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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeology_of_Semna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeology_of_Semna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Archaeology of Semna</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeology_of_Semna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semna_South_Fort" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semna_South_Fort"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Semna South Fort</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Semna_South_Fort-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Semna South Fort subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Semna_South_Fort-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Site_geology_and_geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Site_geology_and_geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Site geology and geography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Site_geology_and_geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeological_excavations_of_Semna_South" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeological_excavations_of_Semna_South"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Archaeological excavations of Semna South</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeological_excavations_of_Semna_South-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Results_and_significance_of_the_excavations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Results_and_significance_of_the_excavations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Results and significance of the excavations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Results_and_significance_of_the_excavations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Results_from_the_1950s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Results_from_the_1950s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Results from the 1950s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Results_from_the_1950s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Results_from_the_1960s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Results_from_the_1960s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Results from the 1960s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Results_from_the_1960s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Architectural_findings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architectural_findings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2.1</span> <span>Architectural findings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architectural_findings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artefactual_findings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artefactual_findings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2.2</span> <span>Artefactual findings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artefactual_findings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bioarchaeological_findings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioarchaeological_findings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2.3</span> <span>Bioarchaeological findings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioarchaeological_findings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_analysis_of_Semna_South_material" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_analysis_of_Semna_South_material"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Additional analysis of Semna South material</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_analysis_of_Semna_South_material-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conclusions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conclusions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Conclusions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conclusions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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</div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Semna (Nubia)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semna" title="Semna – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Semna" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semna" title="Semna – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Semna" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semna" title="Semna – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Semna" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semna" title="Semna – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Semna" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forteresses_de_Semna" title="Forteresses de Semna – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Forteresses de Semna" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semna" title="Semna – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Semna" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szemna" title="Szemna – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szemna" 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.ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Semna-vue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Semna-vue.jpg/250px-Semna-vue.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Semna-vue.jpg/330px-Semna-vue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Semna-vue.jpg/500px-Semna-vue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4336" data-file-height="2165" /></a><figcaption>Perspective view of a reconstruction of the Semna West Fort</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nubia.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nubia.png/220px-Nubia.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="399" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nubia.png/330px-Nubia.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nubia.png/440px-Nubia.png 2x" data-file-width="441" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Location of Semna along the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The region of <b>Semna</b> is 15 miles south of <a href="/wiki/Wadi_Halfa" title="Wadi Halfa">Wadi Halfa</a> and is situated where rocks cross the Nile narrowing its flow—the Semna Cataract.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArriazaMerbsRothschild1993_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArriazaMerbsRothschild1993-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Semna was a fortified area established in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Senusret_I" title="Senusret I">Senusret I</a> (1965–1920 BC) on the west bank of the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> at the southern end of a series of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> fortresses founded during the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt</a> (1985–1795 BC) in the <a href="/wiki/Cataracts_of_the_Nile" title="Cataracts of the Nile">Second-Cataract</a> area of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Nubia" title="Lower Nubia">Lower Nubia</a>. There are three forts at Semna: Semna West (Semna Gharb), Semna East (Semna Sherq, also called Kummeh or <a href="/wiki/Kumma_(Nubia)" title="Kumma (Nubia)">Kumma</a>), and Semna South (Semna Gubli).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReisner1929_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReisner1929-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The forts to the east and west of the Semna Cataract are Semna East and West, respectively; Semna South is approximately one kilometer south of Semna West on the west bank of the Nile.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReisner1929_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReisner1929-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966125_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966125-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Semna gorge, at the southern edge of ancient Egypt, was the narrowest part of the Nile valley. It was here, at this strategic location, that the 12th Dynasty pharaohs built a cluster of four mud-brick fortresses: Semna, Kumma, Semna South and <a href="/wiki/Uronarti" title="Uronarti">Uronarti</a> — all covered by the waters of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Nasser" title="Lake Nasser">Lake Nasser</a> since the completion of the <a href="/wiki/Aswan_Dam" title="Aswan Dam">Aswan Dam</a> in 1971. Many of its monuments were relocated as part of the <a href="/wiki/International_Campaign_to_Save_the_Monuments_of_Nubia" title="International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia">International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archaeology_of_Semna">Archaeology of Semna</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semna_(Nubia)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Archaeology of Semna"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The rectangular Kumma fortress, the L-shaped Semna fortress (on the opposite bank) and the smaller square fortress of Semna South were each investigated by the American archaeologist <a href="/wiki/George_Reisner" class="mw-redirect" title="George Reisner">George Reisner</a> in 1924 and 1928. Semna and Kumma also included the remains of temples, houses and cemeteries dating to the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a> (1550–1069 BC), which would have been roughly contemporary with such lower Nubian towns as <a href="/wiki/Amara,_Nubia" title="Amara, Nubia">Amara</a> West and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sesebisudla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sesebisudla (page does not exist)">Sesebisudla</a>, when the second cataract region had become part of an Egyptian 'empire', rather than simply a frontier zone. </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Semna_Kumma_view_from_west.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Semna_Kumma_view_from_west.jpg/220px-Semna_Kumma_view_from_west.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Semna_Kumma_view_from_west.jpg/330px-Semna_Kumma_view_from_west.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Semna_Kumma_view_from_west.jpg/440px-Semna_Kumma_view_from_west.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1236" data-file-height="756" /></a><figcaption>Semna & Kumma forts view from west</figcaption></figure> <p>The fort had several advanced features – the mudbrick walls were reinforced with logs, there were doubly fortified gates, there was a fortified corridor down to the Nile allowing ready access to water supplies. The logs increased the vulnerability to fire, and traces of fires can be seen on the walls. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Semna_South_Fort">Semna South Fort</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semna_(Nubia)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Semna South Fort"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a 12th Dynasty fort, Semna South is one of 17 Middle Kingdom Egyptian forts in Nubia built for the purpose of controlling trade traffic along the Nile. The Egyptian state placed great importance on control of Nubia and its goods. As Reisner (1929) notes, “the southern products, the ebony, the ivory, the pelts, the incense and resin, the ostrich feathers, the black slaves, were as much desired by the kings of the Middle Kingdom as by their forebears”.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReisner192966_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReisner192966-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, forts were built along the Nile to protect the waterway from nomadic tribes and to facilitate the flow of Nubian goods into Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBard2008_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBard2008-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReisner1929_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReisner1929-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forts surrounding Semna South were excavated by the Joint Egyptian Expedition of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Museum_of_Fine_Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston Museum of Fine Arts">Boston Museum of Fine Arts</a> in the 1920s,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReisner1929_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReisner1929-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Semna South was not formally excavated until the late 1950s. The initial excavation of the fort was directed by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Vercoutter" title="Jean Vercoutter">Jean Vercoutter</a> and Sayed Thabit Hassan Thabit with the Sudan Antiquities Service in 1956–1957.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further excavations of the fort and an adjacent cemetery were conducted by the Oriental Institute Expedition to Sudanese Nubia, under the direction of Dr. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Vico_%C5%BDabkar" title="Louis Vico Žabkar">Louis Vico Žabkar</a>, in 1966–1968.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar1982_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar1982-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, the human remains from Semna South are curated at <a href="/wiki/Arizona_State_University" title="Arizona State University">Arizona State University</a> and the archaeological artifacts are curated at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Oriental_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Chicago Oriental Institute">University of Chicago Oriental Institute</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArriazaMerbsRothschild1993_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArriazaMerbsRothschild1993-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>(H. McDonald, personal communication, October 22, 2012). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Site_geology_and_geography">Site geology and geography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semna_(Nubia)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Site geology and geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Semna South is located in the <a href="/wiki/Batn-El-Hajar" title="Batn-El-Hajar">Batn-El-Hajar</a> (“Belly of the Rock”) region of Nubia between the second and third cataracts. As its name implies, the Batn-El-Hajar is “characterized by ‘bare <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a> ridges and gullies’, a narrowed Nile run, and heavy deposits of wind-blown sand".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvrus1999418_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvrus1999418-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1975_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1975-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Semna is situated above a geological formation known as the Basement Complex; this complex is a deposit of <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rock</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">igneous rock</a>. There is only a thin layer of fertile <a href="/wiki/Alluvial_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Alluvial soil">alluvial soil</a> overlying this complex which results in poor agricultural potential.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvrus1999418_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvrus1999418-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeological_excavations_of_Semna_South">Archaeological excavations of Semna South</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semna_(Nubia)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Archaeological excavations of Semna South"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Counterweight_for_a_necklace_with_three_images_of_Hathor._Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Boston_%C2%A9Hans_Ollermann.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Counterweight_for_a_necklace_with_three_images_of_Hathor._Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Boston_%C2%A9Hans_Ollermann.jpg/250px-Counterweight_for_a_necklace_with_three_images_of_Hathor._Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Boston_%C2%A9Hans_Ollermann.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Counterweight_for_a_necklace_with_three_images_of_Hathor._Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Boston_%C2%A9Hans_Ollermann.jpg/330px-Counterweight_for_a_necklace_with_three_images_of_Hathor._Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Boston_%C2%A9Hans_Ollermann.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Counterweight_for_a_necklace_with_three_images_of_Hathor._Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Boston_%C2%A9Hans_Ollermann.jpg/500px-Counterweight_for_a_necklace_with_three_images_of_Hathor._Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Boston_%C2%A9Hans_Ollermann.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1195" data-file-height="946" /></a><figcaption>Counterweight for a necklace with three images of Hathor, Semna (1390-1352 BC). <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Boston" title="Museum of Fine Arts, Boston">Museum of Fine Arts, Boston</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>While the fort at Semna South was described by Reisner (1929), it was not formally excavated until 1956–1957 by the Sudan Antiquities Service under the direction of Jean Vercoutter and Sayed Thabit Hassan Thabit.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This excavation explored the majority (four-fifths) of the fort and “made a limited trial digging” in the adjacent <a href="/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroitic</a> cemetery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966125_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966125-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vercoutter (1966) notes that their work was preliminary and by no means complete. He encouraged further investigation of the site: “it seems of the utmost importance for the history of the site that new excavations are undertaken at Semna South before its flooding under the waters of the new Aswan Dam”.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966131_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966131-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning in 1966 the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago continued excavating where Vercoutter and colleagues had ended. </p><p>Between 1966 and 1968 the University of Chicago Oriental Institute Expedition to Sudanese Nubia excavated the remainder of the Semna South fort and the adjacent cemetery. Detailed excavations were conducted of the fort walls, a church, a dump site, and the cemetery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar1982_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar1982-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To the author's knowledge, this was the final archaeological excavation conducted at Semna South. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Results_and_significance_of_the_excavations">Results and significance of the excavations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semna_(Nubia)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Results and significance of the excavations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Results_from_the_1950s">Results from the 1950s</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semna_(Nubia)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Results from the 1950s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> During the 1956–1957 field season, Vercoutter and colleagues were able to interpret the building plan of the fort. The building is composed of the following features: a <a href="/wiki/Glacis" title="Glacis">glacis</a>, outer girdle wall, an inner ditch, a main wall, and an open inner space.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966127_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966127-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They concluded that the fort was never inhabited permanently; rather, it was occupied for limited periods of time by men of the garrison coming from the fort at Semna West. </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glacis.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Glacis.png/220px-Glacis.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Glacis.png/330px-Glacis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Glacis.png/440px-Glacis.png 2x" data-file-width="1012" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Example of a glacis</figcaption></figure> <p>They found little evidence of Middle Kingdom occupation, but did discover ruins of a Christian settlement at Semna South. The Christian settlement was not fully excavated by the Sudan Antiquities Service expedition, but they did note that the houses had been reconstructed by the Christian inhabitants and that they had built a new stone girdle wall around the west side of the fort.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966130_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966130-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They concluded that the Christian settlement had been inhabited by a fairly poor community. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Results_from_the_1960s">Results from the 1960s</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semna_(Nubia)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Results from the 1960s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Architectural_findings">Architectural findings</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semna_(Nubia)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Architectural findings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_egyptian_border_marker_(around_1860BC).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Ancient_egyptian_border_marker_%28around_1860BC%29.jpg/220px-Ancient_egyptian_border_marker_%28around_1860BC%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Ancient_egyptian_border_marker_%28around_1860BC%29.jpg/330px-Ancient_egyptian_border_marker_%28around_1860BC%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Ancient_egyptian_border_marker_%28around_1860BC%29.jpg/440px-Ancient_egyptian_border_marker_%28around_1860BC%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1349" data-file-height="2024" /></a><figcaption>Semna stela dated to Senusret III's year 16</figcaption></figure> <p>The 1966–1968 excavations at Semna South determined, contrary to Vercoutter, that the fort was permanently occupied from the reign of Senusret I to the first few years of reign of <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_III" title="Amenemhat III">Amenemhat III</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">12th Dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198215_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198215-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBard200842_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBard200842-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Excavations of the church, sometimes called the “Sheik’s tomb,” revealed that only a portion of the original structure still remained.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198212_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198212-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 1982 when Žabkar and Žabkar published their report, they were not able to date the church due to the paucity of pottery within the church or nearby. However, they did provide a hypothetical estimate: “the church in its final, that is apsidal, form would date to the classic Christian period in Nubia, somewhere between the ninth and the first part of the eleventh century A.D.".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198212_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198212-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This expedition unearthed a great wall which connected the forts at Semna South and Semna West. This wall strengthened the view that the military fortifications in the Semna region were built by the Egyptians in response to the “strong pressures and infiltration attempts on the part of southerners during the 12th Dynasty, allusions to which are found in the well-known Semna Stela and Semna Dispatches”.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198213_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198213-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Žabkar and Žabkar (1982) speculate that perhaps there was a complex of fortifications which embraced Semna South and West, and perhaps other forts in the region, but there is no definitive evidence for such a complex. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Artefactual_findings">Artefactual findings</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semna_(Nubia)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Artefactual findings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An area located on the fort's north-west side previously called a ‘graveyard,’ ‘occupation site,’ or an ‘encampment,’ and covered in pot sherds was also excavated during the 1966–1968 field seasons. Upon excavation, it was revealed to be a 12th Dynasty dump site, and was “the most significant [find] for the study of the history of the Semna South fort, particularly for the study of its communications with the other forts of the first and second cataract regions”.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar197283_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkar197283-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dump site was a series of holes which were initially clay quarries and later utilized as a dumping place for discarded fort objects. Some of the holes were deep and some were shallow; the two deepest were K-1 and K-4.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar1982_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar1982-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within these holes, the discarded objects and pottery sherds were mixed into a loose mass of debris with no discernible stratigraphic layers. </p><p>The finds within these holes are of great significance. The first is a well-preserved 12th Dynasty axe, which according to Žabkar and Žabkar (1982), is a rare occurrence in Sudanese and Egyptian Nubia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198216_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198216-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Second, pottery sherds of the <a href="/wiki/C-Group" class="mw-redirect" title="C-Group">C-Group</a> type (indigenous Nubian inhabitants from ca. 2000 – 1500 BC) were found which suggests a peaceful coexistence between the C-Group individuals and the Egyptians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBard2008_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBard2008-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckettLowell1994_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckettLowell1994-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Third, and most importantly, were seal impressions on numerous pieces of pottery. The most significant seals are those which bore the name of the fort, which until this discovery was only partially known.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to this seal being found, the Egyptian name of the fort at Semna South was written in hieratic as “Repressing the…” on a fragmentary piece of papyrus discovered in 1896 by <a href="/wiki/James_Quibell" title="James Quibell">James Quibell</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Ramesseum" title="Ramesseum">Ramesseum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReisner1929_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReisner1929-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After studying these seals, Dr. Žabkar translated the hieroglyphics as “Subduer of the Setiu-Nubians” or “Subduer of the Seti-land”.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1975_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1975-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This find is important because it officially confirms the Egyptian name of the fort at Semna South and clarifies the fragmentary name written on the Ramesseum papyrus. Additionally it signifies the role of Egypt in Nubia: ruler. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Bioarchaeological_findings">Bioarchaeological findings</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semna_(Nubia)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Bioarchaeological findings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Semna-kouma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Semna-kouma.jpg/250px-Semna-kouma.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Semna-kouma.jpg/330px-Semna-kouma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Semna-kouma.jpg/500px-Semna-kouma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1320" data-file-height="1422" /></a><figcaption>Fortresses of Semna and Kumma.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Oriental Institute Expedition also excavated the large cemetery to the north of the fort. This cemetery contained approximately 560 graves—representing over 800 individuals—of which about 494 were from the Meroitic period (4th century BC – 4th century AD), 50 from the <a href="/wiki/X-Group" class="mw-redirect" title="X-Group">X-Group</a> period (4th – 6th century AD), and 16 from the Christian period (550 – 1500 AD).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198221_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198221-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWelsby200213_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelsby200213-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Meroitic period through the Christian period is a span of approximately 2,000 years, which indicates that the fort was used for an extended period of time during Egyptian and Nubian history. </p><p>The Meroitic graves were oriented east to west and were of several styles: rectangular pit graves with superstructures resembling <a href="/wiki/Mastaba" title="Mastaba">mastabas</a>, oblong pits without superstructures, and rectangular pits with mud-brick burial vaults.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar1982_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar1982-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For those remains found in situ, the heads were oriented to the west and the bodies were extended on their backs with hands over the pelvis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198221_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198221-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numerous artifacts were found within the Meroitic graves: black and brown wear pottery; copper and bronze bowls; a finely carved wooden bowl; a glass ointment jar; bronze mirrors; copper, iron, and bronze jewelry; beads and pendants; hunting equipment; leather; and fragments of shrouds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198221–22_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198221–22-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The graves of the X-Group were oriented north to south and most were deep pits with a lateral chamber.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar1982_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar1982-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the graves, according to Žabkar and Žabkar (1982), “had a shelf, composed of earth, mud-brick, or stones, running alongside the chamber, which supported the blocking material”.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198222_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198222-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the remains found in situ, the bodies were in a flexed position on their sides with the heads facing towards the north, northwest, or south. In most cases a burial shroud was present, although it was often fragmentary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198222_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198222-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Objects recovered from these graves are as follows: red ware pottery; jewelry; personal grooming tools; hunting equipment; leather sandals; and clothing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198223_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198223-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Christian period graves were oriented east to west and most were deep, narrow, oblong shaft tombs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198223_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198223-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only one grave had a superstructure. Of the remains in situ, the bodies were usually extended and supine with the hands over the pelvis with the heads oriented towards the west. One body was found on its side in a flexed position facing north.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198223_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198223-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the bodies were wrapped in a linen or wool shroud which had been secured by a chord.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198223_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198223-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Additional_analysis_of_Semna_South_material">Additional analysis of Semna South material</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semna_(Nubia)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Additional analysis of Semna South material"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The human remains recovered from Semna South have been studied by numerous anthropologists and other specialists. Hrdy (1978) analyzed hair samples from Semna South mummies. He concluded that the hair color of these individuals was lighter than previously thought in ancient Nubia and the hair of the X-Group males was curlier than the Meroitic males.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHrdy1978277_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHrdy1978277-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1993, Arriaza, Merbs, and Rothschild published a study evaluating the prevalence of a pathological condition known as <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_idiopathic_skeletal_hyperostosis" title="Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis">diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis</a> (DISH). They found that approximately 13% of the individuals from the Meroitic cemetery were afflicted with this condition and that it was more common among males.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArriazaMerbsRothschild1993243_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArriazaMerbsRothschild1993243-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alvrus (1999) assessed the skeletal fracture patterns for almost 600 individuals from the Semna South site. She analyzed healed fractures of the skull and <a href="/wiki/Appendicular_skeleton" title="Appendicular skeleton">appendicular skeleton</a> and found that almost 21% of adults had at least one healed fracture and that the skull was the most frequently injured region of the body. She attributes much of the trauma to the rocky physical environment, but also notes that craniofacial trauma may be the result of interpersonal violence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvrus1999417_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvrus1999417-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dissertations and theses which used the Semna South remains are numerous. They include topics such as the sexual dimorphism of dental pathology,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurns1982_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1982-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the presence of schistosomiasis in ancient Nubia,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvrus2006_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvrus2006-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> non-metric biological distance analysis,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore1996_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore1996-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a craniometric analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESandy-Karkoutli1989_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESandy-Karkoutli1989-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conclusions">Conclusions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semna_(Nubia)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Conclusions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Re-erected_Semna_Temple_-_Sudan_National_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Re-erected_Semna_Temple_-_Sudan_National_Museum.jpg/260px-Re-erected_Semna_Temple_-_Sudan_National_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Re-erected_Semna_Temple_-_Sudan_National_Museum.jpg/390px-Re-erected_Semna_Temple_-_Sudan_National_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Re-erected_Semna_Temple_-_Sudan_National_Museum.jpg/520px-Re-erected_Semna_Temple_-_Sudan_National_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6720" data-file-height="4480" /></a><figcaption>Reconstructed Semna temple of <a href="/wiki/Senusret_III" title="Senusret III">Senusret III</a>, now in the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Sudan" title="National Museum of Sudan">National Museum of Sudan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Excavated between 1956–57 and 1966–68, Semna South is a 12th Dynasty fort located in <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>—the present <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Sudan">Republic of Sudan</a>—on the west bank of the Nile. These excavations revealed the building plan of the fort, a church, a cemetery, and numerous other settlement-related features. Some of the most important discoveries were found within dumps near the fort. In particular, Žabkar recovered pottery seals which provided the Egyptian name of the fort (“Subduer of the Setiu-Nubians” or “Subduer of the Seti-land”) which was unknown until the 1966-1968 field seasons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972_18-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1975_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1975-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The artifacts recovered from these excavations, including pottery sherds, textiles, jewelry, an axe, and additional seals, indicate that the fort at Semna South was utilized during the Middle Kingdom. The adjacent cemetery with burials from the Meroitic, X-Group, and Christian periods suggests a much longer habitation of the region: from the Middle Kingdom until the Middle Ages. </p><p>Archaeological excavations of Semna South have contributed to the overall understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom of Egypt</a> fort system. These forts established military control over Upper and <a href="/wiki/Lower_Nubia" title="Lower Nubia">Lower Nubia</a> and the Nile river transport of commodities, and were integral parts of the Egyptian empire. </p><p>The temples of <a href="/wiki/Dedwen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dedwen">Dedwen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sesostris_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesostris III">Sesostris III</a> were moved to the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Sudan" title="National Museum of Sudan">National Museum of Sudan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Khartoum" title="Khartoum">Khartoum</a> prior to the flooding of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Nasser" title="Lake Nasser">Lake Nasser</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semna_(Nubia)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-3"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArriazaMerbsRothschild1993-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArriazaMerbsRothschild1993_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArriazaMerbsRothschild1993_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArriazaMerbsRothschild1993">Arriaza, Merbs & Rothschild 1993</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVercoutter1966">Vercoutter 1966</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReisner1929-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReisner1929_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReisner1929_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReisner1929_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReisner1929_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReisner1929_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReisner1929">Reisner 1929</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966125-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966125_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966125_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVercoutter1966">Vercoutter 1966</a>, p. 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReisner192966-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReisner192966_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReisner1929">Reisner 1929</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBard2008-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBard2008_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBard2008_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBard2008">Bard 2008</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar1982-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar1982_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar1982_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar1982_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar1982_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar1982_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŽabkarŽabkar1982">Žabkar & Žabkar 1982</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvrus1999418-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvrus1999418_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvrus1999418_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlvrus1999">Alvrus 1999</a>, p. 418.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1975-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1975_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1975_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1975_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŽabkar1975">Žabkar 1975</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966131-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966131_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVercoutter1966">Vercoutter 1966</a>, p. 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966127-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966127_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVercoutter1966">Vercoutter 1966</a>, p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966130-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVercoutter1966130_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVercoutter1966">Vercoutter 1966</a>, p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198215-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198215_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŽabkarŽabkar1982">Žabkar & Žabkar 1982</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBard200842-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBard200842_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBard2008">Bard 2008</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198212-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198212_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198212_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŽabkarŽabkar1982">Žabkar & Žabkar 1982</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198213-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198213_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŽabkarŽabkar1982">Žabkar & Žabkar 1982</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkar197283-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar197283_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŽabkar1972">Žabkar 1972</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972_18-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkar1972_18-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŽabkar1972">Žabkar 1972</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198216-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198216_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŽabkarŽabkar1982">Žabkar & Žabkar 1982</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckettLowell1994-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckettLowell1994_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeckettLowell1994">Beckett & Lowell 1994</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198221-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198221_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198221_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŽabkarŽabkar1982">Žabkar & Žabkar 1982</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelsby200213-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWelsby200213_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWelsby2002">Welsby 2002</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198221–22-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198221–22_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŽabkarŽabkar1982">Žabkar & Žabkar 1982</a>, pp. 21–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198222-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198222_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198222_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŽabkarŽabkar1982">Žabkar & Žabkar 1982</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198223-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198223_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198223_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198223_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŽabkarŽabkar198223_25-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŽabkarŽabkar1982">Žabkar & Žabkar 1982</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHrdy1978277-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHrdy1978277_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHrdy1978">Hrdy 1978</a>, p. 277.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArriazaMerbsRothschild1993243-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArriazaMerbsRothschild1993243_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArriazaMerbsRothschild1993">Arriaza, Merbs & Rothschild 1993</a>, p. 243.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvrus1999417-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvrus1999417_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlvrus1999">Alvrus 1999</a>, p. 417.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1982-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurns1982_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurns1982">Burns 1982</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlvrus2006-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlvrus2006_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlvrus2006">Alvrus 2006</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore1996-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore1996_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoore1996">Moore 1996</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESandy-Karkoutli1989-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESandy-Karkoutli1989_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSandy-Karkoutli1989">Sandy-Karkoutli 1989</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semna_(Nubia)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Semna" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Semna">Semna</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Research+Center+in+Egypt&rft.atitle=Semna+South%3A+A+preliminary+report+on+the+1966-68+excavations+of+the+University+of+Chicago+Oriental+Institute+Expedition+to+Sudanese+Nubia&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-%3C%2Fspan%3E50&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F40000432&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40000432%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=%C5%BDabkar&rft.aufirst=L.V.&rft.au=%C5%BDabkar%2C+J.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemna+%28Nubia%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2008-01-28T02:23:36Z","dateModified":"2025-01-05T16:58:38Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/8c\/Semna-vue.jpg","headline":"ancient Egyptian archaeological site in Sudan"}</script> </body> </html>