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Units are parts per billion by weight.</p> <p>Data given in different sources vary quite widely, reflecting the difficulty in assessing these numbers. Values given here are estimates of the average composition of continental crust and are derived by a consensus and averaging process for data abstracted from references 1-8. Values for the more rare elements are probably accurate to within an order of magnitude. Values in any particular location may be very different from those given here.</p> <p class="image-centre"><object type="application/x-shockwave-flash" data="/web/20080523082920im_/http://www.webelements.com/_support/flash_plot/charts.swf?property=abundance_crust" width="450" height="350"> <param name="movie" value="../../_support/flash_plot/charts.swf?property=abundance_crust"/> You need Flash enabled on your computer to view this page. </object></p> <p class="image-centre"><object type="application/x-shockwave-flash" data="/web/20080523082920im_/http://www.webelements.com/_support/flash_plot/charts.swf?property=abundance_crust_logs" width="450" height="350"> <param name="movie" value="../../_support/flash_plot/charts.swf?property=abundance_crust_logs"/> You need Flash enabled on your computer to view this page. </object></p> <h3 class="z">Units</h3> <p>ppb by weight</p> <h3 class="heading2">Notes</h3> <p>The units used in WebElements for all abundance data are ppb by weight which means <strong>parts per billion by weight</strong>, that is mg tonne<sup>-3</sup> or mg per 1000 kg. All abundance data are <em>also</em> presented as ppb by atoms, which means atoms of the element per billion atoms.</p> <p>The reason for rescaling all data is as follows. It is common to see, say, solar abundances expressed as the number of atoms of the element relative to a scale upon which the abundance of hydrogen is defined as 10<sup>12</sup>. This makes comparison with, say, crustal abundances difficult, since crustal abundances are often expressed in terms of parts per million by weight. Hence a common scale is used throughout and I chose ppb as this gives manageable numbers for most elements.</p> <p>For access to other abundance data as ppb by weight, select from:</p> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_universe/">universe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_sun/">solar</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_met_stony/">carbonaceous meteorites</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_met_iron/">iron meteorites</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_crust/">earth's crustal rocks</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_seawater/">oceans</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_stream/">stream</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_humans/">humans</a></li> </ul> <p>For access to other abundance data as ppb by atoms, select from:</p> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_universe_a/">universe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_sun_a/">solar</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_met_stony_a/">carbonaceous meteorites</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_met_iron_a/">iron meteorites</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_crust_a/">earth's crustal rocks</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_seawater_a/">oceans</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_stream_a/">stream</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_humans_/">humans</a></li> </ul> <h3 class="z">Literature sources</h3> <ol> <li>W.W. Porterfield in <em>Inorganic chemistry, a unified approach</em>, Addison Wesley Publishing Co., Reading Massachusetts, USA, 1984.</li> <li>I.S. Butler and J.F. Harrod in <em>Inorganic Chemistry, Principles and Applications</em>, Benjamin Cummings, California, USA, 1989.</li> <li>G.W.C. Kaye and T.H. Laby in <em>Tables of physical and chemical constants</em>, Longman, London, UK, 15th edition, 1993.</li> <li>N.N. Greenwood and A. Earnshaw in <em><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080523082920/http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0750633654/webelements">Chemistry of the Elements</a></em>, 2nd edition, Butterworth, UK, 1997.</li> <li>J.E. Huheey, E.A. Keiter, and R.L. Keiter in <em><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080523082920/http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/006042995X/webelements">Inorganic Chemistry : Principles of Structure and Reactivity</a></em>, 4th edition, HarperCollins, New York, USA, 1993.</li> <li>P.A. Cox in <em><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080523082920/http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/019855298X/webelements">The Elements : Their Origin, Abundance, and Distribution</a></em>, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1989.</li> <li><em>McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology</em>, 7th ed., 1992, McGraw-Hill, New York, USA.</li> <li>A.M. James and M.P. Lord in <em>Macmillan's Chemical and Physical Data</em>, Macmillan, London, UK, 1992.</li> </ol> </div> <div id="shop"> <h2><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/shop/">WebElements Shop</a></h2> <p>WebElements now has an online <a title="WebElements chemistry shop" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/shop/">shop</a> at which you can buy periodic table posters, mugs, T-shirts, games, molecular models, and more.</p> <p class="centre"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/shop/section.php/3/1/periodic_table_posters"><img src="/web/20080523082920im_/http://www.webelements.com/_media/icons/shop/poster.jpg" alt="WebElements poster"/></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/shop/section.php/12/1/periodic_table_clothing"><img src="/web/20080523082920im_/http://www.webelements.com/_media/icons/shop/shirt.jpg" alt="Periodic table 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href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/block/" title="Block in periodic table">block</a>, <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/period_number/" title="Period in periodic table">period</a>, <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/group_number/" title="Group in periodic table">group number</a>, and <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/group_name/" title="Group name in periodic table">group name</a> in periodic table; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/description/" title="Description of element">description</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/standard_state/" title="Standard state of element">standard state</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/cas_registry_id/" title="CAS registry number">registry number</a>; and <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/isolation/" title="Isolation of element">isolation</a></li> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/history/" title="Who discovered the elements, when, where, and some historical notes">History</a>: <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/meaning_of_name/" title="Meaning of element name">meaning of name</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/discovery/" title="Discovery of element name (who, when, where">discovery</a>; and <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/history/" title="Who discovered the elements, when, where, and some historical notes">history</a> of the element</li> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/contents/" title="Index of properties included in WebElements">Find a property</a></li></ul></li> <li class="z">The elements round us <ul class="v"><li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/uses/" title="A few uses ">Uses</a></li> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/geology/" title="Abundances in various environments">Geology</a>: Abundance of elements in the <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_universe/" title="Abundance of elements in the universe">universe</a>; the <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_sun/" title="Abundance of elements in the sun">sun</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_meteorite_iron/" title="Abundance of elements in meteorites">meteorites</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_crust/" title="Abundance of elements in the Earth's crust">Earth's crust</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_seawater/" title="Abundance of elements in the oceans">oceans</a>; and <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_stream/" title="Abundance of elements in streams">streams</a></li> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/biology/" title="Biological abundances, biological role, hazards">Biology</a>: <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/abundance_humans/" title="Abundance of elements in humans">abundance in humans</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/biological_role/" title="Biological role">biological role</a>; and <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/hazards/" title="Health hazards">health hazards</a></li></ul></li> <li class="z">Compounds <ul class="v"> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/compounds/" title="Halides, oxides, sulfides etc., hydrides, ">Compounds</a>: halides, oxides, sulfides, hydrides, and complexes; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/enthalpy_lattice/" title="Lattice energies">lattice energies</a>; and <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/standard_reduction_potentials/" title="Reduction potentials">reduction potentials</a></li> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/electronegativity/" title="Electronegativities ">Electronegativities</a>: <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/electronegativity_pauling/" title="Pauling electronegativities">Pauling</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/electronegativity_sanderson/" title="Sanderson electronegativities">Sanderson</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/electronegativity_allred_rochow/" title="Allred-Rochow electronegativities">Allred-Rochow</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/electronegativity_mulliken_jaffe/" title="Mulliken-Jaffe electronegativities">Mulliken-Jaffe</a>; and <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/electronegativity_allen/" title="Allen electronegativities">Allen</a></li> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/enthalpy_diatomics_bond/" title="Bond enthalpies (diatomics) ">Bond enthalpies</a> of diatomic species</li> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/enthalpy_lattice/" title="lattice energies compounds">Lattice energies</a>: oxides and halides</li></ul></li> <li class="z">Element properties <ul class="v"> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/physics/" title="Physical properties ">Physics properties</a>: <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/boiling_point/" title="Boiling points">boiling point</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/melting_point/" title="Melting points">melting point</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/density/" title="Density">density</a>; and <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/molar_volume/" title="Molar volume">molar volume</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/thermal_conductivity/" title="Thermal conductivity">thermal conductivity</a>; and <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/electrical_resistivity/" title="Electrical resistivity">electrical resistivity</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/bulk_modulus/" title="Bulk modulus">bulk modulus</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/critical_temperature/" title="Critical temperature">critical temperature</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/superconductivity_temperature/" title="Superconductivity temperature">superconductivity temperature</a>; hardness (<a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/hardness_mineral/" title="Mineralogical hardness">mineralogical</a>, <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/hardness_brinell/" title="Brinell hardness">Brinell</a>, and <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/hardness_vickers/" title="Vickers hardness">Vickers</a>); <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/coeff_thermal_expansion/" title="Linear expansion coefficient">linear expansion coefficient</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/poissons_ratio/" title="Poisson's ratio">Poisson's ratio</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/reflectivity/" title="Reflectivity">reflectivity</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/refractive_index/" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/rigidity_modulus/" title="Rigidity modulus">rigidity modulus</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/youngs_modulus/" title="Young's modulus">Young's modulus</a>; and <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/velocity_sound/" title="Velocity of sound">velocity of sound</a></li> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/pictures/" title="Pictures ">Images</a></li> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/allotropes/" title="Allotropes">Allotropes</a></li> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/chemistry/" title="Reactions with air, water, halogens, acids, and bases">Reactions of calcium</a>: reactions with air; water; halogens; acids; and bases</li> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/crystal_structure/" title="3-D arrangement of atoms in the elements">Crystal structure</a></li> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/thermochemistry/" title="Enthalpies of atomisation, fusion, and vaporization; thermodynamic properties">Thermochemistry</a>: enthalpies of <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/enthalpy_atomisation/" title="Enthalpy of atomisation">atomisation</a>, <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/enthalpy_fusion/" title="Enthalpy of fusion">fusion</a>, and <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/enthalpy_vaporisation/" title="Enthalpy of aporisation">vaporisation</a>, <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/thermodynamics/" title="thermodynamics">thermodynamic properties</a></li></ul></li> <li class="z">Atom properties <ul class="v"><li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/atoms/" title="Ground state electronic configuration ">Electronic properties</a>: <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/electronic_configuration/" title="Electronic configuration">electronic configuration</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/term_symbol/" title="Term symbol">term symbol</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/electron_affinity/" title="Electron affinity">electron affinity</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/ionisation_energy/" title="Ionisation energies">ionisation energies</a>; and <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/atomic_spectra/" title="Atomic spectra">atomic spectra</a></li> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/atomic_radius/" title="Atom sizes ">Atom sizes</a>: <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/atomic_radius/" title="Atomic radius">atomic radii</a>; Shannon and Pauling <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/ionic_radius/" title="Ionic radius">Ionic radii</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/covalent_radius/" title="Covalent radius">covalent radius</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/metallic_radius/" title="Metallic radius">metallic radius</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/bond_length_element/" title="Element bond length">element bond length</a>; and <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/van_der_waals_radius/" title="Van der Waals radius">Van der Waals radius</a></li> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/orbital_properties/" title="Electron shell data ">Electron shell properties</a>: <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/eff_nuclear_charge_clementi/" title="Effective nuclear charge">effective nuclear charge</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/electron_binding_energy/" title="Electron binding energies">electron binding energies</a>; and <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/valence_orbital_r_maxima/" title="Valence orbital radii maxima">valence orbital radii maxima</a></li></ul></li> <li class="z">Nuclear properties <ul class="v"> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/isotopes/" title="Halides, oxides, sulfides etc., hydrides, ">Isotopes</a>: isotope <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/isotopes_abundance/" title="Isotope abundances">abundances</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/isotopes_radioactive/" title="Radioactive isotopes">radioactive isotopes</a>; isotope <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/isotopes_accurate_mass/" title="Isotopes masses">masses</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/isotopes_nuclear_spin/" title="Nuclear spins">nuclear spins</a>; and <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/isotopes_nuclear_magnetic_moment/" title="Nuclear magnetic moments">nuclear magnetic moments</a></li> <li><a class="main" href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/nmr/" title="NMR properties ">NMR properties</a>: <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/nmr_frequency/" title="NMR isotope frequencies">frequencies</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/nmr_isotope/" title="NMR isotopes">NMR isotopes</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/nmr_magnetogyric_ratio/" title="NMR isotope magnetogyric ratios">magnetogyric ratios</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/nmr_nuclear_quadrupole_moment/" title="NMR isotope quadrupole moments">quadrupole moments</a>; <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/nmr_receptivity/" title="NMR isotope receptivities">receptivities</a>; and <a href="/web/20080523082920/http://www.webelements.com/periodicity/nmr_sensitivity/" title="NMR isotope relative sensitivities">relative sensitivities</a></li></ul></li> </ul> </div> <div> <script type="text/javascript"> </script> 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