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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distinction_in_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinction_in_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Distinction in verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinction_in_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First-person_clusivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First-person_clusivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>First-person clusivity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-First-person_clusivity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle First-person clusivity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-First-person_clusivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Singular_inclusive_forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Singular_inclusive_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Singular inclusive forms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Singular_inclusive_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second-person_clusivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second-person_clusivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Second-person clusivity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second-person_clusivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution_of_the_clusivity_distinction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution_of_the_clusivity_distinction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Distribution of the clusivity distinction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distribution_of_the_clusivity_distinction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" 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Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">18 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klusibidad" title="Klusibidad – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Klusibidad" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni_endalc%27hus_hag_ezdalc%27hus" title="Ni endalc'hus hag ezdalc'hus – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Ni endalc'hus hag ezdalc'hus" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inklusives_und_exklusives_Wir" title="Inklusives und exklusives Wir – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Inklusives und exklusives Wir" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clusividad" title="Clusividad – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Clusividad" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nous_exclusif_et_inclusif" title="Nous exclusif et inclusif – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Nous exclusif et inclusif" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klusivitas" title="Klusivitas – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Klusivitas" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noi_inclusivo_ed_esclusivo" title="Noi inclusivo ed esclusivo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Noi inclusivo ed esclusivo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B2" title="Инклюзив – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Инклюзив" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/ma%27a_fa%27u_mi%27a" title="ma'a fa'u mi'a – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="ma'a fa'u mi'a" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="विशिष्टता – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="विशिष्टता" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%99%A4%E6%8B%AC%E6%80%A7" title="除括性 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="除括性" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%82_%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%87_%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82" title="ਅਸੀਂ ਅਤੇ ਆਪਾਂ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਸੀਂ ਅਤੇ ਆਪਾਂ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osoba_(j%C4%99zykoznawstwo)#Inkluzywność_i_ekskluzywność_1._osoby_l._mn." title="Osoba (językoznawstwo) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Osoba (językoznawstwo)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inclusividade" title="Inclusividade – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Inclusividade" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapsay%C4%B1c%C4%B1l%C4%B1k" title="Kapsayıcılık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kapsayıcılık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Клюзивність – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Клюзивність" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%85%E5%90%AB%E5%BC%8F" title="包含式 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="包含式" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%85%E5%90%AB%E5%BC%8F" title="包含式 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="包含式" data-language-autonym="中文" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:18em"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;font-size:110%"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_category" title="Grammatical category">Grammatical features</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related to nouns</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">Animacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">Case</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dative_construction" title="Dative construction">Dative construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dative_shift" title="Dative shift">Dative shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quirky_subject" title="Quirky subject">Quirky subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">Nominative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comitative_case" title="Comitative case">Comitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Instrumental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">Classifier</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Measure_word" title="Measure word">Measure word</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_state" title="Construct state">Construct state</a></li> <li>Countability <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Count_noun" title="Count noun">Count noun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_noun" title="Mass noun">Mass noun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_noun" title="Collective noun">Collective noun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">Definiteness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genitive_construction" title="Genitive construction">Genitive construction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Possession_(linguistics)" title="Possession (linguistics)">Possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffixaufnahme" title="Suffixaufnahme">Suffixaufnahme (case stacking)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noun_class" title="Noun class">Noun class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">Number</a> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Singular</li><li><a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">Dual</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">Plural</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singulative_number" title="Singulative number">Singulative-Collective-Plurative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specificity_(linguistics)" title="Specificity (linguistics)">Specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_grinder" title="Universal grinder">Universal grinder</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related to verbs</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Associated_motion" title="Associated motion">Associated motion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Clusivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">Conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">Evidentiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modality_(semantics)" title="Modality (semantics)">Modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telicity" title="Telicity">Telicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">Grammatical aspect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_aspect" title="Lexical aspect">Lexical aspect (Aktionsart)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">Mood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">Tense</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_(grammar)" title="Voice (grammar)">Voice</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General features</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(linguistics)" title="Affect (linguistics)">Affect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundedness_(linguistics)" title="Boundedness (linguistics)">Boundedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_(grammar)" title="Comparison (grammar)">Comparison (degree)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egophoricity" title="Egophoricity">Egophoricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluractionality" title="Pluractionality">Pluractionality</a> (verbal number)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honorifics_(linguistics)" title="Honorifics (linguistics)">Honorifics (politeness)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirmation_and_negation" title="Affirmation and negation">Polarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_construction" title="Reciprocal construction">Reciprocity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">Reflexive pronoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_verb" title="Reflexive verb">Reflexive verb</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Syntax relationships</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_(linguistics)" title="Argument (linguistics)">Argument</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transitivity_(grammar)" title="Transitivity (grammar)">Transitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valency_(linguistics)" title="Valency (linguistics)">Valency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branching_(linguistics)" title="Branching (linguistics)">Branching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_verb_construction" title="Serial verb construction">Serial verb construction</a></li> <li>Traditional grammar <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">Predicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adjunct_(grammar)" title="Adjunct (grammar)">Adjunct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predicative_expression" title="Predicative expression">Predicative</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Semantics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contrast_(linguistics)" title="Contrast (linguistics)">Contrast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thematic_relation" title="Thematic relation">Thematic relation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_(grammar)" title="Agent (grammar)">Agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_(grammar)" title="Patient (grammar)">Patient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topic_and_comment" title="Topic and comment">Topic and Comment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">Focus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volition_(linguistics)" title="Volition (linguistics)">Volition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veridicality" title="Veridicality">Veridicality</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Phenomena</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polypersonal_agreement" title="Polypersonal agreement">Polypersonal agreement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">Declension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empty_category" title="Empty category">Empty category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_(linguistics)" title="Incorporation (linguistics)">Incorporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">Inflection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markedness" title="Markedness">Markedness</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Grammatical_categories" title="Template:Grammatical categories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Grammatical_categories" title="Template talk:Grammatical categories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Grammatical_categories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Grammatical categories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <b>clusivity</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a grammatical distinction between <i>inclusive</i> and <i>exclusive</i> <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">first-person</a> <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbal</a> morphology, also called <i>inclusive "<a href="/wiki/We" title="We">we</a>"</i> and <i>exclusive "we"</i>. Inclusive "we" specifically includes the <a href="/wiki/Conversation" title="Conversation">addressee</a>, while exclusive "we" specifically excludes the addressee; in other words, two (or more) words that both translate to "we", one meaning "you and I, and possibly someone else", the other meaning "me and some other person or persons, but not you". While imagining that this sort of distinction could be made in other persons (particularly the second) is straightforward, in fact the existence of second-person clusivity (you vs. you and they) in natural languages is controversial and not well attested.<sup id="cite_ref-simon2005_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simon2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While clusivity is not a feature of standard English language, it is found in many languages around the world. </p><p>The first published description of the inclusive-exclusive distinction by a European linguist was in a description of <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Peru" title="Languages of Peru">languages of Peru</a> in 1560 by <a href="/wiki/Domingo_de_Santo_Tom%C3%A1s" title="Domingo de Santo Tomás">Domingo de Santo Tomás</a> in his <i>Grammatica o arte de la lengua general de los indios de los Reynos del Perú</i>, published in <a href="/wiki/Valladolid" title="Valladolid">Valladolid</a>, Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Schematic_paradigm">Schematic paradigm</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clusivity&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Schematic paradigm"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inclusive-exclusive.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Inclusive-exclusive.jpg/300px-Inclusive-exclusive.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Inclusive-exclusive.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="311" data-file-height="152" /></a><figcaption>Sets of reference: Inclusive form (left) and exclusive form (right)</figcaption></figure> <p>Clusivity paradigms may be summarized as a two-by-two grid: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2" scope="col">Includes the addressee? </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="col">Yes </th> <th scope="col">No </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" rowspan="2">Includes<br />the speaker? </th> <th scope="row">Yes </th> <td>Inclusive we:<br />I and you (and possibly they)</td> <td>Exclusive we:<br />I and they, but not you </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">No </th> <td>you / yous(e) / y'all</td> <td>they </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clusivity&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some languages, the three first-person pronouns appear to be unrelated roots. That is the case for <a href="/wiki/Chechen_language" title="Chechen language">Chechen</a>, which has singular <i><span title="Chechen-language text"><span lang="ce">со</span></span> (<span title="Chechen-language text"><i lang="ce">so</i></span>)</i>, exclusive <i><span title="Chechen-language text"><span lang="ce">тхо</span></span> (<span title="Chechen-language text"><i lang="ce">txo</i></span>)</i>, and inclusive <i><span title="Chechen-language text"><span lang="ce">вай</span></span> (<span title="Chechen-language text"><i lang="ce">vay</i></span>)</i>. In others, however, all three are transparently simple compounds, as in <a href="/wiki/Tok_Pisin" title="Tok Pisin">Tok Pisin</a>, an <a href="/wiki/English_creole" class="mw-redirect" title="English creole">English creole</a> spoken in <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>, which has singular <i>mi,</i> exclusive <i>mi-pela</i>, and inclusive <i>yu-mi</i> (a compound of <i>mi</i> with <i>yu</i> "you") or <i>yu-mi-pela</i>. However, when only one of the plural pronouns is related to the singular, that may be the case for either one. In some dialects of <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a>, for example, inclusive or exclusive <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">我們</span></span>／<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">我们</span></span> <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">wǒmen</i></span></i> is the plural form of singular <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">我</span></span> <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">wǒ</i></span></i> "I", and inclusive <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">咱們</span></span>／<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">咱们</span></span> <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">zánmen</i></span></i> is a separate root. However, in <a href="/wiki/Hadza_language" title="Hadza language">Hadza</a>, the inclusive, <i>’one-be’e</i>, is the plural of the singular <i>’ono</i> (<i>’one-</i>) "I", and the exclusive, <i>’oo-be’e</i>, is a separate <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title=""oo" and "one" both seem to be related to "ono" (May 2020)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Clusivity#Dubious" title="Talk:Clusivity">discuss</a></i>]</sup> root.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>It is not uncommon for two separate words for "I" to pluralize into derived words, which have a clusivity distinction. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>, the familiar word for "I" (<i><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ta</i></span></i>) pluralizes to inclusive we (<i><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chúng ta</i></span></i>), and the formal or cold word for "I" (<i><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">tôi</i></span></i>) pluralizes into exclusive we (<i><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chúng tôi</i></span></i>). In <a href="/wiki/Samoan_language" title="Samoan language">Samoan</a>, the singular form of the exclusive is the regular word for "I", and the singular form of the inclusive may also occur on its own and then also means "I" but with a connotation of appealing or asking for indulgence. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Kunama_language" title="Kunama language">Kunama language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, the first-person inclusive and exclusive distinction is marked on <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual</a> and plural forms of verbs, independent pronouns, and possessive pronouns.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distinction_in_verbs">Distinction in verbs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clusivity&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Distinction in verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Where verbs are inflected for <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a>, as in the native languages of Australia and in many Native American languages, the inclusive-exclusive distinction can be made there as well. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Malecite-Passamaquoddy_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Malecite-Passamaquoddy language">Passamaquoddy</a>, "I/we have it" is expressed </p> <dl><dd>Singular <i><b>n</b>-tíhin</i> (first person prefix <i>n-)</i></dd> <dd>Exclusive <i><b>n</b>-tíhin-<b>èn</b></i> (first person <i>n-</i> + plural suffix <i>-èn)</i></dd> <dd>Inclusive <i><b>k</b>-tíhin-<b>èn</b></i> (inclusive prefix <i>k-</i> + plural <i>-èn)</i></dd></dl> <p>In Tamil, on the other hand, the two different pronouns have the same agreement in the verb. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First-person_clusivity">First-person clusivity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clusivity&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: First-person clusivity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>First-person clusivity is a common feature among <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_Caucasian_languages" title="North Caucasian languages">Caucasian</a> languages,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Australian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> languages, and is also found in languages of <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">eastern, southern, and southwestern Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>, and in some <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole languages</a>. Some <a href="/wiki/African_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="African languages">African languages</a> also make the distinction, such as the <a href="/wiki/Fula_language" title="Fula language">Fula language</a>. No European language outside the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> makes this distinction grammatically, but some constructions<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AUDIENCE"><span title="An editor has requested that an example be provided. (November 2021)">example needed</span></a></i>]</sup> may be <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantically</a> inclusive or exclusive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Singular_inclusive_forms">Singular inclusive forms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clusivity&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Singular inclusive forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several <a href="/wiki/Polynesian_languages" title="Polynesian languages">Polynesian languages</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Samoan_language" title="Samoan language">Samoan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tongan_language" title="Tongan language">Tongan</a>, have clusivity with overt <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual</a> and plural suffixes in their pronouns. The lack of a suffix indicates the singular. The exclusive form is used in the singular as the normal word for "I", but the inclusive also occurs in the singular. The distinction is one of <a href="/wiki/Discourse_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Discourse (linguistics)">discourse</a>: the singular inclusive has been described as the "modesty I" in Tongan. It is often rendered in English as <i>one</i>, but in Samoan, its use has been described as indicating emotional involvement on the part of the speaker. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second-person_clusivity">Second-person clusivity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clusivity&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Second-person clusivity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In theory, clusivity of the second person should be a possible distinction, but its existence is controversial. Clusivity in the second person is conceptually simple but nonetheless if it exists is extremely rare, unlike clusivity in the first. Hypothetical second-person clusivity would be the distinction between "you and you (and you and you ... all present)" and "you (one or more addressees) and someone else whom I am not addressing currently." These are often referred to in the literature as "2+2" and "2+3", respectively (the numbers referring to second and third person as appropriate). </p><p>Some notable linguists, such as <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Comrie" title="Bernard Comrie">Bernard Comrie</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have attested that the distinction is extant in spoken natural languages, while others, such as John Henderson,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> maintain that a clusivity distinction in the second person is too complex to process. Many other linguists take the more neutral position that it could exist but is nonetheless not currently attested.<sup id="cite_ref-simon2005_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simon2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Horst J. Simon provides a deep analysis of second-person clusivity in his 2005 article.<sup id="cite_ref-simon2005_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simon2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He concludes that oft-repeated rumors regarding the existence of second-person clusivity—or indeed, any [+3] pronoun feature beyond simple exclusive we<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – are ill-founded, and based on erroneous analysis of the data. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution_of_the_clusivity_distinction">Distribution of the clusivity distinction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clusivity&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Distribution of the clusivity distinction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/we#Translations" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:we">we</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <p>The inclusive–exclusive distinction occurs nearly universally among the <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian languages</a> and the languages of northern <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Australia</a>, but rarely in the nearby <a href="/wiki/Papuan_languages" title="Papuan languages">Papuan languages</a>. (<a href="/wiki/Tok_Pisin" title="Tok Pisin">Tok Pisin</a>, an English-Melanesian <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole</a>, generally has the inclusive–exclusive distinction, but this varies with the speaker's language background.) It is widespread in India, featuring in the <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Munda_languages" title="Munda languages">Munda languages</a>, as well as in several <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a> of India such as <a href="/wiki/Oriya_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriya language">Oriya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rajasthani_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajasthani language">Rajasthani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deccani_language" title="Deccani language">Dakhini</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a> (which either borrowed it from Dravidian or retained it as a substratum while Dravidian was displaced). It can also be found in the languages of eastern <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a>, as well as northern <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">indigenous languages of the Americas</a>, it is found in about half the languages, with no clear geographic or genealogical pattern. It is also found in a few <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Caucasus" title="Languages of the Caucasus">languages of the Caucasus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Fula_language" title="Fula language">Fulani</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Khoekhoe_language" title="Khoekhoe language">Khoekhoe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is, of course, possible in any language to express the idea of clusivity semantically, and many languages provide common forms that clarify the ambiguity of their first person pronoun (English "the rest of us", Italian <i>noialtri</i>). A language with a true clusivity distinction, however, does not provide a first-person plural with <i>indefinite</i> clusivity in which the clusivity of the pronoun is ambiguous; rather, speakers are forced to specify by the choice of pronoun or inflection, whether they are including the addressee or not. That rules out most European languages, for example. Clusivity is nonetheless a very common language feature overall. Some languages with more than one plural number make the clusivity distinction only in, for example, the dual but not in the greater plural, but other languages make it in all numbers. In the table below, the plural forms are the ones preferentially listed. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable collapsible"> <caption>Examples of the clusivity distinction in specific languages </caption> <tbody><tr> <th width="100pt">Language </th> <th width="150pt">Inclusive form </th> <th width="150pt">Exclusive form </th> <th width="100pt">Singular related to </th> <th>Notes </th> <th width="100pt">Language family </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ainu_language" title="Ainu language">Ainu</a> </td> <td>a-/an- </td> <td>ci- </td> <td>?? </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ainu_languages" title="Ainu languages">Ainu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language</a> (ASL) </td> <td>"<b>K</b>" tips up palm in (dual)<br /> <p>"<b>1</b>" tap chest + twist (pl) </p> </td> <td>"<b>K</b>" tips up palm side (dual)<br /> <p>"<b>1</b>" tap each side of chest (pl) </p> </td> <td>Exclusive plural </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/French_Sign_Language_family" title="French Sign Language family">French Sign Language</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Anishinaabemowin</a> </td> <td>giinwi </td> <td>niinwi </td> <td>Both </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The inclusive form is derived from the second-person singular, and the exclusive form is derived from first-person singular. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Apma_language" title="Apma language">Apma</a> </td> <td>kidi </td> <td>gema </td> <td>Neither </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">Subject prefixes are <i>ta-</i> (inclusive) and <i>kaa(ma)-</i> (exclusive). There are also dual forms, which are derived from the plurals. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Aymara_language" title="Aymara language">Aymara</a> </td> <td>jiwasa </td> <td>naya </td> <td>Exclusive </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The derived form <i>jiwasanaka</i> of the inclusive refers to at least three people. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aymaran" class="mw-redirect" title="Aymaran">Aymaran</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Central_Bikol_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Bikol language">Bikol</a> </td> <td>kita </td> <td>kami </td> <td>Neither </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bislama" title="Bislama">Bislama</a> </td> <td>yumi </td> <td>mifala </td> <td>Both </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The inclusive form is derived from the second-person pronoun and the first-person pronoun. There are also dual and trial forms. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/English_creole" class="mw-redirect" title="English creole">English creole</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cebuano_language" title="Cebuano language">Cebuano</a> </td> <td>kita </td> <td>kami </td> <td>Neither </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">Short forms are <i>ta</i> (incl.) and <i>mi</i> (excl.) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chechen_language" title="Chechen language">Chechen</a> </td> <td>vai </td> <td>txo </td> <td>Neither </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasian language">Caucasian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee</a> </td> <td>ᎢᏂ (ini- (dual)), ᎢᏗ (idi- (plural)) </td> <td>ᎣᏍᏗ (osdi- (dual)), ᎣᏥ (oji- (plural)) </td> <td>Neither </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The forms given here are the active verb agreement prefixes. Free pronouns do not distinguish clusivity. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Iroquoian" class="mw-redirect" title="Iroquoian">Iroquoian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Plains_Cree_language" title="Plains Cree language">Cree, Plains</a> </td> <td>ᑭᔮᓇᐤ<br />(kiyānaw) </td> <td>ᓂᔭᓈᐣ<br />(niyanān) </td> <td>Both </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The inclusive form is derived from the second-person singular pronoun, and the exclusive form is derived from the first-person singular. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Moose_Cree_language" title="Moose Cree language">Cree, Moose</a> </td> <td>ᑮᓛᓈᐤ<br />(kîlânâw) </td> <td>ᓃᓛᐣ<br />(nîlân) </td> <td>Both </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The inclusive form is derived from the second-person singular pronoun, and the exclusive form is derived from the first-person singular. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Swampy_Cree_language" title="Swampy Cree language">Cree, Swampy</a> </td> <td>ᑮᓈᓇᐤ<br />(kīnānaw) </td> <td>ᓃᓇᓈᐣ<br />(nīnanān) </td> <td>Both </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The inclusive form is derived from the second-person singular, whereas the exclusive form is derived from the first-person singular. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Woods_Cree_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Woods Cree language">Cree, Woods</a> </td> <td>ᑮᖭᓇᐤ<br />(kīthānaw) </td> <td>ᓂᖬᓈᐣ<br />(nīthanān) </td> <td>Both </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The inclusive form is derived from the second-person singular, and the exclusive form is derived from the first-person singular. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Deccani_language" title="Deccani language">Dakhini</a> </td> <td>apan اپن </td> <td>ham ہم </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Daur_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Daur language">Daur</a> </td> <td>baa </td> <td>biede </td> <td>?? </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Evenki_language" title="Evenki language">Evenki</a> </td> <td>mit </td> <td>bū </td> <td>?? </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fijian_language" title="Fijian language">Fijian</a> </td> <td>kedatou† </td> <td>keitou ("we" but excludes the person spoken to) </td> <td> </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">"kedaru" also means "we" but is limited to the speaker and the person spoken to and can be translated as "you and me".<br />† ("we" but includes both the person spoken to and the speaker as part of a finite group. To refer to a much larger group, like humanity or a race of people, "keda" is used instead. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fula_language" title="Fula language">Fula</a> </td> <td>𞤫𞤲 (en), 𞤫𞤯𞤫𞤲 (eɗen) </td> <td>𞤥𞤭𞤲 (min), 𞤥𞤭𞤯𞤫𞤲 (miɗen) </td> <td>Exclusive (?) </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">Examples show short- and long-form <a href="/wiki/Subject_pronoun" title="Subject pronoun">subject pronouns</a>. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Niger-Congo_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Niger-Congo language">Niger-Congo</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Guarani_language" title="Guarani language">Guarani</a> </td> <td>ñande </td> <td>ore </td> <td>Neither </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tupi-Guarani_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tupi-Guarani language">Tupi-Guarani</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a> </td> <td>આપણે <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aˑpəɳ(eˑ)/</span> </td> <td>અમે <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/əmeˑ/</span> </td> <td>Exclusive </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hadza_language" title="Hadza language">Hadza</a> </td> <td>onebee </td> <td>ôbee </td> <td>Inclusive </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hadza_language" title="Hadza language">Hadza</a> (isolate) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_language" title="Hawaiian language">Hawaiian</a> </td> <td>kāua (dual); kākou (plural) </td> <td>māua (dual); mākou (plural) </td> <td>Neither </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ilocano_language" title="Ilocano language">Ilocano</a> </td> <td>datayó, sitayó </td> <td>dakamí, sikamí </td> <td>Neither </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The dual inclusives <i>datá</i> and <i>sitá</i> are widely used. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ju%C7%80%CA%BChoan_language" title="Juǀʼhoan language">Juǀʼhoan</a> </td> <td>mtsá (dual); m, mǃá (plural) </td> <td>ètsá (dual); è, èǃá (plural) </td> <td>Neither </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The plural pronouns <i>è</i> and <i>m</i> are short forms. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kx%CA%BCa_languages" title="Kxʼa languages">Kxʼa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kapampangan_language" title="Kapampangan language">Kapampangan</a> </td> <td>ikatamu </td> <td>ikami </td> <td>Neither </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The dual inclusive <i>ikata</i> is widely used. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Australian_Kriol_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Kriol language">Australian Kriol</a> </td> <td>yunmi </td> <td>melabat </td> <td>Exclusive </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The inclusive form is derived from the second-person pronoun and the first-person pronoun. The exclusive form is derived from the first-person singular and the third-person plural. There are significant dialectal and diachronic variations in the exclusive form. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/English_creole" class="mw-redirect" title="English creole">English creole</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lakota_language" title="Lakota language">Lakota</a> </td> <td>uŋ(k)- </td> <td>uŋ(k)- ... -pi </td> <td>Neither </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The inclusive form has a dual number. By adding the suffix <i>-pi,</i> it takes the plural number. In the plural form, no clusivity distinction is made. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Siouan" class="mw-redirect" title="Siouan">Siouan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lojban" title="Lojban">Lojban</a> </td> <td>mi'o </td> <td>mi'a/mi </td> <td>Both </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">There is also the form <i>ma'a</i>, which means the speaker, the listener, and others unspecified. However, the first-person pronoun <i>mi</i> take no number and can refer to any number of individuals in the same group; <i>mi'a</i> and <i>mi'o</i> are usually preferred. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">Constructed language</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Maguindanao_language" title="Maguindanao language">Maguindanaon</a> </td> <td>sekitanu </td> <td>sekami </td> <td>Neither </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_language" title="Malagasy language">Malagasy</a> </td> <td>Isika </td> <td>Izahay </td> <td>– </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a> </td> <td>muse </td> <td>be </td> <td>Exclusive </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> </td> <td>kita </td> <td>kami </td> <td>Neither </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The exclusive form is hardly used in informal Indonesian in the Jakarta area. Instead, <i>kita</i> is almost always used colloquially to indicate both inclusive and exclusive "we". However, in more formal circumstances (both written and spoken), the distinction is clear and well-practiced. Therefore, <i>kami</i> is absolutely exclusive, but <i>kita</i> may generally mean both inclusive and exclusive "we" depending on the circumstances. That phenomenon is less frequently encountered in Malaysian. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam">Malayalam</a> </td> <td>നമ്മൾ (nammaḷ) </td> <td>ഞങ്ങൾ (ñaṅṅaḷ) </td> <td>Exclusive </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Mandarin</a> </td> <td>咱們 / 咱们 (zánmen) </td> <td>我們 / 我们 (wǒmen) </td> <td>Exclusive </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">我们 is used both inclusively and exclusively by most speakers, especially in formal situations. Use of 咱们 is common only in northern dialects, notably that of Beijing, and may be from <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a> influence.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_language" title="Māori language">Māori</a> </td> <td>tāua (dual); tātou (plural) </td> <td>māua (dual); mātou (plural) </td> <td>Neither </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a> </td> <td>आपण <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aˑpəɳ/</span> </td> <td>आम्ही <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aˑmʱiˑ/</span> </td> <td>Exclusive </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Marwari_language" title="Marwari language">Marwari</a> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aˑpãˑ/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mɦẽˑ/</span> </td> <td>Exclusive </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a> </td> <td>咱 (lán) </td> <td>阮 (goán/gún) </td> <td>Exclusive </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Newar_language" title="Newar language">Newar language</a> </td> <td>Jhi: sa:n (झि:सं:) </td> <td>Jim sa:n (जिम् सं:) </td> <td> </td> <td>Both are used as possessive pronouns. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pohnpeian_language" title="Pohnpeian language">Pohnpeian</a> </td> <td>kitail (plural), kita (dual) </td> <td>kiht (independent), se (subject) </td> <td> </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">There is an independent (non-verbal) and subject (verbal) pronoun distinction. The exclusive includes both dual and plural, and the independent has a dual-plural distinction. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a> </td> <td>ginan, g- -men (short), gde- -men (long) </td> <td>ninan, n- -men(short), nde- -men (long) </td> <td>?? </td> <td>Potawatomi has two verb conjugation types, "short" and "long." Both are listed here, and labeled as such. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Central_Algonquian_languages" title="Central Algonquian languages">Central Algonquian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a> </td> <td>ਆਪਾਂ (apan) </td> <td>ਅਸੀਂ (asin) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechuan languages</a> </td> <td>ñuqanchik </td> <td>ñuqayku </td> <td>Both </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechuan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shawnee_language" title="Shawnee language">Shawnee</a> </td> <td>kiilawe </td> <td>niilawe </td> <td>Exclusive </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The inclusive form is morphologically derived from the second-person pronoun <i>kiila</i>. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algic" class="mw-redirect" title="Algic">Algic</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a> </td> <td>táyo </td> <td>kamí </td> <td>Neither </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tausug_language" title="Tausug language">Tausug</a> </td> <td>kitaniyu </td> <td>kami </td> <td>?? </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The dual inclusive is <i>kita</i>. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> </td> <td>நாம் (nām) </td> <td>நாங்கள் (nāṅkaḷ) </td> <td>Exclusive </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a> </td> <td>మనము (manamu) </td> <td>మేము (memu) </td> <td>Exclusive </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tetum_language" title="Tetum language">Tetum</a> </td> <td>ita </td> <td>ami </td> <td>Neither </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tok_Pisin" title="Tok Pisin">Tok Pisin</a> </td> <td>yumipela </td> <td>mipela </td> <td>Exclusive </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The inclusive form is derived from the second-person pronoun and the first-person pronoun. There are also dual and trial forms. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/English_creole" class="mw-redirect" title="English creole">English creole</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tupi_language" title="Tupi language">Tupi</a> </td> <td>îandé </td> <td>oré </td> <td>Inclusive </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tupi-Guarani_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tupi-Guarani language">Tupi-Guarani</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tulu_language" title="Tulu language">Tulu</a> </td> <td>nama </td> <td>yenkul </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_language" title="Udmurt language">Udmurt</a><sup id="cite_ref-asm_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-asm-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>as'meos (асьмеос);<sup id="cite_ref-asm_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-asm-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ваньмы ("we all together")<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>mi (ми) </td> <td>exclusive </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The form as'meos seem to become obsolete and 'mi' is always used instead by younger generations, probably under the influence of Russian 'my' (мы) for 'we'.<sup id="cite_ref-asm_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-asm-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Permic_languages" title="Permic languages">Permic</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> </td> <td>chúng ta </td> <td>chúng tôi </td> <td>Exclusive </td> <td style="font-size: smaller;">The exclusive form is derived from the formal form of I, <i>tôi</i> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Austroasiatic">Austroasiatic</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clusivity&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFilimonova2005" class="citation book cs1">Filimonova, Elena (30 November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kbg5AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA77"><i>Clusivity: Typology and case studies of the inclusive-exclusive distinction</i></a>. John Benjamins Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789027293886" title="Special:BookSources/9789027293886"><bdi>9789027293886</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clusivity%3A+Typology+and+case+studies+of+the+inclusive-exclusive+distinction&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing&rft.date=2005-11-30&rft.isbn=9789027293886&rft.aulast=Filimonova&rft.aufirst=Elena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dkbg5AAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClusivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-simon2005-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-simon2005_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-simon2005_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-simon2005_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon2005" class="citation book cs1">Simon, Horst J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110609180626/http://www.kcl.ac.uk/content/1/c6/02/55/59/Simon-2005-Only-You-Clusivity.pdf">"Only you? Philological investigations into the alleged inclusive-exclusive distinction in the second person plural"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Filimonova, Elena (ed.). <i>Clusivity: Typology and case studies of the inclusive-exclusive distinction</i>. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: King's College London. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kcl.ac.uk/content/1/c6/02/55/59/Simon-2005-Only-You-Clusivity.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2011-06-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Only+you%3F+Philological+investigations+into+the+alleged+inclusive-exclusive+distinction+in+the+second+person+plural&rft.btitle=Clusivity%3A+Typology+and+case+studies+of+the+inclusive-exclusive+distinction.&rft.place=Amsterdam%2FPhiladelphia&rft.pub=King%27s+College+London&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=Horst+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kcl.ac.uk%2Fcontent%2F1%2Fc6%2F02%2F55%2F59%2FSimon-2005-Only-You-Clusivity.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClusivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Haas" title="Mary Haas">Mary Haas</a>. 1969. "Exclusive" and "inclusive": A look at early usage. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i> 35:1-6. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1263878">1263878</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson, E. D. 1983. "Kunama: phonology and noun phrase" in <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Bender_(linguist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lionel Bender (linguist)">M. Lionel Bender</a> (ed.): <i>Nilo-Saharan Language Studies</i>, pp. 280–322. East Lansing: African Studies Center, Michigan State University.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAwdeGalaev2014" class="citation book cs1">Awde, Nicholas; Galaev, Muhammad (22 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RtyhAwAAQBAJ&q=chechen+noun+classes&pg=PA8"><i>Chechen-English English-Chechen Dictionary and Phrasebook</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136802331" title="Special:BookSources/9781136802331"><bdi>9781136802331</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chechen-English+English-Chechen+Dictionary+and+Phrasebook&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-05-22&rft.isbn=9781136802331&rft.aulast=Awde&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft.au=Galaev%2C+Muhammad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRtyhAwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dchechen%2Bnoun%2Bclasses%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClusivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Comrie, Bernard. 1980. "Review of Greenberg, Joseph H. (ed.), <i>Universals of human language, Volume 3: Word Structure (1978)</i>". <i>Language</i> 56: p837, as quoted in Simon 2005. Quote: <i>One pair of combinations not discussed is the opposition between 2nd person non-singular inclusive (i.e. including some third person) and exclusive, which is attested in Southeast Ambrym.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henderson, T.S.T. 1985. "Who are <i>we</i>, anyway? A study of personal pronoun systems". <i>Linguistische Berichte</i> 98: p308, as quoted in Simon 2005. Quote: <i>My contention is that any language which provided more than one 2nd person plural pronoun, and required the speaker to make substantial enquiries about the whereabouts and number of those referred to in addition to the one person he was actually addressing, would be quite literally unspeakable.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">One treated example is the Ghomala' language of Western Cameroon, which has been said to have a [1+2+3] first-person plural pronoun, but a more recent analysis by Wiesemann (2003) indicates that such pronouns may be limited to ceremonial use.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://wals.info/chapter/39">http://wals.info/chapter/39</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Atlas_of_Language_Structures" title="World Atlas of Language Structures">World Atlas of Language Structures</a> 39: Inclusive/Exclusive Distinction in Independent Pronouns</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://wals.info/chapter/40">http://wals.info/chapter/40</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Atlas_of_Language_Structures" title="World Atlas of Language Structures">World Atlas of Language Structures</a> 40: Inclusive/Exclusive Distinction in Verbal Inflection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matthews, 2010. "Language Contact and Chinese". In Hickey, ed., <i>The Handbook of Language Contact</i>, p 760.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-asm-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-asm_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-asm_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-asm_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://udman.ru/ru/press-center/nauka-lyudyam/k-probleme-kategorii-inklyuzivnosti-mestoimeniy-v-udmurtskom-yazyke/">К проблеме категории инклюзивности местоимений в удмуртском языке</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://vorshud.unatlib.ru/index.php/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0#.D0.9C.D0.B5.D1.81.D1.82.D0.BE.D0.B8.D0.BC.D0.B5.D0.BD.D0.B8.D0.B5">[1]</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clusivity&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Jim Chen, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=916018">First Person Plural</a> (analyzing the significance of inclusive and exclusive we in <a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">constitutional interpretation</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayne1997" class="citation cs2">Payne, Thomas E. (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LC3DfjWfCiwC"><i>Describing morphosyntax: A guide for field linguists</i></a>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-58224-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-58224-5"><bdi>0-521-58224-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Describing+morphosyntax%3A+A+guide+for+field+linguists&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-521-58224-5&rft.aulast=Payne&rft.aufirst=Thomas+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLC3DfjWfCiwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClusivity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Filimonova, Elena (eds). (2005). <i>Clusivity: Typological and case studies of the inclusive-exclusive distinction.</i> Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-2974-0" title="Special:BookSources/90-272-2974-0">90-272-2974-0</a>.</li> <li>Kibort, Anna. "Person." Grammatical Features. 7 January 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.grammaticalfeatures.net/features/person.html">[2]</a> Retrieved on 16 March 2020.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template:Lexical_categories" title="Template:Lexical categories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lexical_categories" title="Template talk:Lexical categories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lexical_categories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lexical categories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lexical_categories_and_their_features" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">Lexical categories</a> and their features</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">Noun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract / Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adjectival_noun_(Japanese)" title="Adjectival noun (Japanese)">Adjectival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent_noun" title="Agent noun">Agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">Animacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bare_nouns" title="Bare nouns">Bare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_noun" title="Collective noun">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Count_noun" title="Count noun">Countable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initial-stress-derived_noun" title="Initial-stress-derived noun">Initial-stress-derived</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_noun" title="Mass noun">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noun_adjunct" title="Noun adjunct">Noun adjunct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_and_common_nouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Proper and common nouns">Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_noun" title="Relational noun">Relational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_noun" title="Strong noun">Strong</a> / <a href="/wiki/Weak_noun" title="Weak noun">Weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">Verb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attributive_verb" title="Attributive verb">Attributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Converb" title="Converb">Converb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">Finite</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nonfinite_verb" title="Nonfinite verb">Nonfinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerund" title="Gerund">Gerund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerundive" title="Gerundive">Gerundive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">Infinitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">Participle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supine" title="Supine">Supine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgressive_(linguistics)" title="Transgressive (linguistics)">Transgressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal noun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambitransitive_verb" title="Ambitransitive verb">Ambitransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andative_and_venitive" title="Andative and venitive">Andative / Venitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticausative_verb" title="Anticausative verb">Anticausative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocausative_verb" title="Autocausative verb">Autocausative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">Auxiliary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captative_verb" title="Captative verb">Captative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catenative_verb" title="Catenative verb">Catenative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compound_verb" title="Compound verb">Compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">Copular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defective_verb" title="Defective verb">Defective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denominal_verb" title="Denominal verb">Denominal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deponent_verb" title="Deponent verb">Deponent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditransitive_verb" title="Ditransitive verb">Ditransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_verb" title="Dynamic verb">Dynamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exceptional_case-marking" title="Exceptional case-marking">Exceptional case-marking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequentative" title="Frequentative">Frequentative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impersonal_verb" title="Impersonal verb">Impersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inchoative_verb" title="Inchoative verb">Inchoative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">Intransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labile_verb" title="Labile verb">Labile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_verb" title="Lexical verb">Lexical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_verb" title="Light verb">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_verb" title="Negative verb">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performative_verb" title="Performative verb">Performative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrasal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrasal verb">Phrasal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predicative_verb" title="Predicative verb">Predicative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_verbs" title="Pure verbs">Pure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_verb" title="Reflexive verb">Reflexive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_and_irregular_verbs" title="Regular and irregular verbs">Regular / Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separable_verb" title="Separable verb">Separable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stative_verb" title="Stative verb">Stative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stretched_verb" title="Stretched verb">Stretched</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">Transitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unaccusative_verb" title="Unaccusative verb">Unaccusative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unergative_verb" title="Unergative verb">Unergative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">Adjective</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Anti-intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_adjective" title="Collateral adjective">Collateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_adjective" title="Proper adjective">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalized_adjective" title="Nominalized adjective">Nominalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Non-intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositive_adjective" title="Postpositive adjective">Postpositive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_adjective" title="Proper adjective">Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Pure intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Relative subsective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Subsective</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">Adverb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conjunctive_adverb" title="Conjunctive adverb">Conjunctive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_adverb" title="Flat adverb">Flat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adverbial_genitive" title="Adverbial genitive">Genitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locative_adverb" title="Locative adverb">Locative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepositional_adverb" title="Prepositional adverb">Prepositional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronominal_adverb" title="Pronominal adverb">Pronominal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">Relative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">Pronoun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bound_variable_pronoun" title="Bound variable pronoun">Bound variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disjunctive_pronoun" title="Disjunctive pronoun">Disjunctive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributive_pronoun" title="Distributive pronoun">Distributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donkey_sentence" title="Donkey sentence">Donkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummy_pronoun" title="Dummy pronoun">Dummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%E2%80%93V_distinction" title="T–V distinction">Formal / Informal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality_in_languages_with_gendered_third-person_pronouns" title="Gender neutrality in languages with gendered third-person pronouns">Gender-neutral</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gender-specific_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender-specific pronoun">Gender-specific</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Inclusive / Exclusive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">Indefinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_pronoun" title="Intensive pronoun">Intensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_pronoun" title="Reciprocal pronoun">Reciprocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">Reflexive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_pronoun" title="Relative pronoun">Relative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resumptive_pronoun" title="Resumptive pronoun">Resumptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weak_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak pronoun">Strong / Weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_pronoun" title="Subject pronoun">Subject</a> / <a href="/wiki/Object_pronoun" title="Object pronoun">Object</a> / <a href="/wiki/Prepositional_pronoun" title="Prepositional pronoun">Prepositional</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preposition_and_postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition and postposition">Adposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casally_modulated_preposition" title="Casally modulated preposition">Casally modulated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflected_preposition" title="Inflected preposition">Inflected</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preposition_stranding" title="Preposition stranding">Stranded</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Determiner" title="Determiner">Determiner</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">Article</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_quantifier" title="Generalized quantifier">Quantifier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">Particle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_marker" title="Discourse marker">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_particle" title="Modal particle">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noun_particle" title="Noun particle">Noun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">Classifier</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Measure_word" title="Measure word">Measure word</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementizer" title="Complementizer">Complementizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">Conjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">Copula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coverb" title="Coverb">Coverb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interjection" title="Interjection">Interjection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideophone" title="Ideophone">Ideophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onomatopoeia" title="Onomatopoeia">Onomatopoeia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preverb" title="Preverb">Preverb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedure_word" title="Procedure word">Procedure word</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-form" title="Pro-form">Pro-form</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pro-verb" title="Pro-verb">Pro-verb</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pro-sentence" title="Pro-sentence">Pro-sentence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prop-word" class="mw-redirect" title="Prop-word">Prop-word</a></li> <li><a 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