Canada</a> from The Canadian Museum of Civilization.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pCEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA165-PA161">"How Your Glass Ware Is Made"</a> by George W. Waltz, February 1951, <a href="/wiki/Popular_Science" title="Popular Science">Popular Science</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cmog.org/research/all-about-glass">All About Glass</a> from the Corning Museum of Glass: a collection of articles, multimedia, and virtual books all about glass, including the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cmog.org/research/glass-dictionary">Glass Dictionary</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Glass_science" title="Template:Glass science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Glass_science" title="Template talk:Glass science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Glass_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Glass science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Glass_science_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Glass</a> science topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">Glass transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercooling" title="Supercooling">Supercooling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AgInSbTe" title="AgInSbTe">AgInSbTe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioglass" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioglass">Bioglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borophosphosilicate_glass" title="Borophosphosilicate glass">Borophosphosilicate glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borosilicate_glass" title="Borosilicate glass">Borosilicate glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_glaze" title="Ceramic glaze">Ceramic glaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcogenide_glass" title="Chalcogenide glass">Chalcogenide glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_glass" title="Cobalt glass">Cobalt glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranberry_glass" title="Cranberry glass">Cranberry glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_glass_(optics)" title="Crown glass (optics)">Crown glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flint_glass" title="Flint glass">Flint glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorosilicate_glass" title="Fluorosilicate glass">Fluorosilicate glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fused_quartz" title="Fused quartz">Fused quartz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GeSbTe" title="GeSbTe">GeSbTe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranberry_glass" title="Cranberry glass">Gold ruby glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_glass" title="Lead glass">Lead glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk_glass" title="Milk glass">Milk glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphosilicate_glass" title="Phosphosilicate glass">Phosphosilicate glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochromic_lens" title="Photochromic lens">Photochromic lens glass</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Silicate_glass">Silicate glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass" title="Soda–lime glass">Soda–lime glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_hexametaphosphate" title="Sodium hexametaphosphate">Sodium hexametaphosphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_silicate" title="Sodium silicate">Soluble glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tellurite_glass" title="Tellurite glass">Tellurite glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoriated_glass" title="Thoriated glass">Thoriated glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra_low_expansion_glass" title="Ultra low expansion glass">Ultra low expansion glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_glass" title="Uranium glass">Uranium glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitreous_enamel" title="Vitreous enamel">Vitreous enamel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood%27s_glass" title="Wood's glass">Wood's glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZBLAN" title="ZBLAN">ZBLAN</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glass-ceramic" title="Glass-ceramic">Glass-ceramics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioactive_glass" title="Bioactive glass">Bioactive glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CorningWare" title="CorningWare">CorningWare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass-ceramic-to-metal_seals" title="Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals">Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macor" title="Macor">Macor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zerodur" title="Zerodur">Zerodur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Preparation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annealing_(glass)" title="Annealing (glass)">Annealing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_vapor_deposition" title="Chemical vapor deposition">Chemical vapor deposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_batch_calculation" title="Glass batch calculation">Glass batch calculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_production" title="Glass production">Glass forming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_production#Hot_end" title="Glass production">Glass melting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calculation_of_glass_properties" title="Calculation of glass properties">Glass modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation" title="Ion implantation">Ion implantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquidus" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquidus">Liquidus temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sol%E2%80%93gel_process" title="Sol–gel process">sol–gel technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viscosity#Viscosity_of_amorphous_materials" title="Viscosity">Viscosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrification" title="Vitrification">Vitrification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achromatic_lens" title="Achromatic lens">Achromat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)" title="Dispersion (optics)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gradient-index_optics" title="Gradient-index optics">Gradient-index optics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_darkening" title="Hydrogen darkening">Hydrogen darkening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">Optical amplifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">Optical fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_lens_design" title="Optical lens design">Optical lens design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochromic_lens" title="Photochromic lens">Photochromic lens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosensitive_glass" title="Photosensitive glass">Photosensitive glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">Refraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transparency_and_translucency" title="Transparency and translucency">Transparent materials</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface modification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-reflective_coating" title="Anti-reflective coating">Anti-reflective coating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemically_strengthened_glass" title="Chemically strengthened glass">Chemically strengthened glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion#Corrosion_of_glasses" title="Corrosion">Corrosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dealkalization" title="Dealkalization">Dealkalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_darkening" title="Hydrogen darkening">Hydrogen darkening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulated_glazing" title="Insulated glazing">Insulated glazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porous_glass" title="Porous glass">Porous glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-cleaning_glass" title="Self-cleaning glass">Self-cleaning glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sol%E2%80%93gel_process" title="Sol–gel process">sol–gel technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempered_glass" title="Tempered glass">Tempered glass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diverse topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_glass_objects" title="Conservation and restoration of glass objects">Conservation and restoration of glass objects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass-coated_wire" title="Glass-coated wire">Glass-coated wire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_glass" title="Safety glass">Safety glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_databases" title="Glass databases">Glass databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_electrode" title="Glass electrode">Glass electrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_fiber_reinforced_concrete" title="Glass fiber reinforced concrete">Glass fiber reinforced concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ionomer_cement" title="Glass ionomer cement">Glass ionomer cement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_microsphere" title="Glass microsphere">Glass microspheres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiberglass" title="Fiberglass">Glass-reinforced plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_cloth" title="Glass cloth">Glass cloth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass-to-metal_seal" title="Glass-to-metal seal">Glass-to-metal seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porous_glass" title="Porous glass">Porous glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-preg" title="Pre-preg">Pre-preg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Rupert%27s_drop" title="Prince Rupert's drop">Prince Rupert's drops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste#Vitrification" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste vitrification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windshield" title="Windshield">Windshield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_fiber" title="Glass fiber">Glass fiber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Glass_production_techniques" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Glass_production_techniques" title="Template:Glass production techniques"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Glass_production_techniques" title="Template talk:Glass production techniques"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Glass_production_techniques" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Glass production techniques"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Glass_production_techniques" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Glass_production" title="Glass production">Glass production</a> techniques</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commercial techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Float_glass" title="Float glass">Float glass process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritted_glass" title="Fritted glass">Fritted glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_production#Forming_process" title="Glass production">Blowing and pressing (containers)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_(fiber)#Fiber_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass (fiber)">Extrusion / Drawing (glass fibers)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_wool" title="Glass wool">Glass wool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber#Manufacturing" title="Optical fiber">Drawing (optical fibers)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precision_glass_moulding" title="Precision glass moulding">Precision glass moulding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_downdraw_method" title="Overflow downdraw method">Overflow downdraw method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressed_glass" title="Pressed glass">Pressing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_casting" title="Glass casting">Casting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flame_polishing" title="Flame polishing">Flame polishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etching_(microfabrication)" title="Etching (microfabrication)">Chemical polishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_turning" title="Diamond turning">Diamond turning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolled_plate_glass" title="Rolled plate glass">Rolling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artistic and historic techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80ina-k%C4%81ri" title="Āina-kāri">Āina-kāri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_glass" title="Art glass">Art glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_art" title="Glass art">Glass art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_beadmaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass beadmaking">Beadmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glassblowing" title="Glassblowing">Blowing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blown_plate_glass" title="Blown plate glass">Blown plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broad_sheet_glass" title="Broad sheet glass">Broad sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caneworking" title="Caneworking">Caneworking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cased_glass" title="Cased glass">Cased glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_glass_(window)" title="Crown glass (window)">Crown glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut_glass" title="Cut glass">Cut glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cylinder_blown_sheet_glass" title="Cylinder blown sheet glass">Cylinder blown sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engraved_glass" title="Engraved glass">Engraving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_etching" title="Glass etching">Etching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enamelled_glass" title="Enamelled glass">Enamelled glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flashed_glass" title="Flashed glass">Flashed glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_glass" title="Forest glass">Forest glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourcault_process" title="Fourcault process">Fourcault process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_fusing" title="Glass fusing">Fusing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_mosaic" title="Glass mosaic">Glass mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_glassware" title="List of glassware">Glassware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lampworking" title="Lampworking">Lampworking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_drawn_cylinder_sheet_glass" title="Machine drawn cylinder sheet glass">Machine drawn cylinder sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millefiori" title="Millefiori">Millefiori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror" title="Mirror">Mirror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polished_plate_glass" title="Polished plate glass">Polished plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porous_glass" title="Porous glass">Porous glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rippled_glass" title="Rippled glass">Rippled glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satsuma_Kiriko_cut_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Satsuma Kiriko cut glass">Satsuma Kiriko cut glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slumping" title="Slumping">Slumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stained_glass" title="Stained glass">Stained glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Studio_glass" title="Studio glass">Studio glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempered_glass" title="Tempered glass">Tempered glass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Glass_in_nature" title="Category:Glass in nature">Natural processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glass_with_embedded_metal_and_sulfides" title="Glass with embedded metal and sulfides">Radiative processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opal" title="Opal">Opal formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_glass" title="Sea glass">Sea glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_metamorphism" title="Shock metamorphism">Shock metamorphic glass</a>/<a href="/wiki/Impactite" title="Impactite">Impactite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrified_sand" title="Vitrified sand">Vitrified sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_glass" title="Volcanic glass">Volcanic glass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_glass_art_terms" title="Glossary of glass art terms">Glossary of glass art terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_recycling" title="Glass recycling">Glass recycling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Glass_makers_and_brands" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Glass_makers_and_brands" title="Template:Glass makers and brands"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Glass_makers_and_brands" title="Template talk:Glass makers and brands"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Glass_makers_and_brands" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Glass makers and brands"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Glass_makers_and_brands" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Glass makers and brands</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current companies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor_Hocking" title="Anchor Hocking">Anchor Hocking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arc_Holdings" title="Arc Holdings">Arc Holdings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ardagh_Group" title="Ardagh Group">Ardagh Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asahi_Glass_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="Asahi Glass Co.">Asahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurora_Glass_Foundry" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurora Glass Foundry">Aurora Glass Foundry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baccarat_(company)" title="Baccarat (company)">Baccarat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barovier_%26_Toso" title="Barovier & Toso">Barovier & Toso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berengo_Studio" title="Berengo Studio">Berengo Studio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blenko_Glass_Company" title="Blenko Glass Company">Blenko Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodum" title="Bodum">Bodum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bormioli_Rocco" title="Bormioli Rocco">Bormioli Rocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borosil" title="Borosil">Borosil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caithness_Glass" title="Caithness Glass">Caithness Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corning_Inc." title="Corning Inc.">Corning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystalex" title="Crystalex">Crystalex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dartington_Crystal" title="Dartington Crystal">Dartington Crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daum_(studio)" title="Daum (studio)">Daum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duralex" title="Duralex">Duralex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanavid" title="Fanavid">Fanavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenton_Art_Glass_Company" title="Fenton Art Glass Company">Fenton Art Glass Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firozabad#Industry" title="Firozabad">Firozabad glass industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Mayer_%26_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="Franz Mayer & Co.">Franz Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuyao_Group" title="Fuyao Group">Fuyao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glava" title="Glava">Glava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaverbel" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaverbel">Glaverbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_Industries" title="Guardian Industries">Guardian Industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadeland_Glassverk" title="Hadeland Glassverk">Hadeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardman_%26_Co." title="Hardman & Co.">Hardman & Co.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holmegaard_Glass_Factory" title="Holmegaard Glass Factory">Holmegaard Glassworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holophane" title="Holophane">Holophane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoya_Corporation" title="Hoya Corporation">Hoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Crystal" title="Kingdom of Crystal">Kingdom of Crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokomo_Opalescent_Glass_Works" title="Kokomo Opalescent Glass Works">Kokomo Opalescent Glass Works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosta_Boda" title="Kosta Boda">Kosta Boda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libbey_Incorporated" title="Libbey Incorporated">Libbey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liuli_Gongfang" title="Liuli Gongfang">Liuli Gongfang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iittala" title="Iittala">Iittala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luoyang_Glass" title="Luoyang Glass">Luoyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johns_Manville" title="Johns Manville">Johns Manville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mannok" title="Mannok">Mannok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mats_Jonasson" title="Mats Jonasson">Mats Jonasson Målerås</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moser_(glass_company)" title="Moser (glass company)">Moser Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosser_Glass" title="Mosser Glass">Mosser Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nippon_Sheet_Glass" title="Nippon Sheet Glass">Nippon Sheet Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni%C5%BEbor_glassworks" title="Nižbor glassworks">Nižbor glassworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O-I_Glass" title="O-I Glass">O-I Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohara_Corporation" title="Ohara Corporation">Ohara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orrefors_glassworks" class="mw-redirect" title="Orrefors glassworks">Orrefors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osram" title="Osram">Osram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owens_Corning" title="Owens Corning">Owens Corning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauly_%26_C._%E2%80%93_Compagnia_Venezia_Murano" title="Pauly & C. – Compagnia Venezia Murano">Pauly & C. - Compagnia Venezia Murano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phu_Phong_Glass_Joint_Stock_Company" title="Phu Phong Glass Joint Stock Company">Phu Phong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilkington" title="Pilkington">Pilkington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PPG_Industries" title="PPG Industries">PPG Industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preciosa_(corporation)" title="Preciosa (corporation)">Preciosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riedel_(glass_manufacturer)" title="Riedel (glass manufacturer)">Riedel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rona_glassworks" title="Rona glassworks">Rona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Brierley" title="Royal Brierley">Royal Brierley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Gobain" title="Saint-Gobain">Saint-Gobain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Louis_(glass_manufacturer)" title="Saint-Louis (glass manufacturer)">Saint-Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seguso" title="Seguso">Seguso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schott_AG" title="Schott AG">Schott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterlite_Technologies" title="Sterlite Technologies">Sterlite Optical Technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steuben_Glass_Works" title="Steuben Glass Works">Steuben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarovski" title="Swarovski">Swarovski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Saint_Lambert" title="Val Saint Lambert">Val Saint Lambert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vall%C3%A9rysthal" title="Vallérysthal">Vallérysthal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterford_Crystal" title="Waterford Crystal">Waterford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watts_%26_Co." title="Watts & Co.">Watts & Co.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Kitchen" class="mw-redirect" title="World Kitchen">World Kitchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinyi_Glass" title="Xinyi Glass">Xinyi Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zwiesel_Kristallglas" title="Zwiesel Kristallglas">Zwiesel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defunct companies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_defunct_glassmaking_companies" title="List of defunct glassmaking companies">List of defunct glassmaking companies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Glassmakers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_(glassmaker)" title="John Adams (glassmaker)">John Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Atwater" title="Richard M. Atwater">Richard M. Atwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Carder" title="Frederick Carder">Frederick Carder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Wightman_Colburn" title="Irving Wightman Colburn">Irving Wightman Colburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Crimmel" title="Henry Crimmel">Henry Crimmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_family" title="Friedrich family">Friedrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._H._Heisey" title="A. H. Heisey">A. H. Heisey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deming_Jarves" title="Deming Jarves">Deming Jarves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Libbey" title="Edward Libbey">Edward D. Libbey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Marioni" title="Dante Marioni">Dante Marioni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Neri" title="Antonio Neri">Antonio Neri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Joseph_Owens" title="Michael Joseph Owens">Michael Joseph Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alastair_Pilkington" title="Alastair Pilkington">Alastair Pilkington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavio_Poli" title="Flavio Poli">Flavio Poli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salviati_(glassmakers)" title="Salviati (glassmakers)">Salviati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Schott" title="Otto Schott">Otto Schott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_William_Stiegel" title="Henry William Stiegel">Henry William Stiegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S._Donald_Stookey" title="S. Donald Stookey">S. Donald Stookey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lino_Tagliapietra" title="Lino Tagliapietra">Lino Tagliapietra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._S._Turner" title="W. E. S. Turner">W. E. S. Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomasz_Urbanowicz" title="Tomasz Urbanowicz">Tomasz Urbanowicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paolo_Venini" title="Paolo Venini">Paolo Venini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_M._Whitall" title="John M. Whitall">John M. Whitall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspar_Wistar_(glassmaker)" title="Caspar Wistar (glassmaker)">Caspar Wistar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trademarks and brands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-cleaning_glass" title="Self-cleaning glass">Activ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_glass" title="Bohemian glass">Bohemian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borosilicate_glass" title="Borosilicate glass">Bomex/Duran/Endural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_glass" title="Burmese glass">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevron_bead" title="Chevron bead">Chevron bead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corelle" title="Corelle">Corelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CorningWare" title="CorningWare">CorningWare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranberry_glass" title="Cranberry glass">Cranberry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristallo" title="Cristallo">Cristallo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragontrail" title="Dragontrail">Dragontrail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favrile_glass" title="Favrile glass">Favrile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-King" title="Fire-King">Fire-King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_glass" title="Forest glass">Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorilla_Glass" title="Gorilla Glass">Gorilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macor" title="Macor">Macor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millefiori" title="Millefiori">Millefiori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murano_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Murano glass">Murano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opaline_glass" title="Opaline glass">Opaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peking_glass" title="Peking glass">Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrex" title="Pyrex">Pyrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rona_glassworks" title="Rona glassworks">Rona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenhead_Glass" title="Ravenhead Glass">Ravenhead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satsuma_Kiriko_cut_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Satsuma Kiriko cut glass">Satsuma Kiriko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiffany_glass" title="Tiffany glass">Tiffany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visions_(cookware)" title="Visions (cookware)">Visions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrite" title="Vitrite">Vitrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrolite" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitrolite">Vitrolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vycor" title="Vycor">Vycor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterford_Crystal" title="Waterford Crystal">Waterford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood%27s_glass" title="Wood's glass">Wood's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zerodur" title="Zerodur">Zerodur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output 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