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class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">C-Group culture</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=C-Group&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="C-Group">C-Group</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">C. 2400–1550 BCE Lower Nubian archaeological culture</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"C-Group" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/C_group_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="C group (disambiguation)">C group</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">C-Group culture</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:C_Group_bowl.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map showing the extent of the C-Group culture" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/C_Group_bowl.jpg/250px-C_Group_bowl.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/C_Group_bowl.jpg/330px-C_Group_bowl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/C_Group_bowl.jpg/500px-C_Group_bowl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1542" data-file-height="1185" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Bowl of the C-Group, <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre" class="mw-redirect" title="Musée du Louvre">Musée du Louvre</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographical range</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Africa" title="Northeast Africa">Northeast Africa</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Period</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dates</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2400</span> – 1550 BCE</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/A-Group_culture" title="A-Group culture">A-Group culture</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/B-Group" class="mw-redirect" title="B-Group">B-Group culture</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Followed by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Defined by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/George_Andrew_Reisner" title="George Andrew Reisner">George Andrew Reisner</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile" style="width: 18em;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#FFDAB9;"><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a><br />Eneolithic, Aeneolithic,<br />or Copper Age</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="background:#efefef;"> ↑ <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a><br /> ↑ <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b><a href="/wiki/Copper_metallurgy_in_Africa" title="Copper metallurgy in Africa">Africa</a> (2600 BC–1600 AD)</b> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Naqada_culture" title="Naqada culture">Naqada culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gerzeh_culture" title="Gerzeh culture">Gerzeh culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/A-Group_culture" title="A-Group culture">A-Group culture</a>, <a class="mw-selflink selflink">C-Group culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerma_culture" title="Kerma culture">Kerma culture</a></dd></dl> <p><b><a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a> (6000–3500 BC)</b> </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Ghassulian" title="Ghassulian">Ghassulian culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></dd></dl> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic_Europe" title="Chalcolithic Europe">Europe</a> (5500–2200 BC)</b> </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy_during_the_Copper_Age_in_Europe" title="Metallurgy during the Copper Age in Europe">Metallurgy during the Copper Age in Europe</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vin%C4%8Da_culture" title="Vinča culture">Vinča culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Varna_culture" title="Varna culture">Varna culture</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cucuteni%E2%80%93Trypillia_culture" title="Cucuteni–Trypillia culture">Cucuteni–Trypillia culture</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yamna_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Yamna culture">Yamna culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded Ware</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cernavod%C4%83_culture" title="Cernavodă culture">Cernavodă culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decea_Mure%C5%9Fului_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Decea Mureşului culture">Decea Mureşului culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gorne%C5%9Fti_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorneşti culture">Gorneşti culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gumelni%C5%A3a%E2%80%93Karanovo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Gumelniţa–Karanovo culture">Gumelniţa–Karanovo culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petre%C5%9Fti_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Petreşti culture">Petreşti culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Co%C8%9Bofeni_culture" title="Coțofeni culture">Coțofeni culture</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Remedello_culture" title="Remedello culture">Remedello culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaudo_culture" title="Gaudo culture">Gaudo culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monte_Claro_culture" title="Monte Claro culture">Monte Claro culture</a></dd></dl> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> (3700–1700 BC)</b> </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Botai_culture" title="Botai culture">Botai culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afanasevo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Afanasevo culture">Afanasevo culture</a></dd></dl> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Periodisation_of_the_Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodisation of the Indus Valley civilisation">South Asia</a> (4300–1800 BC)</b> </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Periodisation_of_the_Indus_Valley_civilisation#Datings_and_alternative_proposals" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodisation of the Indus Valley civilisation">Periodisation of the Indus Valley civilisation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhirrana" title="Bhirrana">Bhirrana culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hakra_Ware_culture" title="Hakra Ware culture">Hakra Ware culture</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ahar%E2%80%93Banas_culture" title="Ahar–Banas culture">Ahar–Banas culture</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kaytha" title="Kaytha">Kaytha culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malwa_culture" title="Malwa culture">Malwa culture</a>,</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daimabad#Phase_I:_Savalda_culture" title="Daimabad">Savalda Culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jorwe_culture" title="Jorwe culture">Jorwe culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anarta_tradition" title="Anarta tradition">Anarta tradition</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Pandu_culture" title="Pandu culture">Ajay culture</a></dd></dl> <p><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">China</a> (5000–2900 BC)</b> </p> <b><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_Mesoamerica" title="Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> (6500–1000 BC)</b></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">Wheel</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_horse" title="Domestication of the horse">Domestication of the horse</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;"> ↓ <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a><br /> ↓ <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chalcolithic" title="Template:Chalcolithic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chalcolithic" title="Template talk:Chalcolithic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chalcolithic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chalcolithic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>C-Group culture</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">archaeological culture</a> found in <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Lower Nubia</a>, which dates from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2400 BCE to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1550 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-OrientInst_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OrientInst-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was named by <a href="/wiki/George_A._Reisner" class="mw-redirect" title="George A. Reisner">George A. Reisner</a>. With no central site and no written evidence about what these people called themselves, Reisner assigned the culture a letter. The C-Group arose after Reisner's <a href="/wiki/A-Group" class="mw-redirect" title="A-Group">A-Group</a> and <a href="/wiki/B-Group" class="mw-redirect" title="B-Group">B-Group</a> cultures, and around the time the <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Kingdom">Old Kingdom</a> was ending in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=C-Group_culture&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While today A-Group and B-Group are seen as being a continuation of the same group, C-Group is considered as the product of distinct Saharan pastoralists.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The C-Group is marked by its distinctive pottery, and for its tombs.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early C-Group tombs consisted of a simple "<a href="/wiki/Stone_circle" title="Stone circle">stone circle</a>" with the body buried in a depression in the centre. The tombs later became more elaborate with the bodies being placed in a stone lined chamber, and then the addition of an extra chamber on the east for offerings.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The origins of the C-Group are still debated. Some scholars see it largely as having evolved from the A/B-Group. Others think it more likely that the C-Group was brought by invaders or migrants that mingled with the local culture, with the C-Group perhaps originating in the then rapidly drying <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The C-Group were farmers and semi-nomadic herders keeping large numbers of cattle in an area that is today too arid for such herding. Originally they were believed to be a peaceful people due to the lack of weapons in tombs; however, daggers, short swords and battle-axes were found in C-Group graves.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their settling around the forts built by the ancient Egyptians was seen as further evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pottery_of_the_C-Group_people,_2300-1600_BCE,_Faras,_British_Museum_EA51244.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Pottery_of_the_C-Group_people%2C_2300-1600_BCE%2C_Faras%2C_British_Museum_EA51244.jpg/250px-Pottery_of_the_C-Group_people%2C_2300-1600_BCE%2C_Faras%2C_British_Museum_EA51244.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Pottery_of_the_C-Group_people%2C_2300-1600_BCE%2C_Faras%2C_British_Museum_EA51244.jpg/330px-Pottery_of_the_C-Group_people%2C_2300-1600_BCE%2C_Faras%2C_British_Museum_EA51244.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Pottery_of_the_C-Group_people%2C_2300-1600_BCE%2C_Faras%2C_British_Museum_EA51244.jpg/500px-Pottery_of_the_C-Group_people%2C_2300-1600_BCE%2C_Faras%2C_British_Museum_EA51244.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4896" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Pottery of the C-Group people, 2300-1600 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Faras" title="Faras">Faras</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Most of what is known about the C-Group peoples comes from <a href="/wiki/Lower_Nubia" title="Lower Nubia">Lower Nubia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dongola_Reach" title="Dongola Reach">Dongola Reach</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The northern border of the C-Group was around <a href="/w/index.php?title=El-Kubanieh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="El-Kubanieh (page does not exist)">el-Kubanieh</a> near <a href="/wiki/Aswan" title="Aswan">Aswan</a>. The southern border is still uncertain, but C-Group sites have been found as far south as <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sixth Dynasty">Sixth Dynasty</a>, Lower Nubia is described as consisting of a number of small states, three of which are named: Setju, Wawat, and Irjet.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this same time in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Nubia" title="Upper Nubia">Upper Nubia</a> the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kerma" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Kerma">Kingdom of Kerma</a> was emerging. The exact relation between the C-Group and Kerma is uncertain, but early Kerma shows definite similarities to the C-Group culture and the <a href="/wiki/Pan-Grave_culture" title="Pan-Grave culture">Pan-Grave culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> much of the C-Group lands in Lower Nubia were conquered by Egypt; after the Egyptians left, Kerma expanded north controlling the region.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting with the conquest of Nubia by Egypt under <a href="/wiki/Tuthmosis_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuthmosis I">Tuthmosis I</a> in the late 16th century BCE, the C-Group merged with the Egyptians.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Burial_customs">Burial customs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=C-Group_culture&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Burial customs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early <a href="/wiki/Kerma" title="Kerma">Kerma</a> <a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">tumuli</a> were the chosen burial method for <a href="/wiki/Nubians" title="Nubians">Nubians</a>, Pan-Graves, and the C-group culture. The C-group tumuli were graves built in a "stone circle" using the "dry stone masonry"<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> technique with an offering chapel decorated with cattle illustrations. However, each culture differed in the structure of the tumuli. The Nubian's tumuli were a shallow round grave and included animal bones. Pan-Grave tumuli were constructed with large black stones and small white stones in an alternating pattern. The C-group culture was pastoral, with cattle being an essential part of their daily activities, funerary practices, and religion. Many "standing slabs"<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had illustrations of cattle and cattle horns with fine pottery found in the chapel. </p><p>In prehistoric times, there had been little distinction between Egyptian and Nubian burial practices, as both were laid in a contracted position in shallow graves. However, as time continues, Nubian cultures continued the contracted body tradition. In contrast, in Egyptian culture, the deceased was placed in an extended position. </p><p>As <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> gained control of Kerma in the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a>, Egyptian culture began to spread throughout <a href="/wiki/Lower_Nubia" title="Lower Nubia">Lower Nubia</a>. The C-groups cultures now laid the deceased supine, shown throughout the Ancient Tekhet, <a href="/wiki/Fadrus" title="Fadrus">Fadrus</a> cemetery. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">Second Intermediate Period</a> of Egypt, group burials were favored, and this was a trend that was seen in C-group burials. Along with the previously beloved decorations relating to cattle are absent with nearly entirely Egyptian pottery and stone vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, many of their tombs lacked Egyptian funerary goods.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lack of funerary goods could suggest that the C-group's adaptation to Egyptian culture was forced or those buried at Fadrus were simply of "low socioeconomic status."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language">Language</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=C-Group_culture&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Peter Behrens (1981) and Marianne Bechaus-Gerst (2000), linguistic evidence indicates that the C-Group peoples spoke <a href="/wiki/Afro-Asiatic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Asiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic languages</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a> branch.<sup id="cite_ref-Bechaus-Gerst_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bechaus-Gerst-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lbant_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lbant-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This thesis rests on somewhat sketchy and numerically insufficient lexical evidence. Recent evidence suggests that the C-Group peoples spoke an Afro-Asiatic language of the <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a> branch (with peoples to the south in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Nubia" title="Upper Nubia">Upper Nubia</a> possibly speaking Nilo-Saharan languages),<sup id="cite_ref-Cooper_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooper-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that the closest relative of the C-Group language is the <a href="/wiki/Beja_language" title="Beja language">Beja language</a> spoken in the Red Sea coast. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pastoralism_and_Economic_Practices">Pastoralism and Economic Practices</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=C-Group_culture&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pastoralism and Economic Practices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The C-Group culture was primarily centered around cattle herding, which was crucial for their economy, diet, and social structure. <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">Cattle</a> provided important resources such as milk, blood, and hides, which were essential for food, clothing, and other daily necessities. Cattle imagery appears in C-Group art, including pottery and stelae, and was significant in funerary practices, emphasizing their economic and cultural importance.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The C-Group people led a <a href="/wiki/Semi-nomadic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-nomadic">semi-nomadic</a> lifestyle, settling in small, temporary dwellings such as huts or tents. Their mobility was influenced by environmental factors, particularly the availability of grazing land and water. This pastoral lifestyle is reflected in their material culture, which included portable items suitable for transient living, such as small jars designed for liquid storage, rather than larger grain storage vessels typically found in agricultural societies.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite periods of Egyptian domination, the C-Group maintained its pastoral lifestyle. They supplied Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Garrison" title="Garrison">garrisons</a> with livestock products like milk and meat while engaging in trade networks that brought Egyptian goods, such as pottery and amulets, into their society. These interactions demonstrate the C-Group's ability to navigate relationships with powerful neighboring states, preserving their cultural identity while participating in regional trade.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the C-Group occupied a key position in trade routes, often acting as intermediaries between Egypt and sub-Saharan Africa, which likely contributed to their prosperity during certain periods.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ceramics">Ceramics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=C-Group_culture&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ceramics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:C_group_pottery.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/C_group_pottery.jpg/220px-C_group_pottery.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/C_group_pottery.jpg/330px-C_group_pottery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/C_group_pottery.jpg/440px-C_group_pottery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1172" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The handmade spherical storage pot features smooth surfaces, with a blackened rim and interior, and is decorated with incised lines, opposing hatched triangles, and columns of lozenges and dots on its body.</figcaption></figure> <p>C-Group pottery is one of the most distinctive elements of their material culture. The pottery is characterized by intricate incised decorations, often depicting cattle and herding activities, underscoring the cultural and symbolic significance of livestock within their society. <sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>These designs reflect the C-Group's pastoral identity and highlight their connection between daily life, art, and spiritual practices. </p><p>The utilitarian aspects of C-Group ceramics are also important. Pottery such as small jars for liquid storage was well-suited to the needs of a semi-nomadic lifestyle, where portability and functionality were prioritized. Large containers for grain storage, common in agricultural societies, are notably absent, further emphasizing the C-Group's reliance on cattle-based subsistence.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In funerary contexts, pottery served both practical and ritual purposes. The practice of "killing" pottery, intentionally breaking or penetrating vessels, was a common funerary ritual and likely held symbolic significance. This practice represented offerings or marked transitions between the material and spiritual realms, reinforcing the spiritual importance of ceramics in C-Group burial customs.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The exchange between the C-Group and Egypt is reflected in Egyptian pottery in C-Group graves, huge jars used for transporting goods such as wine and oil. Conversely, C-Group pottery has been found in Egyptian archaeological sites, indicating a bidirectional cultural exchange. This interaction not only influenced C-Group ceramic traditions but also contributed to the preservation of distinctive C-Group artistic features, showing a balance between external influence and cultural continuity.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=C-Group_culture&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-OrientInst-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OrientInst_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oi.uchicago.edu/museum-exhibits/nubia/ancient-nubia-c-group%E2%80%93pan-grave%E2%80%93kerma-2400%E2%80%931550-bc">"Ancient Nubia: C-Group–Pan Grave–Kerma 2400–1550 BC"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ancient+Nubia%3A+C-Group%E2%80%93Pan+Grave%E2%80%93Kerma+2400%E2%80%931550+BC&rft.pub=The+Oriental+Institute&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foi.uchicago.edu%2Fmuseum-exhibits%2Fnubia%2Fancient-nubia-c-group%25E2%2580%2593pan-grave%25E2%2580%2593kerma-2400%25E2%2580%25931550-bc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AC-Group+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBianchi2004" class="citation book cs1">Bianchi, Robert Steven (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ui9Qwtp-LV4C&pg=PA33"><i>Daily Life of the Nubians</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313325014" title="Special:BookSources/9780313325014"><bdi>9780313325014</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+of+the+Nubians&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780313325014&rft.aulast=Bianchi&rft.aufirst=Robert+Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUi9Qwtp-LV4C%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AC-Group+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShinnie2013" class="citation book cs1">Shinnie (2013-10-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AUTYAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA54"><i>Ancient Nubia</i></a>. Routledge. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136164651" title="Special:BookSources/9781136164651"><bdi>9781136164651</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Nubia&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-10-28&rft.isbn=9781136164651&rft.au=Shinnie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAUTYAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AC-Group+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLobban2003" class="citation book cs1">Lobban, Richard A. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-11-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=isac.uchicago.edu&rft.atitle=C-Group+Culture+%7C+Institute+for+the+Study+of+Ancient+Cultures&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fisac.uchicago.edu%2Fmuseum-exhibits%2Fnubia%2Fc-group-culture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AC-Group+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHafsaas2021" class="citation cs2">Hafsaas, Henriette (2021-02-18), Emberling, Geoff; Williams, Bruce Beyer (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/35472/chapter-abstract/303800920?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false">"The C-Group People in Lower Nubia: Cattle Pastoralists on the Frontier between Egypt and Kush"</a>, <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Nubia</i>, Oxford University Press, p. 0, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-049627-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-049627-2"><bdi>978-0-19-049627-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-11-21</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Ancient+Nubia&rft.atitle=The+C-Group+People+in+Lower+Nubia%3A+Cattle+Pastoralists+on+the+Frontier+between+Egypt+and+Kush&rft.pages=0&rft.date=2021-02-18&rft.isbn=978-0-19-049627-2&rft.aulast=Hafsaas&rft.aufirst=Henriette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fedited-volume%2F35472%2Fchapter-abstract%2F303800920%3FredirectedFrom%3Dfulltext%26login%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AC-Group+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSteffensen2007" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Steffensen, Uffe (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/arnil_1161-0492_2007_num_17_1_937">"The Ritual Use of Mortuary Pottery in Ancient Nubia. Some interpretational thoughts on the rituals and symbolism behind the mortuary ceramics of the Ancient Nubian C-Group"</a>. <i>Archéo-Nil. Revue de la société pour l'étude des cultures prépharaoniques de la vallée du Nil</i> (in French). <b>17</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">133–</span>152. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Farnil.2007.937">10.3406/arnil.2007.937</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1161-0492">1161-0492</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arch%C3%A9o-Nil.+Revue+de+la+soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+pour+l%27%C3%A9tude+des+cultures+pr%C3%A9pharaoniques+de+la+vall%C3%A9e+du+Nil&rft.atitle=The+Ritual+Use+of+Mortuary+Pottery+in+Ancient+Nubia.+Some+interpretational+thoughts+on+the+rituals+and+symbolism+behind+the+mortuary+ceramics+of+the+Ancient+Nubian+C-Group&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E133-%3C%2Fspan%3E152&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Farnil.2007.937&rft.issn=1161-0492&rft.aulast=Steffensen&rft.aufirst=Uffe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Farnil_1161-0492_2007_num_17_1_937&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AC-Group+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=C-Group_culture&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBietak1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Manfred_Bietak" title="Manfred Bietak">Bietak, Manfred</a> (1968). <i>Studien zur Chronologie der nubischen C-Gruppe. Ein Beitrag zur Frühgeschichte Unternubiens zwischen 2200 und 1550 vor Chr</i>. Wien: Böhlau.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studien+zur+Chronologie+der+nubischen+C-Gruppe.+Ein+Beitrag+zur+Fr%C3%BChgeschichte+Unternubiens+zwischen+2200+und+1550+vor+Chr.&rft.place=Wien&rft.pub=B%C3%B6hlau&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Bietak&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AC-Group+culture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOliver,_Roland1978" class="citation book cs1">Oliver, Roland (1978). <i>The Cambridge history of Africa. Vol. 2, From c. 500 BC to AD 1050</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 858 Pages. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-21592-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-21592-7"><bdi>0-521-21592-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+history+of+Africa.+Vol.+2%2C+From+c.+500+BC+to+AD+1050&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=858+Pages&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-521-21592-7&rft.au=Oliver%2C+Roland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AC-Group+culture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRaue2019" class="citation book cs1">Raue, Dietrich (2019). <i>Elephantine und Nubien vom 4.-2. Jahrtausend v. Chr</i>. Berlin/Boston: Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110501056" title="Special:BookSources/9783110501056"><bdi>9783110501056</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elephantine+und+Nubien+vom+4.-2.+Jahrtausend+v.+Chr.&rft.place=Berlin%2FBoston&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9783110501056&rft.aulast=Raue&rft.aufirst=Dietrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AC-Group+culture" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox 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title="Kushite religion">Kushite religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kushite_religion#History" title="Kushite religion">Beliefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_afterlife_beliefs" title="Ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubia#Christian_Nubia" title="Nubia">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_creation_myths" title="Ancient Egyptian creation myths">Creation myths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_of_Ra" title="Eye of Ra">Eye of Ra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flooding_of_the_Nile" title="Flooding of the Nile">Flooding of the Nile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maat" title="Maat">Maat</a></li> <li><a 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navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medjay#Pan-graves" title="Medjay">Burials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Execration_texts" title="Execration texts">Execration texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_practices" title="Ancient Egyptian funerary practices">Funerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortuary_temple" title="Mortuary temple">Mortuary temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage" title="Pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_pyramids" title="Nubian pyramids">Pyramids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_architecture" title="Nubian architecture">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead" title="Veneration of the dead">Veneration of the dead</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">deities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Elephantine#Elephantine_triad" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anuket" title="Anuket">Anaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khnum" title="Khnum">Khenmu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satis_(goddess)" title="Satis (goddess)">Satis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Amesemi#The_Temples_of_Naqa" title="Amesemi">Naqa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Amun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amesemi" title="Amesemi">Amesemi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apedemak" title="Apedemak">Apedemak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>A</b></li> <li>Amanete</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anhur" title="Anhur">Anhur</a></li> <li>Aqedise</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arensnuphis" title="Arensnuphis">Arensnuphis</a></li> <li>Ariten</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hathor" title="Hathor">Atari</a></li> <li><b>B</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastet" title="Bastet">Bastet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bes" title="Bes">Bes</a></li> <li>Breith</li> <li><b>D</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dedun" title="Dedun">Dedun</a></li> <li><b>H</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heka_(god)" title="Heka (god)">Heka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemen" title="Hemen">Hemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horus" title="Horus">Horus</a></li> <li><b>M</b></li> <li>Makedeke</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandulis" title="Mandulis">Mandulis</a></li> <li>Mash</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehit" title="Mehit">Mehit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menhit" title="Menhit">Menhit</a></li> <li>Miket</li> <li><b>N</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nu_(mythology)" title="Nu (mythology)">Nu</a></li> <li><b>R</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra" title="Ra">Ra</a></li> <li><b>S</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebiumeker" title="Sebiumeker">Sebiumeker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobek" title="Sobek">Sobek</a></li> <li><b>T</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoth" title="Thoth">Thoth</a></li> <li><b>W</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Wusa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush#History" title="Kingdom of Kush">Cultures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A-Group_culture" title="A-Group culture">A-Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alodia" title="Alodia">Alodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-Group_culture#Existence_of_the_B-Group" title="A-Group culture">B-Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blemmyes" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">C-Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerma_culture" title="Kerma culture">Kerma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_al-Abwab" title="Kingdom of al-Abwab">Kingdom of al-Abwab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Makuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medjay" title="Medjay">Medja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobatia" title="Nobatia">Nobatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-Group_culture" title="X-Group culture">X-Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Locations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aniba_(Nubia)" title="Aniba (Nubia)">Aniba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballana" title="Ballana">Ballana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bigeh" title="Bigeh">Bigeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deir_el-Bahari" title="Deir el-Bahari">Deir el-Bahari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triakontaschoinos" title="Triakontaschoinos">Dodekaschoinos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dotawo" title="Dotawo">Dotawo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Barkal" title="Jebel Barkal">Jebel Barkal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawa,_Sudan" title="Kawa, Sudan">Kawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisht" title="Lisht">Lisht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musawwarat_es-Sufra" title="Musawwarat es-Sufra">Musawwarat es-Sufra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philae_temple_complex" title="Philae temple complex">Philae temple complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasr_Ibrim" title="Qasr Ibrim">Qasr Ibrim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qustul" title="Qustul">Qustul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semna_(Nubia)" title="Semna (Nubia)">Semna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Amun,_Jebel_Barkal" title="Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal">Temple of Amun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Dendur" title="Temple of Dendur">Temple of Dendur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Mut,_Jebel_Barkal" title="Temple of Mut, Jebel Barkal">Temple of Mut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Throne_Hall_of_Dongola" title="Throne Hall of Dongola">Throne Hall of Dongola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tombos_(Nubia)" title="Tombos (Nubia)">Tombos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">Sacred animals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abtu" title="Abtu">Abtu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_lion" title="Barbary lion">Barbary lion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cattle_in_religion_and_mythology#Nubia" title="Cattle in religion and mythology">Cattle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falcon" title="Falcon">Falcon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieracosphinx" title="Hieracosphinx">Hieracosphinx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medjed_(fish)" title="Medjed (fish)">Medjed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_crocodile" title="Nile crocodile">Nile crocodile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_elephant#History" title="North African elephant">North African elephant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_ibex" title="Nubian ibex">Ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpopard" title="Serpopard">Serpopard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphinx" title="Sphinx">Sphinx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taweret" title="Taweret">Taweret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uraeus" title="Uraeus">Uraeus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">Symbols <br />& objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ankh" title="Ankh">Ankh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atef" title="Atef">Atef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartouche_(hieroglyph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartouche (hieroglyph)">Cartouche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_cross" title="Christian cross">Christian cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crook_and_flail" title="Crook and flail">Crook and flail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_justification" title="Crown of justification">Crown of justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deshret" title="Deshret">Deshret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djed" title="Djed">Djed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_obelisk" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian obelisk">Egyptian obelisk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pool" title="Egyptian pool">Egyptian pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_of_Horus" title="Eye of Horus">Eye of Horus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_of_Ra" title="Eye of Ra">Eye of Ra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold#History" title="Gold">Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafir" title="Hafir">Hafir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedjet" title="Hedjet">Hedjet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemhem_crown" title="Hemhem crown">Hemhem crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hennu" title="Hennu">Hennu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horus_on_the_Crocodiles" title="Horus on the Crocodiles">Horus on the Crocodiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypocephalus" title="Hypocephalus">Hypocephalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imiut_fetish" title="Imiut fetish">Imiut fetish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khepresh" title="Khepresh">Khepresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kneph" title="Kneph">Kneph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menat" title="Menat">Menat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebu" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebu">Nebu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemes" title="Nemes">Nemes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pschent" title="Pschent">Pschent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scarab_(artifact)" title="Scarab (artifact)">Scarab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serekh" title="Serekh">Serekh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_ring" title="Shen ring">Shen ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_barque" title="Solar barque">Solar barque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyet" title="Tyet">Tyet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ushabti" title="Ushabti">Ushabti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulture_crown" title="Vulture crown">Vulture crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Was-sceptre" title="Was-sceptre">Was-sceptre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blemmyes#Language" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meroitic_language" title="Meroitic language">Meroitic language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Meroitic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Meroitic alphabet">Meroitic alphabet</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Nubian" title="Old Nubian"> Nubian language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#F0E4AE"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Category:Kingdom of Kush">Category</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://auth.wikimedia.org/loginwiki/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=C-Group_culture&oldid=1278791709">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=C-Group_culture&oldid=1278791709</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Neolithic_cultures_of_Africa" title="Category:Neolithic cultures of Africa">Neolithic cultures of Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:24th-century_BC_establishments" title="Category:24th-century BC establishments">24th-century BC establishments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:2nd-millennium_BC_disestablishments" title="Category:2nd-millennium BC disestablishments">2nd-millennium BC disestablishments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Kerma_culture" title="Category:Kerma culture">Kerma culture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Afroasiatic_peoples" title="Category:Afroasiatic peoples">Afroasiatic peoples</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeological_cultures_in_Egypt" title="Category:Archaeological cultures in Egypt">Archaeological cultures in Egypt</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeological_cultures_in_Sudan" title="Category:Archaeological cultures in Sudan">Archaeological cultures in Sudan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeology_of_North_Africa" title="Category:Archaeology of North Africa">Archaeology of North Africa</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeological_discoveries_with_year_of_discovery_missing" title="Category:Archaeological discoveries with year of discovery missing">Archaeological discoveries with year of discovery missing</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> 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