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class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Atlanta University </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Atlanta_University-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Atlanta University subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Atlanta_University-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_Pan-African_Conference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Pan-African_Conference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 First Pan-African Conference </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Pan-African_Conference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1900_Paris_Exposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1900_Paris_Exposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 1900 Paris Exposition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1900_Paris_Exposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Booker_T._Washington_and_the_Atlanta_Compromise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Booker_T._Washington_and_the_Atlanta_Compromise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Booker T. Washington and the Atlanta Compromise </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Booker_T._Washington_and_the_Atlanta_Compromise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Niagara_Movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Niagara_Movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Niagara Movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Niagara_Movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Souls_of_Black_Folk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Souls_of_Black_Folk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 The Souls of Black Folk </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Souls_of_Black_Folk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Racial_violence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racial_violence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Racial violence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racial_violence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Academic work </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-NAACP_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#NAACP_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 NAACP era </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-NAACP_era-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle NAACP era subsection </button> <ul id="toc-NAACP_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 The Crisis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historian_and_author" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historian_and_author"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Historian and author </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historian_and_author-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Combating_racism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Combating_racism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Combating racism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Combating_racism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 World War I </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_the_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 After the war </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pan-Africanism_and_Marcus_Garvey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pan-Africanism_and_Marcus_Garvey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Pan-Africanism and Marcus Garvey </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pan-Africanism_and_Marcus_Garvey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Harlem_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Harlem_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Harlem Renaissance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Harlem_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debate_with_Lothrop_Stoddard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debate_with_Lothrop_Stoddard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Debate with Lothrop Stoddard </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debate_with_Lothrop_Stoddard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Socialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Socialism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Return_to_Atlanta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Return_to_Atlanta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Return to Atlanta </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Return_to_Atlanta-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Return to Atlanta subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Return_to_Atlanta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Black_Reconstruction_in_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_Reconstruction_in_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Black Reconstruction in America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_Reconstruction_in_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Projected_encyclopedia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Projected_encyclopedia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Projected encyclopedia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Projected_encyclopedia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trip_around_the_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trip_around_the_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Trip around the world </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trip_around_the_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 World War II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Later life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Later_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Later life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Later_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_Nations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Nations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 United Nations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Nations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cold_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Cold War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peace_activism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peace_activism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Peace activism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peace_activism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_FBI,_McCarthyism,_and_trial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_FBI,_McCarthyism,_and_trial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 The FBI, McCarthyism, and trial </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_FBI,_McCarthyism,_and_trial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Communism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_in_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_in_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Death in Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_in_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Personal life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Personal life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Voting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honors_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honors_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Honors and legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honors_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Selected works </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Selected_works-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Selected works subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Selected_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Non-fiction_books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-fiction_books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Non-fiction books </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-fiction_books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Articles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autobiographies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autobiographies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Autobiographies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autobiographies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Novels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Novels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Novels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Novels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archives_of_The_Crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archives_of_The_Crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Archives of The Crisis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archives_of_The_Crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recordings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recordings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Recordings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recordings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dissertations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dissertations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.7 Dissertations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dissertations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Speeches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Speeches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.8 Speeches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Speeches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archival_material" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archival_material"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Archival material </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archival_material-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Footnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Documentaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Documentaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Documentaries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Documentaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Online_editions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Online_editions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.1 Online editions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Online_editions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">W. E. B. Du Bois</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" > 56 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B2" title="دو بويز – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دو بويز" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="W. E. B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%A2" title="ویلیام دوبوآ – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ویلیام دوبوآ" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89._%E0%A6%87._%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF._%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%B8" title="ডব্লিউ. ই. বি. ডিউ বয়স – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ডব্লিউ. ই. বি. ডিউ বয়স" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="W. E. B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Edward_Burghardt_Du_Bois" title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Edward_Burghardt_Du_Bois" title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Edward_Burghardt_Du_Bois" title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="W. E. B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._DuBois" title="W. E. B. DuBois – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="W. E. B. DuBois" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="W. E. B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._DuBois" title="W. E. B. DuBois – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="W. E. B. DuBois" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Edward_Burghardt_Du_Bois" title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%88._%D8%A6%DB%8C._%D8%A8%DB%8C._%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88_%D8%A8%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B3" title="دابلیو. ئی. بی. دیو بویس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دابلیو. ئی. بی. دیو بویس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="W. E. B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="W. E. B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="W. E. B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._%EB%93%80%EB%B3%B4%EC%9D%B4%EC%8A%A4" title="W. E. B. 듀보이스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="W. E. B. 듀보이스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D6%82%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B4_%D4%B7%D5%A4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4_%D4%B2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%B0%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A9_%D4%B4%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A1" title="Ուիլյամ Էդուարդ Բերգհարթ Դյուբուա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ուիլյամ Էդուարդ Բերգհարթ Դյուբուա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" title="W.E.B. Du Bois – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="W.E.B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Edward_Burghardt_Du_Bois" title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9D_%D7%90%D7%93%D7%95%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%93%D7%95_%D7%91%D7%95%D7%99%D7%96" title="ויליאם אדוארד בורגהרד דו בויז – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ויליאם אדוארד בורגהרד דו בויז" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93_%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93%E1%83%A2_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%90" title="უილიამ ედვარდ ბურგჰარდტ დიუბოა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="უილიამ ედვარდ ბურგჰარდტ დიუბოა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Edward_Burghardt_Du_Bois" title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8E%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B0,_%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%AD%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%91%D1%91%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%82" title="Дюбуа, Уильям Эдуард Бёркхардт – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Дюбуа, Уильям Эдуард Бёркхардт" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulielmus_Eduardus_Burghardt_Du_Bois" title="Gulielmus Eduardus Burghardt Du Bois – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Gulielmus Eduardus Burghardt Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V._E._B._Dibu%C4%81" title="V. E. B. Dibuā – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="V. E. B. Dibuā" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="W. E. B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="W. E. B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="വില്യം എഡ്വേഡ് ദുബോയ്സ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വില്യം എഡ്വേഡ് ദുബോയ്സ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93_%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93%E1%83%A2_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="უილიამ ედვარდ ბერგჰარდტ დიუბოისი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="უილიამ ედვარდ ბერგჰარდტ დიუბოისი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B2" title="دو بويز – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="دو بويز" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="W. E. B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Edward_Burghardt_Du_Bois" title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%E3%83%BBE%E3%83%BBB%E3%83%BB%E3%83%87%E3%83%A5%E3%83%9C%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B9" title="W・E・B・デュボイス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="W・E・B・デュボイス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" title="W.E.B. Du Bois – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="W.E.B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyuba" title="Dyuba – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Dyuba" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%DA%89%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%89_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%88%DB%8C%DB%8C%D8%B3" title="ویلیام اډوارډ دوبوییس – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ویلیام اډوارډ دوبوییس" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" title="W.E.B. Du Bois – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="W.E.B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="W. E. B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8E%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B0,_%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%AD%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%91%D1%91%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%82" title="Дюбуа, Уильям Эдуард Бёркхардт – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Дюбуа, Уильям Эдуард Бёркхардт" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="W. E. B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="W. E. B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Edward_Burghardt_Du_Bois" title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%95%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Вилијам Едвард Бергарт – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Вилијам Едвард Бергарт" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="W. E. B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="W. E. B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" title="W.E.B. Du Bois – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="W.E.B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="W. E. B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%82._%E0%AE%87._%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF._%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D" title="டபிள்யூ. இ. பி. டுபோய்ஸ் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="டபிள்யூ. இ. பி. டுபோய்ஸ்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%94%D1%8E%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B0" title="Уилям Дюбуа – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Уилям Дюбуа" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Edward_Burghardt_Du_Bois" title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="William Edward Burghardt Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%95%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%82_%D0%94%D1%8E%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%81" title="Вільям Едуард Беркхардт Дюбойс – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вільям Едуард Беркхардт Дюбойс" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="W. E. B. Du Bois" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="W. E. B. 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E. B. Du Bois</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="center"><div class="center"> <div style="width: 220px; height: 287px; overflow: hidden;"> <div style="position: relative; top: -47px; left: -27px; width: 272px"><div class="noresize"><a href="/wiki/File:W.E.B._Du_Bois_by_James_E._Purdy,_1907.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/W.E.B._Du_Bois_by_James_E._Purdy%2C_1907.jpg/272px-W.E.B._Du_Bois_by_James_E._Purdy%2C_1907.jpg" decoding="async" width="272" height="393" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/W.E.B._Du_Bois_by_James_E._Purdy%2C_1907.jpg/408px-W.E.B._Du_Bois_by_James_E._Purdy%2C_1907.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/W.E.B._Du_Bois_by_James_E._Purdy%2C_1907.jpg/544px-W.E.B._Du_Bois_by_James_E._Purdy%2C_1907.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3528" data-file-height="5092" /></a></div></div> </div> </div></div><div class="infobox-caption">Du Bois in 1907</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">William Edward Burghardt Du Bois</div> (1868-02-23)February 23, 1868 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Great_Barrington,_Massachusetts" title="Great Barrington, Massachusetts">Great Barrington, Massachusetts</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">August 27, 1963(1963-08-27) (aged 95) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Accra" title="Accra">Accra</a>, Ghana</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citizenship</th><td class="infobox-data category"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>United States</li><li><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> (from 1961)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fisk_University" title="Fisk University">Fisk University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">AB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Friedrich Wilhelm University</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Souls_of_Black_Folk" title="The Souls of Black Folk">The Souls of Black Folk</a> (1903)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Reconstruction_in_America" title="Black Reconstruction in America">Black Reconstruction in America</a> (1935)</li><li><a href="/wiki/The_Crisis" title="The Crisis">The Crisis</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Nina_Gomer_Du_Bois" title="Nina Gomer Du Bois">Nina Gomer</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1896; died 1950)</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Graham_Du_Bois" title="Shirley Graham Du Bois">Lola Shirley Graham Jr.</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1951)</div></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">2, including <a href="/wiki/Yolande_Du_Bois" title="Yolande Du Bois">Yolande</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Mother</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Silvina_Burghardt_Du_Bois" title="Mary Silvina Burghardt Du Bois">Mary Silvina Burghardt Du Bois</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal</a> (1920)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Lenin_Peace_Prize" title="Lenin Peace Prize">Lenin Peace Prize</a> (1959)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546">Scientific career</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">Civil rights</a></li><li>sociology</li><li>history</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta University">Atlanta University</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/suppressionofafr01dubouoft">The Suppression of the African Slave-trade to the United States of America, 1638–1870</a> (1896)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bushnell_Hart" title="Albert Bushnell Hart">Albert Bushnell Hart</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:W.E.B._DuBois_Signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/W.E.B._DuBois_Signature.svg/150px-W.E.B._DuBois_Signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/W.E.B._DuBois_Signature.svg/225px-W.E.B._DuBois_Signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/W.E.B._DuBois_Signature.svg/300px-W.E.B._DuBois_Signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="862" data-file-height="155" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table> William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/duːˈbɔɪs/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">doo-BOYSS</a>;<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> February 23, 1868 – August 27, 1963) was an American <a href="/wiki/Sociologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociologist">sociologist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a>, historian, and <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan-Africanist">Pan-Africanist</a> <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_activist" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights activist">civil rights activist</a>. Born in <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrington,_Massachusetts" title="Great Barrington, Massachusetts">Great Barrington, Massachusetts</a>, Du Bois grew up in a relatively tolerant and <a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">integrated</a> community. After completing graduate work at the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Friedrich Wilhelm University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>, where he was its first African American to earn a doctorate, Du Bois rose to national prominence as a leader of the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a>, a group of black civil rights activists seeking equal rights. Du Bois and his supporters opposed the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Compromise" title="Atlanta Compromise">Atlanta Compromise</a>. Instead, Du Bois insisted on full civil rights and increased political representation, which he believed would be brought about by the African-American intellectual elite. He referred to this group as the <a href="/wiki/Talented_tenth" title="Talented tenth">talented tenth</a>, a concept under the umbrella of <a href="/wiki/Racial_uplift" title="Racial uplift">racial uplift</a>, and believed that African Americans needed the chances for advanced education to develop its leadership. Du Bois was one of the founders of the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (NAACP) in 1909. Du Bois used his position in the NAACP to respond to racist incidents. After the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>, he attended the <a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Congress" title="Pan-African Congress">Pan-African Congresses</a>, embraced socialism and became a professor at <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta University">Atlanta University</a>. Once the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a> had ended, he engaged in peace activism and was targeted by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a> (FBI). He spent the last years of his life in <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> and died in <a href="/wiki/Accra" title="Accra">Accra</a> on August 27, 1963. Du Bois was a prolific author. Du Bois primarily targeted <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">polemics</a>, which protested strongly against <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynching</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">discrimination</a> in education and employment. His cause included people of color everywhere, particularly Africans and Asians in colonies. He was a proponent of <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a> and helped organize several <a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Congress" title="Pan-African Congress">Pan-African Congresses</a> to fight for the independence of <a href="/wiki/Colonisation_of_Africa" title="Colonisation of Africa">African colonies</a> from European powers. Du Bois made several trips to Europe, Africa and Asia. His collection of essays, <a href="/wiki/The_Souls_of_Black_Folk" title="The Souls of Black Folk">The Souls of Black Folk</a>, is a seminal work in <a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">African-American literature</a>; and his 1935 magnum opus, <a href="/wiki/Black_Reconstruction_in_America" title="Black Reconstruction in America">Black Reconstruction in America</a>, challenged the prevailing orthodoxy that blacks were responsible for the failures of the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a>. Borrowing a phrase from <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a>, he popularized the use of the term <a href="/wiki/Color_line_(racism)" title="Color line (racism)">color line</a> to represent the injustice of the <a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a> doctrine prevalent in American social and political life. His 1940 autobiography <a href="/wiki/Dusk_of_Dawn" title="Dusk of Dawn">Dusk of Dawn</a> is regarded in part as one of the first scientific treatises in the field of American sociology. In his role as editor of the NAACP's journal <a href="/wiki/The_Crisis" title="The Crisis">The Crisis</a>, he published many influential pieces. Du Bois believed that <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> was a primary cause of racism and was sympathetic to <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialist</a> causes. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family_and_childhood">Family and childhood</h3></div> Du Bois was born on February 23, 1868, in <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrington,_Massachusetts" title="Great Barrington, Massachusetts">Great Barrington, Massachusetts</a>, to Alfred and <a href="/wiki/Mary_Silvina_Burghardt_Du_Bois" title="Mary Silvina Burghardt Du Bois">Mary Silvina Burghardt Du Bois</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Mary Silvina Burghardt's family was part of the very small <a href="/wiki/Free_black" class="mw-redirect" title="Free black">free black</a> population of Great Barrington and had long owned land in the state. She was descended from <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Americans" title="Dutch Americans">Dutch</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_diaspora" title="African diaspora">African</a>, and <a href="/wiki/English_Americans" title="English Americans">English</a> ancestors.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> William Du Bois's maternal great-great-grandfather was Tom Burghardt, a <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the colonial United States">slave</a> (born in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> around 1730) who was held by the Dutch colonist Conraed Burghardt. Tom briefly served in the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a> during the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>, which may have been how he gained his freedom during the late 18th century. His son Jack Burghardt was the father of Othello Burghardt, who in turn was the father of Mary Silvina Burghardt.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WEB_Du_Bois_as_infant.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of Du Bois as an infant being held by his mother" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/WEB_Du_Bois_as_infant.png" decoding="async" width="165" height="240" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="165" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>Du Bois as an infant with his mother</figcaption></figure> William Du Bois claimed <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Freeman" title="Elizabeth Freeman">Elizabeth Freeman</a> as his relative; he wrote that she had married his great-grandfather Jack Burghardt.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> But Freeman was 20 years older than Burghardt, and no record of such a marriage has been found. It may have been Freeman's daughter, Betsy Humphrey, who married Burghardt after her first husband, Jonah Humphrey, left the area "around 1811", and after Burghardt's first wife died (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1810). If so, Freeman would have been William Du Bois's step-great-great-grandmother. Anecdotal evidence supports Humphrey's marrying Burghardt; a close relationship of some form is likely.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> William Du Bois's paternal great-grandfather was James Du Bois of <a href="/wiki/Poughkeepsie_(city),_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Poughkeepsie (city), New York">Poughkeepsie, New York</a>, an ethnic <a href="/wiki/French-American" class="mw-redirect" title="French-American">French-American</a> of <a href="/wiki/Huguenot" class="mw-redirect" title="Huguenot">Huguenot</a> origin who fathered several children with enslaved women.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> One of James' <a href="/wiki/Mixed-race" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed-race">mixed-race</a> sons was Alexander, who was born on <a href="/wiki/Long_Cay" title="Long Cay">Long Cay</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Bahamas" title="The Bahamas">the Bahamas</a> in 1803; in 1810, he immigrated to the United States with his father.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Alexander Du Bois traveled and worked in <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>, where he fathered a son, Alfred, with a <a href="/wiki/Mistress_(lover)" title="Mistress (lover)">mistress</a>. Alexander returned to Connecticut, leaving Alfred in Haiti with his mother.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_p._18-11">[11]</a> Sometime before 1860, Alfred Du Bois immigrated to the United States, settling in Massachusetts. He married Mary Silvina Burghardt on February 5, 1867, in <a href="/wiki/Housatonic,_Massachusetts" title="Housatonic, Massachusetts">Housatonic</a>, a village in Great Barrington.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_p._18-11">[11]</a> Alfred left Mary in 1870, two years after their son William was born.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Mary Du Bois moved with her son back to her parents' house in Great Barrington, and they lived there until he was five. She worked to support her family (receiving some assistance from her brother and neighbors), until she suffered a <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a> in the early 1880s. She died in 1885.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Great Barrington had a majority <a href="/wiki/European_American" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a> community, who generally treated Du Bois well. He attended the local integrated public school and played with white schoolmates. As an adult, he wrote about racism that he felt as a fatherless child and being a minority in the town. But teachers recognized his ability and encouraged his intellectual pursuits, and his rewarding experience with academic studies led him to believe that he could use his knowledge to empower African Americans.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> In 1884, he graduated from Great Barrington High School with honors.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> When he decided to attend college, the congregation of his childhood church, the <a href="/wiki/First_Congregational_Church_of_Great_Barrington" class="mw-redirect" title="First Congregational Church of Great Barrington">First Congregational Church of Great Barrington</a>, raised the money for his tuition.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Horne,_p._7-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="University_education">University education</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:W._E._B._Du_Bois_Suppression_of_the_African_slave_trade_in_the_United_States_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Suppression_of_the_African_slave_trade_in_the_United_States_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-W._E._B._Du_Bois_Suppression_of_the_African_slave_trade_in_the_United_States_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Suppression_of_the_African_slave_trade_in_the_United_States_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-W._E._B._Du_Bois_Suppression_of_the_African_slave_trade_in_the_United_States_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Suppression_of_the_African_slave_trade_in_the_United_States_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-W._E._B._Du_Bois_Suppression_of_the_African_slave_trade_in_the_United_States_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="903" /></a><figcaption>The title page of Du Bois's Harvard dissertation, Suppression of the African Slave Trade in the United States of America: 1638–1871</figcaption></figure> Relying on this money donated by neighbors, Du Bois attended <a href="/wiki/Fisk_University" title="Fisk University">Fisk University</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Historically_black_college" class="mw-redirect" title="Historically black college">historically black college</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nashville,_Tennessee" title="Nashville, Tennessee">Nashville, Tennessee</a>, from 1885 to 1888.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Like other Fisk students who relied on summer and intermittent teaching to support their university studies, Du Bois taught school during the summer of 1886 after his sophomore year.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> His travel to and residency in the South was Du Bois's first experience with Southern racism, which at the time encompassed <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a>, bigotry, suppression of black voting, and <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynchings</a>; the lattermost reached a peak in the next decade.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> After receiving a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">bachelor's degree</a> from Fisk, he attended <a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a> (which did not accept course credits from Fisk) from 1888 to 1890, where he was strongly influenced by professor <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, prominent in American philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Du Bois paid his way through three years at Harvard with money from summer jobs, an inheritance, scholarships, and loans from friends. In 1890, Harvard awarded Du Bois his second bachelor's degree, <a href="/wiki/Latin_honors" title="Latin honors">cum laude</a>, in history.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> In 1891, Du Bois received a scholarship to attend the sociology graduate school at Harvard.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> In 1892, Du Bois received a fellowship from the <a href="/wiki/Slater_Fund" title="Slater Fund">John F. Slater Fund for the Education of Freedmen</a> to attend <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Friedrich Wilhelm University</a> for graduate work.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> While a student in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, he traveled extensively throughout Europe. He intellectually came of age in the German capital while studying with some of that nation's most prominent <a href="/wiki/Social_scientist" class="mw-redirect" title="Social scientist">social scientists</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Gustav_von_Schmoller" title="Gustav von Schmoller">Gustav von Schmoller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adolph_Wagner" title="Adolph Wagner">Adolph Wagner</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Treitschke" title="Heinrich von Treitschke">Heinrich von Treitschke</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> He also met <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> who was highly impressed with Du Bois and later cited Du Bois as a counter-example to racists alleging the inferiority of Blacks. Weber met Du Bois again in 1904 on a visit to the US just ahead of the publication of the seminal <a href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> He wrote about his time in Germany: "I found myself on the outside of the American world, looking in. With me were white folk – students, acquaintances, teachers – who viewed the scene with me. They did not always pause to regard me as a curiosity, or something sub-human; I was just a man of the somewhat privileged student rank, with whom they were glad to meet and talk over the world; particularly, the part of the world whence I came."<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> After returning from Europe, Du Bois completed his graduate studies; in 1895, he was the first African American to earn a <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Ph.D.</a> from Harvard University.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wilberforce">Wilberforce</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30em; ; font-size: 90%; color: #202122;background-color: #F0F0F0;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Between me and the other world there is ever an unasked question: ... How does it feel to be a problem? ... One ever feels his two-ness, – an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder ... He would not Africanize America, for America has too much to teach the world and Africa. He would not bleach his Negro soul in a flood of white Americanism, for he knows that Negro blood has a message for the world. He simply wishes to make it possible for a man to be both a Negro and an American, without being cursed and spit upon by his fellows, without having the doors of Opportunity closed roughly in his face. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">—Du Bois, "Strivings of the Negro People", 1897<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></cite> </div> In the summer of 1894, Du Bois received several job offers, including from <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee Institute</a>; he accepted a teaching job at <a href="/wiki/Wilberforce_University" title="Wilberforce University">Wilberforce University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> At Wilberforce, Du Bois was strongly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Crummell" title="Alexander Crummell">Alexander Crummell</a>, who believed that ideas and morals are necessary tools to effect social change.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> While at Wilberforce, Du Bois married <a href="/wiki/Nina_Gomer_Du_Bois" title="Nina Gomer Du Bois">Nina Gomer</a>, one of his students, on May 12, 1896.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</h3></div> After two years at Wilberforce, Du Bois accepted a one-year research job from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a> as an "assistant in sociology" in the summer of 1896.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> He performed sociological field research in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>'s African-American neighborhoods, which formed the foundation for his landmark study, <a href="/wiki/The_Philadelphia_Negro" title="The Philadelphia Negro">The Philadelphia Negro</a>, published in 1899 while he was teaching at <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta University">Atlanta University</a>. It was the first case study of a black community in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Among his Philadelphia consultants on the project was <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Dorsey" title="William Henry Dorsey">William Henry Dorsey</a>, an artist who collected documents, paintings and artifact pertaining to Black history. Dorsey compiled hundreds of scrapbooks on the lives of Black people during the 19th century and built a collection that he laid out in his home in Philadelphia. Du Bois used the scrapbooks in his research. By the 1890s, Philadelphia's black neighborhoods had a negative reputation in terms of crime, poverty, and mortality. Du Bois's book undermined the stereotypes with empirical evidence and shaped his approach to segregation and its negative impact on black lives and reputations. The results led him to realize that racial integration was the key to democratic equality in American cities.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The methodology employed in The Philadelphia Negro, namely the description and the mapping of social characteristics onto neighborhood areas was a forerunner to the studies under the Chicago School of Sociology.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> While taking part in the <a href="/wiki/American_Negro_Academy" title="American Negro Academy">American Negro Academy</a> (ANA) in 1897, Du Bois presented a paper in which he rejected <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a>'s plea for black Americans to integrate into white society. He wrote: "we are Negroes, members of a vast historic race that from the very dawn of creation has slept, but half awakening in the dark forests of its African fatherland".<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> In the August 1897 issue of <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic Monthly</a>, Du Bois published "Strivings of the Negro People", his first work aimed at the general public, in which he enlarged upon his thesis that African Americans should embrace their African heritage while contributing to American society.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Atlanta_University">Atlanta University</h2></div> In July 1897, Du Bois left Philadelphia and took a professorship in history and economics at the historically black <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta University">Atlanta University</a> in Georgia.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> His first major academic work was his book The Philadelphia Negro (1899), a detailed and comprehensive sociological study of the African-American people of Philadelphia, based on his fieldwork in 1896–1897. This breakthrough in scholarship was the first scientific study of African Americans and a major contribution to early scientific sociology in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Du Bois coined the phrase "the submerged tenth" to describe the black underclass in the study. Later in 1903, he popularized the term, the "<a href="/wiki/Talented_tenth" title="Talented tenth">talented tenth</a>", applied to society's elite class. His terminology reflected his opinion that the elite of a nation, both black and white, were critical to achievements in culture and progress.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> During this period he wrote dismissively of the underclass, describing them as "lazy" or "unreliable", but – in contrast to other scholars – he attributed many of their societal problems to the ravages of slavery.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Du Bois's output at Atlanta University was prodigious, in spite of a limited budget: he produced numerous social science papers and annually hosted the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Conference_of_Negro_Problems" title="Atlanta Conference of Negro Problems">Atlanta Conference of Negro Problems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> He also received grants from the U.S. government to prepare reports about African-American workforce and culture.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> His students considered him to be a teacher that was brilliant, but aloof and strict.<a href="#cite_note-auto-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Pan-African_Conference">First Pan-African Conference</h3></div> Du Bois attended the <a href="/wiki/First_Pan-African_Conference" title="First Pan-African Conference">First Pan-African Conference</a>, held in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> on July 23–25, 1900, shortly ahead of the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Exhibition_of_1900" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Exhibition of 1900">Paris Exhibition of 1900</a> ("to allow tourists of African descent to attend both events".)<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The Conference had been organized by people from the Caribbean: Haitians <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%A9nor_Firmin" title="Anténor Firmin">Anténor Firmin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benito_Sylvain" title="Benito Sylvain">Benito Sylvain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidadian</a> barrister <a href="/wiki/Henry_Sylvester_Williams" title="Henry Sylvester Williams">Henry Sylvester Williams</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Du Bois played a leading role in drafting a letter ("Address to the Nations of the World"), asking European leaders to struggle against racism, to grant colonies in Africa and the West Indies the right to <a href="/wiki/Self-government" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-government">self-government</a> and to demand political and other rights for African Americans.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> By this time, southern states were passing new laws and constitutions to <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disfranchise</a> most African Americans, an exclusion from the political system that lasted into the 1960s. At the conclusion of the conference, delegates unanimously adopted the "Address to the Nations of the World", and sent it to various heads of state where people of African descent were living and suffering oppression.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> The address implored the United States and the imperial European nations to "acknowledge and protect the rights of people of African descent" and to respect the integrity and independence of "the free Negro States of <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Abyssinia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>, etc."<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> It was signed by Bishop <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Walters" title="Alexander Walters">Alexander Walters</a> (President of the <a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan-African Association">Pan-African Association</a>), the Canadian Rev. Henry B. Brown (vice-president), Williams (General Secretary) and Du Bois (chairman of the committee on the Address).<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> The address included Du Bois's observation, "The problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the <a href="/wiki/Color_line_(racism)" title="Color line (racism)">colour-line</a>." He used this again three years later in the "Forethought" of his book The Souls of Black Folk (1903).<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1900_Paris_Exposition">1900 Paris Exposition</h3></div> Du Bois was the primary organizer of <a href="/wiki/The_Exhibit_of_American_Negroes" title="The Exhibit of American Negroes">The Exhibit of American Negroes</a> at the <a href="/wiki/1900_Paris_Exposition" class="mw-redirect" title="1900 Paris Exposition">Exposition Universelle</a> held in Paris between April and November 1900, for which he put together a series of 363 photographs aiming to commemorate the lives of African Americans at the turn of the century and challenge the racist caricatures and stereotypes of the day.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-loc-61">[61]</a> Also included were charts, graphs, and maps.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> He was awarded a gold medal for his role as compiler of the materials, which are housed at the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-loc-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Booker_T._Washington_and_the_Atlanta_Compromise">Booker T. Washington and the Atlanta Compromise</h3></div> In the first decade of the new century, Du Bois emerged as a spokesperson for his race, second only to <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Washington was the director of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, and wielded tremendous influence within the African-American and white communities.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Washington was the architect of the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Compromise" title="Atlanta Compromise">Atlanta Compromise</a>, an unwritten deal that he had struck in 1895 with Southern white leaders who dominated state governments after Reconstruction. Essentially the agreement provided that Southern blacks, who overwhelmingly lived in rural communities, would submit to the current discrimination, segregation, <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disenfranchisement</a>, and non-unionized employment; that Southern whites would permit blacks to receive a basic education, some economic opportunities, and justice within the legal system; and that Northern whites would invest in Southern enterprises and fund black educational charities.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Despite sending congratulations to Washington for his <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Exposition_Speech" title="Atlanta Exposition Speech">Atlanta Exposition Speech</a>,<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Du Bois later came to oppose Washington's plan, along with many other African Americans, including <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Grimk%C3%A9" title="Archibald Grimké">Archibald H. Grimke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kelly_Miller_(scientist)" title="Kelly Miller (scientist)">Kelly Miller</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Weldon_Johnson" title="James Weldon Johnson">James Weldon Johnson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Laurence_Dunbar" title="Paul Laurence Dunbar">Paul Laurence Dunbar</a> – representatives of the class of educated blacks that Du Bois later called the "<a href="/wiki/Talented_tenth" title="Talented tenth">talented tenth</a>".<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Du Bois felt that African Americans should fight for equal rights and higher opportunities, rather than passively submit to the segregation and discrimination of Washington's Atlanta Compromise.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Du Bois was inspired to greater activism by the <a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Sam_Hose" title="Lynching of Sam Hose">lynching of Sam Hose</a>, which occurred near Atlanta in 1899.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Hose was tortured, burned, and hanged by a mob of two thousand whites. When walking through Atlanta to discuss the lynching with newspaper editor <a href="/wiki/Joel_Chandler_Harris" title="Joel Chandler Harris">Joel Chandler Harris</a>, Du Bois encountered Hose's burned knuckles in a storefront display. The episode stunned Du Bois, and he resolved that "one could not be a calm, cool, and detached scientist while Negroes were lynched, murdered, and starved". Du Bois realized that "the cure wasn't simply telling people the truth, it was inducing them to act on the truth".<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WEB_Du_Bois.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A formally dressed African American man, sitting for a posed portrait" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/WEB_Du_Bois.jpg/170px-WEB_Du_Bois.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/WEB_Du_Bois.jpg/255px-WEB_Du_Bois.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/WEB_Du_Bois.jpg/340px-WEB_Du_Bois.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1051" data-file-height="1512" /></a><figcaption>Du Bois in 1904</figcaption></figure> In 1901, Du Bois wrote a review critical of Washington's autobiography <a href="/wiki/Up_from_Slavery" title="Up from Slavery">Up from Slavery</a>,<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> which he later expanded and published to a wider audience as the essay "Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and Others" in <a href="/wiki/The_Souls_of_Black_Folk" title="The Souls of Black Folk">The Souls of Black Folk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Later in life, Du Bois regretted having been critical of Washington in those essays.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> One of the contrasts between the two leaders was their approach to education: Washington felt that African-American schools should focus primarily on <a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">industrial education topics</a> such as agricultural and mechanical skills, to prepare southern blacks for the opportunities in the rural areas where most lived.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Du Bois felt that black schools should focus more on <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal arts">liberal arts</a> and academic curriculum (including the classics, arts, and humanities), because liberal arts were required to develop a leadership elite.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> However, as sociologist <a href="/wiki/E._Franklin_Frazier" title="E. Franklin Frazier">E. Franklin Frazier</a> and economists <a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Gunnar Myrdal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Thomas Sowell</a> have argued, such disagreement over education was a minor point of difference between Washington and Du Bois; both men acknowledged the importance of the form of education that the other emphasized.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Sowell has also argued that, despite genuine disagreements between the two leaders, the supposed animosity between Washington and Du Bois actually formed among their followers, not between Washington and Du Bois themselves.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Du Bois also made this observation in an interview published in <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic Monthly</a> in November 1965.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Niagara_Movement">Niagara Movement</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Niagara_movement_meeting_in_Fort_Erie,_Canada,_1905.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A dozen African American men seated with Niagara Falls in the background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Niagara_movement_meeting_in_Fort_Erie%2C_Canada%2C_1905.jpg/170px-Niagara_movement_meeting_in_Fort_Erie%2C_Canada%2C_1905.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Niagara_movement_meeting_in_Fort_Erie%2C_Canada%2C_1905.jpg/255px-Niagara_movement_meeting_in_Fort_Erie%2C_Canada%2C_1905.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Niagara_movement_meeting_in_Fort_Erie%2C_Canada%2C_1905.jpg/340px-Niagara_movement_meeting_in_Fort_Erie%2C_Canada%2C_1905.jpg 2x" data-file-width="622" data-file-height="837" /></a><figcaption>Founders of the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a> in 1905. Du Bois is in the middle row, with white hat.</figcaption></figure> In 1905, Du Bois and several other African-American civil rights activists – including <a href="/wiki/Fredrick_McGhee" title="Fredrick McGhee">Fredrick McGhee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Barber" title="Max Barber">Max Barber</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Monroe_Trotter" title="William Monroe Trotter">William Monroe Trotter</a> – met in Canada, near <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls" title="Niagara Falls">Niagara Falls</a>,<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> where they wrote a declaration of principles opposing the Atlanta Compromise, and which were incorporated as the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a> in 1906.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> They wanted to publicize their ideals to other African Americans, but most black periodicals were owned by publishers sympathetic to Washington, so Du Bois bought a printing press and started publishing Moon Illustrated Weekly in December 1905.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> It was the first African-American illustrated weekly, and Du Bois used it to attack Washington's positions, but the magazine lasted only for about eight months.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis220-89">[89]</a> Du Bois soon founded and edited another vehicle for his polemics, <a href="/wiki/The_Horizon:_A_Journal_of_the_Color_Line" title="The Horizon: A Journal of the Color Line">The Horizon: A Journal of the Color Line</a>, which debuted in 1907. <a href="/wiki/Freeman_H._M._Murray" title="Freeman H. M. Murray">Freeman H. M. Murray</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lafayette_M._Hershaw" title="Lafayette M. Hershaw">Lafayette M. Hershaw</a> served as The Horizon's co-editors.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> The Niagarites held a second conference in August 1906, in celebration of the 100th anniversary of abolitionist <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a>'s birth, at the West Virginia site of Brown's <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">raid on Harper's Ferry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis220-89">[89]</a> <a href="/wiki/Reverdy_C._Ransom" title="Reverdy C. Ransom">Reverdy C. Ransom</a> spoke, explaining that Washington's primary goal was to prepare blacks for employment in their current society: "Today, two classes of Negroes ...are standing at the parting of the ways. The one counsels patient submission to our present humiliations and degradations ... The other class believe that it should not submit to being humiliated, degraded, and remanded to an inferior place. ...[I]t does not believe in bartering its manhood for the sake of gain."<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Souls_of_Black_Folk">The Souls of Black Folk</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Souls_of_Black_Folk" title="The Souls of Black Folk">The Souls of Black Folk</a></div> In an effort to portray the genius and humanity of the black race, Du Bois published The Souls of Black Folk (1903), a collection of 14 essays.<a href="#cite_note-Gibson,_Todd_p._198-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_p._191-93">[93]</a> James Weldon Johnson said the book's effect on African Americans was comparable to that of <a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_p._191-93">[93]</a> The introduction famously proclaimed that "the problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the color line".<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Each chapter begins with two epigraphs – one from a white poet, and one from a black spiritual – to demonstrate intellectual and cultural parity between black and white cultures.<a href="#cite_note-Gibson,_Todd_p._198-92">[92]</a> A major theme of the work was the <a href="/wiki/Double_consciousness" title="Double consciousness">double consciousness</a> faced by African Americans: being both American and black. This was a unique identity which, according to Du Bois, had been a handicap in the past, but could be a strength in the future: "Henceforth, the destiny of the race could be conceived as leading neither to assimilation nor separatism but to proud, enduring hyphenation."<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Jonathon S. Kahn in Divine Discontent: The Religious Imagination of Du Bois shows how Du Bois, in his The Souls of Black Folk, represents an exemplary text of pragmatic <a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">religious naturalism</a>. On page 12, Kahn writes: "Du Bois needs to be understood as an African American pragmatic religious naturalist. By this I mean that, like Du Bois the American traditional pragmatic religious naturalism, which runs through <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>, seeks religion without <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> foundations." Kahn's interpretation of religious naturalism is very broad but he relates it to specific thinkers. Du Bois's anti-metaphysical viewpoint places him in the sphere of religious naturalism as typified by William James and others.<a href="#cite_note-Kahn-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Racial_violence">Racial violence</h3></div> Two calamities in the autumn of 1906 shocked African Americans, and they contributed to strengthening support for Du Bois's struggle for civil rights to prevail over Booker T. Washington's <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Compromise" title="Atlanta Compromise">accommodationism</a>. First, President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> dishonorably discharged 167 <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Soldier" title="Buffalo Soldier">Buffalo Soldiers</a> because they were accused of crimes as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Brownsville_affair" title="Brownsville affair">Brownsville affair</a>. Many of the discharged soldiers had served for 20 years and were near retirement.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Second, in September, <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Race_Riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta Race Riot">riots broke out in Atlanta</a>, precipitated by unfounded allegations of black men assaulting white women. This was a catalyst for racial tensions based on a job shortage and employers playing black workers against white workers.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Ten thousand whites rampaged through Atlanta, beating every black person they could find, resulting in over 25 deaths.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> In the aftermath of the 1906 violence, Du Bois urged blacks to withdraw their support from the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a>, because Republicans Roosevelt and <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> did not sufficiently support blacks. Most African Americans had been loyal to the Republican Party since the time of <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Du Bois endorsed Taft's rival <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1908_United_States_presidential_election" title="1908 United States presidential election">1908 presidential election</a> despite Bryan's acceptance of segregation.<a href="#cite_note-:0-101">[101]</a> Du Bois wrote the essay, "A Litany at Atlanta", which asserted that the riot demonstrated that the Atlanta Compromise was a failure. Despite upholding their end of the bargain, blacks had failed to receive legal justice in the South. Historian David Levering Lewis has written that the Compromise no longer held because white patrician planters, who took a paternalistic role, had been replaced by aggressive businessmen who were willing to pit blacks against whites.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> These two calamities were watershed events for the African American community, marking the ascendancy of Du Bois's vision of equal rights.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academic_work">Academic work</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30em; ; font-size: 90%; color: #202122;background-color: #F0F0F0;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Once we were told: Be worthy and fit and the ways are open. Today, the avenues of advancement in the army, navy, civil service, and even business and professional life are continually closed to black applicants of proven fitness, simply on the bald excuse of race and color. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">—Du Bois, "Address at Fourth Niagara Conference", 1908<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></cite> </div> In addition to writing editorials, Du Bois continued to produce scholarly work at Atlanta University. In 1909, after five years of effort, he published a biography of abolitionist John Brown. It contained many insights, but also contained some factual errors.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> The work was strongly criticized by <a href="/wiki/The_Nation" title="The Nation">The Nation</a>, which was owned by <a href="/wiki/Oswald_Garrison_Villard" title="Oswald Garrison Villard">Oswald Garrison Villard</a>, who was writing his own, competing biography of John Brown. Possibly as a result, Du Bois's work was largely ignored by white scholars.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> After publishing a piece in <a href="/wiki/Collier%27s" title="Collier's">Collier's</a> magazine warning of the end of "<a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a>", Du Bois had difficulty getting pieces accepted by major periodicals, although he did continue to publish columns regularly in The Horizon magazine.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Du Bois was the first African American invited by the <a href="/wiki/American_Historical_Association" title="American Historical Association">American Historical Association</a> (AHA) to present a paper at their annual conference. He read his paper, Reconstruction and Its Benefits, to an astounded audience at the AHA's December 1909 conference.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis250-109">[109]</a> The paper went against the mainstream historical view, promoted by the <a href="/wiki/Dunning_School" title="Dunning School">Dunning School</a> of scholars at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, that <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Era of the United States">Reconstruction</a> was a disaster, caused by the ineptitude and sloth of blacks. To the contrary, Du Bois asserted that the brief period of African-American leadership in the South accomplished three important goals: democracy, free public schools, and new social welfare legislation.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis251-110">[110]</a> Du Bois asserted that it was the federal government's failure to manage the <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a>, to distribute land, and to establish an educational system, that doomed African-American prospects in the South.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis251-110">[110]</a> When Du Bois submitted the paper for publication a few months later in <a href="/wiki/The_American_Historical_Review" title="The American Historical Review">The American Historical Review</a>, he asked that the word 'Negro' be capitalized. The editor, <a href="/wiki/J._Franklin_Jameson" title="J. Franklin Jameson">J. Franklin Jameson</a>, refused, and published the paper without the capitalization.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> The paper was mostly ignored by white historians.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis251-110">[110]</a> Du Bois later developed his paper as his 1935 book, <a href="/wiki/Black_Reconstruction_in_America" title="Black Reconstruction in America">Black Reconstruction in America</a>, which marshaled extensive references to support his assertions.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis250-109">[109]</a> The AHA did not invite another African-American speaker until 1940.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="NAACP_era">NAACP era</h2></div> In May 1909, Du Bois attended the <a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="National Negro Conference">National Negro Conference</a> in New York.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> The meeting led to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Committee" title="National Negro Committee">National Negro Committee</a>, chaired by Oswald Garrison Villard, and dedicated to campaigning for civil rights, equal voting rights, and equal educational opportunities.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> The following spring, in 1910, at the second National Negro Conference, the attendees created the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (NAACP).<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> At Du Bois's suggestion, the word "colored", rather than "black", was used to include "dark skinned people everywhere".<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Dozens of civil rights supporters, black and white, participated in the founding, but most executive officers were white, including <a href="/wiki/Mary_White_Ovington" title="Mary White Ovington">Mary White Ovington</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Edward_Russell" title="Charles Edward Russell">Charles Edward Russell</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_English_Walling" title="William English Walling">William English Walling</a>, and its first president, <a href="/wiki/Moorfield_Storey" title="Moorfield Storey">Moorfield Storey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Feeling inspired by this, Indian social reformer and civil rights activist <a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a> contacted Du Bois in the 1940s. In a letter to Du Bois in 1946, he introduced himself as a member of the "<a href="/wiki/Dalit" title="Dalit">Untouchables of India</a>" and "a student of the Negro problem" and expressed his interest in the NAACP's petition to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>. He noted that his group was "thinking of following suit"; and requested copies of the proposed statement from Du Bois. In a letter dated July 31, 1946, Du Bois responded by telling Ambedkar he was familiar with his name, and that he had "every sympathy with the Untouchables of India."<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Crisis">The Crisis</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Motto_web_dubois_original.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An African American man, sitting for a posed portrait" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Motto_web_dubois_original.jpg/170px-Motto_web_dubois_original.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Motto_web_dubois_original.jpg/255px-Motto_web_dubois_original.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Motto_web_dubois_original.jpg/340px-Motto_web_dubois_original.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1131" data-file-height="1613" /></a><figcaption>Du Bois, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1911</figcaption></figure> NAACP leaders offered Du Bois the position of Director of Publicity and Research.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> He accepted the job in the summer of 1910, and moved to New York after resigning from Atlanta University. His primary duty was editing the NAACP's monthly magazine, which he named <a href="/wiki/The_Crisis" title="The Crisis">The Crisis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> The first issue appeared in November 1910, and Du Bois wrote that its aim was to set out "those facts and arguments which show the danger of race prejudice, particularly as manifested today toward colored people".<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> The journal was phenomenally successful, and its circulation reached 100,000 in 1920.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Typical articles in the early editions polemics against the dishonesty and parochialism of black churches, and discussions on the Afrocentric origins of Egyptian civilization.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Du Bois's African-centered view of ancient Egypt was in direct opposition to many Egyptologists of his day, including <a href="/wiki/Flinders_Petrie" title="Flinders Petrie">Flinders Petrie</a>, whom Du Bois had met at a conference.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> A 1911 Du Bois editorial helped initiate a <a href="/wiki/Anti-lynching_movement" title="Anti-lynching movement">nationwide push to induce the federal government to outlaw lynching</a>. Du Bois, employing the sarcasm he frequently used, commented on a lynching in <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>: "The point is he was black. Blackness must be punished. Blackness is the crime of crimes ... It is therefore necessary, as every white scoundrel in the nation knows, to let slip no opportunity of punishing this crime of crimes. Of course if possible, the pretext should be great and overwhelming – some awful stunning crime, made even more horrible by the reporters' imagination. Failing this, mere murder, arson, barn burning or impudence may do."<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_crisis_nov1910.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/The_crisis_nov1910.jpg/220px-The_crisis_nov1910.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/The_crisis_nov1910.jpg/330px-The_crisis_nov1910.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/The_crisis_nov1910.jpg/440px-The_crisis_nov1910.jpg 2x" data-file-width="725" data-file-height="1078" /></a><figcaption>First Issue of The Crisis, November 1910</figcaption></figure> The Crisis carried Du Bois editorials supporting the ideals of unionized labor but denouncing its leaders' racism; blacks were barred from membership.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Du Bois also supported the principles of the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America" title="Socialist Party of America">Socialist Party of America</a> (he held party membership from 1910 to 1912), but he denounced the racism demonstrated by some socialist leaders.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Frustrated by Republican president Taft's failure to address widespread lynching, Du Bois endorsed Democratic candidate <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">1912 presidential race</a>, in exchange for Wilson's promise to support black causes.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Throughout his writings, Du Bois supported <a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_United_States" title="Feminism in the United States">women's rights</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">women's suffrage</a>,<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> but he found it difficult to publicly endorse the <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">women's right-to-vote movement</a> because leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Suffragism" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffragism">suffragism</a> movement refused to support his fight against racial injustice.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> A 1913 Crisis editorial broached the taboo subject of <a href="/wiki/Interracial_marriage" title="Interracial marriage">interracial marriage</a>: although Du Bois generally expected persons to marry within their race, he viewed the problem as a women's rights issue, because laws prohibited white men from marrying black women. Du Bois wrote "<a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States">[anti-miscegenation] laws</a> leave the colored girls absolutely helpless for the lust of white men. It reduces colored women in the eyes of the law to the position of dogs. As low as the white girl falls, she can compel her seducer to marry her ... We must kill [anti-miscegenation laws] not because we are anxious to marry the white men's sisters, but because we are determined that white men will leave our sisters alone."<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> During 1915−1916, some leaders of the NAACP – disturbed by financial losses at The Crisis, and worried about the inflammatory rhetoric of some of its essays – attempted to oust Du Bois from his editorial position. Du Bois and his supporters prevailed, and he continued in his role as editor.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> In a 1919 column titled "The True Brownies", he announced the creation of <a href="/wiki/The_Brownies%27_Book" title="The Brownies' Book">The Brownies' Book</a>, the first magazine published for African-American children and youth, which he founded with <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Granville_Dill" title="Augustus Granville Dill">Augustus Granville Dill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jessie_Redmon_Fauset" class="mw-redirect" title="Jessie Redmon Fauset">Jessie Redmon Fauset</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historian_and_author">Historian and author</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:W.E.B._(William_Edward_Burghardt)_Du_Bois,_1868-1963_LCCN2003681451.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Formal photograph of Du Bois, with beard and mustache, around 50 years old" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/W.E.B._%28William_Edward_Burghardt%29_Du_Bois%2C_1868-1963_LCCN2003681451.jpg/220px-W.E.B._%28William_Edward_Burghardt%29_Du_Bois%2C_1868-1963_LCCN2003681451.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/W.E.B._%28William_Edward_Burghardt%29_Du_Bois%2C_1868-1963_LCCN2003681451.jpg/330px-W.E.B._%28William_Edward_Burghardt%29_Du_Bois%2C_1868-1963_LCCN2003681451.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/W.E.B._%28William_Edward_Burghardt%29_Du_Bois%2C_1868-1963_LCCN2003681451.jpg/440px-W.E.B._%28William_Edward_Burghardt%29_Du_Bois%2C_1868-1963_LCCN2003681451.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4620" data-file-height="5820" /></a><figcaption>Du Bois in 1918, by <a href="/wiki/C._M._Battey" title="C. M. Battey">C. M. Battey</a></figcaption></figure> The 1910s were a productive time for Du Bois. In 1911, he attended the <a href="/wiki/First_Universal_Races_Congress" title="First Universal Races Congress">First Universal Races Congress</a> in London<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> and he published his first novel, The Quest of the Silver Fleece.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Two years later, Du Bois wrote, produced, and directed a pageant for the stage, <a href="/wiki/The_Star_of_Ethiopia" title="The Star of Ethiopia">The Star of Ethiopia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis301-142">[142]</a> In 1915, Du Bois published <a href="/wiki/The_Negro" title="The Negro">The Negro</a>, a general history of black Africans, and the first of its kind in English. The book rebutted claims of African inferiority, and came to serve as the basis of much <a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentric</a> historiography in the 20th century. The Negro predicted unity and solidarity for colored people around the world, and it influenced many who supported the Pan-African movement.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> In 1915, <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic Monthly</a> carried a Du Bois essay, "The African Roots of the War", which consolidated his ideas on capitalism, imperialism, and race.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> He argued that the <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> was at the root of World War I. He also anticipated later communist doctrine, by suggesting that wealthy capitalists had pacified white workers by giving them just enough wealth to prevent them from revolting, and by threatening them with competition by the lower-cost labor of colored workers.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Combating_racism">Combating racism</h3></div> Du Bois used his influential NAACP position to oppose a variety of racist incidents. When the silent film <a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation" title="The Birth of a Nation">The Birth of a Nation</a> premiered in 1915, Du Bois and the NAACP led the fight to ban the movie, because of its racist portrayal of blacks as brutish and lustful.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> The fight was not successful, and possibly contributed to the film's fame, but the publicity drew many new supporters to the NAACP.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> The private sector was not the only source of racism: under President Wilson, the plight of African Americans in government jobs suffered. Many federal agencies adopted whites-only employment practices, the Army excluded blacks from officer ranks, and the immigration service prohibited the immigration of persons of African ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Du Bois wrote an editorial in 1914 deploring the dismissal of blacks from federal posts, and he supported <a href="/wiki/William_Monroe_Trotter" title="William Monroe Trotter">William Monroe Trotter</a> when Trotter brusquely confronted Wilson about the President's failure to fulfill his campaign promise of justice for blacks.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jesse_Washington_hanging.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Jesse_Washington_hanging.jpg/220px-Jesse_Washington_hanging.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Jesse_Washington_hanging.jpg/330px-Jesse_Washington_hanging.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Jesse_Washington_hanging.jpg/440px-Jesse_Washington_hanging.jpg 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="455" /></a><figcaption>A photograph of the lynching of Jesse Washington</figcaption></figure> The Crisis continued to wage a campaign against lynching. In 1915, it published an article with a year-by-year tabulation of 2,732 lynchings from 1884 to 1914.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> The April 1916 edition covered the group lynching of six African Americans in <a href="/wiki/Lee_County,_Georgia" title="Lee County, Georgia">Lee County, Georgia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis335-151">[151]</a> Later in the June 1916 issue, the "Waco Horror" article covered the <a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington" title="Lynching of Jesse Washington">lynching of Jesse Washington</a>, a mentally impaired 17-year-old African American. Du Bois included photographs of it in the article.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis335-151">[151]</a> The article broke new ground by utilizing undercover reporting to expose the conduct of local whites in <a href="/wiki/Waco,_Texas" title="Waco, Texas">Waco, Texas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> The early 20th century was the era of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> of blacks from the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">West</a>. Du Bois wrote an editorial supporting the Great Migration, because he felt it would help blacks escape Southern racism, find economic opportunities, and assimilate into American society.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Also in the 1910s the <a href="/wiki/Eugenics_in_the_United_States" title="Eugenics in the United States">American eugenics movement</a> was in its infancy, and many leading eugenicists were openly racist, defining Blacks as "a lower race". Du Bois opposed this view as an unscientific aberration, but still maintained the basic principle of eugenics: that different persons have different inborn characteristics that make them more or less suited for specific kinds of employment, and that by encouraging the most talented members of all races to procreate would better the "stocks" of humanity.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I">World War I</h3></div> As the <a href="/wiki/American_entry_into_World_War_I" title="American entry into World War I">United States prepared to enter World War I</a> in 1917, Du Bois's colleague in the NAACP, <a href="/wiki/Joel_Elias_Spingarn" title="Joel Elias Spingarn">Joel Spingarn</a>, established a camp to train African Americans to serve as officers in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">United States Armed Forces</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> The camp was controversial, because some whites felt that blacks were not qualified to be officers, and some blacks felt that African Americans should not participate in what they considered a white man's war.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Du Bois supported Spingarn's training camp, but was disappointed when the Army forcibly retired one of its few black officers, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Young_(United_States_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Young (United States Army)">Charles Young</a>, on a pretense of ill health.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> The Army agreed to create 1,000 officer positions for blacks, but insisted that 250 come from enlisted men, conditioned to taking orders from whites, rather than from independent-minded blacks who came from the camp.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> Over 700,000 blacks enlisted on the first day of the draft, but were subject to discriminatory conditions which prompted vocal protests from Du Bois.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1917_Silent_Parade_men_H.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Hundreds of African Americans peacefully parading down 5th avenue in New York, holding signs of protest" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/1917_Silent_Parade_men_H.tiff/lossless-page1-220px-1917_Silent_Parade_men_H.tiff.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/1917_Silent_Parade_men_H.tiff/lossless-page1-330px-1917_Silent_Parade_men_H.tiff.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/1917_Silent_Parade_men_H.tiff/lossless-page1-440px-1917_Silent_Parade_men_H.tiff.png 2x" data-file-width="761" data-file-height="506" /></a><figcaption>Du Bois organized the 1917 Silent Parade in New York, to protest the East St. Louis riots</figcaption></figure> After the <a href="/wiki/East_St._Louis_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="East St. Louis riots">East St. Louis riots</a> occurred in the summer of 1917, Du Bois traveled to St. Louis to report on the riots. Between 40 and 250 African Americans were massacred by whites, primarily due to resentment caused by St. Louis industry hiring blacks to replace striking white workers.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> Du Bois's reporting resulted in an article "The Massacre of East St. Louis", published in the September issue of The Crisis, which contained photographs and interviews detailing the violence.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/David_Levering_Lewis" title="David Levering Lewis">David Levering Lewis</a> concluded that Du Bois distorted some of the facts in order to increase the propaganda value of the article.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> To publicly demonstrate the black community's outrage over the riots, Du Bois organized the <a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a>, a march of around 9,000 African Americans down New York City's <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Avenue" title="Fifth Avenue">Fifth Avenue</a>, the first parade of its kind in New York, and the second instance of blacks publicly demonstrating for civil rights.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Houston_riot_of_1917" title="Houston riot of 1917">Houston riot of 1917</a> disturbed Du Bois and was a major setback to efforts to permit African Americans to become military officers. The riot began after <a href="/wiki/Houston_Police_Department" title="Houston Police Department">Houston police</a> arrested and beat two black soldiers; in response, over 100 black soldiers took to the streets of Houston and killed 16 whites. A military court martial was held, and 19 of the soldiers were hanged, and 67 others were imprisoned.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> In spite of the Houston riot, Du Bois and others successfully pressed the Army to accept the officers trained at Spingarn's camp, resulting in over 600 black officers joining the Army in October 1917.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> Federal officials, concerned about subversive viewpoints expressed by NAACP leaders, attempted to frighten the NAACP by threatening it with investigations. Du Bois was not intimidated, and in 1918 he predicted that <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> would lead to an overthrow of the European colonial system and to the "liberation" of colored people worldwide – in <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">China</a>, in <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">India</a>, and especially in the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> NAACP chairman <a href="/wiki/Joel_Elias_Spingarn" title="Joel Elias Spingarn">Joel Spingarn</a> was enthusiastic about the war, and he persuaded Du Bois to consider an officer's commission in the Army, contingent on Du Bois writing an editorial repudiating his <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_I" title="Opposition to World War I">anti-war stance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Du Bois accepted this bargain and wrote the pro-war "Close Ranks" editorial in June 1918<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> and soon thereafter he received a commission in the Army.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Many black leaders, who wanted to leverage the war to gain civil rights for African Americans, criticized Du Bois for his sudden reversal.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> Southern officers in Du Bois's unit objected to his presence, and his commission was withdrawn.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_the_war">After the war</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChicagoRaceRiot_1919_wagon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An African-American family moves out of a house with broken windows" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/ChicagoRaceRiot_1919_wagon.png/220px-ChicagoRaceRiot_1919_wagon.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/ChicagoRaceRiot_1919_wagon.png/330px-ChicagoRaceRiot_1919_wagon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/ChicagoRaceRiot_1919_wagon.png/440px-ChicagoRaceRiot_1919_wagon.png 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="434" /></a><figcaption>A family evacuating their house after it was vandalized in the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_race_riot_of_1919" title="Chicago race riot of 1919">Chicago race riot</a></figcaption></figure> When the war ended, Du Bois traveled to Europe in 1919 to attend the first <a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Congress" title="Pan-African Congress">Pan-African Congress</a> and to interview African-American soldiers for a planned book on their experiences in World War I.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> He was trailed by U.S. agents who were searching for evidence of treasonous activities.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> Du Bois discovered that the vast majority of black American soldiers were relegated to menial labor as <a href="/wiki/Stevedore" class="mw-redirect" title="Stevedore">stevedores</a> and laborers.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Some units were armed, and one in particular, the <a href="/wiki/92nd_Infantry_Division_(United_States)" title="92nd Infantry Division (United States)">92nd Division</a> (the Buffalo soldiers), engaged in combat.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> Du Bois discovered widespread racism in the Army, and concluded that the Army command discouraged African Americans from joining the Army, discredited the accomplishments of black soldiers, and promoted bigotry.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> Du Bois returned from Europe more determined than ever to gain equal rights for African Americans. Black soldiers returning from overseas felt a new sense of power and worth, and were representative of an emerging attitude referred to as the <a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a>.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> In the editorial "Returning Soldiers" he wrote: "But, by the God of Heaven, we are cowards and jackasses if, now that the war is over, we do not marshal every ounce of our brain and brawn to fight a sterner, longer, more unbending battle against the forces of hell in our own land."<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Many blacks moved to northern cities in search of work</a>, and some northern white workers resented the competition. This labor strife was one of the causes of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a>, a series of <a href="/wiki/Race_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="Race riots">race riots</a> across America in 1919, in which over 300 African Americans were killed in over 30 cities.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_p._383-180">[180]</a> Du Bois documented the atrocities in the pages of The Crisis, culminating in the December publication of a gruesome photograph of a <a href="/wiki/Omaha_race_riot_of_1919" title="Omaha race riot of 1919">lynching that occurred during a race riot in Omaha, Nebraska</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_p._383-180">[180]</a> The most violent episode during the Red Summer was a <a href="/wiki/Elaine_massacre" title="Elaine massacre">massacre</a> in <a href="/wiki/Elaine,_Arkansas" title="Elaine, Arkansas">Elaine, Arkansas</a> in which nearly 200 blacks were murdered.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> Reports coming out of the South blamed the blacks, alleging that they were conspiring to take over the government. Infuriated with the distortions, Du Bois published a letter in the <a href="/wiki/New_York_World" title="New York World">New York World</a>, claiming that the only crime the black <a href="/wiki/Sharecropper" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharecropper">sharecroppers</a> had committed was daring to challenge their white landlords by hiring an attorney to investigate contractual irregularities.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> Over 60 of the surviving blacks were arrested and tried for conspiracy, in the case known as <a href="/wiki/Moore_v._Dempsey" title="Moore v. Dempsey">Moore v. Dempsey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> Du Bois rallied blacks across America to raise funds for the legal defense, which, six years later, resulted in a Supreme Court ruling authored by <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.</a><a href="#cite_note-Lewis301-142">[142]</a> Although the victory had little immediate impact on justice for blacks in the South, it marked the first time the federal government used the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a> guarantee of <a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a> to prevent states from shielding mob violence.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Darkwater.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Darkwater.jpg/140px-Darkwater.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Darkwater.jpg/210px-Darkwater.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Darkwater.jpg 2x" data-file-width="216" data-file-height="316" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Darkwater:_Voices_from_Within_the_Veil" title="Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil">Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil</a>, first edition cover, 1920</figcaption></figure> In 1920, Du Bois published <a href="/wiki/Darkwater:_Voices_from_Within_the_Veil" title="Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil">Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil</a>, the first of his three autobiographies.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> The "veil" was that which covered colored people around the world. In the book, he hoped to lift the veil and show white readers what life was like behind the veil, and how it distorted the viewpoints of those looking through it – in both directions.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> The book contained Du Bois's feminist essay, "The Damnation of Women", which was a tribute to the dignity and worth of women, particularly black women.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> Concerned that textbooks used by African-American children ignored black history and culture, Du Bois created a monthly children's magazine, The Brownies' Book. Initially published in 1920, it was aimed at black children, who Du Bois called "the children of the sun".<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pan-Africanism_and_Marcus_Garvey">Pan-Africanism and Marcus Garvey</h3></div> Du Bois traveled to Europe in 1921 to attend the second Pan-African Congress.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> The assembled black leaders from around the world issued the London Resolutions and established a Pan-African Association headquarters in Paris. Under Du Bois's guidance, the resolutions insisted on racial equality, and that Africa be ruled by Africans (not, as in the 1919 congress, with the consent of Africans).<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> Du Bois restated the resolutions of the congress in his Manifesto to the League of Nations, which implored the newly formed <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> to address labor issues and to appoint Africans to key posts. The League took little action on the requests.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> Jamaican activist <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a>, promoter of the <a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a> and founder of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association">Universal Negro Improvement Association</a> (UNIA),<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> denounced Du Bois's efforts to achieve equality through integration, and instead endorsed racial separatism.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> Du Bois initially supported the concept of Garvey's <a href="/wiki/Black_Star_Line" title="Black Star Line">Black Star Line</a>, a shipping company that was intended to facilitate commerce within the <a href="/wiki/African_diaspora" title="African diaspora">African diaspora</a>.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> But Du Bois later became concerned that Garvey was threatening the NAACP's efforts, leading Du Bois to describe him as fraudulent and reckless.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> Responding to Garvey's slogan "Africa for the Africans", Du Bois said that he supported that concept, but denounced Garvey's intention that Africa be ruled by African Americans.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Du Bois wrote a series of articles in The Crisis between 1922 and 1924 attacking Garvey's movement, calling him the "most dangerous enemy of the Negro race in America and the world."<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> Du Bois and Garvey never made a serious attempt to collaborate, and their dispute was partly rooted in the desire of their respective organizations (NAACP and UNIA) to capture a larger portion of the available philanthropic funding.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> Du Bois decried Harvard's decision to ban blacks from its dormitories in 1921 as an instance of a broad effort in the U.S. to renew "the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxon</a> cult; the worship of the <a href="/wiki/Nordic_race" title="Nordic race">Nordic</a> totem, the disfranchisement of <a href="/wiki/Negro" title="Negro">Negro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irishman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungarians" title="Hungarians">Hungarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asian_people" title="Asian people">Asiatic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islander" title="Pacific Islander">South Sea Islander</a> – the world rule of Nordic white through brute force."<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> When Du Bois sailed for Europe in 1923 for the third Pan-African Congress, the circulation of The Crisis had declined to 60,000 from its World War I high of 100,000, but it remained the preeminent periodical of the civil rights movement.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> President <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a> designated Du Bois an "Envoy Extraordinary" to <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> and – after the third congress concluded – Du Bois rode a German freighter from the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> to Africa, visiting <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Harlem_Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:W._E._B._Du_Bois_-_The_Gift_of_Black_Folk.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/W._E._B._Du_Bois_-_The_Gift_of_Black_Folk.pdf/page1-220px-W._E._B._Du_Bois_-_The_Gift_of_Black_Folk.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/W._E._B._Du_Bois_-_The_Gift_of_Black_Folk.pdf/page1-330px-W._E._B._Du_Bois_-_The_Gift_of_Black_Folk.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/W._E._B._Du_Bois_-_The_Gift_of_Black_Folk.pdf/page1-440px-W._E._B._Du_Bois_-_The_Gift_of_Black_Folk.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1233" data-file-height="1804" /></a><figcaption>Du Bois's 1924 work The Gift of Black Folk celebrated the unique contributions of African Americans in building the United States.</figcaption></figure> Du Bois frequently promoted African-American artistic creativity in his writings, and when the <a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> emerged in the mid-1920s, his article "A Negro Art Renaissance" celebrated the end of the long hiatus of blacks from creative endeavors.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> His enthusiasm for the Harlem Renaissance waned as he came to believe that many whites visited Harlem for voyeurism, not for genuine appreciation of black art.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> Du Bois insisted that artists recognize their moral responsibilities, writing that "a black artist is first of all a black artist."<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> He was also concerned that black artists were not using their art to promote black causes, saying "I do not care a damn for any art that is not used for propaganda."<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> By the end of 1926, he stopped employing The Crisis to support the arts.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Debate_with_Lothrop_Stoddard">Debate with Lothrop Stoddard</h3></div> In 1929, a debate organised by the Chicago Forum Council billed as "One of the greatest debates ever held" was held between Du Bois and <a href="/wiki/Lothrop_Stoddard" title="Lothrop Stoddard">Lothrop Stoddard</a>, a member of the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>, proponent of <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a> and so-called <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-Frazier-211">[211]</a> The debate was held in Chicago and Du Bois was arguing the affirmative to the question "Shall the Negro be encouraged to seek cultural equality? Has the Negro the same intellectual possibilities as other races?"<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> Du Bois knew that the racists would be unintentionally funny onstage; as he wrote to Moore, Senator <a href="/wiki/J._Thomas_Heflin" title="J. Thomas Heflin">J. Thomas Heflin</a> "would be a scream" in a debate. Du Bois let the overconfident and bombastic Stoddard walk into a comic moment, which Stoddard then made even funnier by not getting the joke. This moment was captured in headlines "DuBois Shatters Stoddard's Cultural Theories in Debate; Thousands Jam Hall ... Cheered as He Proves Race Equality," <a href="/wiki/The_Chicago_Defender" title="The Chicago Defender">The Chicago Defender</a>'s front-page headline ran "5,000 Cheer W.E.B. DuBois, Laugh at Lothrop Stoddard".<a href="#cite_note-Frazier-211">[211]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ian_Frazier" title="Ian Frazier">Ian Frazier</a> of <a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="The New Yorker (magazine)">The New Yorker</a> wrotes that the comic potential of Stoddard's bankrupt ideas was left untapped until <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Kubrick" title="Stanley Kubrick">Stanley Kubrick</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Dr._Strangelove" title="Dr. Strangelove">Dr. Strangelove</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Frazier-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socialism">Socialism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Socialism" title="Category:Socialism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#AE1719; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:160%; font-weight:normal; color:white; line-height:1em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_socialist_movement_in_the_United_States" title="History of the socialist movement in the United States">Socialism in the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg/120px-American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg/180px-American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg/240px-American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="292" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><a href="/wiki/Utopian_socialism" title="Utopian socialism">Utopian socialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bishop_Hill,_Illinois#History" title="Bishop Hill, Illinois">Bishop Hill Commune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brook_Farm" title="Brook Farm">Brook Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icarians" title="Icarians">Icarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonestown" title="Jonestown">Jonestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Looking_Backward" title="Looking Backward">Looking Backward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Harmony,_Indiana" title="New Harmony, Indiana">New Harmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneida_Community" title="Oneida Community">Oneida Community</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1877_St._Louis_general_strike" title="1877 St. Louis general strike">1877 St. Louis general strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_Lawrence_textile_strike" title="1912 Lawrence textile strike">1912 Lawrence textile strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Worker_Movement" title="Catholic Worker Movement">Catholic Worker Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Corn_Rebellion" title="Green Corn Rebellion">Green Corn Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor unionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day" title="International Workers' Day">May Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Repression and persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Defense_Society" title="American Defense Society">American Defense Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Protective_League" title="American Protective League">American Protective League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA_and_African_Americans" title="Communist Party USA and African Americans">Communist Party USA and African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party USA</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">labor movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA_and_American_labor_movement_(1919%E2%80%931937)" title="Communist Party USA and American labor movement (1919–1937)">1919–1937</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA_and_American_labor_movement_(1937%E2%80%931950)" title="Communist Party USA and American labor movement (1937–1950)">1937–1957</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espionage_Act_of_1917" title="Espionage Act of 1917">Espionage Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Birch_Society" title="John Birch Society">John Birch Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seattle_General_Strike" title="Seattle General Strike">Seattle General Strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith_Act" title="Smith Act">Smith Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders" title="Smith Act trials of Communist Party leaders">Smith Act trials</a></li></ul></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_United_States_involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War">Anti-war</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights</a> movements <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COINTELPRO" title="COINTELPRO">COINTELPRO</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">I Have a Dream</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington" class="mw-redirect" title="March on Washington">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li></ul> Contemporary <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1999_Seattle_WTO_protests" title="1999 Seattle WTO protests">1999 Seattle WTO protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis" title="2007–2008 financial crisis">2007–2008 financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupy_Wall_Street" title="Occupy Wall Street">Occupy Wall Street</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Abern" title="Martin Abern">Abern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Alston" title="Ashanti Alston">Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pearl_Andrews" title="Stephen Pearl Andrews">Andrews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Avrich" title="Paul Avrich">Avrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwasi_Balagoon" title="Kuwasi Balagoon">Balagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bellamy" title="Edward Bellamy">Bellamy (Edward)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bellamy" title="Francis Bellamy">Bellamy (Francis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_L._Berger" title="Victor L. Berger">Berger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Berkman" title="Alexander Berkman">Berkman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bookchin" title="Murray Bookchin">Bookchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaal_Bowman" title="Jamaal Bowman">Bowman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Bruenig" title="Elizabeth Bruenig">Bruenig (Elizabeth)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Bruenig" title="Matt Bruenig">Bruenig (Matt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Brisbane" title="Albert Brisbane">Brisbane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Brooks_(political_commentator)" title="Michael Brooks (political commentator)">Brooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Browder" title="Earl Browder">Browder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cori_Bush" title="Cori Bush">Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Cabet" title="Étienne Cabet">Cabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_P._Cannon" title="James P. Cannon">Cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Cantor" title="Dan Cantor">Cantor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_H._Clark" title="Peter H. Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Cockburn" title="Alexander Cockburn">Cockburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Davis (Angela)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Davis_(scholar)" title="Mike Davis (scholar)">Davis (Mike)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Day" title="Dorothy Day">Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jodi_Dean" title="Jodi Dean">Dean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_V._Debs" title="Eugene V. Debs">Debs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_De_Leon" title="Daniel De Leon">De Leon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Dennis" title="Eugene Dennis">Dennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Dreiser" title="Theodore Dreiser">Dreiser</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Ehrenreich" title="Barbara Ehrenreich">Ehrenreich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Kom%27boa_Ervin" title="Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin">Ervin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Fearing" title="Kenneth Fearing">Fearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Feinberg" title="Leslie Feinberg">Feinberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn" title="Elizabeth Gurley Flynn">Flynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_W._Ford" title="James W. Ford">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Z._Foster" title="William Z. Foster">Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Wilson_Gilmore" title="Ruth Wilson Gilmore">Gilmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Gitlow" title="Benjamin Gitlow">Gitlow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">Graeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Batchelder_Greene" title="William Batchelder Greene">Greene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_Guthrie" title="Woody Guthrie">Guthrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gus_Hall" title="Gus Hall">Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dashiell_Hammett" title="Dashiell Hammett">Hammett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yip_Harburg" title="Yip Harburg">Harburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Harrington" title="Michael Harrington">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Harrison" title="Hubert Harrison">Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Hay" title="Harry Hay">Hay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Haywood" title="Bill Haywood">Haywood (Bill)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Haywood" title="Harry Haywood">Haywood (Harry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howie_Hawkins" title="Howie Hawkins">Hawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Hedges" title="Chris Hedges">Hedges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Heywood" title="Angela Heywood">Heywood (Angela)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezra_Heywood" title="Ezra Heywood">Heywood (Ezra)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Hill_(activist)" title="Joe Hill (activist)">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_Hillquit" title="Morris Hillquit">Hillquit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Hoan" title="Daniel Hoan">Hoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbie_Hoffman" title="Abbie Hoffman">Hoffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Jameson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Jones" title="Mother Jones">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Keller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Labadie" title="Jo Labadie">Labadie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_London" title="Jack London">London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Lovestone" title="Jay Lovestone">Lovestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyer_Lum" title="Dyer Lum">Lum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Marcy" title="Sam Marcy">Marcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_McReynolds" title="David McReynolds">McReynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlene_Mitchell" title="Charlene Mitchell">Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Moore" title="Michael Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Morello" title="Tom Morello">Morello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Most" title="Johann Most">Most</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Humphrey_Noyes" title="John Humphrey Noyes">Noyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Ocasio-Cortez" title="Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez">Ocasio-Cortez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phil_Ochs" title="Phil Ochs">Ochs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Panken" title="Jacob Panken">Panken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Parenti" title="Michael Parenti">Parenti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Parsons" title="Albert Parsons">Parsons (Albert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Parsons" title="Lucy Parsons">Parsons (Lucy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_Piker" title="Hasan Piker">Piker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Fox_Piven" title="Frances Fox Piven">Piven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Reed_(journalist)" title="John Reed (journalist)">Reed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ripley_(transcendentalist)" title="George Ripley (transcendentalist)">Ripley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matilda_Robbins" title="Matilda Robbins">Robbins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_J._Robinson" title="Nathan J. Robinson">Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zack_de_la_Rocha" title="Zack de la Rocha">Rocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Rocker" title="Rudolf Rocker">Rocker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Roediger" title="David Roediger">Roediger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Ruthenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Ruthenberg">Ruthenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacco_and_Vanzetti" title="Sacco and Vanzetti">Sacco and Vanzetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sandburg" title="Carl Sandburg">Sandburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshama_Sawant" title="Kshama Sawant">Sawant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Seale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Seeger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Seidel" title="Emil Seidel">Seidel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Shachtman" title="Max Shachtman">Shachtman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assata_Shakur" title="Assata Shakur">Shakur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._F._Stone" title="I. F. Stone">Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaskar_Sunkara" title="Bhaskar Sunkara">Sunkara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Sweezy" title="Paul Sweezy">Sweezy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serj_Tankian" title="Serj Tankian">Tankian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Thomas" title="Norman Thomas">Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashida_Tlaib" title="Rashida Tlaib">Tlaib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nina_Turner" title="Nina Turner">Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_D._Wolff" title="Richard D. Wolff">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Meiksins_Wood" title="Ellen Meiksins Wood">Wood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Olin_Wright" title="Erik Olin Wright">Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Zeidler" title="Frank Zeidler">Zeidler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Zerzan" title="John Zerzan">Zerzan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Active organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Riders_Liberation_Party" title="Black Riders Liberation Party">Black Riders Liberation Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Socialists_in_America" title="Black Socialists in America">Black Socialists in America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialists_of_America" title="Democratic Socialists of America">Democratic Socialists of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Party_of_New_York_(2010)" title="Freedom Party of New York (2010)">Freedom Party of New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Road_Socialist_Organization" title="Freedom Road Socialist Organization">Freedom Road Socialist Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Socialist_Party" title="Freedom Socialist Party">Freedom Socialist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Mountain_Peace_and_Justice_Party" title="Green Mountain Peace and Justice Party">Green Mountain Peace and Justice Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Party_of_the_United_States" title="Green Party of the United States">Green Party of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World" title="Industrial Workers of the World">Industrial Workers of the World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_Marijuana_Now" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal Marijuana Now">Legal Marijuana Now</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:National_Progressive_Party_(United_States)_state_affiliates" title="Category:National Progressive Party (United States) state affiliates">National Progressive Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Afrikan_Black_Panther_Party" title="New Afrikan Black Panther Party">New Afrikan Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_for_Socialism_and_Liberation" title="Party for Socialism and Liberation">Party for Socialism and Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_and_Freedom_Party" title="Peace and Freedom Party">Peace and Freedom Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Dane" title="Progressive Dane">Progressive Dane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Labor_Party_(United_States)" title="Progressive Labor Party (United States)">Progressive Labor Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redneck_Revolt" title="Redneck Revolt">Redneck Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Communist_Party,_USA" title="Revolutionary Communist Party, USA">Revolutionary Communist Party, USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Action_(United_States)" title="Socialist Action (United States)">Socialist Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Alternative_(United_States)" title="Socialist Alternative (United States)">Socialist Alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Workers_Party" title="South Carolina Workers Party">South Carolina Workers Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democrats,_USA" title="Social Democrats, USA">Social Democrats, USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Equality_Party_(United_States)" title="Socialist Equality Party (United States)">Socialist Equality Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_USA" title="Socialist Party USA">Socialist Party USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Rifle_Association" 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Socialism_US" title="Template:Socialism US"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Socialism_US" title="Template talk:Socialism US"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Socialism_US" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Socialism US"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> When Du Bois became editor of The Crisis magazine in 1911, he joined the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America" title="Socialist Party of America">Socialist Party of America</a> on the advice of NAACP founders <a href="/wiki/Mary_White_Ovington" title="Mary White Ovington">Mary White Ovington</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_English_Walling" title="William English Walling">William English Walling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Edward_Russell" title="Charles Edward Russell">Charles Edward Russell</a>. However, he supported the Democrat <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> in the 1912 presidential campaign, a breach of the rules, and was forced to resign from the Socialist Party. In 1913, his support for Wilson was shaken when racial segregation in government hiring was reported.<a href="#cite_note-DuBois1973-213">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> Du Bois remained "convinced that socialism was an excellent way of life, but I thought it might be reached by various methods."<a href="#cite_note-Communist_Party_USA_2009-215">[215]</a> Nine years after the 1917 <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a>, Du Bois extended a trip to Europe to include a visit to the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, where he was struck by the poverty and disorganization he encountered in the Soviet Union, yet was impressed by the intense labors of the officials and by the recognition given to workers.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> Although Du Bois was not yet familiar with the <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communist</a> theories of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, he concluded that <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> might be a better path towards racial equality than capitalism.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> Although Du Bois generally endorsed socialist principles, his politics were strictly pragmatic: in the <a href="/wiki/1929_New_York_City_mayoral_election" title="1929 New York City mayoral election">1929 New York City mayoral election</a>, he endorsed Democrat <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Walker" title="Jimmy Walker">Jimmy Walker</a> for mayor of New York, rather than the socialist <a href="/wiki/Norman_Thomas" title="Norman Thomas">Norman Thomas</a>, believing that Walker could do more immediate good for blacks, even though Thomas's platform was more consistent with Du Bois's views.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> Throughout the 1920s, Du Bois and the NAACP shifted support back and forth between the Republican Party and the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a>, induced by promises from the candidates to fight lynchings, improve working conditions, or support voting rights in the South; invariably, the candidates failed to deliver on their promises.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:25em; ; font-size: 90%; color: #202122;background-color: #F0F0F0;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> And herein lies the tragedy of the age: not that men are poor – all men know something of poverty; not that men are wicked – who is good? Not that men are ignorant – what is Truth? Nay, but that men know so little of men. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">—Du Bois, "Of Alexander Crummell", in The Souls of Black Folk, 1903<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a></cite> </div> A rivalry emerged in 1931 between the NAACP and the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party</a>, when the communists responded quickly and effectively to support the <a href="/wiki/Scottsboro_Boys" title="Scottsboro Boys">Scottsboro Boys</a>, nine African American youth arrested in 1931 in Alabama for rape.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> Du Bois and the NAACP felt that the case would not be beneficial to their cause, so they chose to let the Communist Party <a href="/wiki/Scottsboro_Boys#Help_from_Communist_Party_and_N.A.A.C.P." title="Scottsboro Boys">organize the defense efforts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> Du Bois was impressed with the vast amount of publicity and funds which the communists devoted to the partially successful defense effort, and he came to suspect that the communists were attempting to present their party to African Americans as a better solution than the NAACP.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> Responding to criticisms of the NAACP from the Communist Party, Du Bois wrote articles condemning the party, claiming that it unfairly attacked the NAACP, and that it failed to fully appreciate racism in the United States. In their turn, the communist leaders accused him of being a "class enemy", and claimed that the NAACP leadership was an isolated elite, disconnected from the working-class blacks they ostensibly fought for.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Return_to_Atlanta">Return to Atlanta</h2></div> Du Bois did not have a good working relationship with <a href="/wiki/Walter_White_(NAACP)" title="Walter White (NAACP)">Walter White</a>, president of the NAACP since 1931.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> That conflict, combined with the financial stresses of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, precipitated a power struggle over The Crisis.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> Du Bois, concerned that his position as editor would be eliminated, resigned his job at The Crisis and accepted an academic position at Atlanta University in early 1933.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> The rift with the NAACP grew larger in 1934 when Du Bois reversed his stance on segregation, stating that "<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>" was an acceptable goal for African Americans.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> The NAACP leadership was stunned, and asked Du Bois to retract his statement, but he refused, and the dispute led to Du Bois's resignation from the NAACP.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> After arriving at his new professorship in Atlanta, Du Bois wrote a series of articles generally supportive of <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>. He was not a strong proponent of <a href="/wiki/Labor_union" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor union">labor unions</a> or the Communist Party, but he felt that Marx's scientific explanation of society and the economy were useful for explaining the situation of African Americans in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> <a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_religion" title="Marxism and religion">Marx's atheism</a> also struck a chord with Du Bois, who routinely criticized black churches for dulling blacks' sensitivity to racism.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> In his 1933 writings, Du Bois embraced socialism, but asserted that "[c]olored labor has no common ground with white labor", a controversial position that was rooted in Du Bois's dislike of American labor unions, which had systematically excluded blacks for decades.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> Du Bois did not support the Communist Party in the U.S. and did not vote for their candidate in the <a href="/wiki/1932_United_States_presidential_election" title="1932 United States presidential election">1932 presidential election</a>, in spite of an African American on their <a href="/wiki/Ticket_(election)" title="Ticket (election)">ticket</a>.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Black_Reconstruction_in_America">Black Reconstruction in America</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Black_Reconstruction_in_America" title="Black Reconstruction in America">Black Reconstruction in America</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BlackReconstruction.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/27/BlackReconstruction.JPG/150px-BlackReconstruction.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/27/BlackReconstruction.JPG/225px-BlackReconstruction.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/27/BlackReconstruction.JPG 2x" data-file-width="264" data-file-height="376" /></a><figcaption>Black Reconstruction in America, first edition cover, 1935</figcaption></figure> Back in the world of academia, Du Bois was able to resume his study of Reconstruction, the topic of the 1910 paper that he presented to the <a href="/wiki/American_Historical_Association" title="American Historical Association">American Historical Association</a>.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> In 1935, he published his magnum opus, Black Reconstruction in America.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> The book presented the thesis, in the words of the historian <a href="/wiki/David_Levering_Lewis" title="David Levering Lewis">David Levering Lewis</a>, that "black people, suddenly admitted to citizenship in an environment of feral hostility, displayed admirable volition and intelligence as well as the indolence and ignorance inherent in three centuries of bondage."<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> Du Bois documented how black people were central figures in the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a>, and also showed how they made alliances with white politicians. He provided evidence that the coalition governments established public education in the South, and many needed social service programs. The book also demonstrated how <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">black emancipation</a> – the crux of Reconstruction – promoted a radical restructuring of United States society, as well as how and why the country failed to continue support for <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> for blacks in the aftermath of Reconstruction.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> The book's thesis ran counter to the <a href="/wiki/Dunning_School" title="Dunning School">orthodox interpretation of Reconstruction</a> maintained by white historians, and the book was virtually ignored by mainstream historians until the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> Thereafter, however, it ignited a "revisionist" trend in the historiography of Reconstruction, which emphasized black people's search for freedom and the era's radical policy changes.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> By the 21st century, Black Reconstruction was widely perceived as "the foundational text of revisionist African American historiography."<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> In the final chapter of the book, "XIV. The Propaganda of History", Du Bois evokes his efforts at writing an article for the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> on the "history of the American Negro". After the editors had cut all reference to Reconstruction, he insisted that the following note appear in the entry: "White historians have ascribed the faults and failures of Reconstruction to Negro ignorance and corruption. But the Negro insists that it was Negro loyalty and the Negro vote alone that restored the South to the Union; established the new democracy, both for white and black, and instituted the public schools." The editors refused and, so, Du Bois withdrew his article.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Projected_encyclopedia">Projected encyclopedia</h3></div> In 1932, Du Bois was selected by several philanthropies, including the <a href="/wiki/Phelps_Stokes_Fund" title="Phelps Stokes Fund">Phelps Stokes Fund</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Corporation_of_New_York" title="Carnegie Corporation of New York">Carnegie Corporation of New York</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/General_Education_Board" title="General Education Board">General Education Board</a>, to be the managing editor for a proposed Encyclopedia of the Negro, a work which Du Bois had been contemplating for 30 years.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> After several years of planning and organizing, the philanthropies canceled the project in 1938 because some board members believed that Du Bois was too biased to produce an objective encyclopedia.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trip_around_the_world">Trip around the world</h3></div> Du Bois took a trip around the world in 1936, which included visits to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">China</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_p._600-248">[248]</a> While in Germany, Du Bois remarked that he was treated with warmth and respect.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_p._600-248">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> After his return to the United States, he expressed his ambivalence about the Nazi regime.<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> He admired how the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazis</a> had improved the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Economy of Nazi Germany">German economy</a>, but he was horrified by their <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">treatment</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish people">Jewish people</a>, which he described as "an attack on civilization, comparable only to such horrors as the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">African slave trade</a>".<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> Following the 1905 Japanese victory in the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a>, Du Bois became impressed by the growing strength of Imperial Japan. He came to view the ascendant Japanese Empire as an antidote to Western imperialism, arguing for over three decades after the war that its rise represented a chance to break the monopoly that white nations had on international affairs.<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> A representative of Japan's "Negro Propaganda Operations" traveled to the United States during the 1920s and 1930s, meeting with Du Bois and giving him a positive impression of Imperial Japan's racial policies. In 1936, the Japanese ambassador arranged a trip to Japan for Du Bois and a small group of <a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">academics</a>, visiting China, Japan, and <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a> (Manchuria).<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKearney1995204-257">[257]</a> Du Bois viewed Japanese colonialism in Manchuria as benevolent; he wrote that "colonial enterprise by a colored nation need not imply the caste, exploitation and subjection which it has always implied in the case of white Europe."<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> He also believed that it was natural for Chinese and Japanese to quarrel with each other as "relatives" and that the segregated schools in Manchuria were established because the natives spoke Chinese only.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKearney1995-259">[259]</a> While disturbed by the eventual <a href="/wiki/Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">Japanese alliance with Nazi Germany</a>, Du Bois also argued Japan was only compelled to enter the pact because of the hostility of the United States and United Kingdom, and he viewed American apprehensions over Japanese expansion in Asia as racially motivated both before and after the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKearney1995213–215-260">[260]</a> He was similarly disturbed by how Chinese culture might be extinguished under Japanese rule but argued that Western imperialism was a greater existential concern.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKearney1995-259">[259]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DuskOfDawn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a5/DuskOfDawn.jpg/120px-DuskOfDawn.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a5/DuskOfDawn.jpg/180px-DuskOfDawn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a5/DuskOfDawn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="216" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>Dusk of Dawn, first edition cover, 1940</figcaption></figure> Du Bois opposed the US intervention in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a>, because he believed that China and Japan were emerging from the clutches of white imperialists. He felt that the European Allies waging war against Japan was an opportunity for whites to reestablish their influence in Asia.<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> He was deeply disappointed by the US government's plan for African Americans in the armed forces: Blacks were limited to 5.8% of the force, and there were to be no African-American combat units – virtually the same restrictions as in World War I.<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> With blacks threatening to shift their support to President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>'s Republican opponent <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Willkie" title="Wendell Willkie">Wendell Willkie</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_presidential_election" title="1940 United States presidential election">1940 election</a>, Roosevelt appointed a few blacks to leadership posts in the military.<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dusk_of_Dawn" title="Dusk of Dawn">Dusk of Dawn</a>, Du Bois's second autobiography, was published in 1940.<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a> The title refers to his hope that African Americans were passing out of the darkness of racism into an era of greater equality.<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> The work is part autobiography, part history, and part sociological treatise.<a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a> Du Bois described the book as "the autobiography of a concept of race ... elucidated and magnified and doubtless distorted in the thoughts and deeds which were mine ... Thus for all time my life is significant for all lives of men."<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> In 1943, at age 75, Du Bois was abruptly fired from his position at Atlanta University by college president <a href="/wiki/Rufus_Early_Clement" title="Rufus Early Clement">Rufus Early Clement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> Many scholars expressed outrage, prompting Atlanta University to provide Du Bois with a lifelong pension and the title of professor <a href="/wiki/Emeritus" title="Emeritus">emeritus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arthur_B._Spingarn" title="Arthur B. Spingarn">Arthur Spingarn</a> remarked that Du Bois spent his time in Atlanta "battering his life out against ignorance, bigotry, intolerance and slothfulness, projecting ideas nobody but he understands, and raising hopes for change which may be comprehended in a hundred years."<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> Turning down job offers from <a href="/wiki/Fisk_University" title="Fisk University">Fisk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard</a>, Du Bois re-joined the NAACP as director of the Department of Special Research. Surprising many NAACP leaders, Du Bois jumped into the job with vigor and determination.<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a> During his 10−years hiatus, the NAACP's income had increased fourfold, and its membership had soared to 325,000 members.<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_life">Later life</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Nations">United Nations</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WEB_Du_Bois_1946.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A portrait of an elderly African American man" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/WEB_Du_Bois_1946.jpg/170px-WEB_Du_Bois_1946.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/WEB_Du_Bois_1946.jpg/255px-WEB_Du_Bois_1946.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/WEB_Du_Bois_1946.jpg/340px-WEB_Du_Bois_1946.jpg 2x" data-file-width="447" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Du Bois in 1946, photo by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Van_Vechten" title="Carl Van Vechten">Carl Van Vechten</a></figcaption></figure> Du Bois was a member of the three-person delegation from the NAACP that attended the 1945 <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_International_Organization" title="United Nations Conference on International Organization">conference in San Francisco</a> at which the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> was established.<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> The NAACP delegation wanted the United Nations to endorse <a href="/wiki/Racial_equality" title="Racial equality">racial equality</a> and to bring an end to the <a href="/wiki/Imperialism#Age_of_Imperialism" title="Imperialism">colonial era</a>. To push the United Nations in that direction, Du Bois drafted a proposal that pronounced "[t]he colonial system of government ... is undemocratic, socially dangerous and a main cause of wars".<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> The NAACP proposal received support from China, India, and the Soviet Union, but it was virtually ignored by the other major powers, and the NAACP proposals were not included in the final <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations" title="Charter of the United Nations">United Nations Charter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> After the United Nations conference, Du Bois published Color and Democracy: Colonies and Peace, a book that attacked <a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">colonial empires</a> and, in the words of a most sympathetic reviewer, "contains enough dynamite to blow up the whole vicious system whereby we have comforted our white souls and lined the pockets of generations of free-booting capitalists."<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a> In late 1945, Du Bois attended the fifth, and final, Pan-African Congress, in <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a>, England. The congress was the most productive of the five congresses, and there Du Bois met <a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Kwame Nkrumah</a>, the future first president of <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, who later invited him to Africa.<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> Du Bois helped to submit petitions to the UN concerning discrimination against African Americans, the most noteworthy of which was the NAACP's "An Appeal to the World: A Statement on the Denial of Human Rights to Minorities in the Case of Citizens of Negro Descent in the United States of America and an Appeal to the United Nations for Redress".<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> This advocacy laid the foundation for the later report and petition called "<a href="/wiki/We_Charge_Genocide" title="We Charge Genocide">We Charge Genocide</a>", submitted in 1951 by the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Congress" title="Civil Rights Congress">Civil Rights Congress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> "We Charge Genocide" accuses the U.S. of systematically sanctioning murders and inflicting harm against African Americans and therefore committing <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold_War">Cold War</h3></div> When the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> commenced in the mid-1940s, the NAACP distanced itself from communists, lest its funding or reputation suffer.<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> The NAACP redoubled its efforts in 1947 after <a href="/wiki/Life_(magazine)" title="Life (magazine)">Life</a> magazine published a piece by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a> claiming that the NAACP was heavily influenced by communists.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis669-283">[283]</a> Ignoring the NAACP's desires, Du Bois continued to fraternize with communist sympathizers such as <a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Howard_Fast" title="Howard Fast">Howard Fast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shirley_Graham_Du_Bois" title="Shirley Graham Du Bois">Shirley Graham</a> (his future second wife).<a href="#cite_note-Lewis670-284">[284]</a> Du Bois wrote "I am not a communist ... On the other hand, I ... believe ... that Karl Marx ... put his finger squarely upon our difficulties ...".<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> In 1946, Du Bois wrote articles giving his assessment of the Soviet Union; he did not embrace communism and he criticized its dictatorship.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis669-283">[283]</a> However, he felt that capitalism was responsible for poverty and racism, and felt that socialism was an alternative that might ameliorate those problems.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis669-283">[283]</a> The Soviets explicitly rejected racial distinctions and class distinctions, leading Du Bois to conclude that the USSR was the "most hopeful country on earth".<a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> Du Bois's association with prominent communists made him a liability for the NAACP, especially since the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a> was starting to aggressively investigate communist sympathizers; so – by mutual agreement – he resigned from the NAACP for the second time in late 1948.<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> After departing the NAACP, Du Bois started writing regularly for the leftist weekly newspaper the <a href="/wiki/National_Guardian" title="National Guardian">National Guardian</a>, a relationship that endured until 1961.<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> Du Bois was an early supporter of <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a>. He viewed <a href="/wiki/Palestinians" title="Palestinians">Palestinians</a> as uncivilized and viewed <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> as the main factor in what he saw as a lack of progress. However, he did not express support for Israel during the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a>, instead backing <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a>. Nadia Alahmed contends that Du Bois came to view "Nasser as a <a href="/wiki/Pan-African" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan-African">Pan-African</a> symbol, a power to resist Western" <a href="/wiki/Neo-colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-colonialism">neo-colonialism</a> and that Du Bois's poem "Suez" influenced <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Black_Power_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Power Movement">Black Power Movement</a> in forming <a href="/wiki/Black-Palestinian_solidarity" title="Black-Palestinian solidarity">Black-Palestinian solidarity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peace_activism">Peace activism</h3></div> Du Bois was a lifelong <a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">anti-war activist</a>, but his efforts became more pronounced after World War II.<a href="#cite_note-Schneider163-291">[291]</a> In 1949, Du Bois spoke at the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_and_Cultural_Conference_for_World_Peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific and Cultural Conference for World Peace">Scientific and Cultural Conference for World Peace</a> in New York: "I tell you, people of America, the dark world is on the move! It wants and will have Freedom, Autonomy and Equality. It will not be diverted in these fundamental rights by dialectical splitting of political hairs ... Whites may, if they will, arm themselves for suicide. But the vast majority of the world's peoples will march on over them to freedom!"<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a> In the spring of 1949, he spoke at the <a href="/wiki/World_Congress_of_the_Partisans_of_Peace#Paris_and_Prague_1949" class="mw-redirect" title="World Congress of the Partisans of Peace">World Congress of the Partisans of Peace</a> in Paris, saying to the large crowd: "Leading this new colonial imperialism comes my own native land built by my father's toil and blood, the United States. The United States is a great nation; rich by grace of God and prosperous by the hard work of its humblest citizens ... Drunk with power we are leading the world to hell in a new colonialism with the same old human slavery which once ruined us; and to a third World War which will ruin the world."<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> Du Bois affiliated himself with a leftist organization, the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Arts,_Sciences_and_Professions" title="National Council of Arts, Sciences and Professions">National Council of Arts, Sciences and Professions</a>, and he traveled to Moscow as its representative to speak at the <a href="/wiki/All-Soviet_Peace_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="All-Soviet Peace Conference">All-Soviet Peace Conference</a> in late 1949.<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a> During this period, Du Bois also visited the remains of the Warsaw Ghetto, an experience he spoke about in a speech titled, "The Negro and the Warsaw Ghetto" delivered in 1949<a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a> and later published in 1952 in the magazine Jewish Life. In the address, Du Bois reflects on the destruction caused by the Nazi assault against Jewish peoples and considers the way in which the "race problem" could extend past a "color-line" and become "a matter of cultural patterns, perverted teaching and human hate and prejudice, which reached all sorts of people and caused endless evil to all men".<a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a> Du Bois' speech champions a broader and more transnational approach to humanitarianism. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_FBI,_McCarthyism,_and_trial">The FBI, McCarthyism, and trial</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WEB_Du_Bois_PIC_hearing_reduced_Resolution.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Five persons stand in heavy overcoats in front of an imposing federal building" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cc/WEB_Du_Bois_PIC_hearing_reduced_Resolution.jpg/220px-WEB_Du_Bois_PIC_hearing_reduced_Resolution.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cc/WEB_Du_Bois_PIC_hearing_reduced_Resolution.jpg/330px-WEB_Du_Bois_PIC_hearing_reduced_Resolution.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cc/WEB_Du_Bois_PIC_hearing_reduced_Resolution.jpg 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="279" /></a><figcaption>Du Bois (center) and other defendants from the <a href="/wiki/Peace_Information_Center" title="Peace Information Center">Peace Information Center</a> prepare for their trial in 1951.</figcaption></figure> During the 1950s, the U.S. government's anti-communist <a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a> campaign targeted Du Bois because of his socialist leanings.<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a> Socialist historian <a href="/wiki/Manning_Marable" title="Manning Marable">Manning Marable</a> characterizes the government's treatment of Du Bois as "ruthless repression" and a "political assassination".<a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a> The FBI began to compile a file on Du Bois in 1942,<a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a> investigating him for possible subversive activities. The original investigation appears to have ended in 1943 because the FBI was unable to discover sufficient evidence against Du Bois, but the FBI resumed its investigation in 1949, suspecting he was among a group of "Concealed Communists".<a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a> The most aggressive government attack against Du Bois occurred in the early 1950s, as a consequence of his opposition to nuclear weapons. In 1950 he became chair of the newly created <a href="/wiki/Peace_Information_Center" title="Peace Information Center">Peace Information Center</a> (PIC), which worked to publicize the <a href="/wiki/Stockholm_Appeal" title="Stockholm Appeal">Stockholm Appeal</a> in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a> The primary purpose of the appeal was to gather signatures on a petition, asking governments around the world to ban all nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a> In <cite>United States v. Peace Information Center</cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/97/255/2247887/">97 F. Supp. 255</a> (D.D.C. 1951), the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">U.S. Justice Department</a> alleged that the PIC was acting as an agent of a foreign state, and thus required the PIC to register with the federal government under the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Agents_Registration_Act" title="Foreign Agents Registration Act">Foreign Agents Registration Act</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schneider163-291">[291]</a> Du Bois and other PIC leaders refused, and they were indicted for failure to register.<a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a> After the indictment, some of Du Bois's associates distanced themselves from him, and the NAACP refused to issue a statement of support; but many labor figures and leftists – including <a href="/wiki/Langston_Hughes" title="Langston Hughes">Langston Hughes</a> – supported Du Bois.<a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a> He was finally tried in 1951 and was represented by civil rights attorney <a href="/wiki/Vito_Marcantonio" title="Vito Marcantonio">Vito Marcantonio</a>.<a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a> The case was dismissed when the defense attorney told the judge that "Dr. <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> has offered to appear as character witness for Dr. Du Bois".<a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a> Du Bois's memoir of the trial is In Battle for Peace. Even though Du Bois was not convicted, the government confiscated Du Bois's passport and withheld it for eight years.<a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communism">Communism</h3></div> Du Bois was bitterly disappointed that many of his colleagues – particularly the NAACP – did not support him during his 1951 PIC trial, whereas working-class whites and blacks supported him enthusiastically.<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a> After the trial, Du Bois lived in Manhattan, writing and speaking, and continuing to associate primarily with leftist acquaintances.<a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a> His primary concern was <a href="/wiki/World_peace" title="World peace">world peace</a>, and he railed against military actions such as the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>, which he viewed as efforts by imperialist whites to maintain colored people in a submissive state.<a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Du_Bois_with_Mao_Tse_Tung_1959B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Du Bois standing outdoors, talking with Mao Zedong" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4b/Du_Bois_with_Mao_Tse_Tung_1959B.jpg/170px-Du_Bois_with_Mao_Tse_Tung_1959B.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4b/Du_Bois_with_Mao_Tse_Tung_1959B.jpg/255px-Du_Bois_with_Mao_Tse_Tung_1959B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4b/Du_Bois_with_Mao_Tse_Tung_1959B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="287" data-file-height="347" /></a><figcaption>Du Bois meeting with Mao Zedong in 1959</figcaption></figure> In 1950, at the age of 82, Du Bois <a href="/wiki/1950_United_States_Senate_election_in_New_York" title="1950 United States Senate election in New York">ran for U.S. Senator</a> from New York on the <a href="/wiki/American_Labor_Party" title="American Labor Party">American Labor Party</a> ticket and received about 200,000 votes, or 4% of the statewide total.<a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> He continued to believe that capitalism was the primary culprit responsible for the subjugation of colored people around the world, and although he recognized the faults of the Soviet Union, he continued to uphold communism as a possible solution to racial problems. In the words of biographer David Lewis, Du Bois did not endorse communism for its own sake, but did so because "the enemies of his enemies were his friends".<a href="#cite_note-317">[317]</a> The same ambiguity characterized his opinions of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>: in 1940 he wrote disdainfully of the "Tyrant Stalin",<a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a> but when Stalin died in 1953, Du Bois wrote a eulogy characterizing Stalin as "simple, calm, and courageous", and lauding him for being the "first [to] set Russia on the road to conquer race prejudice and make one nation out of its 140 groups without destroying their individuality".<a href="#cite_note-319">[319]</a> The U.S. government prevented Du Bois from attending the 1955 <a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a> in Indonesia.<a href="#cite_note-:Gao-320">[320]</a>: 38  The conference was the culmination of 40 years of Du Bois's dreams – a meeting of 29 nations from Africa and Asia, many recently independent, representing most of the world's colored peoples. The conference celebrated those nations' independence as they began to assert their power as non-aligned nations during the Cold War.<a href="#cite_note-321">[321]</a> Du Bois praised the conference as "pan-colored" and believed it would have decisive and long-lasting influence.<a href="#cite_note-:Gao-320">[320]</a>: 38  After the United States Supreme Court ruled in <a href="/wiki/Kent_v._Dulles" title="Kent v. Dulles">Kent v. Dulles</a><a href="#cite_note-:Li2-322">[322]</a>: 245  that the State Department could not deny passports to citizens who refused to sign affidavits that they were not communists, Du Bois and his wife <a href="/wiki/Shirley_Graham_Du_Bois" title="Shirley Graham Du Bois">Shirley Graham Du Bois</a> immediately applied for passports.<a href="#cite_note-:Gao-320">[320]</a>: 12  The two visited both the Soviet Union and China during a 1958 to 1959 trip which Du Bois described as the most significant journey of his life.<a href="#cite_note-:Gao-320">[320]</a>: 12  Du Bois later wrote approvingly of the conditions in both countries.<a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a> In 1959, Du Bois gave a speech at <a href="/wiki/Peking_University" title="Peking University">Peking University</a> in which he advocated for increased ties between the black people in the <a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="China–United States relations">United States and China</a> because "China is colored and knows to what a colored skin in this modern world subjects its owner."<a href="#cite_note-:04-324">[324]</a>: 123 <a href="#cite_note-:Gao-320">[320]</a>: 11  Du Bois stated that <a href="/wiki/Sino-African_relations" title="Sino-African relations">Africa and China</a> should stand together.<a href="#cite_note-:Gao-320">[320]</a>: 11  The speech was reprinted and widely circulated in China, including through the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Daily" title="People's Daily">People's Daily</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Review" title="Beijing Review">Peking Review</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:Gao-320">[320]</a>: 12  Du Bois and Graham Du Bois were staying at the border between Sichuan and Tibet when the <a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a> began.<a href="#cite_note-:Gao-320">[320]</a>: 51–52  Describing the events in his Autobiography, Du Bois concluded, "The landholders and slave drivers and religious fanatics revolted against the Chinese and failed as they deserved to. Tibet has belonged to China for centuries. The Communists linked the two by roads and began reforms in landholding, schools, and trade, which now move quickly."<a href="#cite_note-:Gao-320">[320]</a>: 52  Du Bois became incensed in 1961 when the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_v._Subversive_Activities_Control_Board" title="Communist Party v. Subversive Activities Control Board">U.S. Supreme Court upheld</a> the 1950 <a href="/wiki/McCarran_Internal_Security_Act" title="McCarran Internal Security Act">McCarran Internal Security Act</a>, a key piece of McCarthyist legislation that required communists to register with the government. To demonstrate his outrage, he joined the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party</a> in October 1961, at the age of 93.<a href="#cite_note-325">[325]</a> Around that time, he wrote: "I believe in communism. I mean by communism, a planned way of life in the production of wealth and work designed for building a state whose object is the highest welfare of its people and not merely the profit of a part."<a href="#cite_note-326">[326]</a> He asked <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Aptheker" title="Herbert Aptheker">Herbert Aptheker</a>, a communist and historian of African American history, to be his literary executor.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1961 he was a sponsor of the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Play_for_Cuba_Committee" title="Fair Play for Cuba Committee">Fair Play for Cuba Committee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death_in_Africa">Death in Africa</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Du_Bois_95th_birthday_in_Ghana_1963.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An elderly, smiling Du Bois sits in a chair, flanked by a man and woman also seated and smiling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3b/Du_Bois_95th_birthday_in_Ghana_1963.jpg/220px-Du_Bois_95th_birthday_in_Ghana_1963.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3b/Du_Bois_95th_birthday_in_Ghana_1963.jpg/330px-Du_Bois_95th_birthday_in_Ghana_1963.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/3b/Du_Bois_95th_birthday_in_Ghana_1963.jpg 2x" data-file-width="364" data-file-height="273" /></a><figcaption>Du Bois (center) at his 95th birthday party in 1963, with President <a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Kwame Nkrumah</a> (right) and First Lady <a href="/wiki/Fathia_Nkrumah" title="Fathia Nkrumah">Fathia Nkrumah</a></figcaption></figure> Nkrumah invited Du Bois to the <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_Ghana" title="Dominion of Ghana">Dominion of Ghana</a> to participate in their independence celebration in 1957, but he was unable to attend because the U.S. government had confiscated his <a href="/wiki/United_States_passport" title="United States passport">passport</a> in 1951. By 1960 – the "<a href="/wiki/Year_of_Africa" title="Year of Africa">Year of Africa</a>" – Du Bois had recovered his passport and was able to cross the Atlantic and celebrate the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Republic of Ghana</a>. Du Bois returned to Africa in late 1960 to attend the inauguration of <a href="/wiki/Nnamdi_Azikiwe" title="Nnamdi Azikiwe">Nnamdi Azikiwe</a> as the first African governor of <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Nigeria" title="Federation of Nigeria">Nigeria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis707-328">[328]</a> While visiting Ghana in 1960, Du Bois spoke with its president about the creation of a new encyclopedia of the <a href="/wiki/African_diaspora" title="African diaspora">African diaspora</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Africana" title="Encyclopedia Africana">Encyclopedia Africana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis707-328">[328]</a> In early 1961, Ghana notified Du Bois that they had appropriated funds to support the encyclopedia project, and they invited him to travel to Ghana and manage the project there. In October 1961, at the age of 93, Du Bois and his wife traveled to Ghana to take up residence and commence work on the encyclopedia.<a href="#cite_note-329">[329]</a> In early 1963, the United States refused to renew his passport, so he made the symbolic gesture of becoming a <a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_nationality_law" title="Ghanaian nationality law">citizen of Ghana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_p._712-330">[330]</a> The FBI continued to "keep tabs" on Du Bois and Graham Du Bois while they lived in Ghana.<a href="#cite_note-:Gao-320">[320]</a>: 62  While it is sometimes stated that Du Bois <a href="/wiki/Relinquishment_of_United_States_nationality" title="Relinquishment of United States nationality">renounced his U.S. citizenship</a> at that time,<a href="#cite_note-331">[331]</a><a href="#cite_note-332">[332]</a><a href="#cite_note-333">[333]</a> and he stated his intention to do so, Du Bois never actually did.<a href="#cite_note-334">[334]</a> His health declined during the two years he was in Ghana; he died on August 27, 1963, in the capital, <a href="/wiki/Accra" title="Accra">Accra</a>, at the age of 95.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_p._712-330">[330]</a> The following day, at the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a>, speaker <a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a> asked the hundreds of thousands of marchers to honor Du Bois with a moment of silence.<a href="#cite_note-335">[335]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, embodying many of the reforms Du Bois had campaigned for during his entire life, was enacted almost a year after his death.<a href="#cite_note-336">[336]</a> Du Bois was given a <a href="/wiki/State_funeral" title="State funeral">state funeral</a> on August 29–30, 1963, at Nkrumah's request, and was buried near the western wall of <a href="/wiki/Osu_Castle" title="Osu Castle">Christiansborg Castle (now Osu Castle)</a>, then the <a href="/wiki/Seat_of_government" title="Seat of government">seat of government</a> in Accra. In China, a crowd of 10,000 people stood in silence for three minutes, and major figures including Mao, Zhou Enlai, <a href="/wiki/Soong_Ching-ling" title="Soong Ching-ling">Soong Ching-Ling</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guo_Moruo" title="Guo Moruo">Guo Moruo</a> sent messages of condolence to Graham Du Bois.<a href="#cite_note-:Gao-320">[320]</a>: 64  In 1985, another Ghana state ceremony honored Du Bois. With the ashes of Graham Du Bois, who had died in 1977, his body was re-interred at their former home in Accra, which was dedicated the <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Memorial_Centre_for_Pan_African_Culture" title="W. E. B. Du Bois Memorial Centre for Pan African Culture">W. E. B. Du Bois Memorial Centre for Pan African Culture</a> in his memory.<a href="#cite_note-337">[337]</a><a href="#cite_note-338">[338]</a> Du Bois's first wife Nina, their son Burghardt, and their daughter Yolande, who died in 1961, were buried in the cemetery of Great Barrington, Massachusetts, his hometown. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2></div> Du Bois was organized and disciplined: his lifelong regimen was to rise at 7:15, work until 5:00, eat dinner, and read a newspaper until 7:00, then read or socialize until he was in bed, invariably before 10:00.<a href="#cite_note-339">[339]</a><a href="#cite_note-340">[340]</a> He was a meticulous planner, and frequently mapped out his schedules and goals on large pieces of graph paper.<a href="#cite_note-341">[341]</a> Many acquaintances found him to be distant and aloof, and he insisted on being addressed as "Dr. Du Bois".<a href="#cite_note-342">[342]</a> According to biographer David Levering, Du Bois would also "unfailingly insist upon the 'correct' pronunciation of his surname. 'The pronunciation of my name is Due Boyss, with the accent on the last syllable,' he would patiently explain to the uninformed."<a href="#cite_note-343">[343]</a> Although he was not gregarious, he formed several close friendships with associates such as <a href="/wiki/Charles_Young_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Charles Young (United States Army officer)">Charles Young</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Laurence_Dunbar" title="Paul Laurence Dunbar">Paul Laurence Dunbar</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Hope_(educator)" title="John Hope (educator)">John Hope</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mary_White_Ovington" title="Mary White Ovington">Mary White Ovington</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>.<a href="#cite_note-344">[344]</a> His closest friend was <a href="/wiki/Joel_Elias_Spingarn" title="Joel Elias Spingarn">Joel Spingarn</a> – a white man – but Du Bois never accepted Spingarn's offer to be on a first-name basis.<a href="#cite_note-345">[345]</a> Du Bois was something of a <a href="/wiki/Dandy" title="Dandy">dandy</a> – he dressed formally, carried a walking stick, and walked with an air of confidence and dignity.<a href="#cite_note-346">[346]</a> He was relatively short, standing at 5 feet 5.5 inches (166 cm), and always maintained a well-groomed mustache and goatee.<a href="#cite_note-347">[347]</a> He enjoyed singing<a href="#cite_note-348">[348]</a> and playing tennis.<a href="#cite_note-auto-52">[52]</a> Du Bois married Nina Gomer (b. about 1870, m. 1896, d. 1950), with whom he had two children. Their son Burghardt died as an infant before their second child, daughter <a href="/wiki/Yolande_Du_Bois" title="Yolande Du Bois">Yolande</a>, was born. Yolande attended Fisk University and became a high school teacher in <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>.<a href="#cite_note-349">[349]</a> Her father encouraged her marriage to <a href="/wiki/Countee_Cullen" title="Countee Cullen">Countee Cullen</a>, a nationally known poet of the Harlem Renaissance.<a href="#cite_note-350">[350]</a> They divorced within two years. She married again and had a daughter, Du Bois's only grandchild. That marriage also ended in divorce. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_Van_Vechten_-_Shirley_Graham_Du_Bois.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Carl_Van_Vechten_-_Shirley_Graham_Du_Bois.jpg/220px-Carl_Van_Vechten_-_Shirley_Graham_Du_Bois.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Carl_Van_Vechten_-_Shirley_Graham_Du_Bois.jpg/330px-Carl_Van_Vechten_-_Shirley_Graham_Du_Bois.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Carl_Van_Vechten_-_Shirley_Graham_Du_Bois.jpg/440px-Carl_Van_Vechten_-_Shirley_Graham_Du_Bois.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4312" data-file-height="5856" /></a><figcaption>Shirley Graham Du Bois</figcaption></figure> As a widower, Du Bois married <a href="/wiki/Shirley_Graham_Du_Bois" title="Shirley Graham Du Bois">Shirley Graham</a> (m. 1951,<a href="#cite_note-:Gao-320">[320]</a>: 36  d. 1977), an author, playwright, composer, and activist. She brought her son David Graham to the marriage. David grew close to Du Bois and took his stepfather's name; he also worked for African-American causes.<a href="#cite_note-351">[351]</a> The historian David Levering Lewis wrote that Du Bois engaged in several extramarital relationships.<a href="#cite_note-352">[352]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> Although Du Bois attended a New England <a href="/wiki/Congregationalism_in_the_United_States" title="Congregationalism in the United States">Congregational church</a> as a child, he abandoned <a href="/wiki/Organized_religion" title="Organized religion">organized religion</a> while at Fisk College.<a href="#cite_note-353">[353]</a> As an adult, Du Bois described himself as <a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">agnostic</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Freethought" title="Freethought">freethinker</a>, but at least one biographer concluded that Du Bois was virtually an <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-354">[354]</a> However, another analyst of Du Bois's writings concluded that he had a religious voice, albeit radically different from other African-American religious voices of his era. Du Bois was credited with inaugurating a 20th-century spirituality to which <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Ellison" title="Ralph Ellison">Ralph Ellison</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zora_Neale_Hurston" title="Zora Neale Hurston">Zora Neale Hurston</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a> also belong.<a href="#cite_note-Kahn-96">[96]</a> When asked to lead public prayers, Du Bois would refuse.<a href="#cite_note-355">[355]</a> In his autobiography, Du Bois wrote: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">When I became head of a department at Atlanta, the engagement was held up because again I balked at leading in prayer ... I flatly refused again to join any church or sign any church creed. ... I think the greatest gift of the Soviet Union to modern civilization was the dethronement of the clergy and the refusal to let religion be taught in the public schools.<a href="#cite_note-356">[356]</a></blockquote> Du Bois accused American churches of being the most discriminatory of all institutions.<a href="#cite_note-357">[357]</a> He also provocatively linked <a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">African American Christianity</a> to <a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">indigenous African religions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-358">[358]</a> He did occasionally acknowledge the beneficial role that religion played in African American life – as the "basic rock" which served as an anchor for African American communities – but in general disparaged African American churches and clergy because he felt they did not support the goals of racial equality and hindered activists' efforts.<a href="#cite_note-359">[359]</a> Although Du Bois was not personally religious, he infused his writings with religious symbology. Many contemporaries viewed him as a prophet.<a href="#cite_note-360">[360]</a><a href="#cite_note-361">[361]</a> His 1904 <a href="/wiki/Prose_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Prose poem">prose poem</a>, "Credo", was written in the style of a religious <a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">creed</a> and widely read by the African-American community.<a href="#cite_note-362">[362]</a> Moreover, Du Bois, both in his own fiction and in stories published in The Crisis, often drew analogies between the lynchings of African Americans and the <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">crucifixion of Jesus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-363">[363]</a> Between 1920 and 1940, Du Bois shifted from overt black messiah symbolism to more subtle messianic language.<a href="#cite_note-364">[364]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voting">Voting</h3></div> In 1889, Du Bois became eligible to vote at the age of 21. During his life he followed the philosophy of voting for <a href="/wiki/Third_party_(U.S._politics)" title="Third party (U.S. politics)">third parties</a> if the Democratic and Republican parties were unsatisfactory; or voting for the <a href="/wiki/Lesser_of_two_evils_principle" title="Lesser of two evils principle">lesser of two evils</a> if a third option was not available.<a href="#cite_note-voting-365">[365]</a> Du Bois endorsed the Democratic nominee William Jennings Bryan in the <a href="/wiki/1908_United_States_presidential_election" title="1908 United States presidential election">1908 presidential election</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-101">[101]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">1912 presidential election</a>, Du Bois supported Woodrow Wilson, the Democratic nominee, as he believed Wilson was a "liberal Southerner" although he had wanted to support <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(United_States,_1912%E2%80%931920)" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive Party (United States, 1912–1920)">Progressive Party</a>, but the Progressives ignored issues facing black people. He later regretted his decision, as he came to the conclusion that Wilson was opposed to racial equality.<a href="#cite_note-DuBois1973-213">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-voting-365">[365]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/1916_United_States_presidential_election" title="1916 United States presidential election">1916 presidential election</a> he supported <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a>, the Republican nominee, as he believed that Wilson was the greater evil. During the <a href="/wiki/1920_United_States_presidential_election" title="1920 United States presidential election">1920 presidential election</a> he supported <a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a>, the Republican nominee, as Harding promised to end the <a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Haiti" title="United States occupation of Haiti">United States occupation of Haiti</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/1924_United_States_presidential_election" title="1924 United States presidential election">1924 presidential election</a> he supported <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette" title="Robert M. La Follette">Robert M. La Follette</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(United_States,_1924%E2%80%931934)" title="Progressive Party (United States, 1924–1934)">Progressive</a> nominee, although he believed that La Follette could not win. During the <a href="/wiki/1928_United_States_presidential_election" title="1928 United States presidential election">1928 presidential election</a> he believed that both <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al_Smith" title="Al Smith">Al Smith</a> insulted black voters, and instead Du Bois supported Norman Thomas, the Socialist nominee.<a href="#cite_note-voting-365">[365]</a> From <a href="/wiki/1932_United_States_presidential_election" title="1932 United States presidential election">1932</a> to <a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">1944</a>, Du Bois supported Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Democratic nominee, as Roosevelt's attitude towards workers was more realistic. During the <a href="/wiki/1948_United_States_presidential_election" title="1948 United States presidential election">1948 presidential election</a> he supported <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(United_States,_1948%E2%80%931955)" title="Progressive Party (United States, 1948–1955)">Progressive</a> nominee, and supported the Progressives' nominee, <a href="/wiki/Vincent_Hallinan" title="Vincent Hallinan">Vincent Hallinan</a>, again in <a href="/wiki/1952_United_States_presidential_election" title="1952 United States presidential election">1952</a>.<a href="#cite_note-voting-365">[365]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/1956_United_States_presidential_election" title="1956 United States presidential election">1956 presidential election</a> Du Bois stated that he <a href="/wiki/Abstention" title="Abstention">would not vote</a>. He criticized the foreign, taxation, and crime policies of the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower administration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_II" title="Adlai Stevenson II">Adlai Stevenson II</a> for promising to maintain those policies. However, he could not vote third party due to the lack of ballot access for the Socialist Party.<a href="#cite_note-voting-365">[365]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Honors_and_legacy">Honors and legacy</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:W.E.B._DuBois_Mary_White_Ovington.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large bronze bas-relief sculpture embedded in a sidewalk" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/W.E.B._DuBois_Mary_White_Ovington.jpg/220px-W.E.B._DuBois_Mary_White_Ovington.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/W.E.B._DuBois_Mary_White_Ovington.jpg/330px-W.E.B._DuBois_Mary_White_Ovington.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/W.E.B._DuBois_Mary_White_Ovington.jpg/440px-W.E.B._DuBois_Mary_White_Ovington.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>W. E. B. Du Bois, with <a href="/wiki/Mary_White_Ovington" title="Mary White Ovington">Mary White Ovington</a>, was honored with a medallion in The Extra Mile.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> awarded the <a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal</a> to Du Bois in 1920.<a href="#cite_note-366">[366]</a></li> <li>In 1958, Du Bois was inducted into the <a href="/wiki/Fisk_University" title="Fisk University">Fisk University</a> chapter of <a href="/wiki/Phi_Beta_Kappa" title="Phi Beta Kappa">Phi Beta Kappa</a> when he returned to campus to receive an honorary degree.<a href="#cite_note-367">[367]</a></li> <li>In 1959, Du Bois was awarded the International <a href="/wiki/Lenin_Peace_Prize" title="Lenin Peace Prize">Lenin Peace Prize</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">USSR</a>.<a href="#cite_note-368">[368]</a></li> <li>In 1975, the <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Research_Institute" title="W. E. B. Du Bois Research Institute">W. E. B. Du Bois Institute for African and African-American Research</a>, later part of the <a href="/wiki/Hutchins_Center_for_African_and_African_American_Research" title="Hutchins Center for African and African American Research">Hutchins Center for African and African American Research</a>, was established at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois_Boyhood_Homesite" title="W.E.B. Du Bois Boyhood Homesite">The site of the house where Du Bois grew up</a> in <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrington,_Massachusetts" title="Great Barrington, Massachusetts">Great Barrington, Massachusetts</a>, was designated a <a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark" title="National Historic Landmark">National Historic Landmark</a> in 1976.<a href="#cite_note-369">[369]</a></li> <li>In 1992, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service" title="United States Postal Service">United States Postal Service</a> honored Du Bois with his portrait on a <a href="/wiki/Postage_stamp" title="Postage stamp">postage stamp</a>.<a href="#cite_note-370">[370]</a> A second stamp of face value 32¢ was issued on February 3, 1998, as part of the <a href="/wiki/Celebrate_the_Century" title="Celebrate the Century">Celebrate the Century</a> stamp sheet series.</li> <li>In 1994, <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Library" title="W. E. B. Du Bois Library">the main library</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Amherst" title="University of Massachusetts Amherst">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> was named for Du Bois. He transferred his papers to the university via his literary executor, historian <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Aptheker" title="Herbert Aptheker">Herbert Aptheker</a>.<a href="#cite_note-371">[371]</a></li> <li>In 2000, Harvard's <a href="/wiki/Hutchins_Center_for_African_%26_African_American_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Hutchins Center for African & African American Research">Hutchins Center for African & African American Research</a> began awarding the <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Medal" class="mw-redirect" title="W. E. B. Du Bois Medal">W. E. B. Du Bois Medal</a>, which is considered Harvard's highest honor in the field of <a href="/wiki/African_and_African_American_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="African and African American studies">African and African American studies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-372">[372]</a></li> <li>A dormitory was named for Du Bois at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>, where he conducted field research for his sociological study <a href="/wiki/The_Philadelphia_Negro" title="The Philadelphia Negro">The Philadelphia Negro</a>.<a href="#cite_note-373">[373]</a></li> <li>A dormitory is named for Du Bois at <a href="/wiki/Hampton_University" title="Hampton University">Hampton University</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Africana" title="Encyclopedia Africana">Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African-American Experience</a> was inspired by and dedicated to Du Bois by its editors <a href="/wiki/Kwame_Anthony_Appiah" title="Kwame Anthony Appiah">Kwame Anthony Appiah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Louis_Gates_Jr." title="Henry Louis Gates Jr.">Henry Louis Gates Jr.</a><a href="#cite_note-374">[374]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Humboldt University of Berlin</a> hosts a series of lectures named in his honor.<a href="#cite_note-375">[375]</a></li> <li>Scholar <a href="/wiki/Molefi_Kete_Asante" title="Molefi Kete Asante">Molefi Kete Asante</a> listed Du Bois in his 2002 list of the <a href="/wiki/100_Greatest_African_Americans" title="100 Greatest African Americans">100 Greatest African Americans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-376">[376]</a></li> <li>In 2005, Du Bois was honored with a medallion in <a href="/wiki/The_Extra_Mile" title="The Extra Mile">The Extra Mile</a>, Washington DC's memorial to important American volunteers.<a href="#cite_note-377">[377]</a></li> <li>The highest career award given by the <a href="/wiki/American_Sociological_Association" title="American Sociological Association">American Sociological Association</a>, the <a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois_Career_of_Distinguished_Scholarship_Award" title="W.E.B. Du Bois Career of Distinguished Scholarship Award">W.E.B. Du Bois Career of Distinguished Scholarship Award</a>, was renamed for Du Bois in 2006.</li> <li>Du Bois was appointed Honorary Emeritus Professor at the University of Pennsylvania in 2012.<a href="#cite_note-378">[378]</a><a href="#cite_note-379">[379]</a></li> <li>A bust was commissioned from Ayokunle Odeleye to honor Du Bois, and dedicated on the Clark Atlanta University on the anniversary of his birth, February 23, 2013 (pictured right).<a href="#cite_note-380">[380]</a></li> <li>In 2015, the <a href="/wiki/Du_Bois_Orchestra" title="Du Bois Orchestra">Du Bois Orchestra</a> at Harvard was founded.<a href="#cite_note-381">[381]</a></li> <li>In March 2018, Du Bois was awarded Grand Prix de la Mémoire for the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Prix_of_Literary_Associations" title="Grand Prix of Literary Associations">Grand Prix of Literary Associations</a> 2017.<a href="#cite_note-382">[382]</a></li> <li>Du Bois was featured as a character in the 2020 <a href="/wiki/Netflix" title="Netflix">Netflix</a> miniseries <a href="/wiki/Self_Made_(miniseries)" title="Self Made (miniseries)">Self Made</a>, portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Smith_Jr." title="Cornelius Smith Jr.">Cornelius Smith Jr.</a></li> <li>In 2023 the government of Ghana signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webdbmf.org/">W.E.B Du Bois Museum Foundation</a> to develop, rebrand, operate and manage the <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Memorial_Centre_for_Pan_African_Culture" title="W. E. B. Du Bois Memorial Centre for Pan African Culture">W. E. B. Du Bois Memorial Centre for Pan African Culture</a> into a major new educational complex to preserve and continue Du Bois' legacy.<a href="#cite_note-383">[383]</a> In 2024, the <a href="/wiki/Mellon_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mellon Foundation">Mellon Foundation</a> announced a US$5 million grant to provide leadership funds for four years in Phase 1 of the new complex's development.<a href="#cite_note-384">[384]</a></li> <li>The W. E. B. Du Bois Center at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Virginia" title="University of Virginia">University of Virginia</a> is named for him.<a href="#cite_note-385">[385]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_works">Selected works</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-fiction_books">Non-fiction books</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Study_of_the_Negro_Problems" title="The Study of the Negro Problems">The Study of the Negro Problems</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Philadelphia_Negro" title="The Philadelphia Negro">The Philadelphia Negro</a> (1899)</li> <li>The Negro in Business (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Souls_of_Black_Folk" title="The Souls of Black Folk">The Souls of Black Folk</a> (1903)</li> <li>"The Talented Tenth", second chapter of The Negro Problem, a collection of articles by African Americans (September 1903)</li> <li>Voice of the Negro II (September 1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(biography)" title="John Brown (biography)">John Brown</a> (1909)</li> <li>Efforts for Social Betterment among Negro Americans (1909)</li> <li>Atlanta University's Studies of the Negro Problem (1897–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Negro" title="The Negro">The Negro</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Gift_of_Black_Folk:_The_Negroes_in_the_Making_of_America" class="extiw" title="s:The Gift of Black Folk: The Negroes in the Making of America">The Gift of Black Folk: The Negroes in the Making of America</a> (1924)<a href="#cite_note-386">[386]</a></li> <li>Africa, Its Geography, People and Products (1930)</li> <li>Africa: Its Place in Modern History (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Reconstruction_in_America" title="Black Reconstruction in America">Black Reconstruction in America</a> (1935)</li> <li>What the Negro Has Done for the United States and Texas (1936)</li> <li>Black Folk, Then and Now (1939)</li> <li>Color and Democracy: Colonies and Peace (1945)</li> <li>The Encyclopedia of the Negro (1946)</li> <li>The World and Africa (1946)</li> <li>The World and Africa, an Inquiry into the Part Which Africa Has Played in World History (1947)</li> <li>Peace Is Dangerous (1951)</li> <li>I Take My Stand for Peace (1951)</li> <li>In Battle for Peace (1952)</li> <li>Africa in Battle Against Colonialism, Racialism, Imperialism (1960)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles">Articles</h3></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDu_Bois1898" class="citation journal cs1">Du Bois, W. E. Burghardt (1898). "The Study of the Negro Problems". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 11: 1–23. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1009474">1009474</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Annals+of+the+American+Academy+of+Political+and+Social+Science&rft.atitle=The+Study+of+the+Negro+Problems&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=1-23&rft.date=1898&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1009474%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Du+Bois&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+Burghardt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_Bois1919" class="citation journal cs1">Du Bois, W. E. Burghardt (June 1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/EssayTowardAHistoryOfTheBlackManInTheGreatWar">"An Essay Toward a History of the Black Man in the Great War"</a>. The Crisis. 18 (2): 63–87.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Crisis&rft.atitle=An+Essay+Toward+a+History+of+the+Black+Man+in+the+Great+War&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=63-87&rft.date=1919-06&rft.aulast=Du+Bois&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+Burghardt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FEssayTowardAHistoryOfTheBlackManInTheGreatWar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_Bois1933" class="citation journal cs1">Du Bois, W. E. Burghardt (1933). "Liberia, the League and the United States". Foreign Affairs. 11 (4): 682–695. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20030546">10.2307/20030546</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20030546">20030546</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=Liberia%2C+the+League+and+the+United+States&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=682-695&rft.date=1933&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20030546&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20030546%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Du+Bois&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+Burghardt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_Bois1935" class="citation journal cs1">Du Bois, W. E. B. (1935). "Inter-Racial Implications of the Ethiopian Crisis: A Negro View". Foreign Affairs. 14 (1): 82–92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20030704">10.2307/20030704</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20030704">20030704</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=Inter-Racial+Implications+of+the+Ethiopian+Crisis%3A+A+Negro+View&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=82-92&rft.date=1935&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20030704&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20030704%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Du+Bois&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_Bois1938" class="citation journal cs1">Du Bois, W. E. B. (1938). "Black Africa Tomorrow". Foreign Affairs. 17 (1): 100–110. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20028906">10.2307/20028906</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20028906">20028906</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=Black+Africa+Tomorrow&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=100-110&rft.date=1938&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20028906&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20028906%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Du+Bois&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autobiographies">Autobiographies</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darkwater:_Voices_from_Within_the_Veil" title="Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil">Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil</a> (<a href="/wiki/1920_in_literature" title="1920 in literature">1920</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dusk_of_Dawn" title="Dusk of Dawn">Dusk of Dawn: An Essay Toward an Autobiography of a Race Concept</a> (<a href="/wiki/1940_in_literature" title="1940 in literature">1940</a>)</li> <li>The Autobiography of W. E. Burghardt Du Bois (<a href="/wiki/1968_in_literature" title="1968 in literature">1968</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Novels">Novels</h3></div> <ul><li>The Quest of the Silver Fleece (<a href="/wiki/1911_in_literature" title="1911 in literature">1911</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Princess" title="Dark Princess">Dark Princess: A Romance</a> (<a href="/wiki/1928_in_literature" title="1928 in literature">1928</a>)</li> <li>The Black Flame Trilogy: <ul><li>The Ordeal of Mansart (<a href="/wiki/1957_in_literature" title="1957 in literature">1957</a>)</li> <li>Mansart Builds a School (<a href="/wiki/1959_in_literature" title="1959 in literature">1959</a>)</li> <li>Worlds of Color (<a href="/wiki/1961_in_literature" title="1961 in literature">1961</a>)</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archives_of_The_Crisis">Archives of The Crisis</h3></div> Du Bois edited <a href="/wiki/The_Crisis" title="The Crisis">The Crisis</a> from 1910 to 1933, and it contains many of his important polemics. <dl><dd><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.modjourn.org/render.php?view=mjp_object&id=crisiscollection">Archives of The Crisis at the University of Tulsa: Modernist Journals Collection</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dl.lib.brown.edu/">Archives of The Crisis at Brown University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UloEAAAAMBAJ&q=%22The+Crisis%22">Issues of The Crisis at Google Books</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recordings">Recordings</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://folkways.si.edu/albumdetails.aspx?itemid=1033">Socialism and the American Negro (1960)</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110930174516/http://www.folkways.si.edu/albumdetails.aspx?itemid=1033">Archived</a> September 30, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://folkways.si.edu/albumdetails.aspx?itemid=1031">W. E. B. Du Bois: A Recorded Autobiography, Interview with Moses Asch (1961)</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111127004913/http://www.folkways.si.edu/albumdetails.aspx?itemid=1031">Archived</a> November 27, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dissertations">Dissertations</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17700">The Suppression of the African Slave Trade to the United States of America: 1638–1870</a> (Ph.D. dissertation), Harvard Historical Studies, Longmans, Green, and Co. (1896)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Speeches">Speeches</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_S._Foner" title="Philip S. Foner">Foner, Philip S.</a>, ed. (1970). W. E. B. Du Bois Speaks: Speeches and Addresses, 1890–1919. New York: Pathfinder Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87348-181-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87348-181-6"><bdi>978-0-87348-181-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois+Speaks%3A+Speeches+and+Addresses%2C+1890%E2%80%931919&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Pathfinder+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-87348-181-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_S._Foner" title="Philip S. Foner">Foner, Philip S.</a>, ed. (1970). W. E. B. Du Bois Speaks: Speeches and Addresses, 1920–1963. New York: Pathfinder Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87348-182-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87348-182-3"><bdi>978-0-87348-182-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois+Speaks%3A+Speeches+and+Addresses%2C+1920%E2%80%931963&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Pathfinder+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-87348-182-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archival_material">Archival material</h2></div> The <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Library" title="W. E. B. Du Bois Library">W. E. B. Du Bois Library</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Amherst" title="University of Massachusetts Amherst">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> contains Du Bois's archive, consisting of 294 boxes and 89 microfilm reels; 99,625 items have been digitized.<a href="#cite_note-387">[387]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/41px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/55px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisk_University_protest" title="Fisk University protest">Fisk University protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Prix_of_Literary_Associations" title="Grand Prix of Literary Associations">Grand Prix of Literary Associations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civil_rights_leaders" title="List of civil rights leaders">List of civil rights leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_peace_activists" title="List of peace activists">List of peace activists</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1993" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, David Levering (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tSoFQEbmhyMC&pg=PA11">W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race 1868–1919</a>. New York City: Henry Holt and Co. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4668-4151-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4668-4151-2"><bdi>978-1-4668-4151-2</bdi></a>. <q>[Du Bois] would unfailingly insist upon the 'correct' pronunciation of his surname. 'The pronunciation of my name is Due Boyss, with the accent on the last syllable,' he would patiently explain to the uninformed.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois%3A+Biography+of+a+Race+1868%E2%80%931919&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Co.&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-1-4668-4151-2&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=David+Levering&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtSoFQEbmhyMC%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._E._B._Du_Bois_Center2018" class="citation web cs1">W. E. B. Du Bois Center [@duboisumass] (November 12, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://x.com/duboisumass/status/1062097731529924608">"Check out this little gem of an artefact. It's a letter to W. E. B. Du Bois that he has annotated with handwritten instructions on how to pronounce his name. Thanks to our friends at the Du Bois Center in Great Barrington for showing us this! #dubois150 #dewboys #livinghistory"</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tweet_(social_media)" title="Tweet (social media)">Tweet</a>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220716155551/https://twitter.com/DuBoisUMass/status/1062097731529924608">Archived</a> from the original on July 16, 2022. Retrieved July 28, 2023 – via <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Check+out+this+little+gem+of+an+artefact.+It%27s+a+letter+to+W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois+that+he+has+annotated+with+handwritten+instructions+on+how+to+pronounce+his+name.+Thanks+to+our+friends+at+the+Du+Bois+Center+in+Great+Barrington+for+showing+us+this%21+%23dubois150+%23dewboys+%23livinghistory&rft.date=2018-11-12&rft.au=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois+Center&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fx.com%2Fduboisumass%2Fstatus%2F1062097731529924608&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 11 </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 14–15 </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 13 </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_Bois1984" class="citation book cs1">Du Bois, W. E. B. (1984) [1940]. Dusk of Dawn. Piscataway NJ: Transaction Publishers. p. 11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dusk+of+Dawn&rft.place=Piscataway+NJ&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Du+Bois&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1993" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, David Levering (1993). W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race 1868–1919. New York City: Henry Holt and Co. p. 14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois%3A+Biography+of+a+Race+1868%E2%80%931919&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Co.&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=David+Levering&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiperLevinson2010" class="citation book cs1">Piper, Emilie; Levinson, David (2010). One Minute a Free Woman: Elizabeth Freeman and the Struggle for Freedom. Salisbury CT: Upper Housatonic Valley National Heritage Area. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9845492-0-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9845492-0-7"><bdi>978-0-9845492-0-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=One+Minute+a+Free+Woman%3A+Elizabeth+Freeman+and+the+Struggle+for+Freedom&rft.place=Salisbury+CT&rft.pub=Upper+Housatonic+Valley+National+Heritage+Area&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-9845492-0-7&rft.aulast=Piper&rft.aufirst=Emilie&rft.au=Levinson%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 17 </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler2014" class="citation book cs1">Chandler, Nahum Dimitri (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n0pGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT118">X: The Problem of the Negro as a Problem for Thought</a>. New York: Fordham University Press. pp. 100–103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-5407-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-5407-1"><bdi>978-0-8232-5407-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=X%3A+The+Problem+of+the+Negro+as+a+Problem+for+Thought&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=100-103&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-8232-5407-1&rft.aulast=Chandler&rft.aufirst=Nahum+Dimitri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn0pGCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis,_p._18-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_p._18_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_p._18_11-1">b</a> Lewis, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 21 Du Bois suggested that Mary's family drove Alfred away. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Rabaka, Reiland (2007), W. E. B. Du Bois and the Problems of the Twenty-first Century: An Essay on Africana Critical Theory, Lexington Books, p. 165. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 29–30. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 27–44. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller" class="citation web cs1">Miller, Melissa. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://duboiscentergb.org/w-e-b-du-boiss-long-road-back-to-great-barrington/">"The Du Bois Center at Great Barrington » W.E.B. Du Bois's Long Road Back to Great Barrington"</a>. Franklin Library Special Collections and Archives : W.E.B. Du Bois Collection. Retrieved July 16, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Franklin+Library+Special+Collections+and+Archives+%3A+W.E.B.+Du+Bois+Collection&rft.atitle=The+Du+Bois+Center+at+Great+Barrington+%C2%BB+W.E.B.+Du+Bois%27s+Long+Road+Back+to+Great+Barrington&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Melissa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fduboiscentergb.org%2Fw-e-b-du-boiss-long-road-back-to-great-barrington%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLayden" class="citation web cs1">Layden, Diona E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fisk.libguides.com/c.php?g=1057119&p=7712197">"John Hope and Aurelia E. Franklin Library: Franklin Library Special Collections and Archives : W.E.B. Du Bois Collection"</a>. fisk.libguides.com. Retrieved July 16, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=fisk.libguides.com&rft.atitle=John+Hope+and+Aurelia+E.+Franklin+Library%3A+Franklin+Library+Special+Collections+and+Archives+%3A+W.E.B.+Du+Bois+Collection&rft.aulast=Layden&rft.aufirst=Diona+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffisk.libguides.com%2Fc.php%3Fg%3D1057119%26p%3D7712197&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240315031202/https://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-x01-i072">"Great Barrington High School diploma, 1884"</a>. UMass Amherst. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-x01-i072">the original</a> on March 15, 2024. Retrieved July 16, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Great+Barrington+High+School+diploma%2C+1884&rft.pub=UMass+Amherst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcredo.library.umass.edu%2Fview%2Ffull%2Fmums312-x01-i072&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Cebula, Tim, "Great Barrington", in Young, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-Horne,_p._7-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Horne,_p._7_20-0">^</a> Horne, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 39–40. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Lewis, Catharine, "Fisk University", in Young, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFultz2021" class="citation journal cs1">Fultz, Michael (February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fheq.2020.65">"Determination and Persistence: Building the African American Teacher Corps through Summer and Intermittent Teaching, 1860s–1890s"</a>. History of Education Quarterly. 61 (1): 4–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fheq.2020.65">10.1017/heq.2020.65</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Education+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Determination+and+Persistence%3A+Building+the+African+American+Teacher+Corps+through+Summer+and+Intermittent+Teaching%2C+1860s%E2%80%931890s&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=4-34&rft.date=2021-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fheq.2020.65&rft.aulast=Fultz&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252Fheq.2020.65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 56–57. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 72–78. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 69–80 (degree), p. 69 (funding), p. 82 (inheritance). Du Bois was the sixth African American to be admitted to Harvard. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 98–103. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBobo2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bobo, Lawrence D. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1742058X15000235">"Bringing Du Bois back in: American sociology and the Morris enunciation"</a>. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race. 12 (2): 461–467. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1742058X15000235">10.1017/S1742058X15000235</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151045538">151045538</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Du+Bois+Review%3A+Social+Science+Research+on+Race&rft.atitle=Bringing+Du+Bois+back+in%3A+American+sociology+and+the+Morris+enunciation&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=461-467&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1742058X15000235&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151045538%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bobo&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS1742058X15000235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aldon_Morris" title="Aldon Morris">Morris, Aldon</a> (2015). The Scholar Denied: W. E. B. Du Bois and the Birth of Modern Sociology. Oakland CA: University of California Press. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-96048-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-96048-0"><bdi>978-0-520-96048-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scholar+Denied%3A+W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois+and+the+Birth+of+Modern+Sociology&rft.place=Oakland+CA&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-520-96048-0&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Aldon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Williams, Yvonne, "Harvard", in Young, p. 99. His dissertation was <a href="/wiki/The_Suppression_of_the_African_Slave-trade_to_the_United_States_of_America" title="The Suppression of the African Slave-trade to the United States of America">The Suppression of the African Slave-trade to the United States of America</a>, 1638–1871. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Quoted by <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 143–145. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Gibson, Todd, "University of Pennsylvania", in Young, p. 210. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 111 </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 118, 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 126. Nina Gomer Du Bois did not play a significant role in Du Bois's activism or career (see <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 135, 152–154, 232, 287–290, 296–301, 404–406, 522–525, 628–630). </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 128–129. Du Bois resented never receiving an offer for a teaching position at Penn. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Horne, pp. 23–24. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Bulmer, Martin, "W. E. B. Du Bois as a Social Investigator: The Philadelphia Negro, 1899", in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales, and <a href="/wiki/Kathryn_Kish_Sklar" title="Kathryn Kish Sklar">Kathryn Kish Sklar</a>, eds. The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880–1940 (1991), pp. 170–188. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaves2004" class="citation book cs1">Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge. pp. 199–200.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+City&rft.pages=199-200&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Caves&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 123. His paper was titled The Conservation of Races. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 143–144. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Horne, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 143, 155. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLange1983" class="citation journal cs1">Lange, Werner J. (1983). "W. E. B. Du Bois and the First Scientific Study of Afro-America". Phylon. 44 (2): 135–146. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F275025">10.2307/275025</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/275025">275025</a>. <q>[T]he pioneering studies of African cultures and Afro-American realities and history initiated by W. E. B. Du Bois from 1894 until 1915 stand not only as the first studies of black people on a firm scientific basis altogether – whether classified among the social or historical sciences – but they also represent the earliest ethnographies of Afro-America as well as a major contribution to the earliest corpus of social scientific literature from the United States.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phylon&rft.atitle=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois+and+the+First+Scientific+Study+of+Afro-America&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=135-146&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F275025&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F275025%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Lange&rft.aufirst=Werner+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Donaldson, Shawn, "The Philadelphia Negro", in Young, p. 165. "The Philadelphia Negro stands as a classic in both (urban) sociology and African American studies because it was the first scientific study of the Negro and the first scientific sociological study in the United States". </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 140, 148 (underclass), 141 (slavery). </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 158–160 </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 161, 235 (Department of Labor), p. 141 (Bureau of Labor Statistics). </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_52-1">b</a> Lewis, p. 157. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Bandele, Ramla, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://diaspora.northwestern.edu/mbin/WebObjects/DiasporaX.woa/wa/displayArticle?atomid=461">"Pan-African Conference in 1900: Origins of the movement for global black unity"</a>, Article #461, Global Mappings: A political Atlas of the African Diaspora, 1900–1989, The Institute for Diasporic Studies, Northwestern University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130922122851/http://diaspora.northwestern.edu/mbin/WebObjects/DiasporaX.woa/wa/displayArticle?atomid=461">Archived</a> September 22, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newint.org/features/2000/08/05/simply/">"A history of Pan-Africanism"</a>, New Internationalist, 326, August 2000. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackpast.org/?q=1900-w-e-b-du-bois-nations-world">"(1900) W. E. B. Du Bois, 'To the Nations of the World'"</a>, BlackPast.org. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Sivagurunathan, Shivani, "Pan-Africanism", in David Dabydeen. John Gilmore, Cecily Jones (eds), The Oxford Companion to Black British History, Oxford University Press, 2007, pp. 259–260. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackpast.org/?q=perspectives/pan-african-congresses-1900-1945">The Pan-African Congresses, 1900–1945</a>, BlackPast.org. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.houseofknowledge.org.uk/site/documents/neoGarveyismCorner/1900%20Conference%20resolution.pdf">1900 Pan-African Conference Resolution</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304232631/http://www.houseofknowledge.org.uk/site/documents/neoGarveyismCorner/1900%20Conference%20resolution.pdf">Archived</a> March 4, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. (PDF) Source: Ayodele Langley, Ideologies of Liberation in Black Africa, London: <a href="/wiki/Rex_Collings" title="Rex Collings">Rex Collings</a>, 1979, pp. 738–739. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Edwards, Brent Hayes (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3D9FE-UfYxEC&dq=%22The+problem+of+the+Twentieth+Century+is+the+problem+of+the+colour-line%22+souls&pg=PA33">"The Practice of Diaspora"</a>, in Janice A. Radway, Kevin Gaines, Barry Shank, <a href="/wiki/Penny_Von_Eschen" title="Penny Von Eschen">Penny Von Eschen</a> (eds), American Studies: An Anthology, Wiley-Blackwell, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Lewis, David Levering, "A Small Nation of People: W.E.B. Du Bois and Black Americans at the Turn of the Twentieth Century", A Small Nation of People: W. E. B. Du Bois and African American Portraits of Progress. New York: Amistad, 2003. pp. 24–49. </li> <li id="cite_note-loc-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-loc_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-loc_61-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/anedub/dubois.html">"African American Photographs Assembled for 1900 Paris Exposition"</a>, Library of Congress. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> The W.E.B. Du Bois Center at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and <a href="/wiki/Whitney_Battle-Baptiste" title="Whitney Battle-Baptiste">Battle-Baptiste, Whitney</a> (eds), W. E. B. Du Bois's Data Portraits: Visualizing Black America, Princeton Architectural Press, 2018. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1616897062" title="Special:BookSources/978-1616897062">978-1616897062</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMansky2018" class="citation web cs1">Mansky, Jackie (November 15, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/first-time-together-and-color-book-displays-web-du-bois-visionary-infographics-180970826/">"W.E.B. Du Bois' Visionary Infographics Come Together for the First Time in Full Color"</a>. Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved August 25, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=W.E.B.+Du+Bois%27+Visionary+Infographics+Come+Together+for+the+First+Time+in+Full+Color&rft.date=2018-11-15&rft.aulast=Mansky&rft.aufirst=Jackie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fhistory%2Ffirst-time-together-and-color-book-displays-web-du-bois-visionary-infographics-180970826%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 161. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 179–180, 189. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Harlan, Louis R. (2006), "A Black Leader in the Age of Jim Crow", in The Racial Politics of Booker T. Washington, Donald Cunnigen, Rutledge M. Dennis, Myrtle Gonza Glascoe (eds), Emerald Group Publishing, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 180–181. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Logan, Rayford Whittingham (1997), The Betrayal of the Negro, from Rutherford B. Hayes to Woodrow Wilson, Da Capo Press, pp. 275–313. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarlan1972" class="citation cs2">Harlan, Louis R. (1972), Booker T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856–1901, New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, p. 225, <q>Let me heartily congratulate you upon your phenomenal success at Atlanta – it was a word fitly spoken.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Booker+T.+Washington%3A+The+Making+of+a+Black+Leader%2C+1856%E2%80%931901&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=225&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Harlan&rft.aufirst=Louis+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.college.columbia.edu/core/content/letter-web-du-bois-booker-t-washington-september-24-1895">"Letter from W.E.B. Du Bois to Booker T. Washington, September 24, 1895"</a>, The Core Curriculum, <a href="/wiki/Columbia_College,_Columbia_University" title="Columbia College, Columbia University">Columbia College, Columbia University</a>, retrieved February 28, 2016</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Core+Curriculum&rft.atitle=Letter+from+W.E.B.+Du+Bois+to+Booker+T.+Washington%2C+September+24%2C+1895&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.college.columbia.edu%2Fcore%2Fcontent%2Fletter-web-du-bois-booker-t-washington-september-24-1895&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Harlan, Louis R. (1986), Booker T. Washington: the wizard of Tuskegee, 1901–1915, Oxford University Press, pp. 71–120. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Croce, Paul, "Accommodation versus Struggle", in Young, pp. 1–3. Du Bois popularized the term "talented tenth" in a 1903 essay, but he was not the first to use it. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Croce, Paul, "Accommodation versus Struggle", in Young, pp. 1–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 162. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 162–3, Du Bois quoted by Lewis. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 184. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 199–200. </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 711. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Lomotey, pp. 354–355. </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Lomotey, pp. 355–356. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrazier1957" class="citation book cs1">Frazier, Edward Franklin (1957). The Negro in the United States. New York: <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan Company</a>. p. 459.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Negro+in+the+United+States&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=459&rft.pub=Macmillan+Company&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Frazier&rft.aufirst=Edward+Franklin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyrdalRose1964" class="citation book cs1">Myrdal, Gunnar; Rose, Arnold M. (1964). <a href="/wiki/An_American_Dilemma" title="An American Dilemma">An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and American Democracy, Volume 2</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill Education">McGraw-Hill</a>. p. 889.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+American+Dilemma%3A+The+Negro+Problem+and+American+Democracy%2C+Volume+2&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=889&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Myrdal&rft.aufirst=Gunnar&rft.au=Rose%2C+Arnold+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSowell2005" class="citation book cs1">Sowell, Thomas (2005). "Black Education: Achievements, Myths and Tragedies". <a href="/wiki/Black_Rednecks_and_White_Liberals" title="Black Rednecks and White Liberals">Black Rednecks and White Liberals</a>. New York: Encounter Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackredneckswhi00thom/page/231">231–235</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59403-086-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59403-086-4"><bdi>978-1-59403-086-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Black+Education%3A+Achievements%2C+Myths+and+Tragedies&rft.btitle=Black+Rednecks+and+White+Liberals&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=231-235&rft.pub=Encounter+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-59403-086-4&rft.aulast=Sowell&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSowell1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell, Thomas</a> (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ethnicamericahis00thom/page/208">Ethnic America: A History</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ethnicamericahis00thom/page/208">208</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0465020751" title="Special:BookSources/978-0465020751"><bdi>978-0465020751</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnic+America%3A+A+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=208&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0465020751&rft.aulast=Sowell&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fethnicamericahis00thom%2Fpage%2F208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_Bois1965" class="citation interview cs1">Du Bois, W. E. B. (November 1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201210101232/https://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/unbound/flashbks/black/mcgillbh.htm">"W.E.B. Du Bois"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic Monthly</a> (Interview). Vol. 216, no. 5. Interviewed by <a href="/wiki/Ralph_McGill" title="Ralph McGill">Ralph McGill</a>. pp. 78–81. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/unbound/flashbks/black/mcgillbh.htm">the original</a> on December 10, 2020. <q>'The controversy,' [Du Bois] said, 'developed more between our followers than between us ... '</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic+Monthly&rft.atitle=W.E.B.+Du+Bois&rft.volume=216&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=78-81&rft.date=1965-11&rft.aulast=Du+Bois&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fpast%2Fdocs%2Funbound%2Fflashbks%2Fblack%2Fmcgillbh.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 215–216. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuBois1905" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/W.E.B._DuBois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. DuBois">DuBois, W.E.B.</a> (September 1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x000492470&view=2up&seq=627&size=150&q1=Dubois">"The Niagara Movement"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Voice_of_the_Negro" class="mw-redirect" title="Voice of the Negro">Voice of the Negro</a>. Negro periodicals in the United States: 619–622.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Voice+of+the+Negro&rft.atitle=The+Niagara+Movement&rft.pages=619-622&rft.date=1905-09&rft.aulast=DuBois&rft.aufirst=W.E.B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Duva.x000492470%26view%3D2up%26seq%3D627%26size%3D150%26q1%3DDubois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 218–219. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis220-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis220_89-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis220_89-1">b</a> Lewis, p. 220. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 227–228. The Horizon lasted until 1910 when he developed The Crisis for publication as an instrument of the NAACP. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Ransom, quoted by <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 222. </li> <li id="cite_note-Gibson,_Todd_p._198-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson,_Todd_p._198_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson,_Todd_p._198_92-1">b</a> Gibson, Todd, "The Souls of Black Folk", in Young, p. 198. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis,_p._191-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_p._191_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_p._191_93-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 191. </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 192. Du Bois quoted by Lewis. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 194–195. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kahn-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kahn_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kahn_96-1">b</a> Kahn, Jonathon S. (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTv6iq5fpqcC&dq=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois%2Creligious+naturalism&pg=PA13">Divine Discontent: The Religious Imagination of W. E. B. Du Bois</a>, Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530789-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530789-4">978-0-19-530789-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 223. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 224. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 224–225. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 229. </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_101-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarris2012" class="citation book cs1">Farris, Scott (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/almostpresidentm0000farr">Almost president : the men who lost the race but changed the nation</a>. Internet Archive. Guilford, CN: Lyons Press. p. 87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7627-6378-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7627-6378-8"><bdi>978-0-7627-6378-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Almost+president+%3A+the+men+who+lost+the+race+but+changed+the+nation&rft.place=Guilford%2C+CN&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=Lyons+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7627-6378-8&rft.aulast=Farris&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falmostpresidentm0000farr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 2226. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 223–224, 230. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Quoted by <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 230. Conference was in Oberlin, Ohio. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 238. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> VendeCreek, Drew, "John Brown", in Young, pp. 32–33. </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 240. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 244 (Colliers); p. 249 (Horizon). </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis250-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis250_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis250_109-1">b</a> Lewis, p. 250. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis251-110">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis251_110-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis251_110-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis251_110-2">c</a> Lewis, p. 251. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 252. </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Lewis, David Levering, "Beyond Exclusivity: Writing Race, Class, Gender into U.S. History", date unknown, New York University, Silver Dialogues series. </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 256–258. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 258. </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 263–264. </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 264. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 253 (whites), 264 (president). </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.saada.org/tides/article/ambedkar-du-bois">"What BR Ambedker wrote to WEB Du Bois"</a>. South Asian American Digital Archive. April 22, 2014. Retrieved September 14, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+BR+Ambedker+wrote+to+WEB+Du+Bois&rft.pub=South+Asian+American+Digital+Archive&rft.date=2014-04-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.saada.org%2Ftides%2Farticle%2Fambedkar-du-bois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b109-i132">"Letter from BR Ambedker to WEB Du Bois"</a>. UMass Amherst. July 1946. Retrieved September 14, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+from+BR+Ambedker+to+WEB+Du+Bois&rft.pub=UMass+Amherst&rft.date=1946-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcredo.library.umass.edu%2Fview%2Ffull%2Fmums312-b109-i132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 252, 265. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Bowles, Amy, "NAACP", in Young, pp. 141–144. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 268–269. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 271. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2019–2020" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Davies, Vanessa (2019–2020). "W. E. B. Du Bois, A New Voice in Egyptology's Disciplinary History". ANKH. 28/29: 18–29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ANKH&rft.atitle=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois%2C+A+New+Voice+in+Egyptology%27s+Disciplinary+History&rft.volume=28%2F29&rft.pages=18-29&rft.date=2019%2F2020&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Vanessa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 279–280. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> Quote from "Triumph", The Crisis, 2 (September 1911), p. 195. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 274. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Hancock, Ange-Marie, "Socialism/Communism", in Young, p. 196 (member). <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 275 (denounced). </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 278. Wilson promised "to see justice done in every matter". </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 43, 259, 522, 608. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> Donaldson, Shawn, "Women's Rights", in Young, pp. 219–221. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuong2021" class="citation journal cs1">Duong, Kevin (May 2021). "Universal Suffrage as Decolonization". American Political Science Review. 115 (2): 412–428. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003055420000994">10.1017/S0003055420000994</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232422414">232422414</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Political+Science+Review&rft.atitle=Universal+Suffrage+as+Decolonization&rft.volume=115&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=412-428&rft.date=2021-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0003055420000994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A232422414%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Duong&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 272–273. </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 275. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Du Bois quoted in Lubin, Alex (2005), Romance and Rights: The Politics of Interracial Intimacy, 1945–1954, University Press of Mississippi, pp. 71–72. </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 312–324. </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKory2001" class="citation book cs1">Kory, Fern (January 1, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thekeep.eiu.edu/eng_fac/3/">"Once upon a Time in Aframerica: The 'Peculiar' Significance of Fairies in the Brownies' Book"</a>. In Keyser, Elizabeth Lennox; Pfeiffer, Julie (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://works.bepress.com/fern_kory/2/">Children's Literature</a>. Vol. 29. Yale University Press. pp. 91–112. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fchl.0.0803">10.1353/chl.0.0803</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08891-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08891-5"><bdi>978-0-300-08891-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144994019">144994019</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Project_Muse" title="Project Muse">Project MUSE</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/chapter/251727">chapter 251727</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Once+upon+a+Time+in+Aframerica%3A+The+%27Peculiar%27+Significance+of+Fairies+in+the+Brownies%27+Book&rft.btitle=Children%27s+Literature&rft.pages=91-112&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2001-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144994019%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fchl.0.0803&rft.isbn=978-0-300-08891-5&rft.aulast=Kory&rft.aufirst=Fern&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthekeep.eiu.edu%2Feng_fac%2F3%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKommers_Czarniecki2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Kommers Czarniecki, Kristin (2004). "Brownies' Book, The". In Wintz, Cary D.; Finkelman, Paul (eds.). Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance. Vol. 1 (A–J). Routledge. p. 196. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-389-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-389-7"><bdi>978-1-57958-389-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2004016353">2004016353</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Brownies%27+Book%2C+The&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Harlem+Renaissance&rft.pages=196&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2004016353&rft.isbn=978-1-57958-389-7&rft.aulast=Kommers+Czarniecki&rft.aufirst=Kristin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 290–291. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 293–296. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis301-142">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis301_142-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis301_142-1">b</a> Lewis, p. 301. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 303. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Brown, Nikki, "World War I", in Young, pp. 224–226. </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 327–328. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Watts, Trent, "The Birth of a Nation", in Young, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 331. </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 332. </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 335 (editorial), p. 334 (Trotter). </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 335 ("The Lynching Industry" was in the Feb 1915 issue). See also the July 1916 article: "The Waco Horror" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dl.lib.brown.edu/pdfs/1292363091648500.pdf">at Brown University library</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131227153035/http://dl.lib.brown.edu/pdfs/1292363091648500.pdf">Archived</a> December 27, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KloEAAAAMBAJ">at Google Books</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis335-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis335_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis335_151-1">b</a> Lewis, p. 335. </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 336. </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 357–358. See, for example, Du Bois's editorial in the October 1916 edition of The Crisis. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Lombardo, Paul A. (2011), A Century of Eugenics in America: From the Indiana Experiment to the Human Genome Era. pp. 74–75. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Lewis, David Levering (2001), W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century 1919–1963, Owl Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6813-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6813-9">978-0-8050-6813-9</a>. p. 223. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 346. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 346–347. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 348. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 349. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 348 (draft), 349 (racism). </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 350. </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 352. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 353. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> King, William, "Silent Protest Against Lynching", in Young, p. 191. Lewis, p. 352. The first was picketing against The Birth of a Nation. </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 354. </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 355, 384: about 1, 000 black officers served during World War I. </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 359. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 362. </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> The column was published in July, but written in June. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 363. The offer was for a role in Military Intelligence. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 363–364. </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 366. The commission was withdrawn before Du Bois could begin actual military service. </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 367–368. The book, The Black Man and the Wounded World, was never published. Other authors covered the topic, such as Emmett Scott's Official History of the American Negro in the World War (1920). </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 371, 373. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 368. </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 369. </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 376. </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 381. </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> Du Bois quoted in Williams, Chad (2010), Torchbearers of Democracy: African American Soldiers in the World War I Era, UNC Press Books, p. 207. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis,_p._383-180">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_p._383_180-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_p._383_180-1">b</a> Lewis, p. 383. </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 389. </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 389. The sharecroppers were working with the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Farmers_and_Household_Union_of_America" title="Progressive Farmers and Household Union of America">Progressive Farmers and Household Union of America</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 389–390. </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 391. </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 391. The other two were <a href="/wiki/Dusk_of_Dawn" title="Dusk of Dawn">Dusk of Dawn</a> and The Autobiography of W. E. Burghardt Du Bois. </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 394. </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 392 (characterizes as "feminist"). </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 405–406. The publication lasted two years, from January 1920 to December 1921. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbc3&fileName=rbc0001_2004ser01351page.db">Online at Library of Congress</a> (retrieved November 20, 2011). </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 409. </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 414. </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 415. </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 416–424. </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 426–427. </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> Du Bois, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5121">"The Black Star Line"</a>, Crisis, September 1922, pp. 210–214. Retrieved November 2, 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 428. </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 429. </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 465. </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 467–468. </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 435–437. Quoted (from The Crisis, August 1911) by Lewis. </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 442. </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 448–449. </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 450–463. </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 471 (frequent). </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> Horne, Malika, "Art and Artists", in Young, pp. 13–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 475 (article). </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> Hamilton, Neil (2002), American Social Leaders and Activists, Infobase Publishing, p. 121. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780816045358" title="Special:BookSources/9780816045358">9780816045358</a>. Lewis, p. 480. </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> Du Bois, January 1946, quoted by Horne, Malika, "Art and Artists", in Young, pp. 13–15. Emphasis is in Du Bois's original. </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 481. </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 485, 487. </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b160-i451">"One of the greatest debates ever held, 1929"</a>. credo.library.umass.edu. Retrieved August 24, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=credo.library.umass.edu&rft.atitle=One+of+the+greatest+debates+ever+held%2C+1929&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcredo.library.umass.edu%2Fview%2Ffull%2Fmums312-b160-i451&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frazier-211">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frazier_211-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frazier_211-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frazier_211-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/08/26/when-w-e-b-du-bois-made-a-laughingstock-of-a-white-supremacist">"When W. E. B. Du Bois Made a Laughingstock of a White Supremacist"</a>. The New Yorker. August 15, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=When+W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois+Made+a+Laughingstock+of+a+White+Supremacist&rft.date=2019-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2019%2F08%2F26%2Fwhen-w-e-b-du-bois-made-a-laughingstock-of-a-white-supremacist&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1981" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, Carol M. (June 1981). "W.E.B. DuBois's Challenge to Scientific Racism". Journal of Black Studies. 11 (4): 449–460. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002193478101100405">10.1177/002193478101100405</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11635221">11635221</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:45779708">45779708</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Black+Studies&rft.atitle=W.E.B.+DuBois%27s+Challenge+to+Scientific+Racism&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=449-460&rft.date=1981-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A45779708%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11635221&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002193478101100405&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Carol+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DuBois1973-213">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DuBois1973_213-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DuBois1973_213-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_BoisWilson1973" class="citation journal cs1">Du Bois, W. E. Burghardt; Wilson, Woodrow (1973). "My Impressions of Woodrow Wilson". The Journal of Negro History. 58 (4): 453–459. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2716751">10.2307/2716751</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2716751">2716751</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224839908">224839908</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Negro+History&rft.atitle=My+Impressions+of+Woodrow+Wilson&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=453-459&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224839908%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2716751%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2716751&rft.aulast=Du+Bois&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+Burghardt&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Woodrow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYellin2013" class="citation book cs1">Yellin, Eric S. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fixBOW3902UC&pg=PA147">Racism in the Nation's Service: Government Workers and the Color Line in Woodrow Wilson's America</a>. University of North Carolina Press. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-0721-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-0721-4"><bdi>978-1-4696-0721-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Racism+in+the+Nation%27s+Service%3A+Government+Workers+and+the+Color+Line+in+Woodrow+Wilson%27s+America&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-0721-4&rft.aulast=Yellin&rft.aufirst=Eric+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfixBOW3902UC%26pg%3DPA147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Communist_Party_USA_2009-215"><a href="#cite_ref-Communist_Party_USA_2009_215-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cpusa.org/party_info/application-to-join-the-cpusa-by-w-e-b-du-bois-1961/">"Application to join the CPUSA by W.E.B. Du Bois, 1961"</a>. Communist Party USA. February 28, 2009. Retrieved February 16, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Communist+Party+USA&rft.atitle=Application+to+join+the+CPUSA+by+W.E.B.+Du+Bois%2C+1961&rft.date=2009-02-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcpusa.org%2Fparty_info%2Fapplication-to-join-the-cpusa-by-w-e-b-du-bois-1961%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 486. </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 487. </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 498–499. </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 498–507. </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> Quoted by Lewis, p. 119. </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> Balaji, Murali (2007), The Professor and the Pupil: The Politics and Friendship of W. E. B. Du Bois and Paul Robeson, Nation Books, pp. 70–71. </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 513. </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 514. </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 517. </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> Horne, pp. 143–144. </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 535, 547. </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 544. </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 545. </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 569–570. </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 573. </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 549. </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 549–550. Lewis states that Du Bois sometimes praised African-American spirituality, but not clergy or churches. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> King, Richard H. (2004), Race, Culture, and the Intellectuals, 1940–1970, Woodrow Wilson Center Press, pp. 43–44. </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 551. </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 553. The person on the ticket was <a href="/wiki/James_W._Ford" title="James W. Ford">James W. Ford</a>, running for vice president. </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> Lemert, Charles C. (2002), Dark thoughts: race and the eclipse of society, Psychology Press, pp. 227–229. </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 576–583. </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> Aptheker, Herbert (1989), The literary legacy of W. E. B. Du Bois, Kraus International Publications, p. 211 (Du Bois called the work his "magnum opus"). </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 586. </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 583–586. </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 585–590 (thorough), pp. 583, 593 (ignored). </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner1982" class="citation journal cs1">Foner, Eric (1982). "Reconstruction Revisited". Reviews in American History. 10 (4): 82–100. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2701820">10.2307/2701820</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2701820">2701820</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+in+American+History&rft.atitle=Reconstruction+Revisited&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=82-100&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2701820&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2701820%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> "During the civil rights era, however, it became apparent that Du Bois's scholarship, despite some limitations, had been ahead of its time." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbellRebecca_J._FraserPeter_C._Mancall2008" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, James M.; Rebecca J. Fraser; Peter C. Mancall (2008). Reconstruction: People and Perspectives. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. p. xx. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-021-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-021-6"><bdi>978-1-59884-021-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstruction%3A+People+and+Perspectives&rft.pages=xx&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-021-6&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft.au=Rebecca+J.+Fraser&rft.au=Peter+C.+Mancall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBilbija2011" class="citation journal cs1">Bilbija, Marina (September 2011). "Democracy's New Song: Black Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880 and the Melodramatic Imagination". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 637 (1): 64–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0002716211407153">10.1177/0002716211407153</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143636000">143636000</a>. <q>W. E. B. Du Bois's (1935/1998) Black Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880 is commonly regarded as the foundational text of revisionist African American historiography.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Annals+of+the+American+Academy+of+Political+and+Social+Science&rft.atitle=Democracy%27s+New+Song%3A+Black+Reconstruction+in+America%2C+1860%E2%80%931880+and+the+Melodramatic+Imagination&rft.volume=637&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=64-77&rft.date=2011-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0002716211407153&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143636000%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bilbija&rft.aufirst=Marina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_Bois1935" class="citation book cs1">Du Bois, W. E. B. (1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackreconstruct00duborich">Black Reconstruction</a>. Harcourt Brace. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackreconstruct00duborich/page/713">713</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Reconstruction&rft.pages=713&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace&rft.date=1935&rft.aulast=Du+Bois&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackreconstruct00duborich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 611, 618. </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> Braley, Mark, "Encyclopedia Projects", in Young, pp. 73–78. Braley summarizes Du Bois's lifelong quest to create an encyclopedia. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis,_p._600-248">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_p._600_248-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_p._600_248-1">b</a> Lewis, p. 600. </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> Zacharasiewicz, Waldemar (2007), Images of Germany in American literature, University of Iowa Press, p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> Fikes, Robert, "Germany", in Young, pp. 87–89. </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> Broderick, Francis (1959), W. E. B. Du Bois: Negro Leader in a Time of Crisis, Stanford University Press, p. 192. </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> Jefferson, Alphine, "Antisemitism", in Young, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> Du Bois quoted by Lewis, David (1995), W. E. B. Du Bois: A Reader, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> Original Du Bois source: Pittsburgh Courier, December 19, 1936. </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKearney1995" class="citation journal cs1">Kearney, Reginald (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cibs/vol13/iss1/7">"The Pro-Japanese Utterances of W.E.B. Du Bois"</a>. Contributions in Black Studies. 13 (7): 201–217. Retrieved August 8, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contributions+in+Black+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Pro-Japanese+Utterances+of+W.E.B.+Du+Bois&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=201-217&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kearney&rft.aufirst=Reginald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.umass.edu%2Fcibs%2Fvol13%2Fiss1%2F7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallicchio2000" class="citation cs2">Gallicchio, Marc S. (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oh3Cn3YQ0UQC&q=hikida+%22du+bois%22+or+dubois&pg=PA104">The African American Encounter with Japan and China: Black Internationalism in Asia, 1895–1945</a>, University of North Carolina Press, p. 104, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-2559-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-2559-4"><bdi>978-0-8078-2559-4</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43334134">43334134</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+African+American+Encounter+with+Japan+and+China%3A+Black+Internationalism+in+Asia%2C+1895%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43334134&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-2559-4&rft.aulast=Gallicchio&rft.aufirst=Marc+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Doh3Cn3YQ0UQC%26q%3Dhikida%2B%2522du%2Bbois%2522%2Bor%2Bdubois%26pg%3DPA104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKearney1995204-257"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKearney1995204_257-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKearney1995">Kearney 1995</a>, p. 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> W. E. B. Du Bois, Newspaper Columns, Vol. 1, ed. Herbert Aptheker (White Plains, NY: Kraus-Thomson, 1986), pp. 167–68. (Column from the Pittsburg Courier in February 1937.) Quoted in Kearney 1995, p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKearney1995-259">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKearney1995_259-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKearney1995_259-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKearney1995">Kearney 1995</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKearney1995213–215-260"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKearney1995213–215_260-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKearney1995">Kearney 1995</a>, pp. 213–215. </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 631–632. </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 633. The military later changed its policy, and units such as the <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen" title="Tuskegee Airmen">Tuskegee Airmen</a> saw combat. </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 634. </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> Horne, p. 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 637. </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> Mostern, Kenneth, "Dusk of Dawn", in Young, pp. 65–66. </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> Du Bois quoted by Lewis, p. 637. </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 643–644. </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 644. </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> Spingarn, quoted by Lewis, p. 645. </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 648. </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 647. </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 654. </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 656. </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 655, 657. </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> Overstreet, H. A., Saturday Review, quoted in Lewis, p. 657. </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 661. </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> <a href="//archive.org/details/Appeal-To-World-NAACP-1947" class="extiw" title="iarchive:Appeal-To-World-NAACP-1947">"A Statement on the Denial of Human Rights to Minorities in the Case of citizens of Negro Descent in the United States of America and an Appeal to the United Nations for Redress"</a>, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 1947; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackpast.org/1947-w-e-b-dubois-appeal-world-statement-denial-human-rights-minorities-case-citizens-n">"(1947) W.E.B. DuBois, "An Appeal to the World : A Statement of Denial of Human Rights to Minorities..."</a>. Via BlackPast, May 3, 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlummer2020" class="citation magazine cs1">Plummer, Brenda Gayle (June 19, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2020-06-19/civil-rights-has-always-been-global-movement">"Civil Rights Has Always Been a Global Movement: How Allies Abroad Help the Fight Against Racism at Home"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Affairs" title="Foreign Affairs">Foreign Affairs</a>. Vol. 99, no. 5. <q>The United Nations formed at last in 1945, and the U.S. government gave the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the National Council of Negro Women ceremonial roles as observers at the founding conference, in the hope of encouraging domestic support for the new institution. Washington was displeased, however, when, in 1947, the NAACP submitted a 96-page petition to the UN Commission on Human Rights, asking it to investigate human rights violations against African Americans in the United States. Edited by W. E. B. Du Bois and titled "An Appeal to the World," the document began with a pointed denunciation of American hypocrisy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=Civil+Rights+Has+Always+Been+a+Global+Movement%3A+How+Allies+Abroad+Help+the+Fight+Against+Racism+at+Home&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=5&rft.date=2020-06-19&rft.aulast=Plummer&rft.aufirst=Brenda+Gayle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foreignaffairs.com%2Farticles%2Funited-states%2F2020-06-19%2Fcivil-rights-has-always-been-global-movement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCivil_Rights_Congress1970" class="citation book cs1">Civil Rights Congress (August 28, 1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/We-Charge-Genocide-1970">We Charge Genocide: The Crime of Government Against the Negro People</a>. Retrieved August 28, 2017 – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=We+Charge+Genocide%3A+The+Crime+of+Government+Against+the+Negro+People&rft.date=1970-08-28&rft.au=Civil+Rights+Congress&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FWe-Charge-Genocide-1970&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1997" class="citation journal cs1">Martin, Charles H. (1997). "Internationalizing 'The American Dilemma': The Civil Rights Congress and the 1951 Genocide Petition to the United Nations". Journal of American Ethnic History. 16 (4): 35–61. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27502217">27502217</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+Ethnic+History&rft.atitle=Internationalizing+%27The+American+Dilemma%27%3A+The+Civil+Rights+Congress+and+the+1951+Genocide+Petition+to+the+United+Nations&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=35-61&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27502217%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Charles+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 663. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis669-283">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis669_283-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis669_283-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis669_283-2">c</a> Lewis, p. 669. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis670-284"><a href="#cite_ref-Lewis670_284-0">^</a> Lewis, p. 670. </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> Du Bois, Dusk of Dawn, quoted by Hancock, "Socialism/Communism", in Young, p. 196. Quote is from 1940. </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 669. Du Bois quoted by Lewis. </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 681–682. </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 683. </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlahmed2023" class="citation journal cs1">Alahmed, Nadia (September 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals-sagepub-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/doi/pdf/10.1177/08969205231173440">"From Black Zionism to Black Nasserism: W.E.B. Du Bois and the Foundations of Black Anti-Zionist Discourse"</a>. Critical Sociology. 49 (6): 1053–1064. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F08969205231173440">10.1177/08969205231173440</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0896-9205">0896-9205</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9862240121">9862240121</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+Sociology&rft.atitle=From+Black+Zionism+to+Black+Nasserism%3A+W.E.B.+Du+Bois+and+the+Foundations+of+Black+Anti-Zionist+Discourse&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1053-1064&rft.date=2023-09&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9862240121&rft.issn=0896-9205&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F08969205231173440&rft.aulast=Alahmed&rft.aufirst=Nadia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals-sagepub-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1177%2F08969205231173440&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSevitch2002" class="citation journal cs1">Sevitch, Benjamin (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1562481">"W. E. B. Du Bois and Jews: A Lifetime of Opposing Anti-Semitism"</a>. The Journal of African American History. 87: 323–337. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1562481">10.2307/1562481</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1548-1867">1548-1867</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1562481">1562481</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+American+History&rft.atitle=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois+and+Jews%3A+A+Lifetime+of+Opposing+Anti-Semitism&rft.volume=87&rft.pages=323-337&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=1548-1867&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1562481%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1562481&rft.aulast=Sevitch&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1562481&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schneider163-291">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schneider163_291-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schneider163_291-1">b</a> Schneider, Paul, "Peace Movement", in Young, p. 163. In his college days, Du Bois vowed to never take up arms. </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 685. </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 685–687. </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 687. </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_Bois1952" class="citation journal cs1">Du Bois, William Edward Burghardt (1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://europe.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/314/2021/02/DuBois-The-Negro-and-the-Warsaw-Ghetto.pdf">"The Negro and the Warsaw Ghetto"</a> (PDF). Jewish Life: 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Life&rft.atitle=The+Negro+and+the+Warsaw+Ghetto&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Du+Bois&rft.aufirst=William+Edward+Burghardt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feurope.unc.edu%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F314%2F2021%2F02%2FDuBois-The-Negro-and-the-Warsaw-Ghetto.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRothberg2001" class="citation journal cs1">Rothberg, Michael (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/36877/summary">""WEB DuBois in Warsaw: Holocaust memory and the color line, 1949-1952.""</a>. The Yale Journal of Criticism. 14 (1): 169–189. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fyale.2001.0012">10.1353/yale.2001.0012</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:264259106">264259106</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Yale+Journal+of+Criticism&rft.atitle=%22WEB+DuBois+in+Warsaw%3A+Holocaust+memory+and+the+color+line%2C+1949-1952.%22&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=169-189&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fyale.2001.0012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A264259106%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rothberg&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fpub%2F1%2Farticle%2F36877%2Fsummary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> Marable, p. xx. </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> Marable, p xx . ("ruthless repression"). Marable, Manning (1991), Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945–1990, University Press of Mississippi, p. 104 ("political assassination"). Marable quoted by <a href="#CITEREFGabbidon2007">Gabbidon 2007</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbidon2007">Gabbidon 2007</a>, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Bureau_of_Investigation1942" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a> (1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webharvest.gov/peth04/20041015175429/http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/dubois.htm">William E. B. DuBois File#: 100–99729</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/dubois.htm">the original</a> on October 15, 2004. Retrieved April 27, 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=William+E.+B.+DuBois+File%23%3A+100%E2%80%9399729&rft.date=1942&rft.au=Federal+Bureau+of+Investigation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffoia.fbi.gov%2Ffoiaindex%2Fdubois.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeen2004" class="citation book cs1">Keen, Mike Forrest (2004). Stalking sociologists: J. Edgar Hoover's FBI surveillance of American sociology. Keen, Mike Forrest. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7658-0563-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7658-0563-8"><bdi>978-0-7658-0563-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52739297">52739297</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalking+sociologists%3A+J.+Edgar+Hoover%27s+FBI+surveillance+of+American+sociology&rft.place=New+Brunswick&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52739297&rft.isbn=978-0-7658-0563-8&rft.aulast=Keen&rft.aufirst=Mike+Forrest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 688. </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 689. </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> Horne, pp. 168–169. </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a> Lieberman, Robbie (2000), The Strangest Dream: Communism, Anticommunism, and the U.S. Peace Movement, 1945–1963, Syracuse University Press, pp. 92–93. </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbidon2007">Gabbidon 2007</a>, p. 54: The government felt that the PIC was an agent of the USSR, although that country was never specifically identified. </li> <li id="cite_note-307"><a href="#cite_ref-307">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1998" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Robert C. Jr. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140503000736/http://books.google.com/books?id=LRYDK0baMa4C&pg=PA472&dq=United+States+v.+Peace+Information+Center&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Yy95T5DKKafw0gGA7o2PDQ&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=United%20States%20v.%20Peace%20Information%20Center&f=false">Race, Law and Public Policy: Cases and Materials on Law and Public Policy of Race</a>. <a href="/wiki/Black_Classic_Press" title="Black Classic Press">Black Classic Press</a>. p. 472. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58073-019-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58073-019-8"><bdi>978-1-58073-019-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/54617416">54617416</a>. 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Vol. 99, no. 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=The+Danger+of+Banning+Foreign+Lobbying%3A+It%27s+a+Real+Problem%2C+But+Biden%27s+Proposal+Isn%27t+the+Right+Fix&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=5&rft.date=2020-09-03&rft.aulast=Michel&rft.aufirst=Casey&rft.au=Freeman%2C+Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foreignaffairs.com%2Farticles%2Funited-states%2F2020-09-03%2Fdanger-banning-foreign-lobbying&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-309"><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 692 (associates); p. 693 (NAACP); pp. 693–694 (support). </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 690 </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeromeTaylor2006" class="citation journal cs1">Jerome, Fred; Taylor, Rodger (July 1, 2006). 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Souls. 9 (4): 121. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10999940701703851">10.1080/10999940701703851</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141762653">141762653</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Souls&rft.atitle=Einstein+on+Race+and+Racism&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=121&rft.date=2006-07-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10999940701703851&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A141762653%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Jerome&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Rodger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 696, 707. Du Bois refused to sign a non-Communist affidavit that would have enabled him to regain his passport. </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a> Hancock, Ange-Marie, "Socialism/Communism", in Young, p. 197. The NAACP had a <a href="/wiki/NAACP_Legal_Defense_and_Educational_Fund" title="NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund">Legal Defense Fund</a> for cases like Du Bois's, but they chose not to support Du Bois. </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 696. </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 697. </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 690, 694, 695. </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 698. </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a> Porter, Eric (2012), The Problem of the Future World: W. E. B. Du Bois and the Race Concept at Midcentury. Duke University Press, pp. 10, 71. </li> <li id="cite_note-319"><a href="#cite_ref-319">^</a> Du Bois, W. E. B. 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Infobase Publishing. p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-3017-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-3017-0"><bdi>978-1-4381-3017-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved May 18, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Harlem+Renaissance&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-3017-0&rft.aulast=Aberjhani&rft.aufirst=Sandra+L.+West&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXP48QWTmjyUC%26pg%3DPA89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 841, footnote 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-335"><a href="#cite_ref-335">^</a> Blum, Edward J. (2007), W. E. B. Du Bois, American Prophet, University of Pennsylvania Press, p. 211. </li> <li id="cite_note-336"><a href="#cite_ref-336">^</a> Horne, p. xii. </li> <li id="cite_note-337"><a href="#cite_ref-337">^</a> Bass, Amy (2009), Those About Him Remained Silent: The Battle over W. E. B. Du Bois, University of Minnesota Press, p. xiii. </li> <li id="cite_note-338"><a href="#cite_ref-338">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShipleyPierre2007" class="citation book cs1">Shipley, Jesse Weaver; Pierre, Jemima (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=twazxuJh1mIC&pg=PA61">"The Intellectual and Pragmatic Legacy of Du Bois's Pan-Africanism in Contemporary Ghana"</a>. In Keller, Mary; Fontenot Jr., Chester J. (eds.). Re-Cognizing W. E. B. Du Bois in the Twenty-First Century: Essays on W. E. B. Du Bois. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press. pp. 61–87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88146-077-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88146-077-3"><bdi>978-0-88146-077-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Intellectual+and+Pragmatic+Legacy+of+Du+Bois%27s+Pan-Africanism+in+Contemporary+Ghana&rft.btitle=Re-Cognizing+W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois+in+the+Twenty-First+Century%3A+Essays+on+W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois&rft.place=Macon%2C+GA&rft.pages=61-87&rft.pub=Mercer+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-88146-077-3&rft.aulast=Shipley&rft.aufirst=Jesse+Weaver&rft.au=Pierre%2C+Jemima&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtwazxuJh1mIC%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-339"><a href="#cite_ref-339">^</a> Horne, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-340"><a href="#cite_ref-340">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 74, 231–232, 613. </li> <li id="cite_note-341"><a href="#cite_ref-341">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 231. </li> <li id="cite_note-342"><a href="#cite_ref-342">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 54, 156 (aloof), p. 3 (address). </li> <li id="cite_note-343"><a href="#cite_ref-343">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1993" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, David Levering (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tSoFQEbmhyMC&pg=PA11">W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race 1868–1919</a>. New York City: Henry Holt and Co. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4668-4151-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4668-4151-2"><bdi>978-1-4668-4151-2</bdi></a>. <q>[Du Bois] would unfailingly insist upon the 'correct' pronunciation of his surname. 'The pronunciation of my name is Due Boyss, with the accent on the last syllable,' he would patiently explain to the uninformed.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois%3A+Biography+of+a+Race+1868%E2%80%931919&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Co.&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-1-4668-4151-2&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=David+Levering&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtSoFQEbmhyMC%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-344"><a href="#cite_ref-344">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 54 (gregarious), p. 124 (Young and Dunbar), p. 177 (Hope), pp. 213, 234 (Ovington). </li> <li id="cite_note-345"><a href="#cite_ref-345">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 316–324, 360–368 (Spingarn), p. 316 (best friend), p. 557 (first name basis). </li> <li id="cite_note-346"><a href="#cite_ref-346">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 54, 156, 638. </li> <li id="cite_note-347"><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 54 (height). </li> <li id="cite_note-348"><a href="#cite_ref-348">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_Bois2001" class="citation book cs1">Du Bois, W. E. B. (2001) [first pub. 1968]. "Harvard in the Last Decades of the 19th Century". In <a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Bloom, Harold</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/webduboisbloomsm00haro">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>. Modern Critical Views. New York: Chelsea House. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/webduboisbloomsm00haro/page/7">7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1356-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1356-2"><bdi>978-1-4381-1356-2</bdi></a>. <q>Only one organization did I try to enter, and I ought to have known better than to make this attempt. But I did have a good singing voice and loved music, so I entered the competition for the Glee Club. I ought to have known that Harvard could not afford to have a Negro on its Glee Club traveling about the country. Quite naturally I was rejected.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Harvard+in+the+Last+Decades+of+the+19th+Century&rft.btitle=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Modern+Critical+Views&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Chelsea+House&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1356-2&rft.aulast=Du+Bois&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwebduboisbloomsm00haro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-349"><a href="#cite_ref-349">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolden2008" class="citation book cs1">Bolden, Tonya (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=REv47NrozRMC&pg=PA152">Up Close, W. E. B. Du Bois: A Twentieth-century Life</a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-06302-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-06302-4"><bdi>978-0-670-06302-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Up+Close%2C+W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois%3A+A+Twentieth-century+Life&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-670-06302-4&rft.aulast=Bolden&rft.aufirst=Tonya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DREv47NrozRMC%26pg%3DPA152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-350"><a href="#cite_ref-350">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2004" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Jacqueline C. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z6Cs0Y1pvRAC&pg=PA273">"Cullen–Du Bois Wedding"</a>. In Wintz, Cary D.; Finkelman, Paul (eds.). Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance: A–J. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-457-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-457-3"><bdi>978-1-57958-457-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cullen%E2%80%93Du+Bois+Wedding&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Harlem+Renaissance%3A+A%E2%80%93J&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-57958-457-3&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Jacqueline+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz6Cs0Y1pvRAC%26pg%3DPA273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-351"><a href="#cite_ref-351">^</a> De Luca, Laura, "David Graham Du Bois", in Young, pp. 55–56. </li> <li id="cite_note-352"><a href="#cite_ref-352">^</a> Lingeman, Richard, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/00/11/05/reviews/001105.05lingemt.html">"Soul on Fire"</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, November 5, 2000. Retrieved December 2, 2011. A review of The Fight for Equality and the American Century, 1919–1963. </li> <li id="cite_note-353"><a href="#cite_ref-353">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-354"><a href="#cite_ref-354">^</a> Rabaka, p. 127 (freethinker); Lewis, p. 550 (agnostic, atheist); Johnson, passim (agnostic). </li> <li id="cite_note-355"><a href="#cite_ref-355">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 157; Johnson, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-356"><a href="#cite_ref-356">^</a> Autobiography, p. 181. Quoted in Rabaka, p. 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-357"><a href="#cite_ref-357">^</a> Horne, Malika, "Religion", in Young, p. 181. </li> <li id="cite_note-358"><a href="#cite_ref-358">^</a> Chidester, David, "Religious Animals, Refuge of the Gods and the Spirit of Revolt: W. E. B. Du Bois's representations of Indigenous African Religions", in Mary Keller & Chester J. Fontenot Jr. (eds), Re-cognizing W. E. B. Du Bois in the Twenty-first century: Essays on W. E. B. Du Bois (Mercer University Press, 2007), p. 35. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88146-059-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88146-059-9">978-0-88146-059-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-359"><a href="#cite_ref-359">^</a> Malika Horne, "Religion", in Young, pp. 181–182 ("basic rock"); Lewis, p. 550. </li> <li id="cite_note-360"><a href="#cite_ref-360">^</a> Blum, Edward J. (2009), The Souls of W. E. B. Du Bois: New Essays and Reflections, Mercer University Press, pp. iii–xxi. </li> <li id="cite_note-361"><a href="#cite_ref-361">^</a> For additional analysis of Du Bois and religion, see Blum, Edward J. (2007), W. E. B. Du Bois, American Prophet, University of Pennsylvania Press; and Kahn, Jonathon S. (2011), Divine Discontent: The Religious Imagination of W. E. B. Du Bois, Oxford University Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-362"><a href="#cite_ref-362">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 212–213. "Credo" was reprinted in Du Bois's first autobiography <a href="/wiki/Darkwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Darkwater">Darkwater</a> (1920) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15210">(text available here)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-363"><a href="#cite_ref-363">^</a> Kuhl, Michelle, "Resurrecting Black Manhood: W. E. B. Du Bois' Martyr Tales", in Blum & Young (eds), The Souls of W. E. B. Du Bois: New Essays and Reflections (Mercer University Press, 2009), p. 161. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88146-136-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88146-136-7">978-0-88146-136-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-364"><a href="#cite_ref-364">^</a> Brunner, Marta, "The Most Hopeless of Deaths ... Is the Death of Faith: Messianic Faith in the Racial Politics of W. E. B. Du Bois", in Keller & Fontenot (2007), p. 189. </li> <li id="cite_note-voting-365">^ <a href="#cite_ref-voting_365-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-voting_365-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-voting_365-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-voting_365-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-voting_365-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/i-wont-vote/">"I Won't Vote"</a>. The Nation. February 7, 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20200721034921/https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/i-wont-vote/">Archived</a> from the original on July 21, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Nation&rft.atitle=I+Won%27t+Vote&rft.date=2002-02-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenation.com%2Farticle%2Farchive%2Fi-wont-vote%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-366"><a href="#cite_ref-366">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 398 </li> <li id="cite_note-367"><a href="#cite_ref-367">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-i0515">"W. E. B. Du Bois and members of Phi Beta Kappa, Fisk University, 1958, 1958"</a>. credo.library.umass.edu. Retrieved April 9, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=credo.library.umass.edu&rft.atitle=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois+and+members+of+Phi+Beta+Kappa%2C+Fisk+University%2C+1958%2C+1958&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcredo.library.umass.edu%2Fview%2Ffull%2Fmums312-i0515&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-368"><a href="#cite_ref-368">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-369"><a href="#cite_ref-369">^</a> Savage, Beth, (1994), African American Historic Places, John Wiley and Sons, p. 277. </li> <li id="cite_note-370"><a href="#cite_ref-370">^</a> Sama, Dominic, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/1992/02/02/new-us-issue-honors-web-du-bois/">"New U.S. Issue Honors W. E. B. Du Bois"</a>, Chicago Tribune, February 2, 1992. Retrieved November 20, 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-371"><a href="#cite_ref-371">^</a> Han, John J. (2007), "W. E. B. Du Bois", in Encyclopedia of American Race Riots, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 181. </li> <li id="cite_note-372"><a href="#cite_ref-372">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hutchinscenter.fas.harvard.edu/people/w-e-b-du-bois-medal-recipients">"W. E. B. Du Bois Medal Recipients. The Hutchins Center for African & African American Research"</a>. hutchinscenter.fas.harvard.edu. Retrieved October 28, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=hutchinscenter.fas.harvard.edu&rft.atitle=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois+Medal+Recipients.+The+Hutchins+Center+for+African+%26+African+American+Research&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhutchinscenter.fas.harvard.edu%2Fpeople%2Fw-e-b-du-bois-medal-recipients&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-373"><a href="#cite_ref-373">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dubois.house.upenn.edu/house_history.html">"The History of W. E. B. Du Bois College House"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120119024637/http://dubois.house.upenn.edu/house_history.html">Archived</a> January 19, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved November 20, 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-374"><a href="#cite_ref-374">^</a> Bloom, Harold (2001), W. E. B. Du Bois, Infobase Publishing, p. 244. </li> <li id="cite_note-375"><a href="#cite_ref-375">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.angl.hu-berlin.de/confslecs/dboislecs">"W. E. B. Du Bois Lectures"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140216090200/http://www.angl.hu-berlin.de/confslecs/dboislecs">Archived</a> February 16, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Humboldt University. Retrieved November 20, 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-376"><a href="#cite_ref-376">^</a> Asante, Molefi Kete (2002), 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia, Prometheus Books, pp. 114–116. </li> <li id="cite_note-377"><a href="#cite_ref-377">^</a> "Noteworthy", The Crisis, November/December 2005, p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-378"><a href="#cite_ref-378">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.upenn.edu/almanac/volumes/v58/n21/dubois.html">"Dr. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois: Honorary Emeritus Professorship of Sociology and Africana Studies"</a>, The University of Pennsylvania Almanac, Volume 58, No. 21, February 7, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-379"><a href="#cite_ref-379">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thedp.com/article/2012/02/w.e.b._du_bois_receives_honorary_emeritus_professorship">"W. E. B. Du Bois receives honorary emeritus professorship"</a>, The Daily Pennsylvanian, February 19, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-380"><a href="#cite_ref-380">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171020012335/http://cauduboislegacy.net/Du_Bois_Art_Projects_2.html">"Du Bois Art Projects"</a>. CAUDuBoisLegacy.net. Clark Atlanta University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cauduboislegacy.net/Du_Bois_Art_Projects_2.html">the original</a> on October 20, 2017. Retrieved May 12, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CAUDuBoisLegacy.net&rft.atitle=Du+Bois+Art+Projects&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcauduboislegacy.net%2FDu_Bois_Art_Projects_2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-381"><a href="#cite_ref-381">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/17/11/education-outreach-through-music">"Education Outreach Through Music"</a>. Harvard Graduate School of Education. November 20, 2017. Retrieved March 3, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Graduate+School+of+Education&rft.atitle=Education+Outreach+Through+Music&rft.date=2017-11-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gse.harvard.edu%2Fnews%2F17%2F11%2Feducation-outreach-through-music&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-382"><a href="#cite_ref-382">^</a> Tientcheu, Marchelo (March 29, 2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lebledparle.com/culture/1104339-cameroun-litterature-web-du-bois-grand-prix-de-la-memoire-aux-gpal-2017">"Cameroun/Littérature: WEB du Bois, Grand Prix de la Mémoire aux GPAL 2017"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181217014733/https://www.lebledparle.com/culture/1104339-cameroun-litterature-web-du-bois-grand-prix-de-la-memoire-aux-gpal-2017">Archived</a> December 17, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Lebledparle.com. </li> <li id="cite_note-383"><a href="#cite_ref-383">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webdbmf.org/mou.html">"WEBDBMF :: MoU Signing New York - USA"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=WEBDBMF+%3A%3A+MoU+Signing+New+York+-+USA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webdbmf.org%2Fmou.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-384"><a href="#cite_ref-384">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/web-du-bois-museum-foundation-awarded-5m-grant-by-mellon-foundation-302060351.html">"W.E.B. Du Bois Museum Foundation Awarded $5m Grant by Mellon Foundation"</a> (Press release).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=W.E.B.+Du+Bois+Museum+Foundation+Awarded+%245m+Grant+by+Mellon+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.prnewswire.com%2Fnews-releases%2Fweb-du-bois-museum-foundation-awarded-5m-grant-by-mellon-foundation-302060351.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-385"><a href="#cite_ref-385">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oaaa.virginia.edu/w-e-b-du-bois-center">"University of Virginia"</a>. August 18, 2024. Retrieved August 18, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=University+of+Virginia&rft.date=2024-08-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foaaa.virginia.edu%2Fw-e-b-du-bois-center&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-386"><a href="#cite_ref-386">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBois2020" class="citation book cs1">Bois, W. E. B. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3mnyDwAAQBAJ">The Gift of Black Folk The Negroes in the Making of America</a>. Newburyport: Open Road Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781504064200" title="Special:BookSources/9781504064200"><bdi>9781504064200</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1178648633">1178648633</a>. Retrieved October 15, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gift+of+Black+Folk+The+Negroes+in+the+Making+of+America&rft.place=Newburyport&rft.pub=Open+Road+Media&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1178648633&rft.isbn=9781504064200&rft.aulast=Bois&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3mnyDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-387"><a href="#cite_ref-387">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://findingaids.library.umass.edu/ead/mums312">"W. E. B. Du Bois Papers"</a>. UMass Amherst Libraries. Special Collections and University Archives. Retrieved October 8, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois+Papers&rft.pub=UMass+Amherst+Libraries.+Special+Collections+and+University+Archives&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffindingaids.library.umass.edu%2Fead%2Fmums312&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_BoisWilson1973" class="citation journal cs1">Du Bois, W. E. Burghardt; Wilson, Woodrow (1973). "My Impressions of Woodrow Wilson". The Journal of Negro History. 58 (4): 453–459. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2716751">10.2307/2716751</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2716751">2716751</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224839908">224839908</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Negro+History&rft.atitle=My+Impressions+of+Woodrow+Wilson&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=453-459&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224839908%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2716751%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2716751&rft.aulast=Du+Bois&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+Burghardt&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Woodrow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGabbidon2007" class="citation book cs1">Gabbidon, Shaun (2007). W. E. B. Du Bois on Crime and Justice: Laying the Foundations of Sociological Criminology. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4956-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4956-4"><bdi>978-0-7546-4956-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/503445424">503445424</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois+on+Crime+and+Justice%3A+Laying+the+Foundations+of+Sociological+Criminology&rft.place=Aldershot%2C+UK&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F503445424&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-4956-4&rft.aulast=Gabbidon&rft.aufirst=Shaun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Horne" title="Gerald Horne">Horne, Gerald</a> (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vXgOAQAAMAAJ">W. E. B. Du Bois: A Biography</a>, Greenwood Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-34979-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-34979-9">978-0-313-34979-9</a>.</li> <li>Johnson, Brian (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zLbl4JnKASwC">W. E. B. Du Bois: Toward Agnosticism, 1868–1934</a>, Rowman & Littlefield, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-6449-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-6449-7">978-0-7425-6449-7</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Levering_Lewis" title="David Levering Lewis">Lewis, David Levering</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BU4vH95YySgC">W. E. B. Du Bois: A Biography</a> (Updated (of his 1994 and 2001 works) single volume ed.). New York: Henry Holt and Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-8769-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-8769-7"><bdi>978-0-8050-8769-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/176972569">176972569</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois%3A+A+Biography&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Updated+%28of+his+1994+and+2001+works%29+single+volume&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Co.&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F176972569&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-8769-7&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=David+Levering&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBU4vH95YySgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lomotey, Kofi (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dURVOtUlPKYC">Encyclopedia of African American Education, Volume 1</a>, Sage, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-4050-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-4050-4">978-1-4129-4050-4</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manning_Marable" title="Manning Marable">Marable, Manning</a> (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NvwMAQAAMAAJ">W. E. B. Du Bois: Black Radical Democrat</a>, Paradigm Publishers, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59451-018-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59451-018-2">978-1-59451-018-2</a>.</li> <li>Rabaka, Reiland (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FeZY2JUov5UC">Du Bois's Dialectics: Black Radical Politics and the Reconstruction of Critical Social Theory</a>, Lexington Books, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-1958-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-1958-7">978-0-7391-1958-7</a>.</li> <li>Young, Mary, and Horne, Gerald, eds. (2001), W. E. B. Du Bois: An Encyclopedia, Greenwood Publishing Group, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29665-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29665-9">978-0-313-29665-9</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about W. E. B. Du Bois <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow">By W. E. B. Du Bois <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul> </div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?319147-1/lines-descent">Presentation by Kwame Anthony Appiah on Lines of Descent, April 29, 2014</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?53447-1/web-du-bois-biography-race">Booknotes interview with David Levering Lewis on W.E.B. Du Bois: The Biography of a Race, 1868–1919, January 2, 1994</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?160133-1/web-dubois">Presentation by Lewis on W.E.B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century, 1919–1963 at the Atlanta History Center, October 30, 2000</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?163816-1/open-phones-david-levering-lewis">Interview with Lewis about W.E.B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century, 1919–1963, April 29, 2001</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?166023-9/web-dubois">Presentation by Lewis about his Du Bois biographies at the National Book Festival, September 8, 2001</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?179466-1/small-nation-people">Presentation by Lewis and Deborah Willis on their book A Small Nation of People: W.E.B. Du Bois and African American Portraits of Progress, October 29, 2003</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams1905" class="citation journal cs1">Adams, John Henry (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x000492470&view=2up&seq=184&size=175&q1=Du%20bois">"Rough Sketches. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Voice_of_the_Negro" class="mw-redirect" title="Voice of the Negro">Voice of the Negro</a>. Negro periodicals in the United States: 176–181.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Voice+of+the+Negro&rft.atitle=Rough+Sketches.+William+Edward+Burghardt+Du+Bois&rft.pages=176-181&rft.date=1905&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=John+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Duva.x000492470%26view%3D2up%26seq%3D184%26size%3D175%26q1%3DDu%2520bois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAppiah2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Anthony_Appiah" title="Kwame Anthony Appiah">Appiah, Kwame Anthony</a> (2014). Lines of Descent: W. E. B. Du Bois and the Emergence of Identity. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72491-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72491-4"><bdi>978-0-674-72491-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lines+of+Descent%3A+W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois+and+the+Emergence+of+Identity&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-674-72491-4&rft.aulast=Appiah&rft.aufirst=Kwame+Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Broderick, Francis L. (1959), W. E. B. Du Bois: Negro Leader in a Time of Crisis, Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000X665SM">B000X665SM</a>.</li> <li>Bulmer, Martin (1991). "W. E. B. Du Bois as a Social Investigator: The Philadelphia Negro, 1899", in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales, and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds. The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880–1940 pp. 170–188.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Crouch" title="Stanley Crouch">Crouch, Stanley</a> and Playthell Benjamin (2002), Reconsidering the Souls of Black Folk, Running Press.</li> <li>Dorrien, Gary (2015). The New Abolition: W.E.B. Du Bois and the Black Social Gospel. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300205602" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300205602">978-0300205602</a>.</li> <li>Getachew, Adom; Pitts, Jennifer (eds.). 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/w-e-b-du-bois-international-thought/1A9DBFF90AAC53D27EA63C19E3268BE1">W. E. B. Du Bois: International Thought</a>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Gooding-Williams, Robert (2009), In the Shadow of Du Bois: Afro-Modern Political Thought in America, Harvard University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03526-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03526-3">978-0-674-03526-3</a>.</li> <li>Holt, Thomas C. "Du Bois, W. E. B." in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anb.org/articles/15/15-00191.html">American National Biography Online</a> (2000).</li> <li>Hubbard, Dolan (ed.) (2003). The Souls of Black Folk: One Hundred Years Later, University of Missouri Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8262-1433-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8262-1433-1">978-0-8262-1433-1</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Levering_Lewis" title="David Levering Lewis">Lewis, David Levering</a> (1994), <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois:_Biography_of_a_Race,_1868%E2%80%931919" title="W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868–1919">W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868–1919</a>, Owl Books. Winner of the <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize" title="Pulitzer Prize">Pulitzer Prize</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bancroft_Prize" title="Bancroft Prize">Bancroft Prize</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Francis_Parkman_Prize" title="Francis Parkman Prize">Francis Parkman Prize</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6813-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6813-9">978-0-8050-6813-9</a>.</li> <li>Lewis, David Levering (2001), <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois:_The_Fight_for_Equality_and_the_American_Century_1919%E2%80%931963" class="mw-redirect" title="W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century 1919–1963">W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century 1919–1963</a>, Owl Books. Winner of the 2001 Pulitzer Prize for Biography. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6813-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6813-9">978-0-8050-6813-9</a>.</li> <li>Lewis, David Levering, and Deborah Willis (2005), A Small Nation of People: W. E. B. Du Bois and African American Portraits of Progress, HarperCollins. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-081756-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-081756-9">0-06-081756-9</a>.</li> <li>Meier, August (1963), Negro Thought in America, 1880–1915: Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T. Washington, University of Michigan Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0472061181" title="Special:BookSources/978-0472061181">978-0472061181</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2022" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Aldon D., ed. (2022). The Oxford Handbook of W.E.B. Du Bois. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780190062767.001.0001">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190062767.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-006279-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-006279-8"><bdi>978-0-19-006279-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+W.E.B.+Du+Bois&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780190062767.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-006279-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Mullen, Bill V. (2015). Un-American: W.E.B. Du Bois and the Century of World Revolution. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1439911105" title="Special:BookSources/978-1439911105">978-1439911105</a>.</li> <li>Mullen, Bill V. (2016). W.E.B. Du Bois: Revolutionary Across the Color Line. London, UK: Pluto Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0%2B7453%2B3506%2B3" title="Special:BookSources/978+0+7453+3506+3">978 0 7453 3506 3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Rampersad" title="Arnold Rampersad">Rampersad, Arnold</a> (1976), The Art and Imagination of W. E. B. Du Bois, Harvard University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04711-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04711-2">978-0-674-04711-2</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardson2019" class="citation book cs1">Richardson, Mark (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w6WXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73">"W.E.B. Du Bois and the Redemption of the Body"</a>. The Wings of Atalanta: Essays Written Along the Color Line. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 73–109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57113-239-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57113-239-0"><bdi>978-1-57113-239-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=W.E.B.+Du+Bois+and+the+Redemption+of+the+Body&rft.btitle=The+Wings+of+Atalanta%3A+Essays+Written+Along+the+Color+Line&rft.pages=73-109&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-57113-239-0&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw6WXDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Rudwick, Elliott M. (1968), W. E. B. Du Bois: Propagandist of the Negro Protest, University of Pennsylvania Press, <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B00442HZQ2">B00442HZQ2</a>.</li> <li>Shaw, Stephanie J. (2013), W. E. B. Du Bois and "The Souls of Black Folk". Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1469626437" title="Special:BookSources/978-1469626437">978-1469626437</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Gelders_Sterne" title="Emma Gelders Sterne">Sterne, Emma Gelders</a> (1971), His Was the Voice: The Life of W. E. B. Du Bois, Crowell-Collier Press. Book for children. <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000I1XNX2">B000I1XNX2</a>.</li> <li>Sundquist, Eric J. (1996) (Ed.), The Oxford W. E. B. Du Bois Reader, Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509178-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509178-6">978-0-19-509178-6</a>.</li> <li>Williams, Chad L. The Wounded World: WEB DuBois and the First World War (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2023). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780374293154" title="Special:BookSources/9780374293154">9780374293154</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Victor_Wolfenstein" title="Eugene Victor Wolfenstein">Wolfenstein, Eugene Victor</a> (2007), A Gift of the Spirit: Reading The Souls of Black Folk, Cornell University Press, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-7353-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-7353-5">0-8014-7353-5</a>.</li> <li>Wright, William D. (1985), The Socialist Analysis of W. E. B. Du Bois, Ph.D. dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.</li> <li>Zuckerman, Phil (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xsMszzLoPccC">Du Bois on Religion</a>, Rowman & Littlefield. A collection of Du Bois's writings on religion. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-0421-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-0421-9">978-0-7425-0421-9</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Documentaries">Documentaries</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Massiah" title="Louis Massiah">Massiah, Louis</a> (producer and director), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newsreel.org/video/W-E-B-DU-BOIS">W. E. B. Du Bois: A Biography in Four Voices</a>, documentary movie, 1996, California Newsreel</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> W. E. B. Du Bois at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="extiw" title="c:Category:W.E.B. Du Bois">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" class="extiw" title="q:W. E. B. Du Bois">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:William_Edward_Burghardt_Du_Bois" class="extiw" title="s:Author:William Edward Burghardt Du Bois">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q158060" class="extiw" title="d:Q158060">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.duboisnhs.org">W. E. B. Du Bois National Historic Site</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/du-bois-review-social-science-research-on-race">Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Gooding-Williams" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Robert Gooding-Williams. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dubois/">"W. E. B. Du Bois"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.au=Robert+Gooding-Williams&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fdubois%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorse" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Morse, Donald J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/dubois">"W. E. B. Du Bois"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Morse&rft.aufirst=Donald+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fdubois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+E.+B.+Du+Bois" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://guides.loc.gov/web-dubois">W. E. B. Du Bois: A Resource Guide</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.c-span.org/video/?165130-1/writings-b-washington-du-bois">"Writings of B. Washington and Du Bois"</a> from <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a>'s <a href="/wiki/American_Writers:_A_Journey_Through_History" title="American Writers: A Journey Through History">American Writers: A Journey Through History</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kKXglS90qn4">Audio of W. E. B. Du Bois lecturing on "Socialism and the American Negro"</a>, April 9, 1960, on <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://findingaids.library.umass.edu/ead/mums312">W.E.B. Du Bois Papers</a> held by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Amherst" title="University of Massachusetts Amherst">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> Special Collections and University Archives</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/11/resources/988">W. E. B. Dubois Collection</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Beinecke_Rare_Book_%26_Manuscript_Library" title="Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library">Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vault.fbi.gov/E.%20B.%20%28William%29%20Dubois">FBI files on DuBois released under the Freedom of Information Act</a> in The Vault, <a href="/wiki/FBI" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI">FBI</a> electronic reading room</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Online_editions">Online editions</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28%22Du+Bois%22+OR+%22DuBois%22%29+AND+%28%22W.+E.%22+OR+William%29%29">Works by or about W. E. B. Du Bois</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/226">Works by W. E. B. Du Bois</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/w-e-b-du-bois">Works by W. E. B. Du Bois in eBook form</a> at <a href="/wiki/Standard_Ebooks" title="Standard Ebooks">Standard Ebooks</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/author/4368">Works by W. E. B. Du Bois</a> at <a href="/wiki/FRASER" title="FRASER">FRASER</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/1655">Works by W. E. B. Du Bois</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="W._E._B._Du_Bois" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="Template:W. E. B. Du Bois"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="Template talk:W. E. B. Du Bois"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="Special:EditPage/Template:W. E. B. Du Bois"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="W._E._B._Du_Bois" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois_Boyhood_Homesite" title="W.E.B. Du Bois Boyhood Homesite">W.E.B. Du Bois Boyhood Homesite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Conference_of_Negro_Problems" title="Atlanta Conference of Negro Problems">Atlanta Conference of Negro Problems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Sociological_Laboratory" title="Atlanta Sociological Laboratory">Atlanta Sociological Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Exhibit_of_American_Negroes" title="The Exhibit of American Negroes">The Exhibit of American Negroes</a> (1900)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Pan-African_Conference" title="First Pan-African Conference">First Pan-African Conference</a> (1900)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> (co-founder)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Crisis" title="The Crisis">The Crisis magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Brownies%27_Book" title="The Brownies' Book">The Brownies' Book magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_(American_newspaper)" title="Freedom (American newspaper)">Freedom newspaper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Congress" title="Pan-African Congress">Pan-African Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisk_University_protest" title="Fisk University protest">Fisk University protest</a> (1924–1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Memorial_Centre_for_Pan_African_Culture" title="W. E. B. Du Bois Memorial Centre for Pan African Culture">W. E. B. Du Bois Memorial Centre for Pan African Culture</a> (home, burial site, and memorial)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Talented_tenth" title="Talented tenth">Talented Tenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_line_(racism)" title="Color line (racism)">Color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_consciousness" title="Double consciousness">Double consciousness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-fiction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Suppression_of_the_African_Slave-trade_to_the_United_States_of_America" title="The Suppression of the African Slave-trade to the United States of America">The Suppression of the African Slave-trade to the United States of America</a> (1894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Study_of_the_Negro_Problems" title="The Study of the Negro Problems">The Study of the Negro Problems</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Philadelphia_Negro" title="The Philadelphia Negro">The Philadelphia Negro</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Souls_of_Black_Folk" title="The Souls of Black Folk">The Souls of Black Folk</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_in_the_South" title="The Negro in the South">The Negro in the South</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(biography)" title="John Brown (biography)">John Brown</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Negro" title="The Negro">The Negro</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darkwater:_Voices_from_Within_the_Veil" title="Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil">Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Reconstruction_in_America" title="Black Reconstruction in America">Black Reconstruction in America</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dusk_of_Dawn" title="Dusk of Dawn">Dusk of Dawn</a> (1940)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fiction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Comet_(short_story)" title="The Comet (short story)">The Comet</a>" (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Princess" title="Dark Princess">Dark Princess</a> (1928)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Honors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Library" title="W. E. B. Du Bois Library">W. E. B. Du Bois Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois_Career_of_Distinguished_Scholarship_Award" title="W.E.B. Du Bois Career of Distinguished Scholarship Award">W.E.B. Du Bois Career of Distinguished Scholarship Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Research_Institute" title="W. E. B. Du Bois Research Institute">W. E. B. Du Bois Research Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Graham_Du_Bois" title="Shirley Graham Du Bois">Shirley Graham Du Bois</a> (second wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yolande_Du_Bois" title="Yolande Du Bois">Yolande Du Bois</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Africana" title="Encyclopedia Africana">Encyclopedia Africana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Problem_(book)" title="The Negro Problem (book)">The Negro Problem</a> (1903 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois_Clubs_of_America" title="W.E.B. Du Bois Clubs of America">W.E.B. Du Bois Clubs of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Articles_related_to_W._E._B._Du_Bois" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Articles_related_to_W._E._B._Du_Bois" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Articles related to W. E. B. Du Bois</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_jurists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_firsts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">Lynching victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">Topics related to the African diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spingarn_Medal_winners" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spingarn_Medal" title="Template:Spingarn Medal"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spingarn_Medal" title="Template talk:Spingarn Medal"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spingarn_Medal" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spingarn Medal"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spingarn_Medal_winners" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal</a> winners</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1915: <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Everett_Just" title="Ernest Everett Just">Ernest Everett Just</a></li> <li>1916: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Young_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Charles Young (United States Army officer)">Charles Young</a></li> <li>1917: <a href="/wiki/Harry_Burleigh" title="Harry Burleigh">Harry Burleigh</a></li> <li>1918: <a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_Braithwaite" title="William Stanley Braithwaite">William Stanley Braithwaite</a></li> <li>1919: <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Grimk%C3%A9" title="Archibald Grimké">Archibald Grimké</a></li> <li>1920: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li>1921: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sidney_Gilpin" title="Charles Sidney Gilpin">Charles Sidney Gilpin</a></li> <li>1922: <a href="/wiki/Mary_Burnett_Talbert" title="Mary Burnett Talbert">Mary Burnett Talbert</a></li> <li>1923: <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li>1924: <a href="/wiki/Roland_Hayes" title="Roland Hayes">Roland Hayes</a></li> <li>1925: <a href="/wiki/James_Weldon_Johnson" title="James Weldon Johnson">James Weldon Johnson</a></li> <li>1926: <a href="/wiki/Carter_G._Woodson" title="Carter G. Woodson">Carter G. Woodson</a></li> <li>1927: <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Overton" title="Anthony Overton">Anthony Overton</a></li> <li>1928: <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Chesnutt" title="Charles W. Chesnutt">Charles W. Chesnutt</a></li> <li>1929: <a href="/wiki/Mordecai_Wyatt_Johnson" title="Mordecai Wyatt Johnson">Mordecai Wyatt Johnson</a></li> <li>1930: <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Hunt" title="Henry A. Hunt">Henry A. Hunt</a></li> <li>1931: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Berry_Harrison" title="Richard Berry Harrison">Richard Berry Harrison</a></li> <li>1932: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Russa_Moton" title="Robert Russa Moton">Robert Russa Moton</a></li> <li>1933: <a href="/wiki/Max_Yergan" title="Max Yergan">Max Yergan</a></li> <li>1934: <a href="/wiki/William_T._B._Williams" title="William T. B. Williams">William T. B. Williams</a></li> <li>1935: <a href="/wiki/Mary_McLeod_Bethune" title="Mary McLeod Bethune">Mary McLeod Bethune</a></li> <li>1936: <a href="/wiki/John_Hope_(educator)" title="John Hope (educator)">John Hope</a></li> <li>1937: <a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a></li> <li>1938: no award</li> <li>1939: <a href="/wiki/Marian_Anderson" title="Marian Anderson">Marian Anderson</a></li> <li>1940: <a href="/wiki/Louis_T._Wright" title="Louis T. Wright">Louis T. Wright</a></li> <li>1941: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wright_(author)" title="Richard Wright (author)">Richard Wright</a></li> <li>1942: <a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li>1943: <a href="/wiki/William_H._Hastie" title="William H. Hastie">William H. Hastie</a></li> <li>1944: <a href="/wiki/Charles_R._Drew" title="Charles R. Drew">Charles R. Drew</a></li> <li>1945: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li>1946: <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li>1947: <a href="/wiki/Percy_Lavon_Julian" title="Percy Lavon Julian">Percy Lavon Julian</a></li> <li>1948: <a href="/wiki/Channing_Heggie_Tobias" title="Channing Heggie Tobias">Channing Heggie Tobias</a></li> <li>1949: <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li>1950: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hamilton_Houston" title="Charles Hamilton Houston">Charles Hamilton Houston</a></li> <li>1951: <a href="/wiki/Mabel_Keaton_Staupers" title="Mabel Keaton Staupers">Mabel Keaton Staupers</a></li> <li>1952: <a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry T. Moore</a></li> <li>1953: <a href="/wiki/Paul_R._Williams" title="Paul R. Williams">Paul R. Williams</a></li> <li>1954: <a href="/wiki/Theodore_K._Lawless" title="Theodore K. Lawless">Theodore K. Lawless</a></li> <li>1955: <a href="/wiki/Carl_J._Murphy" title="Carl J. Murphy">Carl J. Murphy</a></li> <li>1956: <a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li>1957: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li>1958: <a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(activist)" title="Daisy Bates (activist)">Daisy Bates</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a></li> <li>1959: <a href="/wiki/Duke_Ellington" title="Duke Ellington">Duke Ellington</a></li> <li>1960: <a href="/wiki/Langston_Hughes" title="Langston Hughes">Langston Hughes</a></li> <li>1961: <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_B._Clark" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth B. Clark">Kenneth B. Clark</a></li> <li>1962: <a href="/wiki/Robert_C._Weaver" title="Robert C. Weaver">Robert C. Weaver</a></li> <li>1963: <a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li>1964: <a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li>1965: <a href="/wiki/Leontyne_Price" title="Leontyne Price">Leontyne Price</a></li> <li>1966: <a href="/wiki/John_H._Johnson" title="John H. Johnson">John H. Johnson</a></li> <li>1967: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li>1968: <a href="/wiki/Sammy_Davis_Jr." title="Sammy Davis Jr.">Sammy Davis Jr.</a></li> <li>1969: <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Mitchell_Jr." title="Clarence Mitchell Jr.">Clarence Mitchell Jr.</a></li> <li>1970: <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Lawrence" title="Jacob Lawrence">Jacob Lawrence</a></li> <li>1971: <a href="/wiki/Leon_Sullivan" title="Leon Sullivan">Leon Sullivan</a></li> <li>1972: <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Parks" title="Gordon Parks">Gordon Parks</a></li> <li>1973: <a href="/wiki/Wilson_Riles" title="Wilson Riles">Wilson Riles</a></li> <li>1974: <a href="/wiki/Damon_Keith" title="Damon Keith">Damon Keith</a></li> <li>1975: no award</li> <li>1976: <a href="/wiki/Hank_Aaron" title="Hank Aaron">Hank Aaron</a></li> <li>1977: <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Ailey" title="Alvin Ailey">Alvin Ailey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alex_Haley" title="Alex Haley">Alex Haley</a></li> <li>1978: no award</li> <li>1979: <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li>1980: <a href="/wiki/Rayford_Logan" title="Rayford Logan">Rayford Logan</a></li> <li>1981: <a href="/wiki/Coleman_Young" title="Coleman Young">Coleman Young</a></li> <li>1982: <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Elijah Mays</a></li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/Lena_Horne" title="Lena Horne">Lena Horne</a></li> <li>1984: no award</li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/Tom_Bradley_(American_politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tom Bradley (American politician)">Tom Bradley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bill_Cosby" title="Bill Cosby">Bill Cosby</a></li> <li>1986: <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hooks" title="Benjamin Hooks">Benjamin Hooks</a></li> <li>1987: <a href="/wiki/Percy_Sutton" title="Percy Sutton">Percy Sutton</a></li> <li>1988: <a href="/wiki/Frederick_D._Patterson" title="Frederick D. Patterson">Frederick D. Patterson</a></li> <li>1989: <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li>1990: <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Wilder" title="Douglas Wilder">Douglas Wilder</a></li> <li>1991: <a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li>1992: <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li>1993: <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a></li> <li>1994: <a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li>1995: <a href="/wiki/John_Hope_Franklin" title="John Hope Franklin">John Hope Franklin</a></li> <li>1996: <a href="/wiki/A._Leon_Higginbotham_Jr." title="A. Leon Higginbotham Jr.">A. Leon Higginbotham Jr.</a></li> <li>1997: <a href="/wiki/Carl_Rowan" title="Carl Rowan">Carl Rowan</a></li> <li>1998: <a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a></li> <li>1999: <a href="/wiki/Earl_G._Graves_Sr." title="Earl G. Graves Sr.">Earl G. Graves Sr.</a></li> <li>2000: <a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li>2001: <a href="/wiki/Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a></li> <li>2002: <a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li>2003: <a href="/wiki/Constance_Baker_Motley" title="Constance Baker Motley">Constance Baker Motley</a></li> <li>2004: <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Carter" title="Robert L. Carter">Robert L. Carter</a></li> <li>2005: <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hill_(attorney)" title="Oliver Hill (attorney)">Oliver Hill</a></li> <li>2006: <a href="/wiki/Ben_Carson" title="Ben Carson">Ben Carson</a></li> <li>2007: <a href="/wiki/John_Conyers" title="John Conyers">John Conyers</a></li> <li>2008: <a href="/wiki/Ruby_Dee" title="Ruby Dee">Ruby Dee</a></li> <li>2009: <a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li>2010: <a href="/wiki/Cicely_Tyson" title="Cicely Tyson">Cicely Tyson</a></li> <li>2011: <a href="/wiki/Frankie_Muse_Freeman" title="Frankie Muse Freeman">Frankie Muse Freeman</a></li> <li>2012: <a href="/wiki/Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a></li> <li>2013: <a href="/wiki/Jessye_Norman" title="Jessye Norman">Jessye Norman</a></li> <li>2014: <a href="/wiki/Quincy_Jones" title="Quincy Jones">Quincy Jones</a></li> <li>2015: <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Poitier" title="Sidney Poitier">Sidney Poitier</a></li> <li>2016: <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_R._Jones" title="Nathaniel R. Jones">Nathaniel R. Jones</a></li> <li>2017: no award</li> <li>2018: <a href="/wiki/Willie_Brown_(politician)" title="Willie Brown (politician)">Willie Brown</a></li> <li>2019: <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Gaspard" title="Patrick Gaspard">Patrick Gaspard</a></li> <li>2020: no award</li> <li>2021: <a href="/wiki/Cato_T._Laurencin" title="Cato T. Laurencin">Cato T. Laurencin</a></li> <li>2022: <a href="/wiki/Jim_Clyburn" title="Jim Clyburn">Jim Clyburn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pan-Africanism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pan-Africanism" title="Template:Pan-Africanism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pan-Africanism" title="Template talk:Pan-Africanism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pan-Africanism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pan-Africanism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pan-Africanism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Variants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_nationalism" title="African nationalism">African nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_socialism" title="African socialism">African socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Western_sentiment" title="Anti-Western sentiment">Anti-Western sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Black nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkrumaism" title="Nkrumaism">Nkrumaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sankarism" title="Sankarism">Sankarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uhuru_Movement" title="Uhuru Movement">Uhuru Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zikism" title="Zikism">Zikism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_century" title="African century">African century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9gritude" title="Négritude">Négritude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Ubuntu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ujamaa" title="Ujamaa">Ujamaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Africa" title="United States of Africa">United States of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Pan-Africanists" title="Category:Pan-Africanists">Proponents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Politicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Akumu" title="Dennis Akumu">Dennis Akumu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idi_Amin" title="Idi Amin">Idi Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nnamdi_Azikiwe" title="Nnamdi Azikiwe">Nnamdi Azikiwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%ADlcar_Cabral" title="Amílcar Cabral">Amílcar Cabral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Comissiong" title="David Comissiong">David Comissiong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Dessalines" title="Jean-Jacques Dessalines">Jean-Jacques Dessalines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%A9nor_Firmin" title="Anténor Firmin">Anténor Firmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alieu_Ebrima_Cham_Joof" title="Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof">Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kaunda" title="Kenneth Kaunda">Kenneth Kaunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modibo_Ke%C3%AFta" title="Modibo Keïta">Modibo Keïta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jomo_Kenyatta" title="Jomo Kenyatta">Jomo Kenyatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Louverture" title="Toussaint Louverture">Toussaint Louverture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samora_Machel" title="Samora Machel">Samora Machel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ochola_Ogaye_Mak%27Anyengo" title="Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo">Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thabo_Mbeki" title="Thabo Mbeki">Thabo Mbeki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Mboya" title="Tom Mboya">Tom Mboya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe">Robert Mugabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdias_do_Nascimento" title="Abdias do Nascimento">Abdias do Nascimento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Kwame Nkrumah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Nyerere" title="Julius Nyerere">Julius Nyerere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Nyathi_Pokela" title="John Nyathi Pokela">John Nyathi Pokela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sankara" title="Thomas Sankara">Thomas Sankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_S%C3%A9kou_Tour%C3%A9" title="Ahmed Sékou Touré">Ahmed Sékou Touré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sobukwe" title="Robert Sobukwe">Robert Sobukwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._T._A._Wallace-Johnson" title="I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson">I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marimba_Ani" title="Marimba Ani">Marimba Ani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molefi_Kete_Asante" title="Molefi Kete Asante">Molefi Kete Asante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Biko" title="Steve Biko">Steve Biko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Wilmot_Blyden" title="Edward Wilmot Blyden">Edward Wilmot Blyden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aim%C3%A9_C%C3%A9saire" title="Aimé Césaire">Aimé Césaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henrik_Clarke" title="John Henrik Clarke">John Henrik Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Delany" title="Martin Delany">Martin R. Delany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheikh_Anta_Diop" title="Cheikh Anta Diop">Cheikh Anta Diop</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Ashwood_Garvey" title="Amy Ashwood Garvey">Amy Ashwood Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_G._Jackson_(writer)" title="John G. Jackson (writer)">John G. Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Jeffries" title="Leonard Jeffries">Leonard Jeffries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yosef_Ben-Jochannan" title="Yosef Ben-Jochannan">Yosef Ben-Jochannan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Karenga" title="Maulana Karenga">Maulana Karenga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Kinloch" title="Alice Kinloch">Alice Kinloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fela_Kuti" title="Fela Kuti">Fela Kuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Mafeje" title="Archie Mafeje">Archie Mafeje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Mazrui" title="Ali Mazrui">Ali Mazrui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zephania_Mothopeng" title="Zephania Mothopeng">Zephania Mothopeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Padmore" title="George Padmore">George Padmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motsoko_Pheko" title="Motsoko Pheko">Motsoko Pheko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runoko_Rashidi" title="Runoko Rashidi">Runoko Rashidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randall_Robinson" title="Randall Robinson">Randall Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_Spear" title="Burning Spear">Burning Spear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issa_Laye_Thiaw" title="Issa Laye Thiaw">Issa Laye Thiaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Cress_Welsing" title="Frances Cress Welsing">Frances Cress Welsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sylvester_Williams" title="Henry Sylvester Williams">Henry Sylvester Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_N._Wilson" title="Amos N. Wilson">Amos N. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omali_Yeshitela" title="Omali Yeshitela">Omali Yeshitela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Pan-Africanist_organizations" title="Category:Pan-Africanist organizations">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Educational</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Leadership_Academy" title="African Leadership Academy">African Leadership Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Leadership_University" title="African Leadership University">African Leadership University</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Unification_Front" title="African Unification Front">African Unification Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-African_People%27s_Revolutionary_Party" title="All-African People's Revolutionary Party">All-African People's Revolutionary Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-African_Trade_Union_Federation" title="All-African Trade Union Federation">All-African Trade Union Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conseil_de_l%27Entente" title="Conseil de l'Entente">Conseil de l'Entente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_People%27s_Party" title="Convention People's Party">Convention People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_Community" title="East African Community">East African Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Freedom_Fighters" title="Economic Freedom Fighters">Economic Freedom Fighters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Pan-African_Conference" title="First Pan-African Conference">First Pan-African Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_African_Service_Bureau" title="International African Service Bureau">International African Service Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Trade_Union_Unity" title="Organisation of African Trade Union Unity">Organisation of African Trade Union Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Organisation of African Unity">Organisation of African Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_African_Association" title="Pan African Association">Pan African Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Freedom_Movement_for_East_and_Central_Africa" title="Pan-African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa">Pan-African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Congress" title="Pan-African Congress">Pan-African Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Africanist_Congress_of_Azania" title="Pan Africanist Congress of Azania">Pan Africanist Congress of Azania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_and_Social_League_of_the_Great_Sahara_Tribes" title="Popular and Social League of the Great Sahara Tribes">Popular and Social League of the Great Sahara Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rassemblement_D%C3%A9mocratique_Africain" title="Rassemblement Démocratique Africain">Rassemblement Démocratique Africain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZANU%E2%80%93PF" title="ZANU–PF">ZANU–PF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Star_of_Africa" title="Black Star of Africa">Black Star of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Marron_Inconnu" title="Le Marron Inconnu">Le Marron Inconnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lion_of_Judah" title="Lion of Judah">Lion of Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_colours" title="Pan-African colours">Pan-African colours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_flag" title="Pan-African flag">Pan-African flag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynamics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa" title="List of ethnic groups of Africa">Ethnic groups of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Languages of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Religion in Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Africa" title="List of conflicts in Africa">Conflicts in Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">African-American leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africanization" title="Africanization">Africanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-African_Peoples%27_Conference" title="All-African Peoples' Conference">All-African Peoples' Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_Federation" title="East African Federation">East African Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_African_States" title="Union of African States">Union of African States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Africa" title="United States of Africa">United States of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Latin_Africa" title="United States of Latin Africa">United States of Latin Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_of_Africa" title="Year of Africa">Year of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Pan-Africanism" title="Category:Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Africa" title="Category:Africa">Africa category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Pan-Africanism" title="Portal:Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism portal</a></li> <li><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/16px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/24px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/32px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Africa" title="Portal:Africa">Africa portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template talk:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> (1954–1968)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Events (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Prior to 1954</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Harry_and_Harriette_Moore" title="Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore">Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge_bus_boycott" title="Baton Rouge bus boycott">Baton Rouge bus boycott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1954–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Davis v. Prince Edward County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gebhart_v._Belton" title="Gebhart v. Belton">Gebhart v. Belton</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keys_v._Carolina_Coach_Co." title="Keys v. Carolina Coach Co.">Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallahassee_bus_boycott" title="Tallahassee bus boycott">Tallahassee bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansfield_school_desegregation_incident" title="Mansfield school desegregation incident">Mansfield school desegregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Ice_Cream_sit-in" title="Royal Ice Cream sit-in">Royal Ice Cream sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministers%27_Manifesto" title="Ministers' Manifesto">Ministers' Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katz_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Katz Drug Store sit-in">Katz Drug Store sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissing_Case" title="Kissing Case">Kissing Case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biloxi_wade-ins" title="Biloxi wade-ins">Biloxi wade-ins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1960–1963</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day_March" title="New Year's Day March">New Year's Day March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibley_Commission" title="Sibley Commission">Sibley Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_sit-ins" title="Atlanta sit-ins">Atlanta sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savannah_Protest_Movement" title="Savannah Protest Movement">Savannah Protest Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenville_Eight" title="Greenville Eight">Greenville Eight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ax_Handle_Saturday" title="Ax Handle Saturday">Ax Handle Saturday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boynton_v._Virginia" title="Boynton v. Virginia">Boynton v. Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_desegregation_riot" title="University of Georgia desegregation riot">University of Georgia desegregation riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship_Nine" title="Friendship Nine">Rock Hill sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_Day_Address" title="Law Day Address">Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Rides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anniston_bus_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Anniston bus bombing">Anniston bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_bus_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham bus attack">Birmingham attack</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Louisiana" title="Garner v. Louisiana">Garner v. Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_movement_(civil_rights)" title="Cambridge movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_sit-ins" title="University of Chicago sit-ins">University of Chicago sit-ins</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Second_Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Second Emancipation Proclamation">Second Emancipation Proclamation</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta%27s_Berlin_Wall" title="Atlanta's Berlin Wall">Atlanta's Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace%27s_1963_Inaugural_Address" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">"Segregation now, segregation forever"</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">1963 Birmingham campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_riot_of_1963" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">Birmingham riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_Walk_to_Freedom" title="Detroit Walk to Freedom">Detroit Walk to Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">"I Have a Dream"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Six_(activists)" title="Big Six (activists)">Big Six</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1964–1968</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_school_protests" title="Chester school protests">Chester school protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Tuesday_(1964)" title="Bloody Tuesday (1964)">Bloody Tuesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protests" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests">1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">workers' murders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel,_Inc._v._United_States" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._McClung" title="Katzenbach v. McClung">Katzenbach v. McClung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964%E2%80%931965_Scripto_strike" title="1964–1965 Scripto strike">1964–1965 Scripto strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">1965 Selma to Montgomery marches</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/How_Long,_Not_Long" title="How Long, Not Long">How Long, Not Long</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Conference_on_Civil_Rights" title="White House Conference on Civil Rights">White House Conference on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">King assassination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Board of New Kent County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jones_v._Alfred_H._Mayer_Co." title="Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.">Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968 Olympics Black Power salute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activist groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Christian_Movement_for_Human_Rights" title="Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights">Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Negro_Voters_League" title="Atlanta Negro Voters League">Atlanta Negro Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Student_Movement" title="Atlanta Student Movement">Atlanta Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Freedom_Now" title="Committee for Freedom Now">Committee for Freedom Now</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="Committee on Appeal for Human Rights">Committee on Appeal for Human Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/An_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="An Appeal for Human Rights">An Appeal for Human Rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_United_Civil_Rights_Leadership" title="Council for United Civil Rights Leadership">Council for United Civil Rights Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Federated_Organizations" title="Council of Federated Organizations">Council of Federated Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dallas_County_Voters_League" title="Dallas County Voters League">Dallas County Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Council_on_Human_Relations" title="Georgia Council on Human Relations">Georgia Council on Human Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlander_Research_and_Education_Center" title="Highlander Research and Education Center">Highlander Folk School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Conference_on_Civil_and_Human_Rights" title="Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights">Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Improvement_Association" title="Montgomery Improvement Association">Montgomery Improvement Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Youth_Council" title="NAACP Youth Council">Youth Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Student_Movement" title="Northern Student Movement">Northern Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Breadbasket" title="Operation Breadbasket">Operation Breadbasket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" title="Regional Council of Negro Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Regional_Council" title="Southern Regional Council">Southern Regional Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Singers" title="The Freedom Singers">The Freedom Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers (UAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wednesdays_in_Mississippi" title="Wednesdays in Mississippi">Wednesdays in Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Political_Council" title="Women's Political Council">Women's Political Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Gray_Adams" title="Victoria Gray Adams">Victoria Gray Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zev_Aelony" title="Zev Aelony">Zev Aelony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathew_Ahmann" title="Mathew Ahmann">Mathew Ahmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_G._Anderson" title="William G. Anderson">William G. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Elaine_Armstrong" title="Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong">Gwendolyn Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Aronson" title="Arnold Aronson">Arnold Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Barry" title="Marion Barry">Marion Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(activist)" title="Daisy Bates (activist)">Daisy Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Black_(minister)" title="Claude Black (minister)">Claude Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Blackwell" title="Gloria Blackwell">Gloria Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Blackwell" title="Randolph Blackwell">Randolph Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unita_Blackwell" title="Unita Blackwell">Unita Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezell_Blair_Jr." title="Ezell Blair Jr.">Ezell Blair Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joanne_Bland" title="Joanne Bland">Joanne Bland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Boone" title="Joseph E. Boone">Joseph E. Boone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Holmes_Borders" title="William Holmes Borders">William Holmes Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Boynton" title="Bruce Boynton">Bruce Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raylawni_Branch" title="Raylawni Branch">Raylawni Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Branche" title="Stanley Branche">Stanley Branche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Bridges" title="Ruby Bridges">Ruby Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelia_Browder" title="Aurelia Browder">Aurelia Browder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Calhoun" title="John H. Calhoun">John H. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Carawan" title="Guy Carawan">Guy Carawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnnie_Carr" title="Johnnie Carr">Johnnie Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Chestnut,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="J. L. Chestnut, Jr.">J. L. Chestnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colia_Clark" title="Colia Clark">Colia Lafayette Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">Ramsey Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septima_Poinsette_Clark" title="Septima Poinsette Clark">Septima Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xernona_Clayton" title="Xernona Clayton">Xernona Clayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Dobbs_Clement" title="Josephine Dobbs Clement">Josephine Dobbs Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Cobb_Jr." title="Charles E. Cobb Jr.">Charles E. Cobb Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Lee_Cooper" title="Annie Lee Cooper">Annie Lee Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Jonathan Daniels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Davis" title="Abraham Lincoln Davis">Abraham Lincoln Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_DeLaine" title="Joseph DeLaine">Joseph DeLaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Dennis_(activist)" title="Dave Dennis (activist)">Dave Dennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Bell_Robinson_Devine" title="Annie Bell Robinson Devine">Annie Bell Robinson Devine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Dobbs" title="John Wesley Dobbs">John Wesley Dobbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Stephens_Due" title="Patricia Stephens Due">Patricia Stephens Due</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ellwanger" title="Joseph Ellwanger">Joseph Ellwanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evers" title="Charles Evers">Charles Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fauntroy" title="Walter Fauntroy">Walter Fauntroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Foster" title="Marie Foster">Marie Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Frinks" title="Golden Frinks">Golden Frinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Graetz" title="Robert Graetz">Robert Graetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Greenberg" title="Jack Greenberg">Jack Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Guyot" title="Lawrence Guyot">Lawrence Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prathia_Hall" title="Prathia Hall">Prathia Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Fred Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Harbour" title="William E. Harbour">William E. Harbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Faye_Hendricks" title="Audrey Faye Hendricks">Audrey Faye Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lola_Hendricks" title="Lola Hendricks">Lola Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Henry_(politician)" title="Aaron Henry (politician)">Aaron Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hill_(attorney)" title="Oliver Hill (attorney)">Oliver Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Hollowell" title="Donald L. Hollowell">Donald L. Hollowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myles_Horton" title="Myles Horton">Myles Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zilphia_Horton" title="Zilphia Horton">Zilphia Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._R._M._Howard" title="T. R. M. Howard">T. R. M. Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Hurley" title="Ruby Hurley">Ruby Hurley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_Ivory" title="Cecil Ivory">Cecil Ivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richie_Jean_Jackson" title="Richie Jean Jackson">Richie Jean Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._J._Jemison" title="T. J. Jemison">T. J. Jemison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esau_Jenkins" title="Esau Jenkins">Esau Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Rose_Johns" title="Barbara Rose Johns">Barbara Rose Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Johns" title="Vernon Johns">Vernon Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Minis_Johnson" title="Frank Minis Johnson">Frank Minis Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_B._Jones" title="Clarence B. Jones">Clarence Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Charles_Jones" title="J. Charles Jones">J. Charles Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Jones_(activist)" title="Matthew Jones (activist)">Matthew Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Kahn" title="Tom Kahn">Tom Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kennard" title="Clyde Kennard">Clyde Kennard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._D._King" title="A. D. King">A. D. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevene_Bowers_King" title="Chevene Bowers King">C.B. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Sr." title="Martin Luther King Sr.">Martin Luther King Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lee_(activist)" title="Bernard Lee (activist)">Bernard Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanford_R._Leigh" title="Sanford R. Leigh">Sanford R. Leigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Letherer" title="Jim Letherer">Jim Letherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Levison" title="Stanley Levison">Stanley Levison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z._Alexander_Looby" title="Z. Alexander Looby">Z. Alexander Looby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Luper" title="Clara Luper">Clara Luper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danny_Lyon" title="Danny Lyon">Danny Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mae_Mallory" title="Mae Mallory">Mae Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Mants" title="Bob Mants">Bob Mants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Mays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_McCain" title="Franklin McCain">Franklin McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_McDew" title="Charles McDew">Charles McDew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_McGill" title="Ralph McGill">Ralph McGill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_McKissick" title="Floyd McKissick">Floyd McKissick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McNeil" title="Joseph McNeil">Joseph McNeil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Robert_Ming" title="William Robert Ming">William Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Minnis" title="Jack Minnis">Jack Minnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amzie_Moore" title="Amzie Moore">Amzie Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_B._Moore" title="Cecil B. Moore">Cecil B. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_E._Moore" title="Douglas E. Moore">Douglas E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriette_Moore" title="Harriette Moore">Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry T. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_Moore" title="Queen Mother Moore">Queen Mother Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Moore" title="William Lewis Moore">William Lewis Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_Morgan" title="Irene Morgan">Irene Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Moyer" title="William Moyer">William Moyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad" title="Elijah Muhammad">Elijah Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Neblett" title="Charles Neblett">Charles Neblett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._D._Nixon" title="E. D. Nixon">Edgar Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_O%27Dell" title="Jack O'Dell">Jack O'Dell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Orange" title="James Orange">James Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Peck_(pacifist)" title="James Peck (pacifist)">James Peck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Person" title="Charles Person">Charles Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Plessy" title="Homer Plessy">Homer Plessy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fay_Bellamy_Powell" title="Fay Bellamy Powell">Fay Bellamy Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_N._Powell" title="Rodney N. Powell">Rodney N. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Raby" title="Albert Raby">Al Raby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Ragsdale" title="Lincoln Ragsdale">Lincoln Ragsdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond" title="George Raymond">George Raymond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond_Jr." title="George Raymond Jr.">George Raymond Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Johnson_Reagon" title="Bernice Johnson Reagon">Bernice Johnson Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Reagon" title="Cordell Reagon">Cordell Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_D._Reese" title="Frederick D. Reese">Frederick D. Reese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Richmond_(activist)" title="David Richmond (activist)">David Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Robinson" title="Bernice Robinson">Bernice Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Ann_Robinson" title="Jo Ann Robinson">Jo Ann Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Russell_(politician)" title="Angela Russell (politician)">Angela Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Pete Seeger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Sellers" title="Cleveland Sellers">Cleveland Sellers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sherrod" title="Charles Sherrod">Charles Sherrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_D._Shimkin" title="Alexander D. Shimkin">Alexander D. Shimkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modjeska_Monteith_Simkins" title="Modjeska Monteith Simkins">Modjeska Monteith Simkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_E._Smiley" title="Glenn E. Smiley">Glenn E. Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Maceo_Smith" title="A. Maceo Smith">A. Maceo Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Miller_Smith" title="Kelly Miller Smith">Kelly Miller Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Louise_Smith_(activist)" title="Mary Louise Smith (activist)">Mary Louise Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Smith" title="Maxine Smith">Maxine Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Doris_Smith-Robinson" title="Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson">Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kenzie_Steele" title="Charles Kenzie Steele">Charles Kenzie Steele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hank_Thomas" title="Hank Thomas">Hank Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Tillman" title="Dorothy Tillman">Dorothy Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Tureaud" title="A. P. Tureaud">A. P. Tureaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartman_Turnbow" title="Hartman Turnbow">Hartman Turnbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Turner_(activist)" title="Albert Turner (activist)">Albert Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._T._Walden" title="A. T. Walden">A. T. Walden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollis_Watkins" title="Hollis Watkins">Hollis Watkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Kale Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q._V._Williamson" title="Q. V. Williamson">Q. V. Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Sammy Younge Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Zellner" title="Bob Zellner">Bob Zellner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Zwerg" title="James Zwerg">James Zwerg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="South Carolina in the civil rights movement">South Carolina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Movement songs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ain%27t_Gonna_Let_Nobody_Turn_Me_%27Round" title="Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round">"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/If_You_Miss_Me_at_the_Back_of_the_Bus" title="If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus">"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">"Kumbaya"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep_Your_Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Keep Your Eyes on the Prize">"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oh,_Freedom" title="Oh, Freedom">"Oh, Freedom"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/This_Little_Light_of_Mine" title="This Little Light of Mine">"This Little Light of Mine"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Shall_Not_Be_Moved" title="I Shall Not Be Moved">"We Shall Not Be Moved"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">"We Shall Overcome"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woke_Up_This_Morning_(With_My_Mind_Stayed_On_Freedom)" title="Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)">"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Padayatra" title="Padayatra">Padayatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_McLeod_Bethune" title="Mary McLeod Bethune">Mary McLeod Bethune</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hocutt_v._Wilson" title="Hocutt v. Wilson">Hocutt v. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="African-American women in the civil rights movement">African-American women in the movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Jews in the civil rights movement">Jews in the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Circuit_Four" title="Fifth Circuit Four">Fifth Circuit Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church" title="16th Street Baptist Church">16th Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Ingram_Park" title="Kelly Ingram Park">Kelly Ingram Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A.G._Gaston_Motel" title="A.G. Gaston Motel">A.G. Gaston Motel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethel_Baptist_Church_(Birmingham,_Alabama)" title="Bethel Baptist Church (Birmingham, Alabama)">Bethel Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_Chapel_A.M.E._Church_(Selma,_Alabama)" title="Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church (Selma, Alabama)">Brown Chapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist_Church" title="Dexter Avenue Baptist Church">Dexter Avenue Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holt_Street_Baptist_Church" title="Holt Street Baptist Church">Holt Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pettus_Bridge" title="Edmund Pettus Bridge">Edmund Pettus Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches#20th_Century" title="List of attacks against African-American churches">African-American churches attacked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">List of lynching victims in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Schools" title="Freedom Schools">Freedom Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom songs">Freedom songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Beyond_Vietnam:_A_Time_to_Break_Silence" title="Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence">Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">Voter Education Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">1960s counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_Institute" title="Birmingham Civil Rights Institute">Birmingham Civil Rights Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_National_Monument" title="Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument">Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement_Archive" title="Civil Rights Movement Archive">Civil Rights Movement Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_and_Mamie_Till-Mobley_National_Monument" title="Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument">Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_and_Myrlie_Evers_Home_National_Monument" title="Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument">Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides_Museum" title="Freedom Rides Museum">Freedom Rides Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders_National_Monument" title="Freedom Riders National Monument">Freedom Riders National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Center_for_Nonviolent_Social_Change" title="King Center for Nonviolent Social Change">King Center for Nonviolent Social Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.">other King memorials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="Mississippi Civil Rights Museum">Mississippi Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voting_Rights_Museum" title="National Voting Rights Museum">National Voting Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_Foot_Soldiers_Monument" title="St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument">St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_Salute_(statue)" title="Victory Salute (statue)">Olympic Black Power Statue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Noted historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Taylor Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Clayborne Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dittmer" title="John Dittmer">John Dittmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Michael Eric Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Fairclough" title="Adam Fairclough">Adam Fairclough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Garrow" title="David Garrow">David Garrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Halberstam" title="David Halberstam">David Halberstam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_F._Lawson" title="Steven F. Lawson">Steven F. Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_McAdam" title="Doug McAdam">Doug McAdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_McWhorter" title="Diane McWhorter">Diane McWhorter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Payne" title="Charles M. Payne">Charles M. Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Ricks_(journalist)" title="Thomas E. Ricks (journalist)">Thomas E. Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Tyson" title="Timothy Tyson">Timothy Tyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akinyele_Umoja" title="Akinyele Umoja">Akinyele Umoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="List of photographers of the civil rights movement">Movement photographers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;"><div><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:ACRM" title="Wikipedia:ACRM"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/28px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/42px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/56px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Civil_rights_movement" title="Portal:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a> (44 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a> (1486)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a> (1756)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a> (2010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Visualization_of_technical_information" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Visualization" title="Template:Visualization"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Visualization" title="Template talk:Visualization"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Visualization" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Visualization"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Visualization_of_technical_information" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a> of technical information</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_imaging" title="Chemical imaging">Chemical imaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_mapping" title="Crime mapping">Crime mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Data visualization">Data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Educational visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_visualization" title="Flow visualization">Flow visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Information visualization">Information visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_diagram" title="Mathematical diagram">Mathematical visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_graphics" title="Molecular graphics">Molecular graphics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Product visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_visualization" title="Scientific visualization">Scientific visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_visualization" title="Social visualization">Social visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_visualization" title="Software visualization">Software visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_drawing" title="Technical drawing">Technical drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_interface_design" title="User interface design">User interface design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_culture" title="Visual culture">Visual culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_rendering" title="Volume rendering">Volume visualization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Image types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chart" title="Chart">Chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diagram" title="Diagram">Diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_drawing" title="Engineering drawing">Engineering drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_of_a_function" title="Graph of a function">Graph of a function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">Ideogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">Map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph" title="Photograph">Photograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plot_(graphics)" title="Plot (graphics)">Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sankey_diagram" title="Sankey diagram">Sankey diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schematic" title="Schematic">Schematic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeletal_formula" title="Skeletal formula">Skeletal formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_graphics" title="Statistical graphics">Statistical graphics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Table_(information)" title="Table (information)">Table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_drawing" title="Technical drawing">Technical drawings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_illustration" title="Technical illustration">Technical illustration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edmond_Halley" title="Edmond Halley">Edmond Halley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Ren%C3%A9_de_Fourcroy" title="Charles-René de Fourcroy">Charles-René de Fourcroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspard_Monge" title="Gaspard Monge">Gaspard Monge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Dupin" title="Charles Dupin">Charles Dupin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Quetelet" title="Adolphe Quetelet">Adolphe Quetelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Michel_Guerry" title="André-Michel Guerry">André-Michel Guerry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Playfair" title="William Playfair">William Playfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Kekul%C3%A9" title="August Kekulé">August Kekulé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Joseph_Minard" title="Charles Joseph Minard">Charles Joseph Minard</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Luigi_Perozzo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luigi Perozzo (page does not exist)">Luigi Perozzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Amasa_Walker" title="Francis Amasa Walker">Francis Amasa Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Venn" title="John Venn">John Venn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Byrne_(mathematician)" title="Oliver Byrne (mathematician)">Oliver Byrne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Henry_Phineas_Riall_Sankey" title="Matthew Henry Phineas Riall Sankey">Matthew Sankey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Booth_(social_reformer)" title="Charles Booth (social reformer)">Charles Booth</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_von_Mayr&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Georg von Mayr (page does not exist)">Georg von Mayr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florence_Nightingale" title="Florence Nightingale">Florence Nightingale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Wilhelm_Pohlke" title="Karl Wilhelm Pohlke">Karl Wilhelm Pohlke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Loua" title="Toussaint Loua">Toussaint Loua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early 20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Walter_Maunder" title="Edward Walter Maunder">Edward Walter Maunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Gantt" title="Henry Gantt">Henry Gantt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Lyon_Bowley" title="Arthur Lyon Bowley">Arthur Lyon Bowley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_G._Funkhouser" title="Howard G. Funkhouser">Howard G. Funkhouser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_B._Peddle" title="John B. Peddle">John B. Peddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejnar_Hertzsprung" title="Ejnar Hertzsprung">Ejnar Hertzsprung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Norris_Russell" title="Henry Norris Russell">Henry Norris Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_O._Lorenz" title="Max O. Lorenz">Max O. Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Kahn" title="Fritz Kahn">Fritz Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Beck" title="Harry Beck">Harry Beck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Raisz" title="Erwin Raisz">Erwin Raisz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mid 20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Bertin" title="Jacques Bertin">Jacques Bertin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Modley" title="Rudolf Modley">Rudolf Modley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_H._Robinson" title="Arthur H. Robinson">Arthur H. Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tukey" title="John Tukey">John Tukey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Eleanor_Spear" title="Mary Eleanor Spear">Mary Eleanor Spear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Anderson" title="Edgar Anderson">Edgar Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_T._Fisher" title="Howard T. Fisher">Howard T. Fisher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Late 20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borden_Dent" title="Borden Dent">Borden Dent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Holmes" title="Nigel Holmes">Nigel Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_S._Cleveland" title="William S. Cleveland">William S. Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_G._Robertson" title="George G. Robertson">George G. Robertson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_H._McCormick" title="Bruce H. McCormick">Bruce H. McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Plaisant" title="Catherine Plaisant">Catherine Plaisant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Card" title="Stuart Card">Stuart Card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Hanrahan" title="Pat Hanrahan">Pat Hanrahan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Tufte" title="Edward Tufte">Edward Tufte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Shneiderman" title="Ben Shneiderman">Ben Shneiderman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Friendly" title="Michael Friendly">Michael Friendly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Wainer" title="Howard Wainer">Howard Wainer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clifford_A._Pickover" title="Clifford A. Pickover">Clifford A. Pickover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_J._Rosenblum" title="Lawrence J. Rosenblum">Lawrence J. Rosenblum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._DeFanti" title="Thomas A. DeFanti">Thomas A. DeFanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Furnas" title="George Furnas">George Furnas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheelagh_Carpendale" title="Sheelagh Carpendale">Sheelagh Carpendale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Brewer" title="Cynthia Brewer">Cynthia Brewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jock_D._Mackinlay" title="Jock D. Mackinlay">Jock D. Mackinlay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_MacEachren" title="Alan MacEachren">Alan MacEachren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Goodsell" title="David Goodsell">David Goodsell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwan-Liu_Ma" title="Kwan-Liu Ma">Kwan-Liu Ma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Maltz" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Maltz">Michael Maltz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leland_Wilkinson" title="Leland Wilkinson">Leland Wilkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Inselberg" title="Alfred Inselberg">Alfred Inselberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early 21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polo_Chau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Polo Chau (page does not exist)">Polo Chau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Fry" title="Ben Fry">Ben Fry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Heer" title="Jeffrey Heer">Jeffrey Heer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessica_Hullman" title="Jessica Hullman">Jessica Hullman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Kindlmann" title="Gordon Kindlmann">Gordon Kindlmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Koblin" title="Aaron Koblin">Aaron Koblin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Martin_Krzywinski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin Krzywinski (page does not exist)">Martin Krzywinski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_R._Johnson" title="Christopher R. Johnson">Christopher R. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Lima" title="Manuel Lima">Manuel Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_McCandless" title="David McCandless">David McCandless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauro_Martino" title="Mauro Martino">Mauro Martino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maeda" title="John Maeda">John Maeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miriah_Meyer" title="Miriah Meyer">Miriah Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamara_Munzner" title="Tamara Munzner">Tamara Munzner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ade_Olufeko" class="mw-redirect" title="Ade Olufeko">Ade Olufeko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanspeter_Pfister" title="Hanspeter Pfister">Hanspeter Pfister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Rosling" title="Hans Rosling">Hans Rosling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudio_Silva_(computer_scientist)" title="Claudio Silva (computer scientist)">Claudio Silva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Stefaner" title="Moritz Stefaner">Moritz Stefaner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernanda_Vi%C3%A9gas" title="Fernanda Viégas">Fernanda Viégas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_M._Wattenberg" title="Martin M. Wattenberg">Martin Wattenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bang_Wong" title="Bang Wong">Bang Wong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadley_Wickham" title="Hadley Wickham">Hadley Wickham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartjunk" title="Chartjunk">Chartjunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_coding_in_data_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Color coding in data visualization">Color coding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Computer graphics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics_(computer_science)" title="Computer graphics (computer science)">in computer science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CPK_coloring" title="CPK coloring">CPK coloring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_drawing" title="Graph drawing">Graph drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphic_design" title="Graphic design">Graphic design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphic_organizer" title="Graphic organizer">Graphic organizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imaging_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Imaging science">Imaging science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infographic" title="Infographic">Information graphics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misleading_graph" title="Misleading graph">Misleading graph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_drawing" title="Patent drawing">Patent drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">Scientific modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_analytics" title="Visual analytics">Visual analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_cartography" title="Volume cartography">Volume cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_rendering" title="Volume rendering">Volume rendering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_art" title="Information art">Information art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q158060#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q158060#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q158060#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000108863087">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/34476326">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/53661/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJtCxcBB8QP8KR77hQtBT3">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118527657">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80046721">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120535268">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120535268">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00465808">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/IEIV069915">Italy</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an36268237">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ola2002105966&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/34074">Portugal</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068478798">Netherlands</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90191287">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000105294&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000393266&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000141003">Chile</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC199607472">Korea</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/ljx152142x9nv05">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810562827805606">Poland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007272338605171">Israel</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058525165606706">Catalonia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14241399">Belgium</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00207632?l=en">CiNii</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=211651">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/cc92038b-0460-4de9-b7f8-da1bdd96375a">MusicBrainz</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1239657">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118527657.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118527657">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027500845">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6gk06z2">SNAC</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div 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