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The present address (URL) is a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:Permanent_link?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:Permanent link">permanent link</a> to this revision, which may differ significantly from the <span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingerprint">current revision</a></span>.</b></p> <div id="revision-info-plain" style="display: none;"> Revision as of 12:36, 12 July 2011 by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/User:SmackBot?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect mw-userlink" title="User:SmackBot" data-mw-revid="439077876"><bdi>SmackBot</bdi></a> <span class="mw-usertoollinks">(<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/User_talk:SmackBot?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:SmackBot">talk</a> | <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:Contributions/SmackBot?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/SmackBot">contribs</a>)</span> <span class="comment">(Dated {{Clarify}}. (Build p613))</span> </div> </div> <div id="mw-revision-nav"> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Fingerprint&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=439077876&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fingerprint">diff</a>) <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Fingerprint&amp;direction=prev&amp;oldid=439077876&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fingerprint">← Previous revision</a> | <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fingerprint?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fingerprint">Latest revision</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Fingerprint&amp;diff=cur&amp;oldid=439077876&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fingerprint">diff</a>) | <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Fingerprint&amp;direction=next&amp;oldid=439077876&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fingerprint">Newer revision →</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Fingerprint&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=439077876&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fingerprint">diff</a>) </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"> <script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script> <div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> This article is about human fingerprints. For other uses, see <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fingerprint_(disambiguation)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-disambig" title="Fingerprint (disambiguation)">Fingerprint (disambiguation)</a>. </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style> <table class="box-Merge_from plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"> <tbody> <tr> <td class="mbox-text"> <div class="mbox-text-span"> It has been suggested that <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ulnar_loop?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulnar loop">Ulnar loop</a></i> be <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Merging?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:Merging">merged</a> into this article. (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Talk:Fingerprint?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Talk:Fingerprint">Discuss</a>)<small><i> Proposed since June 2011.</i></small> </div></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"></p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> <p>A <b>fingerprint</b> in its narrow sense is an impression left by the friction ridges of a human <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Finger?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Finger">finger</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-swglos_1-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-swglos-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a wider use of the term, fingerprints are the traces of an impression from the friction ridges of any part of a human <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hand?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hand">hand</a>. A print from the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Foot?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Foot">foot</a> can also leave an impression of friction ridges. A friction ridge is a raised portion of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Epidermis_(skin)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidermis (skin)">epidermis</a> on the fingers and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Toe?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Toe">toes</a> (digits), the palm of the hand or the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sole_(foot)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sole (foot)">sole</a> of the foot, consisting of one or more connected ridge units of friction ridge skin.<sup id="cite_ref-swglos_1-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-swglos-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are sometimes known as "epidermal ridges" which are caused by the underlying interface between the dermal <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/papilla" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:papilla">papillae</a> of the dermis and the interpapillary (rete) pegs of the epidermis. These epidermal ridges serve to amplify <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Vibration?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Vibration">vibrations</a> triggered, for example, when fingertips brush across an uneven surface, better transmitting the signals to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sensory_nerve?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sensory nerve">sensory nerves</a> involved in fine texture perception.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These ridges also assist in gripping rough surfaces, as well as smooth wet surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Fingerprint.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Fingerprint.jpg/220px-Fingerprint.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Fingerprint.jpg/330px-Fingerprint.jpg 1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Fingerprint.jpg/440px-Fingerprint.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848"></a> <figcaption> Closeup of the palm of the hand and the base of several fingers; as seen here, debris can gather between the ridges. </figcaption> </figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Fingerprint_picture.svg?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Fingerprint_picture.svg/220px-Fingerprint_picture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Fingerprint_picture.svg/330px-Fingerprint_picture.svg.png 1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Fingerprint_picture.svg/440px-Fingerprint_picture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="626"></a> <figcaption> The fingerprints created by that friction ridge structure. </figcaption> </figure> <p>Impressions of fingerprints may be left behind on a surface by the natural secretions of sweat from the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eccrine_gland?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Eccrine gland">eccrine glands</a> that are present in friction ridge skin, or they may be made by ink or other substances transferred from the peaks of friction ridges on the skin to a relatively smooth surface such as a fingerprint card.<sup id="cite_ref-olsen1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-olsen1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fingerprint records normally contain impressions from the pad on the last joint of fingers and thumbs, although fingerprint cards also typically record portions of lower joint areas of the fingers.</p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"> <input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"> <div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Fingerprints_used_for_identification"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Fingerprints used for identification</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Fingerprint_types"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Fingerprint types</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-3"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Exemplar_prints"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Exemplar prints</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Latent_prints"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Latent prints</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Patent_prints"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Patent prints</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Plastic_prints"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Plastic prints</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Electronic_recording"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Electronic recording</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Classifying_fingerprints"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Classifying fingerprints</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Footprints"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Footprints</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Fingerprint_capture_and_detection"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Fingerprint capture and detection</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Livescan_devices"><span class="tocnumber">1.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Livescan devices</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Latent_fingerprint_detection"><span class="tocnumber">1.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Latent fingerprint detection</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Laboratory_techniques"><span class="tocnumber">1.4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Laboratory techniques</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Research"><span class="tocnumber">1.4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Research</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#The_disappearance_of_children's_latent_prints"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">The disappearance of children's latent prints</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Fingerprints_reveal_drug_use"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Fingerprints reveal drug use</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#United_States_databases_and_compression"><span class="tocnumber">1.7</span> <span class="toctext">United States databases and compression</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#History"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Antiquity_and_the_medieval_period"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Antiquity and the medieval period</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Europe_in_the_17th_and_18th_centuries"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Modern_era"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Modern era</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Validity_of_fingerprinting_for_identification"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Validity of fingerprinting for identification</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Criticism"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Criticism</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Defense"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Defense</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Track_record"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Track record</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Professional_standing_and_certification"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Professional standing and certification</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Instances_of_error"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Instances of error</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Brandon_Mayfield_and_the_Madrid_bombing"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Brandon Mayfield and the Madrid bombing</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-29"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Ren%C3%A9_Ram%C3%B3n_S%C3%A1nchez"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">René Ramón Sánchez</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-30"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Shirley_McKie"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Shirley McKie</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-31"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Stephan_Cowans"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Stephan Cowans</span></a></li> </ul></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Privacy_issues"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Privacy issues</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Fingerprinting_of_children"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Fingerprinting of children</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Other_uses"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Other uses</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Welfare_claimants"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Welfare claimants</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Log-in_authentication_and_other_locks"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Log-in authentication and other locks</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Electronic_registration_and_library_access"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Electronic registration and library access</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Fingerprints_in_other_species"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Fingerprints in other species</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Fingerprints_in_fiction"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Fingerprints in fiction</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Mark_Twain"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Mark Twain</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-41"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Crime_fiction"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Crime fiction</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-42"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Movies"><span class="tocnumber">7.3</span> <span class="toctext">Movies</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-43"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Other_reliable_identifiers"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Other reliable identifiers</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-44"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Fingerprint_mutilation"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Fingerprint mutilation</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-45"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-46"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#References"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-47"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-48"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Fingerprints_used_for_identification">Fingerprints used for identification</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <p>Fingerprint identification, known as <i>dactyloscopy</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-ashbaugh1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-ashbaugh1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or hand print identification, is the process of comparing two instances of friction ridge skin impressions (see <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Minutiae?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Minutiae">Minutiae</a>), from human fingers, the palm of the hand or even toes, to determine whether these impressions could have come from the same individual. The flexibility of friction ridge skin means that no two finger or palm prints are ever <i>exactly</i> alike in every detail; even two impressions recorded immediately after each other from the same hand. Fingerprint identification, also referred to as individualization, involves an expert, or an <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Expert_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Expert system">expert computer system</a> operating under <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Adaptive_thresholding?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptive thresholding">threshold scoring</a> rules, determining whether two friction ridge impressions are likely to have originated from the same finger or palm (or toe or sole).</p> <p>An intentional recording of friction ridges is usually made with black printer's <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ink?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ink">ink</a> rolled across a contrasting white background, typically a white card. Friction ridges can also be recorded digitally using a technique called <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Live_Scan?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Live Scan">Live Scan</a>. A "latent print" is the chance recording of friction ridges deposited on the surface of an object or a wall. Latent prints are invisible to the naked eye, whereas "patent prints" or "plastic prints" are viewable with the un-aided eye. Latent prints are often fragmentary and require chemical methods, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fingerprint_powder?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fingerprint powder">powder</a>, or alternative light sources in order to be made clear. Sometimes an ordinary bright flashlight will make a latent print visible.</p> <p>When friction ridges come into contact with a surface that will take a print, material that is on the friction ridges such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Perspiration?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Perspiration">perspiration</a>, oil, grease, ink or blood, will be transferred to the surface. Factors which affect the quality of friction ridge impressions are numerous. Pliability of the skin, deposition pressure, slippage, the material from which the surface is made, the roughness of the surface and the substance deposited are just some of the various factors which can cause a latent print to appear differently from any known recording of the same friction ridges. Indeed, the conditions surrounding every instance of friction ridge deposition are unique and never duplicated. For these reasons, fingerprint examiners are required to undergo extensive training.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Fingerprint_types">Fingerprint types</h3> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Exemplar_prints">Exemplar prints</h4> </div> <p>Exemplar prints, or known prints, is the name given to fingerprints deliberately collected from a subject, whether for purposes of enrollment in a system or when under arrest for a suspected criminal offense. During criminal arrests, a set of exemplar prints will normally include one print taken from each finger that has been rolled from one edge of the nail to the other, plain (or slap) impressions of each of the four fingers of each hand, and plain impressions of each thumb. Exemplar prints can be collected using <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Live_Scan?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Live Scan">Live Scan</a> or by using ink on paper cards.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Latent_prints">Latent prints</h4> </div> <p>Although the word latent means hidden or invisible, in modern usage for <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Forensic_science?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Forensic science">forensic science</a> the term latent prints means any chance or accidental impression left by friction ridge skin on a surface, regardless of whether it is visible or invisible at the time of deposition. Electronic, chemical and physical processing techniques permit visualization of invisible latent print residues whether they are from natural sweat on the skin or from a contaminant such as motor oil, blood, ink, paint or some other form of dirt. The different types of fingerprint patterns, such as arch, loop and whorl, will be described below.</p> <p>Latent prints may exhibit only a small portion of the surface of a finger and this may be smudged, distorted, overlapped by other prints from the same or from different individuals, or any or all of these in combination. For this reason, latent prints usually present an “inevitable source of error in making comparisons,” as they generally “contain less clarity, less content, and less undistorted information than a fingerprint taken under controlled conditions, and much, much less detail compared to the actual patterns of ridges and grooves of a finger.”<sup id="cite_ref-zabell_6-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-zabell-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Patent_prints">Patent prints</h4> </div> <p>Patent prints are chance friction ridge impressions which are obvious to the human eye and which have been caused by the transfer of foreign material from a finger onto a surface. Some obvious examples would be impressions from flour and wet clay. Because they are already visible and have no need of enhancement they are generally photographed rather than being lifted in the way that latent prints are. An attempt to preserve the actual print is always made for later presentation in court, and there are many techniques used to do this. Patent prints can be left on a surface by materials such as ink, dirt, or blood.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Plastic_prints">Plastic prints</h4> </div> <p>A plastic print is a friction ridge impression left in a material that retains the shape of the ridge detail. Although very few criminals would be careless enough to leave their prints in a lump of wet clay, this would make a perfect plastic print.<sup id="cite_ref-lifeoflatents_7-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-lifeoflatents-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commonly encountered examples are melted candle wax, putty removed from the perimeter of window panes and thick grease deposits on car parts. Such prints are already visible and need no enhancement, but investigators must not overlook the potential that invisible latent prints deposited by accomplices may also be on such surfaces. After photographically recording such prints, attempts should be made to develop other non-plastic impressions deposited from sweat or other contaminates.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Electronic_recording">Electronic recording</h4> </div> <p>There has been a newspaper report<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of a man selling stolen watches sending images of them on a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mobile_phone?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mobile phone">mobile phone</a>, and those images included parts of his hands in enough detail for police to be able to identify fingerprint patterns.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Classifying_fingerprints">Classifying fingerprints</h3> </div> <p>Before computerisation replaced manual filing systems in large fingerprint operations, manual fingerprint classification systems were used to categorize fingerprints based on general ridge formations (such as the presence or absence of circular patterns on various fingers), thus permitting filing and retrieval of paper records in large collections based on friction ridge patterns alone. The most popular ten-print classification systems include the Roscher system, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Juan_Vucetich?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Juan Vucetich">Juan Vucetich</a> system, and the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Henry_Classification_System?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Henry Classification System">Henry Classification System</a>. Of these systems, the Roscher system was developed in Germany and implemented in both <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Germany?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Germany">Germany</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Japan?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Japan">Japan</a>, the Vucetich system (developed by a Croatian-born Buenos Aires Police Officer) was developed in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Argentina?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> and implemented throughout South America, and the Henry system was developed in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/India?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="India">India</a> and implemented in most English-speaking countries.<sup id="cite_ref-roscher_9-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-roscher-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>In the Henry system of classification, there are three basic fingerprint patterns: Loop, Whorl and Arch,<sup id="cite_ref-henryclass_10-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-henryclass-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which constitute 60–65%, 30–35% and 5% of all fingerprints respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also more complex classification systems that break down patterns even further, into plain arches or tented arches,<sup id="cite_ref-roscher_9-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-roscher-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and into loops that may be <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Radial_loop?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Radial loop">radial</a> or <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ulnar_loop?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulnar loop">ulnar</a>, depending on the side of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hand?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hand">hand</a> toward which the tail points. Whorls may also have sub-group classifications including plain whorls, accidental whorls, double loop whorls, peacock's eye, composite, and central pocket loop whorls.<sup id="cite_ref-roscher_9-2" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-roscher-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>The system used by most experts, although complex, is similar to the Henry System of Classification. It consists of five fractions, in which <i>R</i> stands for right, <i>L</i> for left, <i>i</i> for index finger, <i>m</i> for middle finger, <i>t</i> for thumb, <i>r</i> for ring finger and <i>p</i>(pinky) for little finger. The fractions are as follows: <i>Ri/Rt + Rr/Rm + Lt/Rp + Lm/Li + Lp/Lr.</i> The numbers assigned to each print are based on whether or not they are whorls. A whorl in the first fraction is given a 16, the second an 8, the third a 4, the fourth a 2, and 0 to the last fraction. Arches and loops are assingned values of 0. Lastly, the numbers in the numerator and denominator are added up, using the scheme:</p> <dl> <dd> <i>(Ri + Rr + Lt + Lm + Lp)/(Rt + Rm + Rp + Li + Lr)</i> </dd> </dl> <p>and a 1 is added to both top and bottom, to exclude any possibility of division by zero. For example, if the right ring finger and the left index finger have whorls, the fractions would look like this:</p> <dl> <dd> 0/0 + 8/0 + 0/0 + 0/2 + 0/0 + 1/1, and the calculation: (0 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1)/(0 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 0 + 1) = 9/3 = 3. </dd> </dl> <p>Using this system reduces the number of prints that the print in question needs to be compared to. For example, the above set of prints would only need to be compared to other sets of fingerprints with a value of 3.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248256098">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}</style> <div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default"> <div class="main"> <div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 180px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Fingerprint_Arch.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Arch"> <noscript> <img alt="Arch" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Fingerprint_Arch.jpg/120px-Fingerprint_Arch.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="113" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="240"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 113px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Fingerprint_Arch.jpg/120px-Fingerprint_Arch.jpg" data-alt="Arch" data-width="120" data-height="113" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Fingerprint_Arch.jpg/180px-Fingerprint_Arch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Fingerprint_Arch.jpg/240px-Fingerprint_Arch.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">&nbsp;</span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Arch </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 180px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Fingerprint_Loop.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Loop (Right Loop)"> <noscript> <img alt="Loop (Right Loop)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Fingerprint_Loop.jpg/120px-Fingerprint_Loop.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="113" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="240"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 113px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Fingerprint_Loop.jpg/120px-Fingerprint_Loop.jpg" data-alt="Loop (Right Loop)" data-width="120" data-height="113" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Fingerprint_Loop.jpg/180px-Fingerprint_Loop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Fingerprint_Loop.jpg/240px-Fingerprint_Loop.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">&nbsp;</span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Loop<br> (Right Loop) </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 180px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Fingerprint_Whorl.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Whorl"> <noscript> <img alt="Whorl" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Fingerprint_Whorl.jpg/120px-Fingerprint_Whorl.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="112" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="234"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 112px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Fingerprint_Whorl.jpg/120px-Fingerprint_Whorl.jpg" data-alt="Whorl" data-width="120" data-height="112" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Fingerprint_Whorl.jpg/180px-Fingerprint_Whorl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Fingerprint_Whorl.jpg/240px-Fingerprint_Whorl.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">&nbsp;</span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Whorl </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 180px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Tented_arch.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Arch (Tented Arch)"> <noscript> <img alt="Arch (Tented Arch)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Tented_arch.jpg/120px-Tented_arch.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="113" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="240"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 113px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Tented_arch.jpg/120px-Tented_arch.jpg" data-alt="Arch (Tented Arch)" data-width="120" data-height="113" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Tented_arch.jpg/180px-Tented_arch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Tented_arch.jpg/240px-Tented_arch.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">&nbsp;</span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Arch<br> (Tented Arch) </div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Footprints">Footprints</h3> </div> <p>Friction ridge skin present on the soles of the feet and toes (plantar surfaces) is as unique in its ridge detail as are the fingers and palms (palmar surfaces). When recovered at crime scenes or on items of evidence, sole and toe impressions can be used in the same manner as finger and palm prints to effect identifications. Footprint (toe and sole friction ridge skin) evidence has been admitted in courts in the United States since 1934.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>The footprints of infants, along with the thumb or index finger prints of mothers, are still commonly recorded in hospitals to assist in verifying the identity of infants. Often, the only identifiable ridge detail that can be seen on a baby's foot is from the large toe or adjacent to the large toe.</p> <p>It is not uncommon for military records of flight personnel to include bare foot inked impressions. Friction ridge skin protected inside flight boots tends to survive the trauma of a plane crash (and accompanying fire) better than fingers. Even though the US <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Armed_Forces_DNA_Identification_Laboratory?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory">Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory</a> (AFDIL), as of 2010, stored refrigerated DNA samples from all active duty and reserve personnel, almost all casualty identifications are effected using fingerprints from military ID card records (live scan fingerprints are recorded at the time such cards are issued). When friction ridge skin is not available from deceased military personnel, DNA and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dental_record?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental record">dental records</a> are used to confirm identity.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Fingerprint_capture_and_detection">Fingerprint capture and detection</h3> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Livescan_devices">Livescan devices</h4> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Fingerprint_scanner_in_Tel_Aviv.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Fingerprint_scanner_in_Tel_Aviv.jpg/220px-Fingerprint_scanner_in_Tel_Aviv.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="313" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1829" data-file-height="2601"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 313px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Fingerprint_scanner_in_Tel_Aviv.jpg/220px-Fingerprint_scanner_in_Tel_Aviv.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="313" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Fingerprint_scanner_in_Tel_Aviv.jpg/330px-Fingerprint_scanner_in_Tel_Aviv.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Fingerprint_scanner_in_Tel_Aviv.jpg/440px-Fingerprint_scanner_in_Tel_Aviv.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">&nbsp;</span></a> <figcaption> A fingerprint scanner </figcaption> </figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Fingerprint_scanner_identification.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Fingerprint_scanner_identification.jpg/220px-Fingerprint_scanner_identification.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Fingerprint_scanner_identification.jpg/220px-Fingerprint_scanner_identification.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Fingerprint_scanner_identification.jpg/330px-Fingerprint_scanner_identification.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Fingerprint_scanner_identification.jpg/440px-Fingerprint_scanner_identification.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">&nbsp;</span></a> <figcaption> Fingerprint being scanned </figcaption> </figure> <p>Fingerprint image acquisition is considered to be the most critical step in an automated fingerprint authentication system, as it determines the final fingerprint image quality, which has a drastic effect on the overall system performance. There are different types of fingerprint readers on the market, but the basic idea behind each is to measure the physical difference between ridges and valleys.</p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:FingerPrintReader.JPG?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/FingerPrintReader.JPG/340px-FingerPrintReader.JPG" decoding="async" width="340" height="255" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 340px;height: 255px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/FingerPrintReader.JPG/340px-FingerPrintReader.JPG" data-width="340" data-height="255" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/FingerPrintReader.JPG/510px-FingerPrintReader.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/FingerPrintReader.JPG/680px-FingerPrintReader.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">&nbsp;</span></a> <figcaption> A fingerprint reader on a laptop </figcaption> </figure> <p>All the proposed methods can be grouped into two major families: solid-state fingerprint readers and optical fingerprint readers. The procedure for capturing a fingerprint using a sensor consists of rolling or touching with the finger onto a sensing area, which according to the physical principle in use (optical, ultrasonic, capacitive or thermal) captures the difference between valleys and ridges. When a finger touches or rolls onto a surface, the elastic skin deforms. The quantity and direction of the pressure applied by the user, the skin conditions and the projection of an irregular 3D object (the finger) onto a 2D flat plane introduce distortions, noise and inconsistencies in the captured fingerprint image. These problems result in inconsistent, irreproducible and non-uniform irregularities in the image.<sup id="cite_ref-2DPrintDeform_14-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-2DPrintDeform-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During each acquisition, therefore, the results of the imaging are different and uncontrollable. The representation of the same fingerprint changes every time the finger is placed on the sensor plate, increasing the complexity of any attempt to match fingerprints, impairing the system performance and consequently, limiting the widespread use of this biometric technology.</p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frame"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:3DFingerprint.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/3DFingerprint.jpg" decoding="async" width="452" height="272" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="452" data-file-height="272"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 452px;height: 272px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/3DFingerprint.jpg" data-width="452" data-height="272" data-class="mw-file-element">&nbsp;</span></a> <figcaption> 3D fingerprint <sup id="cite_ref-3DPrintsweb_15-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-3DPrintsweb-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </figcaption> </figure> <p>In order to overcome these problems, as of 2010, non-contact or touchless 3D fingerprint scanners have been developed .<sup id="cite_ref-3DPrints_16-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-3DPrints-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3DPrintsAO_17-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-3DPrintsAO-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Acquiring detailed 3D information, 3D fingerprint scanners take a digital approach to the cumbersome analog process of pressing or rolling the finger. By modelling the distance between neighboring points, the fingerprint can be imaged at a resolution high enough to record all the necessary detail.<sup id="cite_ref-3DPrintsSPIE_18-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-3DPrintsSPIE-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Latent_fingerprint_detection">Latent fingerprint detection</h4> </div> <p>Since the late nineteenth century, fingerprint identification methods have been used by police agencies around the world to identify suspected criminals as well as the victims of crime. The basis of the traditional fingerprinting technique is simple. The skin on the palmar surface of the hands and feet forms ridges, so-called papillary ridges, in patterns that are unique to each individual and which do not change over time. Even identical twins (who share their <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/DNA?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="DNA">DNA</a>) do not have identical fingerprints. The best way to render latent fingerprints visible, so that they can be photographed, can be complex and may depend, for example, on the type of surfaces on which they have been left. It is generally necessary to use a ‘developer’, usually a powder or chemical reagent, to produce a high degree of visual contrast between the ridge patterns and the surface on which a fingerprint has been deposited.</p> <p>Developing agents depend on the presence of organic materials or inorganic salts for their effectiveness, although the water deposited may also take a key role. Fingerprints are typically formed from the aqueous-based secretions of the eccrine glands of the fingers and palms with additional material from sebaceous glands primarily from the forehead. This latter contamination results from the common human behaviors of touching the face and hair. The resulting latent fingerprints consist usually of a substantial proportion of water with small traces of amino acids and chlorides mixed with a fatty, sebaceous component which contains a number of fatty acids and triglycerides. Detection of a small proportion of reactive organic substances such as urea and amino acids is far from easy.</p> <p>Fingerprints at a crime scene may be detected by simple powders, or by chemicals applied <i>in situ</i>. More complex techniques, usually involving chemicals, can be applied in specialist laboratories to appropriate articles removed from a crime scene. With advances in these more sophisticated techniques, some of the more advanced crime scene investigation services from around the world were, as of 2010, reporting that 50% or more of the fingerprints recovered from a crime scene had been identified as a result of laboratory-based techniques.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Laboratory_techniques">Laboratory techniques</h4> </div> <p>Although there are hundreds of reported techniques for fingerprint detection, many of these are only of academic interest and there are only around 20 really effective methods which are currently in use in the more advanced fingerprint laboratories around the world. Some of these techniques, such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ninhydrin?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ninhydrin">ninhydrin</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/1,8-Diazafluoren-9-one?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="1,8-Diazafluoren-9-one">diazafluorenone</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Evaporation_(deposition)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Evaporation (deposition)">vacuum metal deposition</a>, show great sensitivity and are used operationally. Some fingerprint reagents are specific, for example ninhydrin or diazafluorenone reacting with amino acids. Others such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ethyl_cyanoacrylate?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ethyl cyanoacrylate">ethyl cyanoacrylate</a> polymerisation, work apparently by water-based catalysis and polymer growth. Vacuum metal deposition using gold and zinc has been shown to be non-specific, but can detect fat layers as thin as one molecule. More mundane methods, such as the application of fine powders, work by adhesion to sebaceous deposits and possibly aqueous deposits in the case of fresh fingerprints. The aqueous component of a fingerprint, whilst initially sometimes making up over 90% of the weight of the fingerprint, can evaporate quite quickly and may have mostly gone after 24 hours. Following work on the use of argon ion lasers for fingerprint detection,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a wide range of fluorescence techniques have been introduced, primarily for the enhancement of chemically-developed fingerprints, although the inherent fluorescence of some latent fingerprints may also be detected. The most comprehensive manual of the operational methods of fingerprint enhancement is published by the UK Home Office Scientific Development Branch and is used widely around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Research">Research</h4> </div> <p>The International Fingerprint Research Group (IFRG) which meets biennially, consists of members of the leading fingerprint research groups from Europe, the US, Canada, Australia and Israel and leads the way in the development, assessment and implementation of new techniques for operational fingerprint detection.</p> <p>One problem for the early twenty-first century is the fact that the organic component of any deposited material is readily destroyed by heat, such as occurs when a gun is fired or a terrorist bomb is detonated, when the temperature may reach as high as 500°C. Encouragingly, however, the non-volatile inorganic component of eccrine secretion has been shown to remain intact even when exposed to temperatures as high as 600°C.</p> <p>A technique has been developed that enables fingerprints to be visualised on metallic and electrically conductive surfaces without the need to develop the prints first.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This technique involves the use of an instrument called a scanning Kelvin probe (SKP), which measures the voltage, or electrical potential, at pre-set intervals over the surface of an object on which a fingerprint may have been deposited. These measurements can then be mapped to produce an image of the fingerprint. A higher resolution image can be obtained by increasing the number of points sampled, but at the expense of the time taken for the process. A sampling frequency of 20 points per mm is high enough to visualise a fingerprint in sufficient detail for identification purposes and produces a voltage map in 2–3 hours. As of 2010, this technique had been shown to work effectively on a wide range of forensically important metal surfaces including iron, steel and aluminum. While initial experiments were performed on flat surfaces, the technique has been further developed to cope with irregular or curved surfaces, such as the warped cylindrical surface of fired cartridge cases. Research during 2010 at <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Swansea_University?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Swansea University">Swansea University</a> has found that physically removing a fingerprint from a metal surface, for example by rubbing with a tissue, does not necessarily result in the loss of all fingerprint information from that surface. The reason for this is that the differences in potential that are the basis of the visualisation are caused by the interaction of inorganic salts in the fingerprint deposit and the metal surface and begin to occur as soon as the finger comes into contact with the metal, resulting in the formation of metal-ion complexes that cannot easily be removed.</p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Frame"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Fingerprint_cartridge.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9b/Fingerprint_cartridge.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="247" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="247"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 130px;height: 247px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9b/Fingerprint_cartridge.jpg" data-width="130" data-height="247" data-class="mw-file-element">&nbsp;</span></a> <figcaption> Cartridge case with an applied fingerprint </figcaption> </figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frame"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Fingerprint_surfer.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/73/Fingerprint_surfer.jpg" decoding="async" width="249" height="222" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="222"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 249px;height: 222px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/73/Fingerprint_surfer.jpg" data-width="249" data-height="222" data-class="mw-file-element">&nbsp;</span></a> <figcaption> Scanning Kelvin Probe scan of the same cartridge case with the fingerprint clearly detected. The Kelvin probe can easily cope with the 3D curvature of the cartridge case increasing the versatility of the technique. </figcaption> </figure> <p>Another problem for the early twenty-first century is that during crime scene investigations, a decision has to be made at an early stage whether to attempt to retrieve fingerprints through the use of developers or whether to swab surfaces in an attempt to salvage material for <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/DNA_profiling?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="DNA profiling">DNA profiling</a>. The two processes are mutually incompatible, as fingerprint developers destroy material that could potentially be used for DNA analysis, and swabbing is likely to make fingerprint identification impossible.</p> <p>The application of the new scanning Kelvin probe (SKP) fingerprinting technique, which makes no physical contact with the fingerprint and does not require the use of developers, has the potential to allow fingerprints to be recorded whilst still leaving intact material that could subsequently be subjected to DNA analysis. A forensically usable prototype was under development at Swansea University during 2010, in research that was generating significant interest from the British <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Home_Office?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Home Office">Home Office</a> and a number of different police forces across the UK, as well as internationally. The hope is that this instrument could eventually be manufactured in sufficiently large numbers to be widely used by forensic teams worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="The_disappearance_of_children's_latent_prints"><span id="The_disappearance_of_children.27s_latent_prints"></span>The disappearance of children's latent prints</h3> </div> <p>In 1995, researchers at the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Oak Ridge National Laboratory">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a>, at the instigation of Detective Art Bohanan of the Knoxville Police Department, discovered that children's fingerprints are considerably more short-lived than adult fingerprints.<sup id="cite_ref-ashbaugh1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-ashbaugh1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rapid disappearance of children's fingerprints was attributed to a lack of the more waxy oils that become present at the onset of puberty. The lighter fatty acids of children's fingerprints evaporate within a few hours. As of 2010, researchers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory are investigating techniques to capture these lost fingerprints.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Fingerprints_reveal_drug_use">Fingerprints reveal drug use</h3> </div> <p>The secretions, skin oils and dead cells in a human fingerprint contain residues of various chemicals and their <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Metabolite?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Metabolite">metabolites</a> present in the body. These can be detected and used for forensic purposes. For example, the fingerprints of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Tobacco_smoking?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Tobacco smoking">tobacco smokers</a> contain traces of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cotinine?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cotinine">cotinine</a>, a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nicotine?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nicotine">nicotine</a> metabolite; they also contain traces of nicotine itself. Caution should be used, however, as its presence may be caused by mere contact of the finger with a tobacco product. By treating the fingerprint with gold <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nanoparticle?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nanoparticle">nanoparticles</a> with attached cotinine <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Antibody?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Antibody">antibodies</a>, and then subsequently with a fluorescent agent attached to cotinine antibodies, the fingerprint of a smoker becomes fluorescent; non-smokers' fingerprints stay dark. The same approach, as of 2010, is being tested for use in identifying heavy <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Coffee?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Coffee">coffee</a> drinkers, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cannabis_smoking?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cannabis smoking">cannabis smokers</a>, and users of various other drugs.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2008, British researchers developed methods of identifying users of marijuana, cocaine and methadone from their fingerprint residues.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="United_States_databases_and_compression">United States databases and compression</h3> </div> <p>In the United States, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a> manages a fingerprint identification system and database called the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Integrated_Automated_Fingerprint_Identification_System?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System">Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System</a>, or IAFIS, which currently holds the fingerprints and criminal records of over 51 million criminal record subjects and over 1.5 million civil (non-criminal) fingerprint records. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/U.S._Visit?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Visit">US Visit</a> currently holds a repository of the fingerprints of over 50 million people, primarily in the form of two-finger records. In 2008, US Visit hoped to have changed over to a system recording FBI-standard ten-print records.</p> <p>Most American law enforcement agencies use <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wavelet_Scalar_Quantization?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Wavelet Scalar Quantization">Wavelet Scalar Quantization</a> (WSQ), a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wavelet_transform?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wavelet transform">wavelet</a>-based system for efficient storage of compressed fingerprint images at 500 <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pixels_per_inch?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Pixels per inch">pixels per inch</a> (ppi). WSQ was developed by the FBI, the Los Alamos National Lab, and the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/National_Institute_for_Standards_and_Technology?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="National Institute for Standards and Technology">National Institute for Standards and Technology</a> (NIST). For fingerprints recorded at 1000 ppi <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Spatial_resolution?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spatial resolution">spatial resolution</a>, law enforcement (including the FBI) uses <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/JPEG_2000?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="JPEG 2000">JPEG 2000</a> instead of WSQ.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="History">History</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Fingerprinting_1928.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Fingerprinting_1928.jpg/220px-Fingerprinting_1928.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5515" data-file-height="4310"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 172px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Fingerprinting_1928.jpg/220px-Fingerprinting_1928.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="172" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Fingerprinting_1928.jpg/330px-Fingerprinting_1928.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Fingerprinting_1928.jpg/440px-Fingerprinting_1928.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">&nbsp;</span></a> <figcaption> Fingerprinting clerks, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Los_Angeles_Police_Department?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Los Angeles Police Department">Los Angeles Police Department</a>, 1928 </figcaption> </figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Antiquity_and_the_medieval_period">Antiquity and the medieval period</h3> </div> <p>Fingerprints have been found on ancient Babylonian clay tablets, seals, and pottery.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have also been found on the walls of Egyptian tombs and on Minoan, Greek, and Chinese<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> pottery, as well as on bricks and tiles from ancient Babylon and Rome. Some of these fingerprints were deposited unintentionally by the potters and masons as a natural consequence of their work, and others were made in the process of adding decoration. However, on some pottery, fingerprints have been impressed so deeply into the clay that they were possibly intended to serve as an identifying mark by the maker.</p> <p>Fingerprints were used as signatures in ancient Babylon in the second millennium BCE. In order to protect against forgery, parties to a legal contract would impress their fingerprints into a clay tablet on which the contract had been written. By 246 BCE, Chinese officials were impressing their fingerprints into the clay seals used to seal documents. With the advent of silk and paper in China, parties to a legal contract impressed their handprints on the document. Sometime before 851 CE, an Arab merchant in China, Abu Zayd Hasan, witnessed Chinese merchants using fingerprints to authenticate loans.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 702, Japan had adopted the Chinese practice of sealing contracts with fingerprints.</p> <p>Although ancient peoples probably did not realize that fingerprints could uniquely identify individuals,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> references from the age of the Babylonian king <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hammurabi?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> (1792-1750 BCE) indicate that law officials would take the fingerprints of people who had been arrested.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During China's <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Qin_Dynasty?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Qin Dynasty">Qin Dynasty</a>, records have shown that officials took hand prints, foot prints as well as finger prints as evidence from a crime scene.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In China, around 300 CE, handprints were used as evidence in a trial for theft. By 650, the Chinese historian Kia Kung-Yen remarked that fingerprints could be used as a means of authentication.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jami_al-Tawarikh?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Jami al-Tawarikh">Jami al-Tawarikh</a></i> (Universal History), the Persian physician <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rashid-al-Din_Hamadani?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashid-al-Din Hamadani">Rashid-al-Din Hamadani</a> (also known as "Rashideddin", 1247–1318) refers to the Chinese practice of identifying people via their fingerprints, commenting: "Experience shows that no two individuals have fingers exactly alike."<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Persia at this time, government documents may have been authenticated with thumbprints.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Europe_in_the_17th_and_18th_centuries">Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries</h3> </div> <p>In 1684, the English physician, botanist, and microscopist <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nehemiah_Grew?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nehemiah Grew">Nehemiah Grew</a> (1641–1712) published the first scientific paper to describe the ridge structure of the skin covering the fingers and palms.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1685, the Dutch physician <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Govert_Bidloo?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Govert Bidloo">Govard Bidloo</a><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1649–1713) and the Italian physician <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Marcello Malpighi">Marcello Malpighi</a><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1628–1694) published books on anatomy which also illustrated the ridge structure of the fingers. A century later, in 1788, the German anatomist Johann Christoph Andreas Mayer (1747–1801) recognized that fingerprints are unique to each individual.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h3> </div> <p><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jan_Evangelista_Purkyn%C4%9B?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jan Evangelista Purkyně">Jan Evangelista Purkyně</a> or Purkinje (1787–1869), a Czech physiologist and professor of anatomy at the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/University_of_Breslau?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Breslau">University of Breslau</a>, published a thesis in 1823 discussing 9 fingerprint patterns, but he did not mention any possibility of using fingerprints to identify people.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some years later, the German anatomist <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Georg_Meissner?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Georg Meissner">Georg von Meissner</a> (1829–1905) studied friction ridges,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and five years after this, in 1858, Sir <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/William_James_Herschel?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="William James Herschel">William James Herschel</a> initiated fingerprinting in India. In 1877 at Hooghly (near Calcutta) he instituted the use of fingerprints on contracts and deeds to prevent the then-rampant repudiation of signatures<sup id="cite_ref-Herschel1916_46-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Herschel1916-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he registered government pensioners' fingerprints to prevent the collection of money by relatives after a pensioner's death.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herschel also fingerprinted prisoners upon sentencing to prevent various frauds that were attempted in order to avoid serving a prison sentence.</p> <p>In 1880, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dr_Henry_Faulds?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Dr Henry Faulds">Dr Henry Faulds</a>, a surgeon in a Tokyo hospital, published his first paper on the subject in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Scientific_journal?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Scientific journal">scientific journal</a> <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nature_(journal)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>, discussing the usefulness of fingerprints for identification and proposing a method to record them with printing ink. He also established their first classification and was also the first to identify fingerprints left on a vial.<sup id="cite_ref-faulds1_48-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-faulds1-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Returning to the UK in 1886, he offered the concept to the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Metropolitan_Police?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Metropolitan Police">Metropolitan Police</a> in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/London?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="London">London</a> but it was dismissed at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-reid1_49-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-reid1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Faulds wrote to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Charles_Darwin?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> with a description of his method but, too old and ill to work on it, Darwin gave the information to his cousin, Francis Galton, who was interested in anthropology. Having been thus inspired to study fingerprints for ten years, Galton published a detailed statistical model of fingerprint analysis and identification and encouraged its use in forensic science in his book <i>Finger Prints</i>. He had calculated that the chance of a "false positive" (two different individuals having the same fingerprints) was about 1 in 64 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-galtonfps_50-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-galtonfps-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Juan_Vucetich?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Juan Vucetich">Juan Vucetich</a>, an Argentine chief police officer, created the first method of recording the fingerprints of individuals on file, associating these fingerprints to the anthropometric system of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Alphonse_Bertillon?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Alphonse Bertillon">Alphonse Bertillon</a>, who had created, in 1879, a system to identify individuals by anthropometric photographs and associated quantitative descriptions. A year later, in 1892, after studying Galton's pattern types, Vucetich set up the world's first fingerprint bureau. In that same year, Francisca Rojas of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Necochea?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Necochea">Necochea</a>, was found in a house with neck injuries, whilst her two sons were found dead with their throats cut. Rojas accused a neighbour, but despite brutal interrogation, this neighbour would not confess to the crimes. Inspector Alvarez, a colleague of Vucetich, went to the scene and found a bloody thumb mark on a door. When it was compared with Rojas' prints, it was found to be identical with her right thumb. She then confessed to the murder of her sons.</p> <p>A Fingerprint Bureau was established in Calcutta (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Kolkata?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Kolkata">Kolkata</a>), India, in 1897, after the Council of the Governor General approved a committee report that fingerprints should be used for the classification of criminal records. Working in the Calcutta Anthropometric Bureau, before it became the Fingerprint Bureau, were <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Azizul_Haque?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-disambig" title="Azizul Haque">Azizul Haque</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hem_Chandra_Bose?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hem Chandra Bose">Hem Chandra Bose</a>. Haque and Bose were Indian fingerprint experts who have been credited with the primary development of a fingerprint classification system eventually named after their supervisor, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Edward_Henry?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edward Henry">Sir Edward Richard Henry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Henry_Classification_System?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Henry Classification System">Henry Classification System</a>, co-devised by Haque and Bose, was accepted in England and Wales when the first United Kingdom Fingerprint Bureau was founded in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Scotland_Yard?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Scotland Yard">Scotland Yard</a>, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Metropolitan_Police?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Metropolitan Police">Metropolitan Police</a> headquarters, London, in 1901. Sir Edward Richard Henry subsequently achieved improvements in dactyloscopy.</p> <p>In the United States, Dr <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Henry_P._DeForrest&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Henry P. DeForrest (page does not exist)">Henry P. DeForrest</a> used fingerprinting in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/New_York_Police_Department?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Police Department">New York Civil Service</a> in 1902, and by 1906, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/New_York_City_Police_Department?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="New York City Police Department">New York City Police Department</a> Deputy Commissioner Joseph A. Faurot, an expert in the Bertillon system and a finger print advocate at Police Headquarters, introduced the fingerprinting of criminals to the United States.</p> <p>The Scheffer case of 1902 is the first case of the identification, arrest and conviction of a murderer based upon fingerprint evidence. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Alphonse_Bertillon?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Alphonse Bertillon">Alphonse Bertillon</a> identified the thief and murderer Scheffer, who had previously been arrested and his fingerprints filed some months before, from the fingerprints found on a fractured glass showcase, after a theft in a dentist's apartment where the dentist's employee was found dead. It was able to be proved in Court that the fingerprints had been made after the showcase was broken.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A year later, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Alphonse_Bertillon?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Alphonse Bertillon">Alphonse Bertillon</a> created a method of getting fingerprints off smooth surfaces and took a further step in the advance of dactyloscopy.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Validity_of_fingerprinting_for_identification">Validity of fingerprinting for identification</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"> <table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"> <tbody> <tr> <td class="mbox-text"> <div class="mbox-text-span"> This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:EditPage/Fingerprint?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:EditPage/Fingerprint">improve this article</a> by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span> </div></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p>The validity of forensic fingerprint evidence has been challenged by academics, judges and the media. While fingerprint identification was an improvement on earlier <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anthropometry?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Anthropometry">anthropometric</a> systems, the subjective nature of matching, despite a very low error rate, has made this forensic practice controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-Specter_54-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Specter-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>Certain specific criticisms are now being accepted by some leaders of the forensic fingerprint community, providing an incentive to improve training and procedures.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Criticism">Criticism</h3> </div> <p>The words "<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Reliability_(statistics)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Reliability (statistics)">reliability</a>" and "<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Validity_(statistics)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Validity (statistics)">validity</a>" have specific meanings to the scientific community. Reliability means that successive tests bring the same results. Validity means that these results are judged to accurately reflect the external criteria being measured.</p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>"Although experts are often more comfortable relying on their instincts, this reliance does not always translate into superior predictive ability. For example, in the popular Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification (ACE-V) paradigm for fingerprint identification, the verification stage, in which a second examiner confirms the assessment of the original examiner, may increase the consistency of the assessments. But while the verification stage has implications for the reliability of latent print comparisons, it does not assure their validity."</p> <div class="templatequotecite"> — <cite>Sandy L Zabell, 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-zabell_6-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-zabell-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite> </div> </blockquote> <p>The few tests that have been made of the validity of forensic fingerprinting have not been supportive of the method.</p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>"Despite the absence of objective standards, scientific validation, and adequate statistical studies, a natural question to ask is how well fingerprint examiners actually perform. Proficiency tests do not validate a procedure per se, but they can provide some insight into error rates. In 1995, the Collaborative Testing Service (CTS) administered a proficiency test that, for the first time, was “designed, assembled, and reviewed” by the International Association for Identification (IAI).The results were disappointing. Four suspect cards with prints of all ten fingers were provided together with seven latents. Of 156 people taking the test, only 68 (44%) correctly classified all seven latents. Overall, the tests contained a total of 48 incorrect identifications. David Grieve, the editor of the Journal of Forensic Identification, describes the reaction of the forensic community to the results of the CTS test as ranging from “shock to disbelief,” and added:</p> <blockquote> <p>'Errors of this magnitude within a discipline singularly admired and respected for its touted absolute certainty as an identification process have produced chilling and mind- numbing realities. Thirty-four participants, an incredible 22% of those involved, substituted presumed but false certainty for truth. By any measure, this represents a profile of practice that is unacceptable and thus demands positive action by the entire community.'</p> </blockquote> <p>What is striking about these comments is that they do not come from a critic of the fingerprint community, but from the editor of one of its premier publications."</p> <div class="templatequotecite"> — <cite>Sandy L Zabell, 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-zabell_6-2" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-zabell-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite> </div> </blockquote> <p>Investigations have been conducted into whether experts can objectively focus on feature information in fingerprints without being misled by extraneous information, such as context.<sup id="cite_ref-fsijournal.org_55-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-fsijournal.org-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fingerprints that have previously been examined and assessed by latent print experts to make a positive identification of suspects have then been re-presented to those same experts in a new context which makes it likely that there will be no match. Within this new context, most of the fingerprint experts made different judgments, thus contradicting their own previous identification decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-fsijournal.org_55-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-fsijournal.org-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>Complaints have been made that there have been no published, peer-reviewed studies directly examining the extent to which people can correctly match fingerprints to one another.<sup id="cite_ref-informaworld.com_56-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-informaworld.com-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experiments have been carried out using naïve undergraduates to match images of fingerprints. The results of these experiments demonstrate that people can identify fingerprints quite well, and that matching accuracy can vary as a function of both source finger type and image similarity.<sup id="cite_ref-informaworld.com_56-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-informaworld.com-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Defense">Defense</h3> </div> <p>Fingerprints collected at a crime scene, or on items of evidence from a crime, have been used in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Forensic_science?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Forensic science">forensic science</a> to identify suspects, victims and other persons who touched a surface. Fingerprint identification emerged as an important system within police agencies in the late 19th century, when it replaced anthropometric measurements as a more reliable method for identifying persons having a prior record, often under a false name, in a criminal record repository.<sup id="cite_ref-ashbaugh1_5-2" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-ashbaugh1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The science of fingerprint identification has been able to assert its standing amongst forensic sciences for many reasons.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Track_record">Track record</h4> </div> <p>Fingerprinting has served all governments worldwide during the past 100 years or so to provide accurate identification of criminals. No two fingerprints have ever been found identical in many billions of human and automated computer comparisons.<sup id="cite_ref-Penn_and_Teller_Bullshit_57-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Penn_and_Teller_Bullshit-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fingerprints are the fundamental tool for the identification of people with a criminal history in every police agency.<sup id="cite_ref-ashbaugh1_5-3" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-ashbaugh1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It remains the most commonly gathered forensic evidence worldwide and in most jurisdictions fingerprint examination outnumbers all other forensic examination casework combined. Moreover, it continues to expand as the premier method for identifying persons, with tens of thousands of people added to fingerprint repositories daily in America alone&nbsp;— far more than other forensic databases. It is claimed to outperform DNA and all other human identification systems.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Fingerprints solve ten times more unknown suspect cases than DNA in most police departments.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Professional_standing_and_certification">Professional standing and certification</h4> </div> <p>Fingerprinting was the basis upon which the first forensic professional organization was formed, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/International_Association_for_Identification?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="International Association for Identification">International Association for Identification</a> (IAI), in 1915.<sup id="cite_ref-iaihist_58-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-iaihist-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first professional certification program for forensic scientists was established in 1977, the IAI's Certified Latent Print Examiner program, which issued certificates to those meeting stringent criteria and had the power to revoke certification where an individual's performance warranted it.<sup id="cite_ref-lpcb1_59-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-lpcb1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other forensic disciplines have followed suit and established their own certification programs.<sup id="cite_ref-lpcb1_59-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-lpcb1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Instances_of_error">Instances of error</h3> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Brandon_Mayfield_and_the_Madrid_bombing">Brandon Mayfield and the Madrid bombing</h4> </div> <p><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brandon_Mayfield?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Brandon Mayfield">Brandon Mayfield</a> is an <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Oregon?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Oregon">Oregon</a> lawyer who was identified as a participant in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/2004_Madrid_train_bombings?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="2004 Madrid train bombings">2004 Madrid train bombings</a> based on a fingerprint match by the FBI.<sup id="cite_ref-MayfieldNYT_60-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-MayfieldNYT-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The FBI Latent Print Unit processed a fingerprint collected in Madrid and reported a "100 percent positive" match against one of the 20 fingerprint candidates returned in a search response from their <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/IAFIS?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="IAFIS">IAFIS</a>&nbsp;— Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System. The FBI initially called it an "absolutely incontrovertible match". Subsequently, however, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Spanish_National_Police?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish National Police">Spanish National Police</a> examiners suggested that the print did not match Mayfield and after two weeks, identified another man whom they claimed the fingerprint <i>did</i> belong to. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/FBI?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI">FBI</a> acknowledged their error, and a judge released Mayfield, who had spent two weeks in police custody, in May 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-MayfieldNYT_60-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-MayfieldNYT-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In January 2006, a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/United_States_Justice_Department?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Justice Department">U.S. Justice Department</a> report was released which criticized the FBI for sloppy work but exonerated them of some more serious allegations. The report found that the misidentification had been due to a misapplication of methodology by the examiners involved: Mayfield is an American-born convert<sup id="cite_ref-MayfieldNYT_60-2" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-MayfieldNYT-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Islam?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Islam">Islam</a> and his wife is an <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Egypt?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a> immigrant,<sup id="cite_ref-MayfieldNYT_60-3" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-MayfieldNYT-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but these are not factors that should have affected fingerprint search technology.</p> <p>On 29 November 2006, the FBI agreed to pay Brandon Mayfield the sum of US$2 million in compensation.<sup id="cite_ref-MayfieldNYT_60-4" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-MayfieldNYT-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The judicial settlement allowed Mayfield to continue a suit regarding certain other government practices surrounding his arrest and detention. The formal apology stated that the FBI, which erroneously linked him to the 2004 Madrid bombing through a fingerprinting mistake, had taken steps to "ensure that what happened to Mr Mayfield and the Mayfield family does not happen again."<sup id="cite_ref-MayfieldNYT_60-5" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-MayfieldNYT-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="René_Ramón_Sánchez"><span id="Ren.C3.A9_Ram.C3.B3n_S.C3.A1nchez"></span>René Ramón Sánchez</h4> </div> <p>René Ramón Sánchez, a legal <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dominican_Republic?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a> immigrant to the US was arrested on July 15, 1995, on a charge of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Driving_under_the_influence?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Driving under the influence">driving while intoxicated</a> (Driving Under the Influence, or DUI). His fingerprints, however, were placed on a card containing the name, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Social_Security_number?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Social Security number">Social Security number</a> and other data for one Leo Rosario, who was being processed at the same time. Leo Rosario had been arrested for selling <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cocaine?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a> to an undercover police officer. On October 11, 2000, while returning from a visit to relatives in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dominican_Republic?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a>, René was mis-identified as Leo Rosario at <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_International_Airport?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="John F. Kennedy International Airport">John F. Kennedy International Airport</a> in New York and arrested. Even though he did not match the physical description of Rosario, the erroneously-cataloged fingerprints were considered to be more reliable.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Shirley_McKie">Shirley McKie</h4> </div> <p><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Shirley_McKie?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Shirley McKie">Shirley McKie</a> was a police detective in 1997 when she was accused of leaving her thumb print inside a house in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Kilmarnock?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Kilmarnock">Kilmarnock</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Scotland?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> where Marion Ross had been murdered. Although McKie denied having been inside the house, she was arrested in a dawn raid the following year and charged with <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Perjury?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Perjury">perjury</a>. The only evidence the prosecution had was this thumb print allegedly found at the murder scene. Two American experts testified on her behalf at her trial in May 1999 and she was found <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Acquittal?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Acquittal">not guilty</a>. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Scottish_Criminal_Record_Office?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Criminal Record Office">Scottish Criminal Record Office</a> (SCRO) would not admit any error, however, although Scottish first minister <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jack_McConnell?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jack McConnell">Jack McConnell</a> later said it had been an "honest mistake".</p> <p>On February 7, 2006, McKie was awarded <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pound_sterling?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pound sterling">£</a>750,000 in compensation from the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Scottish_Executive?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Executive">Scottish Executive</a> and the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Scottish_Criminal_Record_Office?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Criminal Record Office">Scottish Criminal Record Office</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Controversy continued to surround the McKie case and there was an ongoing <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Public_inquiry?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Public inquiry">public inquiry</a> into the affair, as of November 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Stephan_Cowans">Stephan Cowans</h4> </div> <p>Stephan Cowans was convicted of attempted murder in 1997 after he was accused of shooting a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Police_officer?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Police officer">police officer</a> whilst fleeing a robbery in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Roxbury,_Massachusetts?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Roxbury, Massachusetts">Roxbury, Massachusetts</a>. He was implicated in the crime by the testimony of two witnesses, one of whom was the victim. There was also a fingerprint on a glass mug from which the assailant had drunk some water and experts testified that the fingerprint belonged to Cowans. He was found guilty and sent to prison for 35 years. Whilst in prison, Cowans earned money cleaning up biohazards<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2011)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> until he could afford to have the evidence against him tested for <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/DNA?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="DNA">DNA</a>. The DNA did not match his and he was released. He had already served six years in prison when he was released on January 23, 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cowans died on October 25, 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Privacy_issues">Privacy issues</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Fingerprinting_of_children">Fingerprinting of children</h3> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> Further information: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Biometrics_in_schools?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Biometrics in schools">Biometrics in schools</a> </div> <p>Various schools have implemented fingerprint locks or made a record of children's fingerprints. In the United Kingdom there have been fingerprint locks in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Holland_Park_School?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Holland Park School">Holland Park School</a> in London,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and children's fingerprints are stored on databases.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There have also been instances in Belgium, at the école Marie-José in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge_(city)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Liège (city)">Liège</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in France and in Italy. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Non-governmental_organization?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Non-governmental organization">non-governmental organization</a> (NGO) <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Privacy_International?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Privacy International">Privacy International</a> in 2002 made the cautionary announcement that tens of thousands of UK school children were being fingerprinted by schools, often without the knowledge or consent of their parents.<sup id="cite_ref-outcry_70-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-outcry-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That same year, the supplier <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Micro_Librarian_Systems&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Micro Librarian Systems (page does not exist)">Micro Librarian Systems</a>, which uses a technology similar to that used in US prisons and the German military, estimated that 350 schools throughout Britain were using such systems, to replace library cards.<sup id="cite_ref-outcry_70-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-outcry-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2007, it was estimated that 3,500 schools were using such systems.<sup id="cite_ref-BBCchild_71-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-BBCchild-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the United Kingdom <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Data_Protection_Act?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-disambig" title="Data Protection Act">Data Protection Act</a>, schools in the UK do not have to ask parental consent to allow such practices to take place. Parents opposed to fingerprinting may only bring individual complaints against schools.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to a complaint which they are continuing to pursue, in 2010 the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/European_Commission?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="European Commission">European Commission</a> expressed 'significant concerns' over the proportionality and necessity of the practice and the lack of judicial redress, indicating that the practice may break the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/European_Union?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="European Union">European Union</a> data protection directive.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>In Belgium, the practice of taking fingerprints from children gave rise to a question in Parliament on February 6, 2007 by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Michel_de_La_Motte&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Michel de La Motte (page does not exist)">Michel de La Motte</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Humanist_Democratic_Centre?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Humanist Democratic Centre">Humanist Democratic Centre</a>) to the Education Minister <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Marie_Arena?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Marie Arena">Marie Arena</a>, who replied that it was legal provided that the school did not use them for external purposes, or to survey the private life of children.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Angers?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Angers">Angers</a> in France, Carqueiranne College in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Var_(department)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Var (department)">Var</a> won the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Big_Brother_Awards?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Big Brother Awards">Big Brother Award</a> for 2005 and the Commission nationale de l'informatique et des libertés (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/CNIL?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="CNIL">CNIL</a>), the official organisation in charge of the protection of privacy in France, declared the measures it had introduced "disproportionate."<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>In March 2007, the British government was considering fingerprinting all children aged 11 to 15 as part of a new <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Passport?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Passport">passport</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ID_card?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ID card">ID card</a> scheme and disallowing opposition for privacy concerns. All fingerprints taken would be cross-checked against prints from 900,000 unsolved crimes. Shadow Home secretary <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/David_Davis_(British_politician)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="David Davis (British politician)">David Davis</a> called the plan "sinister".<sup id="cite_ref-BBCchild_71-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-BBCchild-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Early_Day_Motion?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Day Motion">Early Day Motion</a> which called on the UK Government to conduct a full and open consultation with stakeholders about the use of biometrics in schools, secured the support of 85 <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Members_of_Parliament?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Members of Parliament">Members of Parliament</a> (Early Day Motion 686).<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the establishment in the United Kingdom of a Conservative and Liberal Democratic coalition government in May 2010, the ID card scheme was scrapped.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>Serious concerns about the security implications of using conventional biometric templates in schools have been raised by a number of leading IT security experts,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> one of whom has voiced the opinion that "it is absolutely premature to begin using 'conventional biometrics' in schools".<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vendors of Biometric systems claim that their products bring benefits to schools such as improved reading skills, decreased wait times in lunch lines and increased revenues.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They do not cite independent research to support this view. One education specialist wrote in 2007: "I have not been able to find a single piece of published research which suggests that the use of biometrics in schools promotes healthy eating or improves reading skills amongst children... There is absolutely no evidence for such claims".<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ottawa?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a> Police in Canada have had to give advise to parents who fear that their children may be kidnapped to have their fingerprints taken.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Other_uses">Other uses</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Welfare_claimants">Welfare claimants</h3> </div> <p>It has been alleged that taking the fingerprints of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Welfare?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">welfare</a> recipients as identification serves as a social stigma that evokes cultural images associated with the processing of criminals.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Log-in_authentication_and_other_locks">Log-in authentication and other locks</h3> </div> <p>Since 2000, electronic fingerprint readers have been introduced for security applications such as log-in authentication for the identification of computer users. However, some less sophisticated devices have been discovered to be vulnerable to quite simple methods of deception, such as fake fingerprints cast in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gel?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Gel">gels</a>. In 2006, fingerprint sensors gained popularity in the notebook PC market. Built-in sensors in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ThinkPad?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="ThinkPad">ThinkPads</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/VAIO?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="VAIO">VAIO</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/HP_Pavilion_(computer)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="HP Pavilion (computer)">HP Pavilion</a> laptops, and others also double as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Motion_detector?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Motion detector">motion detectors</a> for document scrolling, like the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Scroll_wheel?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Scroll wheel">scroll wheel</a>.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Electronic_registration_and_library_access">Electronic registration and library access</h3> </div> <p>Fingerprints and, to a lesser extent, iris scans can be used to validate electronic registration, cashless catering, and library access. By 2007, this practice was particularly widespread in UK schools,<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it was also starting to be adopted in some states in the US.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Fingerprints_in_other_species">Fingerprints in other species</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <p>Some other animals have evolved their own unique prints, especially those whose lifestyle involves climbing or grasping wet objects; these include many <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Primate?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Primate">primates</a>, such as gorillas and chimpanzees, Australian <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Koalas?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Koalas">koalas</a> and aquatic mammal species such as the North American <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fisher_(animal)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fisher (animal)">fisher</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one study, even with an electron microscope, it can be quite difficult to distinguish between the fingerprints of a koala and a human.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Fingerprints_in_fiction">Fingerprints in fiction</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Mark_Twain">Mark Twain</h3> </div> <p><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mark_Twain?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a>'s novel <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Life_on_the_Mississippi?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Life on the Mississippi">Life on the Mississippi</a></i>, published in 1883, was the first book to use fingerprints as a main plot element.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Twain's later book <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pudd%27nhead_Wilson?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pudd'nhead Wilson">Pudd'nhead Wilson</a>, published in 1893, includes a courtroom drama involving fingerprint identification.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Crime_fiction">Crime fiction</h3> </div> <p>The use of fingerprints in crime fiction has, of course, kept pace with its use in real-life detection. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle wrote a short story about his celebrated sleuth <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sherlock Holmes">Sherlock Holmes</a> which features a fingerprint: <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/The_Norwood_Builder?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="The Norwood Builder">The Norwood Builder</a></i> is a 1903 <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sherlock Holmes">Sherlock Holmes</a> short story set in 1894 and involves the discovery of a bloody fingerprint which helps Holmes to expose the real criminal and free his client. A 1985 Granada TV adaptation of an 1893 <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sherlock Holmes">Sherlock Holmes</a> short story set in 1891, <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/The_Adventure_of_the_Final_Problem?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="The Adventure of the Final Problem">The Adventure of the Final Problem</a></i>, has a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Plot_hole?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Plot hole">plot hole</a> in the screenplay caused by Holmes's use of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anthropometry?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Anthropometry">Bertillonage</a> criminal ID system, in which he uses fingerprints to trap Moriarty's agents and recover the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mona_Lisa?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mona Lisa">Mona Lisa</a>. The real Bertillon system did not use fingerprints. Bertillon had added four spaces for fingerprints on his identification cards by 1900 because of the growing popularity of fingerprinting, but the identification cards were still based on anthropometric measurements.</p> <p>The British detective writer <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/R._Austin_Freeman?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="R. Austin Freeman">R. Austin Freeman</a>'s first Thorndyke novel <i>The Red Thumb-Mark</i> was published in 1907 and features a bloody fingerprint left on a piece of paper together with a parcel of diamonds inside a safe-box. These become the center of a medico-legal investigation led by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dr_Thorndyke?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Dr Thorndyke">Dr Thorndyke</a>, who defends the accused whose fingerprint matches that on the paper, after the diamonds are stolen.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Movies">Movies</h3> </div> <p>The movie <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Men_In_Black_(film)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Men In Black (film)">Men In Black</a></i>, a popular 1997 science fiction thriller, required Agent J, played by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Will_Smith?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Will Smith">Will Smith</a>, to remove his ten fingerprints by putting his hands on a metal ball, an action deemed necessary by the MIB agency to remove the identity of its agents. And in a 2009 science fiction movie starring <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Paul_Giamatti?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Paul Giamatti">Paul Giamatti</a>, <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cold_Souls_(film)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold Souls (film)">Cold Souls</a></i>, a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mule_(smuggling)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mule (smuggling)">mule</a> who is paid to smuggle souls across borders, wears latex fingerprints to frustrate airport security terminals. She can change her identity by changing her wig, and switching latex fingerprints from the privacy of a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Restroom?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-disambig" title="Restroom">restroom</a>, always storing extra fingerprints in a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ziploc?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ziploc">ziploc</a> bag, so she can always assume an <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pseudonym?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pseudonym">alias</a> that is suitable to her undertaking.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Other_reliable_identifiers">Other reliable identifiers</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <p>Other forms of biometric identification utilizing a physical attribute that is unique to every human include <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Iris_recognition?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Iris recognition">Iris recognition</a>, the use of dental records in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Forensic_dentistry?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Forensic dentistry">forensic dentistry</a>, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Tongue?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Tongue">tongue</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/DNA_profiling?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="DNA profiling">DNA profiling</a>, also known as genetic fingerprinting.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Fingerprint_mutilation">Fingerprint mutilation</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <p>There are several documented cases of people deliberately mutilating their fingerprints in an effort to avoid being identified from marks left on the surfaces they touch. Methods used have included burning the fingertips with acid, which <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/John_Dillinger?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="John Dillinger">John Dillinger</a> tried (and failed; prints taken during a previous arrest and upon death still exhibited almost complete relation to one another), and surgical alteration.<sup id="cite_ref-abel_88-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-abel-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style> <div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span> <noscript> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 30px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="30" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">&nbsp;</span></span></span> </div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"> Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Fingerprints" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Fingerprints">Fingerprints</a></span>. </div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/1,8-Diazafluoren-9-one?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="1,8-Diazafluoren-9-one">1,8-Diazafluoren-9-one</a>, chemical used to find fingerprints on <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Porous?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Porous">porous</a> surfaces</li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Automated_fingerprint_identification?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Automated fingerprint identification">Automated fingerprint identification</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Canadian_Identification_Society?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Canadian Identification Society">Canadian Identification Society</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dermatoglyphics?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dermatoglyphics">Dermatoglyphics</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dermatopathia_pigmentosa_reticularis?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dermatopathia pigmentosa reticularis">Dermatopathia pigmentosa reticularis</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fingerprint_authentication?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Fingerprint authentication">Fingerprint authentication</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fingerprint_Inquiry?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fingerprint Inquiry">Fingerprint Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fingerprint_powder?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fingerprint powder">Fingerprint powder</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fingerprint_Verification_Competition?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fingerprint Verification Competition">Fingerprint Verification Competition</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Forged_evidence?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Forged evidence">Forged evidence</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Government_database?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Government database">Government database</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/International_Association_for_Identification?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="International Association for Identification">International Association for Identification</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Juan_Vucetich?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Juan Vucetich">Juan Vucetich</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Naegeli_syndrome?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Naegeli syndrome">Naegeli syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/New_York_State_Police_Troop_C_scandal?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="New York State Police Troop C scandal">New York State Police Troop C scandal</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ulnar_loop?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulnar loop">Ulnar loop</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Radial_loop?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Radial loop">Radial loop</a></li> </ul> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="References">References</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style> <div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-swglos-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-swglos_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-swglos_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.swgfast.org/documents/glossary/090508_Glossary_2.0.pdf">Peer Reviewed Glossary of the Scientific Working Group on Friction Ridge Analysis, Study and Technology (SWGFAST)</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.nature.com/news/2009/090129/full/news.2009.68.html">"Fake finger reveals the secrets of touch"</a>, <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nature_(journal)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>, 29 January 2009, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Doi_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://doi.org/10.1038%252Fnews.2009.68">10.1038/news.2009.68</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8093134.stm">"Fingerprint grip theory rejected"</a>. BBC. June 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved March 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Fingerprint+grip+theory+rejected&amp;rft.date=2009-06&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fhealth%2F8093134.stm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_news?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|accessdate=</code> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-olsen1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-olsen1_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlsen1972" class="citation journal cs1">Olsen, Robert D. Sr (1972). "The Chemical Composition of Palmar Sweat". <i>Fingerprint and Identification Magazine</i>. <b>53</b> (10).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Fingerprint+and+Identification+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=The+Chemical+Composition+of+Palmar+Sweat&amp;rft.volume=53&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.date=1972&amp;rft.aulast=Olsen&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert+D.+Sr&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-ashbaugh1-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-ashbaugh1_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-ashbaugh1_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-ashbaugh1_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-ashbaugh1_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshbaugh1991" class="citation journal cs1">Ashbaugh, David R. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://onin.com/fp/ridgeology.pdf">"Ridgeology"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Forensic Identification</i>. <b>41</b> (1)). <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&nbsp;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0895-l">73X 0895-l 73X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Forensic+Identification&amp;rft.atitle=Ridgeology&amp;rft.volume=41&amp;rft.issue=1%29&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft.aulast=Ashbaugh&amp;rft.aufirst=David+R.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fonin.com%2Ffp%2Fridgeology.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_journal?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Check <code class="cs1-code">|issn=</code> value (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#bad_issn" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference "ashbaugh1" was defined multiple times with different content (see the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_duplicate_key?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references duplicate key">help page</a>).</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-zabell-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-zabell_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-zabell_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-zabell_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZabell" class="citation journal cs1">Zabell, Sandy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://wwy.brooklaw.edu/students/journals/bjlp/jlp13i_zabell.pdf">"Fingerprint Evidence"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Law and Policy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Law+and+Policy&amp;rft.atitle=Fingerprint+Evidence&amp;rft.aulast=Zabell&amp;rft.aufirst=Sandy&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwwy.brooklaw.edu%2Fstudents%2Fjournals%2Fbjlp%2Fjlp13i_zabell.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference "zabell" was defined multiple times with different content (see the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_duplicate_key?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references duplicate key">help page</a>).</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-lifeoflatents-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-lifeoflatents_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1973" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson, P. Lee (1973). "Life of Latents". <i>Identification News</i>. <b>23</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Identification+News&amp;rft.atitle=Life+of+Latents&amp;rft.volume=23&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.date=1973&amp;rft.aulast=Johnson&amp;rft.aufirst=P.+Lee&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Manchester_Evening_News?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Manchester Evening News">Manchester Evening News</a></i>, Thursday 17 June 2010, front page</span></li> <li id="cite_note-roscher-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-roscher_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-roscher_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-roscher_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngert1964" class="citation journal cs1">Engert, Gerald J. (1964). "International Corner". <i>Identification News</i>. <b>14</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Identification+News&amp;rft.atitle=International+Corner&amp;rft.volume=14&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.date=1964&amp;rft.aulast=Engert&amp;rft.aufirst=Gerald+J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-henryclass-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-henryclass_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry1900" class="citation web cs1">Henry, Edward R., Sir (1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.clpex.com/Information/Pioneers/henry-classification.pdf">"Classification and Uses of Finger Prints"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. London: George Rutledge &amp; Sons, Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Classification+and+Uses+of+Finger+Prints&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pub=George+Rutledge+%26+Sons%2C+Ltd&amp;rft.date=1900&amp;rft.aulast=Henry&amp;rft.aufirst=Edward+R.%2C+Sir&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clpex.com%2FInformation%2FPioneers%2Fhenry-classification.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_web?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://odec.ca/projects/2004/fren4j0/public_html/fingerprint_patterns.htm">"Fingerprint Patterns"</a>. Online Digital Education Connection<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved March 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Fingerprint+Patterns&amp;rft.pub=Online+Digital+Education+Connection&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fodec.ca%2Fprojects%2F2004%2Ffren4j0%2Fpublic_html%2Ffingerprint_patterns.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_web?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|accessdate=</code> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conklin, Barbara Gardner, Robert Gardner, and Dennis Shortelle. Encyclopedia of Forensic Science: a Compendium of Detective Fact and Fiction. Westport, Conn.: Oryx, 2002. Print.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>People v. Les</i>, 267 Michigan 648, 255 NW 407.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-2DPrintDeform-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-2DPrintDeform_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossJain2004" class="citation web cs1">Ross, A.; Jain, A. (2004). "Estimating fingerprint deformation". Proceedings of the International Conference on Biometric Authentication (ICBA).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Estimating+fingerprint+deformation&amp;rft.pub=Proceedings+of+the+International+Conference+on+Biometric+Authentication+%28ICBA%29&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.aulast=Ross&amp;rft.aufirst=A.&amp;rft.au=Jain%2C+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_web?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Missing or empty <code class="cs1-code">|url=</code> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_web_url" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-3DPrintsweb-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-3DPrintsweb_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKremen2009" class="citation web cs1">Kremen, Rachel (September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.technologyreview.com/computing/23549/?a%3Df">"Touchless 3-D Fingerprinting: A new system offers better speed and accuracy"</a>. Technology Review<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved March 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Touchless+3-D+Fingerprinting%3A+A+new+system+offers+better+speed+and+accuracy&amp;rft.pub=Technology+Review&amp;rft.date=2009-09&amp;rft.aulast=Kremen&amp;rft.aufirst=Rachel&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.technologyreview.com%2Fcomputing%2F23549%2F%3Fa%3Df&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_web?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|accessdate=</code> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-3DPrints-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-3DPrints_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2009" class="citation web cs1">Wang, Yongchang (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://vis.uky.edu/~realtime3d/Doc/3D_Fingerprint_Quality.pdf">"Data Acquisition and Quality Analysis of 3-Dimensional Fingerprints"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Florida: IEEE conference on Biometrics, Identity and Security<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved March 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Acquisition+and+Quality+Analysis+of+3-Dimensional+Fingerprints&amp;rft.place=Florida&amp;rft.pub=IEEE+conference+on+Biometrics%2C+Identity+and+Security&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.aulast=Wang&amp;rft.aufirst=Yongchang&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvis.uky.edu%2F~realtime3d%2FDoc%2F3D_Fingerprint_Quality.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_web?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|accessdate=</code> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span>; <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|coauthors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> suggested) (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#parameter_ignored_suggest" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-3DPrintsAO-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-3DPrintsAO_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2010" class="citation web cs1">Wang, Yongchang (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://vis.uky.edu/~realtime3d/Doc/Manuscripts/Fit-sphere%2520unwrapping%2520and%2520performance%2520analysis%2520of%25203D%2520fingerprints.pdf">"Fit-sphere unwrapping and performance analysis of 3D Fingerprints"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Applied Optics. pp.&nbsp;592–600.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Fit-sphere+unwrapping+and+performance+analysis+of+3D+Fingerprints&amp;rft.pages=592-600&amp;rft.pub=Applied+Optics&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.aulast=Wang&amp;rft.aufirst=Yongchang&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvis.uky.edu%2F~realtime3d%2FDoc%2FManuscripts%2FFit-sphere%2520unwrapping%2520and%2520performance%2520analysis%2520of%25203D%2520fingerprints.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_web?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|coauthors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> suggested) (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#parameter_ignored_suggest" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-3DPrintsSPIE-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-3DPrintsSPIE_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2010" class="citation web cs1">Wang, Yongchang (July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://vis.uky.edu/~realtime3d/Doc/Manuscripts/Quality%2520and%2520matching%2520performance%2520analysis%2520of%2520three-dimensional%2520unraveled%2520fingerprints.pdf">"Quality and Matching Performance Analysis of 3D Unraveled Fingerprints"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Optical Engineering. pp.&nbsp;077202 (1–10)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved Aug 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Quality+and+Matching+Performance+Analysis+of+3D+Unraveled+Fingerprints&amp;rft.pages=077202+%281-10%29&amp;rft.pub=Optical+Engineering&amp;rft.date=2010-07&amp;rft.aulast=Wang&amp;rft.aufirst=Yongchang&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvis.uky.edu%2F~realtime3d%2FDoc%2FManuscripts%2FQuality%2520and%2520matching%2520performance%2520analysis%2520of%2520three-dimensional%2520unraveled%2520fingerprints.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_web?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|accessdate=</code> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span>; <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|coauthors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> suggested) (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#parameter_ignored_suggest" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dalrymple BE, Duff JM, Menzel ER. Inherent fingerprint luminescence – detection by laser. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 22(1), 1977, 106-115. See <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brian_E._Dalrymple?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Brian E. Dalrymple">Dalrymple</a>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://scienceandresearch.homeoffice.gov.uk/hosdb/fingerprints-footwear-marks/">comprehensive manual</a> of the operational methods of fingerprint development. Published by the UK Home Office Scientific Development Branch.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.swan.ac.uk/engineering/Research/MaterialsResearchCentre/ResearchAreas/CorrosionandCoatings/">Swansea University</a>, Materials Research Centre, Professor Neil McMurray and Dr Geraint Williams.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard2006" class="citation news cs1">Ward, Mark (April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/4857114.stm">"Fingerprints hide lifestyle clues"</a>. BBC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved March 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Fingerprints+hide+lifestyle+clues&amp;rft.date=2006-04&amp;rft.aulast=Ward&amp;rft.aufirst=Mark&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Ftechnology%2F4857114.stm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_news?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|accessdate=</code> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://news.sky.com/skynews/article/0,,31100-1218342,00.html">"Bombers Tracked By New Technique"</a>. SkyNews. April 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved March 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Bombers+Tracked+By+New+Technique&amp;rft.date=2006-04&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.sky.com%2Fskynews%2Farticle%2F0%2C%2C31100-1218342%2C00.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_news?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|accessdate=</code> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Marks (18 May 2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn11887-new-fingerprint-analysis-identifies-smokers.html">"New fingerprint analysis identifies smokers,"</a> <i>New Scientist</i> (on-line version).</span></li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tom Simonite (3 April 2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn8938-fingerprints-reveal-clues-to-suspects-habits.html">"Fingerprints reveal clues to suspects' habits,"</a> <i>New Scientist</i> (on-line version).</span></li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEverts2008" class="citation journal cs1">Everts, Sarah (December 2008). "Fingerprints Reveal Drug Use". <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Chemical_%26_Engineering_News?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Chemical &amp; Engineering News">Chemical &amp; Engineering News</a></i>. <b>86</b> (51): 34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Chemical+%26+Engineering+News&amp;rft.atitle=Fingerprints+Reveal+Drug+Use&amp;rft.volume=86&amp;rft.issue=51&amp;rft.pages=34&amp;rft.date=2008-12&amp;rft.aulast=Everts&amp;rft.aufirst=Sarah&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaufer1912" class="citation web cs1">Laufer, Berthold (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.scafo.org/library/160201.html">"History of the finger-print system"</a>. Smithsonian Institution Annual Report.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=History+of+the+finger-print+system&amp;rft.pub=Smithsonian+Institution+Annual+Report&amp;rft.date=1912&amp;rft.aulast=Laufer&amp;rft.aufirst=Berthold&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scafo.org%2Flibrary%2F160201.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> Reprinted in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.scafo.org/The_Print/THE_PRINT_VOL_16_ISSUE_02.PDF">"The Print [newsletter of South California Association of Fingerprint Officers]"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. March/April 2000. pp.&nbsp;1–13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Print+%5Bnewsletter+of+South+California+Association+of+Fingerprint+Officers%5D&amp;rft.pages=1-13&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scafo.org%2FThe_Print%2FTHE_PRINT_VOL_16_ISSUE_02.PDF&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_web?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|date=</code> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshbaugh1999" class="citation book cs1">Ashbaugh, David (1999). <i>Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Ridgeology</i>. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. pp.&nbsp;11–19. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/0849370078?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/0849370078"><bdi>0849370078</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Quantitative-Qualitative+Friction+Ridge+Analysis%3A+An+Introduction+to+Basic+and+Advanced+Ridgeology&amp;rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+Florida&amp;rft.pages=11-19&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.isbn=0849370078&amp;rft.aulast=Ashbaugh&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÅström2007" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Paul_%C3%85str%C3%B6m?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Paul Åström">Åström, Paul</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.ancientfingerprints.org/nr1_lo.pdf">"The study of ancient fingerprints"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Ancient Fingerprints</i> (1): 2–3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Ancient+Fingerprints&amp;rft.atitle=The+study+of+ancient+fingerprints&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=2-3&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.aulast=%C3%85str%C3%B6m&amp;rft.aufirst=Paul&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ancientfingerprints.org%2Fnr1_lo.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÅströmEriksson1980" class="citation journal cs1">Åström, Paul; Eriksson, Sven A. (1980). "Fingerprints and Archaeology". <i>Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology series</i>. <b>28</b>. Göteborg, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Mediterranean+Archaeology+series&amp;rft.atitle=Fingerprints+and+Archaeology&amp;rft.volume=28&amp;rft.date=1980&amp;rft.aulast=%C3%85str%C3%B6m&amp;rft.aufirst=Paul&amp;rft.au=Eriksson%2C+Sven+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/health/2010-02/09/content_12956719.htm">"Finger prints found on pottery"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Finger+prints+found+on+pottery&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbig5.xinhuanet.com%2Fgate%2Fbig5%2Fnews.xinhuanet.com%2Fhealth%2F2010-02%2F09%2Fcontent_12956719.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReinaud1845" class="citation journal cs1">Reinaud, Joseph Toussaint (1845). "Relation des voyages faits par les Arabes et les Persans dans l'Inde et a la Chine dans le IX Siecle...". <b>I</b>. Paris: Imprimerie royale: 42.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Relation+des+voyages+faits+par+les+Arabes+et+les+Persans+dans+l%27Inde+et+a+la+Chine+dans+le+IX+Siecle...&amp;rft.volume=I&amp;rft.pages=42&amp;rft.date=1845&amp;rft.aulast=Reinaud&amp;rft.aufirst=Joseph+Toussaint&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_journal?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span> quoted in: Laufer (1912)</span></li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCummins1941" class="citation journal cs1">Cummins, Harold (1941). "Ancient finger prints in clay". <i>The Scientific Monthly</i>. <b>52</b>: 389–402.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Scientific+Monthly&amp;rft.atitle=Ancient+finger+prints+in+clay&amp;rft.volume=52&amp;rft.pages=389-402&amp;rft.date=1941&amp;rft.aulast=Cummins&amp;rft.aufirst=Harold&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> Reprinted in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><i>Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology</i>. <b>34</b> (4): 468–481. November/December 1941.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Criminal+Law+and+Criminology&amp;rft.volume=34&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=468-481&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_journal?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|date=</code> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span>; <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Missing or empty <code class="cs1-code">|title=</code> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#citation_missing_title" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ashbaugh (1999), page 15.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/health/2010-02/09/content_12956719_1.htm">"千余學者摸清我國民族膚紋 "家底" 南北是一家"</a> (in Chinese).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%E5%8D%83%E4%BD%99%E5%AD%B8%E8%80%85%E6%91%B8%E6%B8%85%E6%88%91%E5%9C%8B%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E8%86%9A%E7%B4%8B+%E2%80%9C%E5%AE%B6%E5%BA%95%E2%80%9D+%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%98%AF%E4%B8%80%E5%AE%B6&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbig5.xinhuanet.com%2Fgate%2Fbig5%2Fnews.xinhuanet.com%2Fhealth%2F2010-02%2F09%2Fcontent_12956719_1.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ashbaugh (1999), page 17; see also Laufer (1912).</span></li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCole2001" class="citation book cs1">Cole, Simon (2001). <i>Suspect Identities: A history of fingerprinting and criminal identification</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp.&nbsp;60–61. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674004558?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/0674004558"><bdi>0674004558</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Suspect+Identities%3A+A+history+of+fingerprinting+and+criminal+identification&amp;rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&amp;rft.pages=60-61&amp;rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.isbn=0674004558&amp;rft.aulast=Cole&amp;rft.aufirst=Simon&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaadat2009" class="citation journal cs1">Saadat, Noury M (2009-05-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.iranian.ws/iran_news/publish/printer_29065.shtml">"First Iranian Record on Fingerprinting"</a>. <i>Persian Journal</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Persian+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=First+Iranian+Record+on+Fingerprinting&amp;rft.date=2009-05-04&amp;rft.aulast=Saadat&amp;rft.aufirst=Noury+M&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranian.ws%2Firan_news%2Fpublish%2Fprinter_29065.shtml&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title="&nbsp;Dead link tagged March 2010">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span></li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrew1684" class="citation journal cs1">Grew, Nehemiah (1684). "The description and use of the pores in the skin of the hands and feet". <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London</i>. <b>14</b>: 566–567.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&amp;rft.atitle=The+description+and+use+of+the+pores+in+the+skin+of+the+hands+and+feet&amp;rft.volume=14&amp;rft.pages=566-567&amp;rft.date=1684&amp;rft.aulast=Grew&amp;rft.aufirst=Nehemiah&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBidloo1685" class="citation book cs1">Bidloo, Govard (1685). <i>Anatomia Humani Corporis</i> [Anatomy of the Human Body]<i>. Amsterdam, Netherlands.</i></cite><i><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Anatomia+Humani+Corporis+%5BAnatomy+of+the+Human+Body%5D&amp;rft.place=Amsterdam%2C+Netherlands&amp;rft.date=1685&amp;rft.aulast=Bidloo&amp;rft.aufirst=Govard&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></i></span></li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalpighi1685" class="citation book cs1"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Marcello Malpighi">Malpighi, Marcello</a> (1685). <i>De Externo Tactus Organo Anatomica Observatio [Anatomical Observations of the External Organs of Touch]</i>. Naples, Italy: Aegidius Longus.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=De+Externo+Tactus+Organo+Anatomica+Observatio+%5BAnatomical+Observations+of+the+External+Organs+of+Touch%5D&amp;rft.place=Naples%2C+Italy&amp;rft.pub=Aegidius+Longus&amp;rft.date=1685&amp;rft.aulast=Malpighi&amp;rft.aufirst=Marcello&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayer1783–1788" class="citation book cs1">Mayer, Johann Christoph Andreas (1783–1788). <i>Anatomische Kupfertafeln nebst dazu gehörigen Erklärungen [Anatomical Illustrations (etchings) with Accompanying Explanations]</i>. Berlin, Prussia: Georg Jacob Decker.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Anatomische+Kupfertafeln+nebst+dazu+geh%C3%B6rigen+Erkl%C3%A4rungen+%5BAnatomical+Illustrations+%28etchings%29+with+Accompanying+Explanations%5D&amp;rft.place=Berlin%2C+Prussia&amp;rft.pub=Georg+Jacob+Decker&amp;rft.date=1783%2F1788&amp;rft.aulast=Mayer&amp;rft.aufirst=Johann+Christoph+Andreas&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_book?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: date format (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_format?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Category:CS1 maint: date format">link</a>)</span> See especially the 1788 volume.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.onin.com/fp/fphistory.html">"The History of Fingerprints"</a>. Onin. February 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved March 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+History+of+Fingerprints&amp;rft.pub=Onin&amp;rft.date=2010-02&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.onin.com%2Ffp%2Ffphistory.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_web?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|accessdate=</code> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurkyně1823" class="citation book cs1">Purkyně, Jan Evangelista (1823). <i>Commentatio de examine physiologico organi visus et systematis cutanei [Commentary on the physiological examination of the visual organ and the skin system]</i>. Breslau, Prussia: University of Breslau Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Commentatio+de+examine+physiologico+organi+visus+et+systematis+cutanei+%5BCommentary+on+the+physiological+examination+of+the+visual+organ+and+the+skin+system%5D&amp;rft.place=Breslau%2C+Prussia&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Breslau+Press&amp;rft.date=1823&amp;rft.aulast=Purkyn%C4%9B&amp;rft.aufirst=Jan+Evangelista&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> See also: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCumminsWright_Kennedy" class="citation journal cs1">Cummins, Harold; Wright Kennedy, Rebecca (September/October 1940). "Purkinje's observations (1823) on finger prints and other skin features". <i>The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology</i>. <b>31</b> (3): 343–356.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Criminal+Law+and+Criminology&amp;rft.atitle=Purkinje%27s+observations+%281823%29+on+finger+prints+and+other+skin+features&amp;rft.volume=31&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=343-356&amp;rft.aulast=Cummins&amp;rft.aufirst=Harold&amp;rft.au=Wright+Kennedy%2C+Rebecca&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_journal?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|date=</code> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Meissner1853" class="citation book cs1">von Meissner, Georg (1853). <i>Beiträge zur Anatomie und Physiologie der Haut </i>[Contributions to the Anatomy and Physiology of the Skin]<i><span></span></i>. Leipzig, Saxony: Leopold Voss.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Beitr%C3%A4ge+zur+Anatomie+und+Physiologie+der+Haut+%5BContributions+to+the+Anatomy+and+Physiology+of+the+Skin%5D&amp;rft.place=Leipzig%2C+Saxony&amp;rft.pub=Leopold+Voss&amp;rft.date=1853&amp;rft.aulast=von+Meissner&amp;rft.aufirst=Georg&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-Herschel1916-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Herschel1916_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerschel1916" class="citation book cs1">Herschel, William J (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://galton.org/fingerprints/books/herschel/herschel-1916-origins-1up.pdf"><i>The Origin of Finger-Printing</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1104662257?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/978-1104662257"><bdi>978-1104662257</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Origin+of+Finger-Printing&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1916&amp;rft.isbn=978-1104662257&amp;rft.aulast=Herschel&amp;rft.aufirst=William+J&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgalton.org%2Ffingerprints%2Fbooks%2Fherschel%2Fherschel-1916-origins-1up.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerschel1880" class="citation journal cs1">Herschel, William James (25 November 1880). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://galton.org/fingerprints/herschel-1880-nature-furrows.pdf">"Skin furrows of the hand"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>23</b> (578): 76. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1880Natur..23...76H">1880Natur..23...76H</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Doi_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://doi.org/10.1038%252F023076b0">10.1038/023076b0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=Skin+furrows+of+the+hand&amp;rft.volume=23&amp;rft.issue=578&amp;rft.pages=76&amp;rft.date=1880-11-25&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F023076b0&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1880Natur..23...76H&amp;rft.aulast=Herschel&amp;rft.aufirst=William+James&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgalton.org%2Ffingerprints%2Fherschel-1880-nature-furrows.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-faulds1-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-faulds1_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaulds1880" class="citation journal cs1">Faulds, Henry (28 October 1880). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.galton.org/fingerprints/faulds-1880-nature-furrows.pdf">"On the skin-furrows of the hand"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>22</b> (574): 605. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Doi_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://doi.org/10.1038%252F022605a0">10.1038/022605a0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=On+the+skin-furrows+of+the+hand&amp;rft.volume=22&amp;rft.issue=574&amp;rft.pages=605&amp;rft.date=1880-10-28&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F022605a0&amp;rft.aulast=Faulds&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.galton.org%2Ffingerprints%2Ffaulds-1880-nature-furrows.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-reid1-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-reid1_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReid2003" class="citation journal cs1">Reid, Donald L. (2003). "Dr. Henry Faulds - Beith Commemorative Society". <i>Journal of Forensic Identification</i>. <b>53</b> (2).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Forensic+Identification&amp;rft.atitle=Dr.+Henry+Faulds+-+Beith+Commemorative+Society&amp;rft.volume=53&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.aulast=Reid&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+L.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> See also this on-line article on Henry Faulds: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTredoux2003" class="citation web cs1">Tredoux, Gavan (December 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.galton.org/fingerprints/faulds.htm%23herschel1880">"Henry Faulds: the Invention of a Fingerprinter"</a>. galton.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Henry+Faulds%3A+the+Invention+of+a+Fingerprinter&amp;rft.pub=galton.org&amp;rft.date=2003-12&amp;rft.aulast=Tredoux&amp;rft.aufirst=Gavan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.galton.org%2Ffingerprints%2Ffaulds.htm%23herschel1880&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-galtonfps-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-galtonfps_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalton1892" class="citation web cs1">Galton, Francis (1892). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.clpex.com/Information/Pioneers/galton-1892-fingerprints-lowres.pdf">"Finger Prints"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. London: MacMillan and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Finger+Prints&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pub=MacMillan+and+Co&amp;rft.date=1892&amp;rft.aulast=Galton&amp;rft.aufirst=Francis&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clpex.com%2FInformation%2FPioneers%2Fgalton-1892-fingerprints-lowres.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTewariRavikumar2000" class="citation journal cs1">Tewari, RK; Ravikumar, KV (2000). "History and development of forensic science in India". <i>J. Postgrad Med</i> (46): 303–308.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=J.+Postgrad+Med&amp;rft.atitle=History+and+development+of+forensic+science+in+India&amp;rft.issue=46&amp;rft.pages=303-308&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.aulast=Tewari&amp;rft.aufirst=RK&amp;rft.au=Ravikumar%2C+KV&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSodhiKaur2005" class="citation journal cs1">Sodhi, J.S.; Kaur, asjeed (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jan102005/185.pdf">"The forgotten Indian pioneers of finger print science"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Current Science</i>. <b>88</b> (1): 185–191.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Current+Science&amp;rft.atitle=The+forgotten+Indian+pioneers+of+finger+print+science&amp;rft.volume=88&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=185-191&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.aulast=Sodhi&amp;rft.aufirst=J.S.&amp;rft.au=Kaur%2C+asjeed&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ias.ac.in%2Fcurrsci%2Fjan102005%2F185.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerlière1902" class="citation web cs1">Berlière, Jean-Marc (October 16, 1902). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/actualites/celebrations2002/empreintes.htm">"Arrestation du premier assassin confondu par ses empreintes digitales"</a>. Célébrations Nationales.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Arrestation+du+premier+assassin+confondu+par+ses+empreintes+digitales&amp;rft.pub=C%C3%A9l%C3%A9brations+Nationales&amp;rft.date=1902-10-16&amp;rft.aulast=Berli%C3%A8re&amp;rft.aufirst=Jean-Marc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.culture.gouv.fr%2Fculture%2Factualites%2Fcelebrations2002%2Fempreintes.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-Specter-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Specter_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.michaelspecter.com/2002/05/do-fingerprints-lie/">Specter, Michael "Do Fingerprints Lie" The New Yorker</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-fsijournal.org-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-fsijournal.org_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-fsijournal.org_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dror, I.E., Charlton, D. and Péron, A.E. (2006) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.fsijournal.org/article/S0379-0738(05)00587-6/abstract">Contextual information renders experts vulnerable to making erroneous identifications</a>", <i>Forensic Science International</i>, Vol 156, Iss 1, pp 74-78.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-informaworld.com-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-informaworld.com_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-informaworld.com_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vokey, J.R., Tangen, J.M. and Cole, S.A, (2009), "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db%3Dall?content%3D10.1080/17470210802372987">On the preliminary psychophysics of fingerprint identification</a>", <i>The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology</i>, Vol 62, Iss 5, pp 1023-1040.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-Penn_and_Teller_Bullshit-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Penn_and_Teller_Bullshit_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Penn and Teller Bullshit, 8x07, Criminal Justice</span></li> <li id="cite_note-iaihist-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-iaihist_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.theiai.org/history/">International Association for Identification History, retrieved August 2006</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-lpcb1-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-lpcb1_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-lpcb1_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bonebrake, George J. (1978) "Report on the Latent Print Certification Program" <i>Identification News</i> Vol<i>28</i>(3)</span></li> <li id="cite_note-MayfieldNYT-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-MayfieldNYT_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-MayfieldNYT_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-MayfieldNYT_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-MayfieldNYT_60-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-MayfieldNYT_60-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-MayfieldNYT_60-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> "U.S. Will Pay $2 Million to Lawyer Wrongly Jailed - New York Times" (article), by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Eric_Lichtbau&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Eric Lichtbau (page does not exist)">Eric Lichtbau</a>, <i>New York Times</i>, 2006-11-30, webpage: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/30/us/30settle.html?em%26ex%3D1165122000%26en%3D0ca1f656ca46883a%26ei%3D5087%250A">NYT-061130-settle</a>: on <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brandon_Mayfield?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Brandon Mayfield">Brandon Mayfield</a> mistaken arrest.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/New_York_Times?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a>; May 31, 2004; Can Prints Lie? Yes, Man Finds To His Dismay. In front of the immigration judge, the tall, muscular man began to weep. No, he had patiently tried to explain, he was not Leo Rosario, a drug dealer and a prime candidate for deportation. He was telling the truth. He was René Ramón Sánchez, an auto-body worker and merengue singer ...</span></li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/4689218.stm">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Relief' over fingerprint verdict"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. February 7, 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BBC+News&amp;rft.atitle=%27Relief%27+over+fingerprint+verdict&amp;rft.date=2006-02-07&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fscotland%2F4689218.stm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.thefingerprintinquiryscotland.org.uk/inquiry/CCC_FirstPage.jsp">"The Fingerprint Inquiry Scotland"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Fingerprint+Inquiry+Scotland&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefingerprintinquiryscotland.org.uk%2Finquiry%2FCCC_FirstPage.jsp&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbel2007" class="citation news cs1">Abel, David (2007-10-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.boston.com/news/globe/city_region/breaking_news/2007/10/man_wrongly_con.html">"Man wrongly convicted in Boston police shooting found dead"</a>. The Boston Globe.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Man+wrongly+convicted+in+Boston+police+shooting+found+dead&amp;rft.date=2007-10-26&amp;rft.aulast=Abel&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.boston.com%2Fnews%2Fglobe%2Fcity_region%2Fbreaking_news%2F2007%2F10%2Fman_wrongly_con.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbel2007" class="citation news cs1">Abel, David (2007-10-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.boston.com/news/globe/city_region/breaking_news/2007/10/man_wrongly_con.html">"Man wrongly convicted in Boston police shooting found dead"</a>. The Boston Globe.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Man+wrongly+convicted+in+Boston+police+shooting+found+dead&amp;rft.date=2007-10-26&amp;rft.aulast=Abel&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.boston.com%2Fnews%2Fglobe%2Fcity_region%2Fbreaking_news%2F2007%2F10%2Fman_wrongly_con.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.pcinpact.com/actu/news/31010-Empreintes-digitales-pour-les-enfants-dune-e.htm">Empreintes digitales pour les enfants d'une école de Londres</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Template:Fr_icon&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Template:Fr icon (page does not exist)">Template:Fr icon</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.leavethemkidsalone.com/">Leave Them Kids Alone</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Template:En_icon&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Template:En icon (page does not exist)">Template:En icon</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.enseignons.be/actualites/pedagogique/index.php/2007/02/06/181-empreintes-digitales-pour-securiser-l-ecole">Empreintes digitales pour sécuriser l'école&nbsp;?</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Template:Fr_icon&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Template:Fr icon (page does not exist)">Template:Fr icon</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://www.7sur7.be/hlns/cache/fr/det/art_370100.html?wt.bron%3DhomeArt6">Le lecteur d'empreintes dans les écoles crée la polémique</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=7_Sur_7&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="7 Sur 7 (page does not exist)">7 Sur 7</a>, February 5, 2007 <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Template:Fr_icon&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Template:Fr icon (page does not exist)">Template:Fr icon</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-outcry-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-outcry_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-outcry_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.theregister.co.uk/2002/07/22/fingerprinting_of_uk_school_kids/">Fingerprinting of UK school kids causes outcry</a>, <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/The_Register?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="The Register">The Register</a></i>, July 22, 2002 <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Template:En_icon&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Template:En icon (page does not exist)">Template:En icon</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-BBCchild-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-BBCchild_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-BBCchild_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6417565.stm">Child fingerprint plan considered</a>, <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/BBC?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="BBC">BBC</a></i>, March 4, 2007 <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Template:En_icon&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Template:En icon (page does not exist)">Template:En icon</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/09/07/kiddyprinting_allowed/">Schools can fingerprint children without parental consent</a>, <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/The_Register?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="The Register">The Register</a></i>, September 7, 2006 <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Template:En_icon&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Template:En icon (page does not exist)">Template:En icon</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/eu/8202076/Europe-tells-Britain-to-justify-itself-over-fingerprinting-children-in-schools.html">Europe tells Britain to justify itself over fingerprinting children in schools</a> Telegraph, published 2010-12-14, accessed 2011-01-13</span></li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.lecdh.be/docparlement/pa4896.htm">Prises d'empreintes digitales dans un établissement scolaire</a>, Question d'actualité à la Ministre-Présidente en charge de l'Enseignement obligatoire et de Promotion sociale <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Template:Fr_icon&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Template:Fr icon (page does not exist)">Template:Fr icon</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.zdnet.fr/actualites/informatique/0,39040745,39122509,00.htm">Quand la biométrie s'installe dans les cantines au nez et à la barbe de la Cnil</a>, <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Zdnet?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Zdnet">Zdnet</a></i>, September 9, 2003 <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Template:Fr_icon&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Template:Fr icon (page does not exist)">Template:Fr icon</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://edmi.parliament.uk/EDMi/EDMDetails.aspx?EDMID%3D32367">"EDM 686 - Biometric Data Collection In Schools"</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/UK_Parliament?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="UK Parliament">UK Parliament</a>. 2007-01-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=EDM+686+-+Biometric+Data+Collection+In+Schools&amp;rft.pub=UK+Parliament&amp;rft.date=2007-01-19&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fedmi.parliament.uk%2FEDMi%2FEDMDetails.aspx%3FEDMID%3D32367&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8707355.stm">BBC News Channel</a>, 27 May 2010.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cavoukian, A and Stoianov, A. 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.ipc.on.ca/images/Resources/up-1bio_encryp.pdf">Biometric Encrypton: A Positive-Sum Technology that Achieves Strong Authentication, Security AND Privacy</a>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kim Cameron, architect of identity and access in the Connected Systems Division at Microsoft. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.identityblog.com/?p%3D733">blog</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.findbiometrics.com/press-release/4143">Fingerprint Software Eliminates Privacy Concerns and Establishes Success (FindBiometrics)</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">2007. Dr Sandra Leaton Gray of Homerton College, Cambridge: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.leavethemkidsalone.com/expert.htm%23fact_00">professional opinion</a>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.ottawapolice.ca/en/crime_prevention/child_print/index.cfm">Child Print</a> (Ottawa Police Service) <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Template:En_icon&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Template:En icon (page does not exist)">Template:En icon</a>/<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Template:Fr_icon&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Template:Fr icon (page does not exist)">Template:Fr icon</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray" class="citation journal cs1">Murray, Harry (March, 2000). "Deniable Degradation: The Finger-Imaging of Welfare Recipients". <i>Sociological Forum</i>. <b>15</b> (1): 39–63. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Doi_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://doi.org/10.1023%252FA%253A1007594003722">10.1023/A:1007594003722</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&nbsp;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0884-8971">0884-8971</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Sociological+Forum&amp;rft.atitle=Deniable+Degradation%3A+The+Finger-Imaging+of+Welfare+Recipients&amp;rft.volume=15&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=39-63&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1007594003722&amp;rft.issn=0884-8971&amp;rft.aulast=Murray&amp;rft.aufirst=Harry&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_journal?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|date=</code> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6468643.stm">"Peers slam school fingerprinting"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 19 March 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BBC+News&amp;rft.atitle=Peers+slam+school+fingerprinting&amp;rft.date=2007-03-19&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fuk_politics%2F6468643.stm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.virtualsciencefair.org/2004/fren4j0/public_html/animal_fingerprints.htm">"Animal fingerprints"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 2,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Animal+fingerprints&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.virtualsciencefair.org%2F2004%2Ffren4j0%2Fpublic_html%2Fanimal_fingerprints.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenneberg,_Maciej1997" class="citation journal cs1">Henneberg, Maciej (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://naturalscience.com/ns/articles/01-04/ns_hll.html">"Fingerprint homoplasy: koalas and humans"</a>. <i>NaturalSCIENCE.com</i>. <b>1</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=NaturalSCIENCE.com&amp;rft.atitle=Fingerprint+homoplasy%3A+koalas+and+humans&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.au=Henneberg%2C+Maciej&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnaturalscience.com%2Fns%2Farticles%2F01-04%2Fns_hll.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Template:Cite_journal?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|article=</code> ignored (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#chapter_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span>; <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|coauthors=</code> ignored (<code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> suggested) (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:CS1_errors?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#parameter_ignored_suggest" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.fingerprintamerica.com/fingerprinthistory.asp">"Fingerprint history"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Fingerprint+history&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fingerprintamerica.com%2Ffingerprinthistory.asp&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-abel-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-abel_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbel" class="citation news cs1">Abel, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2010/07/21/to_avoid_id_more_are_mutilating_fingerprints/">"To avoid ID, more are mutilating fingerprints"</a>. <i>Boston Globe</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Boston+Globe&amp;rft.atitle=To+avoid+ID%2C+more+are+mutilating+fingerprints&amp;rft.aulast=Abel&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.boston.com%2Fnews%2Flocal%2Fmassachusetts%2Farticles%2F2010%2F07%2F21%2Fto_avoid_id_more_are_mutilating_fingerprints%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFingerprint" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> </ol> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <ul> <li>Ashbaugh, David R. 1999. <i>Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Ridgeology</i>. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.</li> <li>Beavan, Colin. 2001. <i>Fingerprints: The Origins of Crime Detection and the Murder Case that Launched Forensic Science</i>. New York: Hyperion.</li> <li>Cowger, James C. 1992. <i>Friction Ridge Skin: Comparison and Identification of Fingerprints</i>. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.</li> <li>Quinche, Nicolas, and Margot, Pierre. 2010. <i>Coulier, Paul-Jean (1824–1890)&nbsp;: A precursor in the history of fingermark detection and their potential use for identifying their source (1863)</i>. In <i>Journal of Forensic Identification</i> (California), 60 (2), March–April 2010, pp.&nbsp;129–134.</li> <li>Scheibert, J, Leurent, S, Provost, A and Debregeas, G. 2009. <i>The role of fingerprints in the coding of tactile information probed with a biomimetic sensor.</i> Science 323: 1503–1506.</li> </ul> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <dl> <dt> General </dt> <dd> <ul> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://www.fbi.gov/hq/cjisd/takingfps.html">FBI Fingerprint Guide</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://www.fbi.gov/hq/cjisd/fproll.html">FBI Fingerprinting Video Lesson</a> (4-sec Quicktime video of rolling a single inked finger)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.fpsociety.org.uk/">The Fingerprint Society</a> - Society for Fingerprint Examiners</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.fingerprinting.com">Fingerprinting.com</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.bleaching-dental.com/articles/fingerprints_and_human_identification.html">Fingerprints and Human Identification</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.cbdiai.org/Reagents/main.html">Fingerprint Processing Guide</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.crimeandclues.com/index.php/physical-evidence/fingerprint-evidence">Fingerprint Articles at Crime &amp; Clues</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.mugu.com/galton/books/finger-prints/index.htm">Galton's <i>Finger Prints</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.mugu.com/galton/fingerprints/books/index.htm">Henry, Faulds, and Herschel's works on fingerprints</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.scafo.org/Online_Information/bibliography.htm">Extensive bibliography</a> So. Calif. Assn. of Fingerprint Officers.</li> </ul> </dd> </dl> <dl> <dt> Errors and concerns </dt> <dd> <ul> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.scafo.org/library/110105.html">Will West as fable</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.michaelspecter.com/2002/05/do-fingerprints-lie/">Do Fingerprints Lie? </a><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/The_New_Yorker?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a> (2002)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://users.ecs.soton.ac.uk/~id/JFI%2520expert%2520error.pdf">Why Experts Make Errors</a>, Itiel E. Dror, David Charlton, Journal of Forensic Identification</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/surgeon-jailed-for-removing-fingerprints/2008/02/14/1202760429686.html">Surgeon jailed for removing fingerprints</a> - Sydney Morning Herald (news article)</li> </ul> </dd> </dl> <dl> <dt> Science and statistics </dt> <dd> <ul> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://fingerprint.nist.gov/">Fingerprint research and evaluation</a> at the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=http://www.dse.nl/~frvc/handresearch/derm.htm">Fingerprint pattern distribution statistics</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> </ul> </dd> </dl> <ul> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation gutenberg"> <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/19022">The Science of Fingerprints</a></i> at <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Project_Gutenberg?_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></span></li> </ul> <p><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Template:Link_GA&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1&amp;_x_tr_sl=auto&amp;_x_tr_tl=en&amp;_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Template:Link GA (page does not exist)">Template:Link GA</a></p><!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.codfw.main‐5c59558b9d‐d9lx2 Cached time: 20241129163814 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false 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title="بصمة الأصبع – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بصمة الأصبع" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buelga_dactilar" title="Buelga dactilar – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Buelga dactilar" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barmaq_izl%25C9%2599ri" title="Barmaq izləri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Barmaq izləri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A6%2586%25E0%25A6%2599%25E0%25A7%2581%25E0%25A6%25B2%25E0%25A7%2587%25E0%25A6%25B0_%25E0%25A6%259B%25E0%25A6%25BE%25E0%25A6%25AA" title="আঙুলের ছাপ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আঙুলের ছাপ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2594%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BA%25D1%2582%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BB%25D0%25BE%25D1%2581%25D0%25BA%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BF%25D0%25B8%25D1%258F" title="Дактилоскопия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Дактилоскопия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otisak_prsta" title="Otisak prsta – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Otisak prsta" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconeixement_d%2527empremtes_dactilars" title="Reconeixement d'empremtes dactilars – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Reconeixement d'empremtes dactilars" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daktyloskopie" title="Daktyloskopie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Daktyloskopie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingeraftryk" title="Fingeraftryk – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fingeraftryk" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingerabdruck" title="Fingerabdruck – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingrospuro" title="Fingrospuro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fingrospuro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatz-marka" title="Hatz-marka – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hatz-marka" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25A7%25D8%25AB%25D8%25B1_%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586%25DA%25AF%25D8%25B4%25D8%25AA" title="اثر انگشت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اثر انگشت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empreinte_digitale" title="Empreinte digitale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Empreinte digitale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%25C3%25A9arlorg" title="Méarlorg – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Méarlorg" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pegada_dactilar" title="Pegada dactilar – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pegada dactilar" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E8%2585%25A1" title="腡 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="腡" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25EC%25A7%2580%25EB%25AC%25B8" title="지문 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지문" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D5%2584%25D5%25A1%25D5%25BF%25D5%25B6%25D5%25A1%25D5%25A4%25D6%2580%25D5%25B8%25D5%25B7%25D5%25B4%25D5%25B8%25D6%2582%25D5%25B4" title="Մատնադրոշմում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մատնադրոշմում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%2585%25E0%25A4%2582%25E0%25A4%2597%25E0%25A5%2581%25E0%25A4%25B2%25E0%25A4%25BF_%25E0%25A4%259B%25E0%25A4%25BE%25E0%25A4%25AA" title="अंगुलि छाप – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अंगुलि छाप" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daktiloskopija" title="Daktiloskopija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Daktiloskopija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidik_jari" title="Sidik jari – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sidik jari" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingrafar" title="Fingrafar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fingrafar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impronta_digitale" title="Impronta digitale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Impronta digitale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D7%2598%25D7%2591%25D7%2599%25D7%25A2%25D7%25AA_%25D7%2590%25D7%25A6%25D7%2591%25D7%25A2" title="טביעת אצבע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טביעת אצבע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alama_za_vidole" title="Alama za vidole – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Alama za vidole" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daktiloskopija" title="Daktiloskopija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Daktiloskopija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fangerofdrock" title="Fangerofdrock – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Fangerofdrock" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daktiloszk%25C3%25B3pia" title="Daktiloszkópia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Daktiloszkópia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25B4%25B5%25E0%25B4%25BF%25E0%25B4%25B0%25E0%25B4%25B2%25E0%25B4%259F%25E0%25B4%25AF%25E0%25B4%25BE%25E0%25B4%25B3%25E0%25B4%2582" title="വിരലടയാളം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വിരലടയാളം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cap_jari" title="Cap jari – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Cap jari" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dactyloscopie" title="Dactyloscopie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Dactyloscopie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%2594%25E0%25A4%2581%25E0%25A4%25A0%25E0%25A4%25BE%25E0%25A4%259B%25E0%25A4%25BE%25E0%25A4%25AA" title="औँठाछाप – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="औँठाछाप" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E6%258C%2587%25E7%25B4%258B" title="指紋 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="指紋" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingeravtrykk" title="Fingeravtrykk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fingeravtrykk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingeravtrykk" title="Fingeravtrykk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fingeravtrykk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detada" title="Detada – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Detada" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259F%25D0%25B0%25D1%2580%25D0%25BD%25D1%258F%25D0%25BF%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B5" title="Парняпале – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Парняпале" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25AC%259F%25E0%25AC%25BF%25E0%25AC%25AA%25E0%25AC%259A%25E0%25AC%25BF%25E0%25AC%25B9%25E0%25AD%258D%25E0%25AC%25A8" title="ଟିପଚିହ୍ନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଟିପଚିହ୍ନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A8%25AB%25E0%25A8%25BF%25E0%25A9%25B0%25E0%25A8%2597%25E0%25A8%25B0%25E0%25A8%25AA%25E0%25A9%258D%25E0%25A8%25B0%25E0%25A8%25BF%25E0%25A9%25B0%25E0%25A8%259F" title="ਫਿੰਗਰਪ੍ਰਿੰਟ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਫਿੰਗਰਪ੍ਰਿੰਟ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D9%2586%25D8%25B4%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586_%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586%25DA%25AF%25D8%25B4%25D8%25AA" title="نشان انگشت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="نشان انگشت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25AF_%25DA%25AB%25D9%2588%25D8%25AA%25DB%2590_%25D9%2586%25DA%259A%25D9%2587" title="د ګوتې نښه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ګوتې نښه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linie_papilarne" title="Linie papilarne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Linie papilarne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impress%25C3%25A3o_digital_(anatomia)" title="Impressão digital (anatomia) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Impressão digital (anatomia)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amprent%25C4%2583" title="Amprentă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Amprentă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2594%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BA%25D1%2582%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BB%25D0%25BE%25D1%2581%25D0%25BA%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BF%25D0%25B8%25D1%258F" title="Дактилоскопия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Дактилоскопия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjurma_e_gishtit" title="Gjurma e gishtit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjurma e gishtit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingerprint" title="Fingerprint – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Fingerprint" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daktyloskopia" title="Daktyloskopia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Daktyloskopia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prstni_odtis" title="Prstni odtis – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Prstni odtis" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259E%25D1%2582%25D0%25B8%25D1%2581%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BA_%25D0%25BF%25D1%2580%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D0%25B0" title="Отисак прста – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Отисак прста" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daktiloskopija" title="Daktiloskopija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Daktiloskopija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sormenj%25C3%25A4lki" title="Sormenjälki – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sormenjälki" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingeravtryck" title="Fingeravtryck – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fingeravtryck" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25AE%2595%25E0%25AF%2588%25E0%25AE%25B0%25E0%25AF%2587%25E0%25AE%2595%25E0%25AF%2588" title="கைரேகை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கைரேகை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parmak_izi" title="Parmak izi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Parmak izi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nia%25CC%25B1_ga%25CC%25B1swuong_mbwak" title="Nia̱ ga̱swuong mbwak – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Nia̱ ga̱swuong mbwak" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2594%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BA%25D1%2582%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BB%25D0%25BE%25D1%2581%25D0%25BA%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BF%25D1%2596%25D1%258F" title="Дактилоскопія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Дактилоскопія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25A8%25D8%25B5%25D9%2585%25D8%25A7%25D8%25AA" title="بصمات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بصمات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25A8%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B1%25D9%2585%25D8%25A7%25D9%2582_%25D8%25A6%25D9%2589%25D8%25B2%25D9%2589" title="بارماق ئىزى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="بارماق ئىزى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%25C3%25A2n_tay" title="Vân tay – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vân tay" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E6%258C%2587%25E6%25A8%25A1" title="指模 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="指模" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&amp;tl=en&amp;hl=en-GB&amp;u=https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E6%258C%2587%25E7%25B4%258B" title="指紋 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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