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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Input"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Input</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Input-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Display_output" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Display_output"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Display output</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Display_output-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Memory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power_source" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power_source"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Power source</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power_source-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Key_layout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_layout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Key layout</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Key_layout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_workings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_workings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Internal workings</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Internal_workings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Internal workings subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Internal_workings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Example" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Example"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Example</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Example-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Numeric_representation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numeric_representation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Numeric representation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numeric_representation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Precursors_to_the_electronic_calculator" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precursors_to_the_electronic_calculator"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Precursors to the electronic calculator</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precursors_to_the_electronic_calculator-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_electronic_calculators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_electronic_calculators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Development of electronic calculators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_of_electronic_calculators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Programmable_calculators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Programmable_calculators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Programmable calculators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Programmable_calculators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1970s_to_mid-1980s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1970s_to_mid-1980s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>1970s to mid-1980s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1970s_to_mid-1980s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pocket_calculators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pocket_calculators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Pocket calculators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pocket_calculators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_pocket_calculators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_pocket_calculators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Scientific pocket calculators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_pocket_calculators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Programmable_pocket_calculators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Programmable_pocket_calculators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Programmable pocket calculators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Programmable_pocket_calculators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technical_improvements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technical_improvements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>Technical improvements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technical_improvements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mass-market_phase" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mass-market_phase"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.3</span> <span>Mass-market phase</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mass-market_phase-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mid-1980s_to_present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mid-1980s_to_present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Mid-1980s to present</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mid-1980s_to_present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_in_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_in_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Use in education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_in_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Personal computers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Calculators_compared_to_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calculators_compared_to_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Calculators compared to computers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calculators_compared_to_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Calculator</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 116 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-116" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">116 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakrekenaar" title="Sakrekenaar – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sakrekenaar" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%AB%E1%88%8D%E1%8A%A9%E1%88%8C%E1%89%B0%E1%88%AD" title="ካልኩሌተር – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ካልኩሌተር" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="آلة حاسبة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="آلة حاسبة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculadera" title="Calculadera – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Calculadera" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%B0" title="কেলকুলেটৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="কেলকুলেটৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculadora" title="Calculadora – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Calculadora" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-atj mw-list-item"><a href="https://atj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akitasopitcikan" title="Akitasopitcikan – Atikamekw" lang="atj" hreflang="atj" data-title="Akitasopitcikan" data-language-autonym="Atikamekw" data-language-local-name="Atikamekw" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Atikamekw</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkulyator" title="Kalkulyator – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kalkulyator" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AD%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="ماشین حساب – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ماشین حساب" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%B0" title="ক্যালকুলেটর – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ক্যালকুলেটর" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Калькулятар – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Калькулятар" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Калкулатор – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Калкулатор" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkulator" title="Kalkulator – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kalkulator" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jederez" title="Jederez – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Jederez" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculadora" title="Calculadora – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Calculadora" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Калькулятор – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Калькулятор" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkula%C4%8Dka" title="Kalkulačka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kalkulačka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyfrifiannell" title="Cyfrifiannell – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cyfrifiannell" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lommeregner" title="Lommeregner – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Lommeregner" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taschenrechner" title="Taschenrechner – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Taschenrechner" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkulaator" title="Kalkulaator – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kalkulaator" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B8%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AE" title="Αριθμομηχανή – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αριθμομηχανή" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculadora" title="Calculadora – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Calculadora" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkulilo" title="Kalkulilo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kalkulilo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkulagailu" title="Kalkulagailu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kalkulagailu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AD%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="ماشین حساب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ماشین حساب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lummaroknari" title="Lummaroknari – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Lummaroknari" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculatrice" title="Calculatrice – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Calculatrice" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekkenmasine" title="Rekkenmasine – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Rekkenmasine" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81ireamh%C3%A1n" title="Áireamhán – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Áireamhán" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80ireamhair" title="Àireamhair – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Àireamhair" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculadora" title="Calculadora – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Calculadora" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90%E7%AE%97%E6%95%B8%E5%99%A8" title="電子算數器 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="電子算數器" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%84%EC%82%B0%EA%B8%B0" title="계산기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="계산기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkuleta" title="Kalkuleta – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Kalkuleta" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%ABkini_helu" title="Mīkini helu – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Mīkini helu" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hawaiʻi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%BE%D5%AB%D5%B9-%D5%BE%D5%B3%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B2_%D5%BD%D5%A1%D6%80%D6%84" title="Հաշվիչ-վճռող սարք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հաշվիչ-վճռող սարք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%95" title="परिकलक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="परिकलक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkulator" title="Kalkulator – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kalkulator" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkulilo" title="Kalkulilo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kalkulilo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin_hitung" title="Mesin hitung – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mesin hitung" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator" title="Calculator – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Calculator" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IsiQaqululi" title="IsiQaqululi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="IsiQaqululi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reikniv%C3%A9l" title="Reiknivél – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Reiknivél" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcolatrice" title="Calcolatrice – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Calcolatrice" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%95%D7%9F" title="מחשבון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מחשבון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkulator" title="Kalkulator – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kalkulator" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D" title="ಕ್ಯಾಲ್ಕುಲೇಟರ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕ್ಯಾಲ್ಕುಲೇಟರ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator" title="Calculator – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Calculator" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%8E%D9%84_%DA%A9%D9%8F%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%B9%D9%8E%D8%B1" title="کَل کُلیٹَر – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="کَل کُلیٹَر" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Микрокалькулятор – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Микрокалькулятор" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kikokotozi" title="Kikokotozi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kikokotozi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkilatris" title="Kalkilatris – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Kalkilatris" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mak%C3%AEneya_hesab%C3%AA" title="Makîneya hesabê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Makîneya hesabê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Калькулятор – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Калькулятор" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculatrum" title="Calculatrum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Calculatrum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkulators" title="Kalkulators – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kalkulators" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skai%C4%8Diuotuvas" title="Skaičiuotuvas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Skaičiuotuvas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcolatris" title="Calcolatris – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Calcolatris" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%A1mol%C3%B3g%C3%A9p" title="Számológép – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Számológép" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Калкулатор – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Калкулатор" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mpikajy" title="Mpikajy – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Mpikajy" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%BC" title="കാൽക്കുലേറ്റർ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കാൽക്കുലേറ്റർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="गणनयंत्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="गणनयंत्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A8%D9%87" title="الة حاسبه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الة حاسبه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin_kira" title="Mesin kira – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Mesin kira" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculadora" title="Calculadora – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Calculadora" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%8F%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%90%E1%80%BD%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA" title="ဂဏန်းတွက်စက် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂဏန်းတွက်စက်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator" title="Calculator – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Calculator" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekenmachine" title="Rekenmachine – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Rekenmachine" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telmesiene" title="Telmesiene – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Telmesiene" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0" title="क्यालकुलेटर – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="क्यालकुलेटर" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E5%8D%93" title="電卓 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="電卓" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkulator" title="Kalkulator – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kalkulator" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkulator" title="Kalkulator – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kalkulator" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Калькулятор – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Калькулятор" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arifmetik_qurilma" title="Arifmetik qurilma – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Arifmetik qurilma" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%B0" title="ਕੈਲਕੁਲੇਟਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕੈਲਕੁਲੇਟਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%84%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%B9%D8%B1" title="کیلکولیٹر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کیلکولیٹر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8C" title="شمېرنی – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="شمېرنی" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kialkiulieta" title="Kialkiulieta – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Kialkiulieta" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcolatris" title="Calcolatris – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Calcolatris" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkulator" title="Kalkulator – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kalkulator" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculadora" title="Calculadora – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Calculadora" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator_de_buzunar" title="Calculator de buzunar – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Calculator de buzunar" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yupana_(makiq)" title="Yupana (makiq) – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Yupana (makiq)" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Калькулятор – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Калькулятор" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llogarit%C3%ABsi" title="Llogaritësi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Llogaritësi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator" title="Calculator – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="Calculator" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator" title="Calculator – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Calculator" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkula%C4%8Dka" title="Kalkulačka – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kalkulačka" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkulator" title="Kalkulator – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kalkulator" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xisaabiyaha" title="Xisaabiyaha – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Xisaabiyaha" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D9%85%DB%8E%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%B1" title="ژمێرەر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ژمێرەر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Калкулатор – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Калкулатор" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkulator" title="Kalkulator – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kalkulator" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laskin" title="Laskin – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Laskin" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minir%C3%A4knare" title="Miniräknare – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Miniräknare" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkulador" title="Kalkulador – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kalkulador" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="கணிப்பான் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கணிப்பான்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%82" title="เครื่องคิดเลข – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เครื่องคิดเลข" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Калкулятор – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Калкулятор" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chy mw-list-item"><a href="https://chy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho%C3%A9st%C3%B3n%C3%A9%C3%B3%27o" title="Hoéstónéó'o – Cheyenne" lang="chy" hreflang="chy" data-title="Hoéstónéó'o" data-language-autonym="Tsetsêhestâhese" data-language-local-name="Cheyenne" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tsetsêhestâhese</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesap_makinesi" title="Hesap makinesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hesap makinesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Калькулятор – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Калькулятор" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%84%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%B9%D8%B1" title="کیلکولیٹر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کیلکولیٹر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kal%27kul%C3%A4tor" title="Kal'kulätor – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Kal'kulätor" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1y_t%C3%ADnh_b%E1%BB%8F_t%C3%BAi" title="Máy tính bỏ túi – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Máy tính bỏ túi" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehkend%C3%A4j%C3%A4" title="Rehkendäjä – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Rehkendäjä" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akatkulaajaa" title="Akatkulaajaa – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Akatkulaajaa" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wayuunaiki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkulador" title="Kalkulador – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kalkulador" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E5%99%A8" title="电子计算器 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="电子计算器" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%98%D7%90%D7%A8" title="קאלקולאטאר – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קאלקולאטאר" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A8%88%E6%95%B8%E6%A9%9F" title="計數機 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="計數機" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E5%99%A8" title="电子计算器 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="电子计算器" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin_itung" title="Mesin itung – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Electronic device used for calculations</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the electronic device. For mechanical precursors to the modern calculator, see <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_calculator" title="Mechanical calculator">mechanical calculator</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Calculator_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Calculator (disambiguation)">Calculator (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Casio_calculator_JS-20WK_in_201901_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Casio_calculator_JS-20WK_in_201901_002.jpg/170px-Casio_calculator_JS-20WK_in_201901_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Casio_calculator_JS-20WK_in_201901_002.jpg/255px-Casio_calculator_JS-20WK_in_201901_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Casio_calculator_JS-20WK_in_201901_002.jpg/340px-Casio_calculator_JS-20WK_in_201901_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>An electronic pocket calculator with a <a href="/wiki/Seven-segment_display" title="Seven-segment display">seven-segment</a> <a href="/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display" title="Liquid-crystal display">liquid-crystal display</a> (LCD) that can perform arithmetic operations</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Casio_fx-991EX.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Casio_fx-991EX.png/170px-Casio_fx-991EX.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Casio_fx-991EX.png 1.5x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="366" /></a><figcaption>A modern scientific calculator with an <a href="/wiki/LCD" class="mw-redirect" title="LCD">LCD</a></figcaption></figure> <p>An <b>electronic calculator</b> is typically a portable <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronic</a> device used to perform <a href="/wiki/Calculation" title="Calculation">calculations</a>, ranging from basic <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a> to complex <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>. </p><p>The first <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_electronics" title="Solid-state electronics">solid-state electronic</a> calculator was created in the early 1960s. Pocket-sized devices became available in the 1970s, especially after the <a href="/wiki/Intel_4004" title="Intel 4004">Intel 4004</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a>, was developed by <a href="/wiki/Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a> for the Japanese calculator company <a href="/wiki/Busicom" title="Busicom">Busicom</a>. Modern electronic calculators vary from cheap, give-away, <a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_7810" title="ISO/IEC 7810">credit-card-sized</a> models to sturdy desktop models with built-in printers. They became popular in the mid-1970s as the incorporation of <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> reduced their size and cost. By the end of that decade, prices had dropped to the point where a basic calculator was affordable to most and they became common in schools. </p><p>In addition to general purpose calculators, there are those designed for specific markets. For example, there are <a href="/wiki/Scientific_calculator" title="Scientific calculator">scientific calculators</a>, which include <a href="/wiki/Trigonometry" title="Trigonometry">trigonometric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistical</a> calculations. Some calculators even have the ability to do <a href="/wiki/Computer_algebra" title="Computer algebra">computer algebra</a>. <a href="/wiki/Graphing_calculator" title="Graphing calculator">Graphing calculators</a> can be used to graph functions defined on the real line, or higher-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Euclidean_space" title="Euclidean space">Euclidean space</a>. As of 2016<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Calculator&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, basic calculators cost little, but scientific and graphing models tend to cost more.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHouston2023_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHouston2023-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Computer <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a> as far back as <a href="/wiki/Ancient_UNIX" title="Ancient UNIX">early Unix</a> have included interactive calculator <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">programs</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Dc_(computer_program)" title="Dc (computer program)">dc</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hoc_(programming_language)" title="Hoc (programming language)">hoc</a>, and interactive <a href="/wiki/BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a> could be used to do calculations on most 1970s and 1980s home computers. Calculator functions are included in most <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tablet_computer" title="Tablet computer">tablets</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant" title="Personal digital assistant">personal digital assistant</a> (PDA) type devices. With the very wide availability of smartphones and the like, dedicated hardware calculators, while still widely used, are less common than they once were. In 1986, calculators still represented an estimated 41% of the world's general-purpose hardware capacity to compute information. By 2007, this had diminished to less than 0.05%.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Design">Design</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CalculatorFractions-5550x.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/CalculatorFractions-5550x.jpg/220px-CalculatorFractions-5550x.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/CalculatorFractions-5550x.jpg/330px-CalculatorFractions-5550x.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/CalculatorFractions-5550x.jpg/440px-CalculatorFractions-5550x.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Scientific calculator displays of fractions and decimal equivalents</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Input">Input</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">Electronic</a> calculators contain a <a href="/wiki/Computer_keyboard" title="Computer keyboard">keyboard</a> with <a href="/wiki/Push-button" title="Push-button">buttons</a> for <a href="/wiki/Numerical_digit" title="Numerical digit">digits</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetical</a> operations; some even contain "00" and "000" buttons to make larger or smaller <a href="/wiki/Number" title="Number">numbers</a> easier to enter. Most basic calculators assign only one digit or operation on each button; however, in more specific calculators, a button can perform multi-function working with <a href="/wiki/Key_combination" class="mw-redirect" title="Key combination">key combinations</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Display_output">Display output</h3></div> <p>Calculators usually have <a href="/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display" title="Liquid-crystal display">liquid-crystal displays</a> (LCD) as output in place of historical <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">light-emitting diode</a> (LED) displays and <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_fluorescent_display" title="Vacuum fluorescent display">vacuum fluorescent displays</a> (VFD); details are provided in the section <i><a href="#Technical_improvements">Technical improvements</a></i>. </p><p>Large-sized <a href="/wiki/Number" title="Number">figures</a> are often used to improve readability; while using <a href="/wiki/Decimal_separator" title="Decimal separator">decimal separator</a> (usually a point rather than a <a href="/wiki/Comma" title="Comma">comma</a>) instead of or in addition to <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_fraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulgar fraction">vulgar fractions</a>. Various symbols for <a href="/wiki/Command_(computing)" title="Command (computing)">function commands</a> may also be shown on the display. <a href="/wiki/Fraction_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fraction (mathematics)">Fractions</a> such as <span class="texhtml"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span></span> are displayed as decimal <a href="/wiki/Approximation" title="Approximation">approximations</a>, for example rounded to <span class="texhtml">0.33333333</span>. Also, some fractions (such as <span class="texhtml"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">7</span></span></span>, which is <span class="texhtml">0.14285714285714</span>; to 14 <a href="/wiki/Significant_figures" title="Significant figures">significant figures</a>) can be difficult to recognize in <a href="/wiki/Decimal" title="Decimal">decimal</a> form; as a result, many <a href="/wiki/Scientific_calculator" title="Scientific calculator">scientific</a> calculators are able to work in vulgar fractions or <a href="/wiki/Mixed_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed number">mixed numbers</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memory">Memory</h3></div> <p>Calculators also have the ability to save numbers into <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">computer memory</a>. Basic calculators usually store only one number at a time; more specific types are able to store many numbers represented in <a href="/wiki/Variable_(mathematics)" title="Variable (mathematics)">variables</a>. Usually these variables are named ans or ans(0).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The variables can also be used for constructing <a href="/wiki/Formula" title="Formula">formulas</a>. Some models have the ability to extend <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">memory</a> capacity to store more numbers; the extended <a href="/wiki/Memory_address" title="Memory address">memory address</a> is termed an <a href="/wiki/Array_data_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Array data structure">array</a> index. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power_source">Power source</h3></div> <p>Power sources of calculators are <a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">batteries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mains_electricity" title="Mains electricity">mains electricity</a> (for old models), turning on with a <a href="/wiki/Switch" title="Switch">switch</a> or button. Some models even have no turn-off button but they provide some way to put off (for example, leaving no operation for a moment, covering <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cell</a> exposure, or closing their <a href="/wiki/Lid" title="Lid">lid</a>). <a href="/wiki/Crank_(mechanism)" title="Crank (mechanism)">Crank</a>-powered calculators were also common in the early computer era. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Key_layout">Key layout</h3></div> <p>The following keys are common to most pocket calculators. While the arrangement of the digits is standard, the positions of other keys vary from model to model; the illustration is an example. </p> <table class="wikitable floatleft" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Usual basic pocket calculator layout </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>MC</td> <td>MR</td> <td>M−</td> <td>M+ </td></tr> <tr> <td>C</td> <td>±</td> <td>%</td> <td>√ </td></tr> <tr> <td>7</td> <td>8</td> <td>9</td> <td>÷ </td></tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td>5</td> <td>6</td> <td>× </td></tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>3</td> <td>− </td></tr> <tr> <td>0</td> <td>.</td> <td>=</td> <td>+ </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="clear:right"> <caption>Calculator buttons and their meanings </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>MC or CM</td> <td><b>M</b>emory <b>C</b>lear </td></tr> <tr> <td>MR, RM, or MRC</td> <td><b>M</b>emory <b>R</b>ecall </td></tr> <tr> <td>M−</td> <td><b>M</b>emory <b>Subtraction</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td>M+</td> <td><b>M</b>emory <b>Addition</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td>C or AC</td> <td><b>A</b>ll <b>C</b>lear </td></tr> <tr> <td>CE</td> <td><b>C</b>lear (last) <b>E</b>ntry; sometimes called CE/C: a first press clears the last entry (CE), a second press clears all (C) </td></tr> <tr> <td>± or CHS</td> <td>Toggle positive/negative number aka <b>CH</b>ange <b>S</b>ign </td></tr> <tr> <td>%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Percentage" title="Percentage">Percent</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>÷</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Division_(mathematics)" title="Division (mathematics)">Division</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>×</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Multiplication" title="Multiplication">Multiplication</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>−</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Subtraction" title="Subtraction">Subtraction</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>+</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Addition" title="Addition">Addition</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>.</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Decimal_separator" title="Decimal separator">Decimal point</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>√</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Square_root" title="Square root">Square root</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>=</td> <td>Result </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The arrangement of digits on calculator and other <a href="/wiki/Numeric_keypad" title="Numeric keypad">numeric keypads</a> with the <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1249182868">.mw-parser-output .keyboard-key{border:1px solid #aaa;border-radius:0.2em;box-shadow:0.1em 0.1em 0.2em rgba(0,0,0,0.1);background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);background-image:linear-gradient(to bottom,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0),var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa),var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0));color:var(--color-base,#202122);padding:0.1em 0.3em;font-family:inherit;font-size:0.85em}</style><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">7</kbd>-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">8</kbd>-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">9</kbd> keys two rows above the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">1</kbd>-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">2</kbd>-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">3</kbd> keys is derived from calculators and <a href="/wiki/Cash_register" title="Cash register">cash registers</a>. It is notably different from the layout of <a href="/wiki/Telephone_keypad" title="Telephone keypad">telephone Touch-Tone keypads</a> which have the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">1</kbd>-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">2</kbd>-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">3</kbd> keys on top and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">7</kbd>-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">8</kbd>-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">9</kbd> keys on the third row. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Internal_workings">Internal workings</h2></div> <p>In general, a basic <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronic</a> calculator consists of the following components:<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Power source (<a href="/wiki/Mains_electricity" title="Mains electricity">mains electricity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery (electricity)">battery</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon#Solar_cells" title="Amorphous silicon">solar cell</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keypad" title="Keypad">Keypad</a> (input device) – consists of keys used to input numbers and function commands (<a href="/wiki/Addition" title="Addition">addition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multiplication" title="Multiplication">multiplication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Square_root" title="Square root">square-root</a>, etc.)</li> <li>Display panel (output device) – displays input numbers, commands and results. <a href="/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display" title="Liquid-crystal display">Liquid-crystal displays</a> (LCDs), <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_fluorescent_display" title="Vacuum fluorescent display">vacuum fluorescent displays</a> (VFDs), and <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">light-emitting diode</a> (LED) displays use <a href="/wiki/Seven-segment_display" title="Seven-segment display">seven segments</a> to represent each <a href="/wiki/Numerical_digit" title="Numerical digit">digit</a> in a basic calculator. Advanced calculators may use <a href="/wiki/Dot_matrix" title="Dot matrix">dot matrix</a> displays. <ul><li>A printing calculator, in addition to a display panel, has a printing unit that prints results in ink onto a roll of paper, using a printing mechanism.</li></ul></li> <li>Processor <a href="/wiki/Chipset" title="Chipset">chip</a> (<a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a> or <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">central processing unit</a>).</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Interior_of_a_calculator.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Interior_of_a_calculator.jpg/170px-Interior_of_a_calculator.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Interior_of_a_calculator.jpg/255px-Interior_of_a_calculator.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Interior_of_a_calculator.jpg/340px-Interior_of_a_calculator.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2076" data-file-height="3323" /></a><figcaption>The interior of a <a href="/wiki/Casio" title="Casio">Casio</a> FX-991s calculator</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Processor chip's contents </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Unit </th> <th>Function </th></tr> <tr> <td>Scanning (<a href="/wiki/Polling_(computer_science)" title="Polling (computer science)">Polling</a>) unit </td> <td>When a calculator is powered on, it scans the <a href="/wiki/Keypad" title="Keypad">keypad</a> waiting to pick up an <a href="/wiki/Signal" title="Signal">electrical signal</a> when a key is pressed. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Encoder unit </td> <td>Converts the <a href="/wiki/Number" title="Number">numbers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Function_(mathematics)" title="Function (mathematics)">functions</a> into <a href="/wiki/Binary_code" title="Binary code">binary code</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>X <a href="/wiki/Processor_register" title="Processor register">register</a> and Y register </td> <td>They are number stores where numbers are stored temporarily while doing calculations. All numbers go into the X register first; the number in the X register is shown on the display. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Status_register" title="Status register">Flag register</a> </td> <td>The function for the calculation is stored here until the calculator needs it. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Permanent <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">memory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">ROM</a>) </td> <td>The instructions for in-built functions (<a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Operation_(mathematics)" title="Operation (mathematics)">operations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Square_root" title="Square root">square roots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Percentage" title="Percentage">percentages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trigonometry" title="Trigonometry">trigonometry</a>, etc.) are stored here in <a href="/wiki/Binary_number" title="Binary number">binary</a> form. These instructions are <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">programs</a></i>, stored permanently, and cannot be erased. </td></tr> <tr> <td>User memory (<a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a>) </td> <td>The store where numbers can be stored by the user. User memory contents can be changed or erased by the user. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit" title="Arithmetic logic unit">Arithmetic logic unit</a> (ALU) </td> <td>The ALU executes all <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra" title="Boolean algebra">logic</a> <a href="/wiki/Instruction_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Instruction (computer science)">instructions</a>, and provides the results in <a href="/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal" title="Binary-coded decimal">binary coded</a> form. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Binary_decoder" title="Binary decoder">Binary decoder</a> unit </td> <td>Converts <a href="/wiki/Binary_code" title="Binary code">binary code</a> into <i><a href="/wiki/Decimal" title="Decimal">decimal</a></i> numbers which can be displayed on the display unit. </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Clock_rate" title="Clock rate">Clock rate</a> of a processor <a href="/wiki/Chipset" title="Chipset">chip</a> refers to the frequency at which the <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">central processing unit</a> (CPU) is running. It is used as an indicator of the processor's speed, and is measured in <i>clock cycles per second</i> or <a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">hertz (Hz)</a>. For basic calculators, the speed can vary from a few hundred <a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">hertz</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Kilohertz" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilohertz">kilohertz</a> range. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Example">Example</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tischrechner_Walther_ETR2034S_resized.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tischrechner_Walther_ETR2034S_resized.jpg/170px-Tischrechner_Walther_ETR2034S_resized.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tischrechner_Walther_ETR2034S_resized.jpg/255px-Tischrechner_Walther_ETR2034S_resized.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tischrechner_Walther_ETR2034S_resized.jpg/340px-Tischrechner_Walther_ETR2034S_resized.jpg 2x" data-file-width="677" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>An office calculating machine with a paper printer</figcaption></figure> <p>A basic explanation as to how calculations are performed in a simple four-function calculator: </p><p>To perform the calculation <span class="nowrap">25 + 9</span>, one presses keys in the following sequence on most calculators: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">2</kbd> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">5</kbd> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">+</kbd> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">9</kbd> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">=</kbd>. </p> <dl><dd><ul><li>When <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">2</kbd> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">5</kbd> is entered, it is picked up by the scanning unit; the number 25 is encoded and sent to the X register;</li> <li>Next, when the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">+</kbd> key is pressed, the "<a href="/wiki/Addition" title="Addition">addition</a>" instruction is also encoded and sent to the flag or the <a href="/wiki/Status_register" title="Status register">status register</a>;</li> <li>The second number <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">9</kbd> is encoded and sent to the X register. This "pushes" (shifts) the first number out into the Y register;</li> <li>When the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">=</kbd> key is pressed, a "message" (signal) from the flag or <a href="/wiki/Status_register" title="Status register">status register</a> tells the permanent or <a href="/wiki/Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory">non-volatile memory</a> that the operation to be done is "<a href="/wiki/Addition" title="Addition">addition</a>";</li> <li>The numbers in the X and Y registers are then loaded into the <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit" title="Arithmetic logic unit">ALU</a> and the calculation is carried out following instructions from the permanent or non-volatile memory;</li> <li>The answer, 34 is sent (shifted) back to the X register. From there, it is converted by the <a href="/wiki/Binary_decoder" title="Binary decoder">binary decoder</a> unit into a decimal number (usually <a href="/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal" title="Binary-coded decimal">binary-coded decimal</a>), and then shown on the display panel.</li></ul></dd></dl> <p>Other functions are usually performed using repeated additions or subtractions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Numeric_representation">Numeric representation</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal" title="Binary-coded decimal">Binary-coded decimal</a></div> <p>Most pocket calculators do all their calculations in <a href="/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal" title="Binary-coded decimal">binary-coded decimal (BCD)</a> rather than binary. BCD is common in electronic systems where a numeric value is to be displayed, especially in systems consisting solely of digital logic, and not containing a microprocessor. By employing BCD, the manipulation of numerical data for display can be greatly simplified by treating each digit as a separate single sub-circuit. This matches much more closely the physical reality of display hardware—a designer might choose to use a series of separate identical <a href="/wiki/Seven-segment_display" title="Seven-segment display">seven-segment displays</a> to build a metering circuit, for example. If the numeric quantity were stored and manipulated as pure binary, interfacing to such a display would require complex circuitry. Therefore, in cases where the calculations are relatively simple, working throughout with BCD can lead to a simpler overall system than converting to and from binary. (For example, <a href="/wiki/CD" class="mw-redirect" title="CD">CDs</a> keep the track number in BCD, limiting them to 99 tracks.) </p><p>The same argument applies when hardware of this type uses an embedded microcontroller or other small processor. Often, smaller code results when representing numbers internally in BCD format, since a conversion from or to binary representation can be expensive on such limited processors. For these applications, some small processors feature BCD arithmetic modes, which assist when writing routines that manipulate BCD quantities.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Where calculators have added functions (such as square root, or <a href="/wiki/Trigonometric_functions" title="Trigonometric functions">trigonometric functions</a>), software <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a> are required to produce high precision results. Sometimes significant design effort is needed to fit all the desired functions in the limited memory space available in the calculator <a href="/wiki/Chipset" title="Chipset">chip</a>, with acceptable calculation time.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precursors_to_the_electronic_calculator">Precursors to the electronic calculator</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_calculator" title="Mechanical calculator">Mechanical calculator</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Human_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Human computer">Human computer</a></div> <p>The first known tools used to aid arithmetic calculations were: bones (used to tally items), pebbles, and <a href="/wiki/Counting_board" title="Counting board">counting boards</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a>, known to have been used by <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptians</a> before 2000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIfrah200111_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIfrah200111-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Except for the <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a> (an "out of the time" <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomical</a> device), development of computing tools arrived near the start of the 17th century: the <a href="/wiki/Sector_(instrument)" title="Sector (instrument)">geometric-military compass</a> (by <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a>), <a href="/wiki/Logarithm" title="Logarithm">logarithms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Napier_bones" class="mw-redirect" title="Napier bones">Napier bones</a> (by <a href="/wiki/John_Napier" title="John Napier">Napier</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Slide_rule" title="Slide rule">slide rule</a> (by <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gunter" title="Edmund Gunter">Edmund Gunter</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHouston2023_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHouston2023-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:17th-century-mechanical-calculators.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/17th-century-mechanical-calculators.jpg/220px-17th-century-mechanical-calculators.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/17th-century-mechanical-calculators.jpg/330px-17th-century-mechanical-calculators.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/17th-century-mechanical-calculators.jpg/440px-17th-century-mechanical-calculators.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1194" /></a><figcaption>17th century mechanical calculators</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> saw the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_calculator" title="Mechanical calculator">mechanical calculator</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Schickard" title="Wilhelm Schickard">Wilhelm Schickard</a> in 1623,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later by <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a> in 1642.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A device that was at times somewhat over-promoted as being able to perform all four <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a> operations with minimal human intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_calculator" title="Pascal's calculator">Pascal's calculator</a> could add and subtract two numbers directly and thus, if the tedium could be borne, multiply and divide by repetition. Schickard's machine, constructed several decades earlier, used a clever set of mechanised multiplication tables to ease the process of multiplication and division with the adding machine as a means of completing this operation. There is a debate about whether Pascal or Shickard should be credited as the known inventor of a calculating machine due to the differences (like the different aims) of both inventions.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Schickard and Pascal were followed by <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> who spent forty years designing a four-operation mechanical calculator, the <a href="/wiki/Stepped_reckoner" title="Stepped reckoner">stepped reckoner</a>, inventing in the process his <a href="/wiki/Leibniz_wheel" title="Leibniz wheel">leibniz wheel</a>, but who couldn't design a fully operational machine.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were also five unsuccessful attempts to design a calculating clock in the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grant_mechanical_calculating_machine_1877.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Grant_mechanical_calculating_machine_1877.jpg/220px-Grant_mechanical_calculating_machine_1877.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Grant_mechanical_calculating_machine_1877.jpg/330px-Grant_mechanical_calculating_machine_1877.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Grant_mechanical_calculating_machine_1877.jpg/440px-Grant_mechanical_calculating_machine_1877.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1401" data-file-height="897" /></a><figcaption>The Grant mechanical calculating machine, 1877</figcaption></figure> <p>The 18th century saw the arrival of some notable improvements, first by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Poleni" title="Giovanni Poleni">Poleni</a> with the first fully functional calculating clock and four-operation machine, but these machines were almost always <i>one of a kind</i>. <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Torchi_(inventor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luigi Torchi (inventor)">Luigi Torchi</a> invented the first direct multiplication machine in 1834: this was also the second key-driven machine in the world, following that of James White (1822).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not until the 19th century and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> that real developments began to occur. Although machines capable of performing all four arithmetic functions existed prior to the 19th century, the refinement of manufacturing and fabrication processes during the eve of the industrial revolution made large scale production of more compact and modern units possible. The <a href="/wiki/Arithmometer" title="Arithmometer">Arithmometer</a>, invented in 1820 as a four-operation mechanical calculator, was released to production in 1851 as an adding machine and became the first commercially successful unit; forty years later, by 1890, about 2,500 arithmometers had been sold<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> plus a few hundreds more from two arithmometer clone makers (Burkhardt, Germany, 1878 and Layton, UK, 1883) and Felt and Tarrant, the only other competitor in true commercial production, had sold 100 <a href="/wiki/Comptometer" title="Comptometer">comptometers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EdithClarkeCalculatorUSPatentDrawing.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/EdithClarkeCalculatorUSPatentDrawing.png/170px-EdithClarkeCalculatorUSPatentDrawing.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/EdithClarkeCalculatorUSPatentDrawing.png/255px-EdithClarkeCalculatorUSPatentDrawing.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/EdithClarkeCalculatorUSPatentDrawing.png/340px-EdithClarkeCalculatorUSPatentDrawing.png 2x" data-file-width="608" data-file-height="912" /></a><figcaption>Patent image of the Clarke graph-based calculator, 1921</figcaption></figure> <p>It wasn't until 1902 that the familiar push-button user interface was developed, with the introduction of the Dalton Adding Machine, developed by James L. Dalton in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. </p><p>In 1921, <a href="/wiki/Edith_Clarke" title="Edith Clarke">Edith Clarke</a> invented the "Clarke calculator", a simple graph-based calculator for solving line equations involving hyperbolic functions. This allowed electrical engineers to simplify calculations for <a href="/wiki/Inductance" title="Inductance">inductance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capacitance" title="Capacitance">capacitance</a> in <a href="/wiki/Power_transmission_lines" class="mw-redirect" title="Power transmission lines">power transmission lines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Curta" title="Curta">Curta</a> calculator was developed in 1948 and, although costly, became popular for its portability. This purely mechanical hand-held device could do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. By the early 1970s electronic pocket calculators ended manufacture of mechanical calculators, although the Curta remains a popular collectable item. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_of_electronic_calculators">Development of electronic calculators</h3></div> <p>The first <a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframe</a> computers, initially using <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a> in the logic circuits, appeared in the 1940s and 1950s. Electronic circuits developed for computers also had application to electronic calculators. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Casio" title="Casio">Casio</a> Computer Company, in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, released the Model <i>14-A</i> calculator in 1957, which was the world's first all-electric (relatively) compact calculator. It did not use electronic logic but was based on <a href="/wiki/Relay" title="Relay">relay</a> technology, and was built into a desk. The <a href="/wiki/IBM_608" title="IBM 608">IBM 608</a> plugboard programmable calculator was IBM's first all-transistor product, released in 1957; this was a console type system, with input and output on punched cards, and replaced the earlier, larger, vacuum-tube <a href="/wiki/IBM_603" title="IBM 603">IBM 603</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LED_DISP.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/LED_DISP.JPG/220px-LED_DISP.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/LED_DISP.JPG/330px-LED_DISP.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/LED_DISP.JPG/440px-LED_DISP.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="385" /></a><figcaption>Early calculator <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">light-emitting diode</a> (LED) display from the 1970s (<a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>In October 1961, the world's first <i>all-electronic desktop</i> calculator, the British <a href="/wiki/Bell_Punch" title="Bell Punch">Bell Punch</a>/Sumlock Comptometer <a href="/wiki/Sumlock_ANITA_calculator" title="Sumlock ANITA calculator">ANITA</a> (<b>A</b> <b>N</b>ew <b>I</b>nspiration <b>T</b>o <b>A</b>rithmetic/<b>A</b>ccounting) was announced.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This machine used <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a>, cold-cathode tubes and <a href="/wiki/Dekatron" title="Dekatron">Dekatrons</a> in its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode <a href="/wiki/Nixie_tube" title="Nixie tube">"Nixie"</a> tubes for its display. Two models were displayed, the Mk VII for continental Europe and the Mk VIII for Britain and the rest of the world, both for delivery from early 1962. The Mk VII was a slightly earlier design with a more complicated mode of multiplication, and was soon dropped in favour of the simpler Mark VIII. The ANITA had a full keyboard, similar to mechanical <a href="/wiki/Comptometer" title="Comptometer">comptometers</a> of the time, a feature that was unique to it and the later <a href="/wiki/Sharp_Corporation" title="Sharp Corporation">Sharp</a> CS-10A among electronic calculators. The ANITA weighed roughly 33 pounds (15 kg) due to its large tube system.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bell Punch had been producing key-driven mechanical calculators of the comptometer type under the names "Plus" and "Sumlock", and had realised in the mid-1950s that the future of calculators lay in electronics. They employed the young graduate Norbert Kitz, who had worked on the early British <a href="/wiki/Pilot_ACE" title="Pilot ACE">Pilot ACE</a> computer project, to lead the development. The ANITA sold well since it was the only electronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and quick. </p><p>The tube technology of the ANITA was superseded in June 1963 by the U.S. manufactured <a href="/wiki/Friden,_Inc." title="Friden, Inc.">Friden</a> EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a 5-inch (13 cm) <a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">cathode-ray tube</a> (CRT), and introduced <a href="/wiki/Reverse_Polish_Notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse Polish Notation">Reverse Polish Notation</a> (RPN) to the calculator market for a price of $2200, which was about three times the cost of an electromechanical calculator of the time. Like Bell Punch, Friden was a manufacturer of mechanical calculators that had decided that the future lay in electronics. In 1964 more all-transistor electronic calculators were introduced: <a href="/wiki/Sharp_Corporation" title="Sharp Corporation">Sharp</a> introduced the <a href="/w/index.php?title=CS-10A&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CS-10A (page does not exist)">CS-10A</a>, which weighed 25 kilograms (55 lb) and cost 500,000 yen ($4555.81), and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Industria_Macchine_Elettroniche&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Industria Macchine Elettroniche (page does not exist)">Industria Macchine Elettroniche</a> of Italy introduced the IME 84, to which several extra keyboard and display units could be connected so that several people could make use of it (but apparently not at the same time). The <a href="/wiki/Victor_3900" title="Victor 3900">Victor 3900</a> was the first to use <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> in place of individual <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>, but production problems delayed sales until 1966. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elka-22_(I197211).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Elka-22_%28I197211%29.png/220px-Elka-22_%28I197211%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Elka-22_%28I197211%29.png/330px-Elka-22_%28I197211%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Elka-22_%28I197211%29.png/440px-Elka-22_%28I197211%29.png 2x" data-file-width="461" data-file-height="354" /></a><figcaption>The Bulgarian <a href="/wiki/ELKA_22" class="mw-redirect" title="ELKA 22">ELKA 22</a> from 1967</figcaption></figure> <p>There followed a series of electronic calculator models from these and other manufacturers, including <a href="/wiki/Canon_Inc." title="Canon Inc.">Canon</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mathatronics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mathatronics (page does not exist)">Mathatronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olivetti" title="Olivetti">Olivetti</a>, <a href="/wiki/SCM_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="SCM Corporation">SCM</a> (Smith-Corona-Marchant), <a href="/wiki/Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toshiba" title="Toshiba">Toshiba</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wang_Laboratories" title="Wang Laboratories">Wang</a>. The early calculators used hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor#Germanium_transistors" title="Bipolar junction transistor">germanium transistors</a>, which were cheaper than <a href="/wiki/Transistor#Semiconductor_material" title="Transistor">silicon transistors</a>, on multiple circuit boards. Display types used were CRT, cold-cathode <a href="/wiki/Nixie_tube" title="Nixie tube">Nixie tubes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Filament_lamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Filament lamp">filament lamps</a>. Memory technology was usually based on the <a href="/wiki/Delay-line_memory" title="Delay-line memory">delay-line memory</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic-core_memory" title="Magnetic-core memory">magnetic-core memory</a>, though the Toshiba "Toscal" BC-1411 appears to have used an early form of <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_RAM" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic RAM">dynamic RAM</a> built from discrete components. Already there was a desire for smaller and less power-hungry machines. </p><p><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria's</a> <a href="/wiki/ELKA#ELKA_6521" title="ELKA">ELKA 6521</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-elka_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elka-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> introduced in 1965, was developed by the Central Institute for Calculation Technologies and built at the Elektronika factory in <a href="/wiki/Sofia" title="Sofia">Sofia</a>. The name derives from <i><b>EL</b>ektronen <b>KA</b>lkulator</i>, and it weighed around 8 kg (18 lb). It is the first calculator in the world which includes the <a href="/wiki/Square_root" title="Square root">square root</a> function. Later that same year were released the <a href="/wiki/ELKA_22" class="mw-redirect" title="ELKA 22">ELKA 22</a> (with a luminescent display)<sup id="cite_ref-elka_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elka-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the ELKA 25, with an built-in printer. Several other models were developed until the first pocket model, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=ELKA_101&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ELKA 101 (page does not exist)">ELKA 101</a>, was released in 1974. The writing on it was in <a href="/wiki/Roman_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman script">Roman script</a>, and it was exported to western countries.<sup id="cite_ref-elka_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elka-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Programmable_calculators">Programmable calculators</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Programmable_calculator" title="Programmable calculator">Programmable calculator</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Olivetti_Programma_101_-_Museo_scienza_e_tecnologia_Milano.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Olivetti_Programma_101_-_Museo_scienza_e_tecnologia_Milano.jpg/220px-Olivetti_Programma_101_-_Museo_scienza_e_tecnologia_Milano.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Olivetti_Programma_101_-_Museo_scienza_e_tecnologia_Milano.jpg/330px-Olivetti_Programma_101_-_Museo_scienza_e_tecnologia_Milano.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Olivetti_Programma_101_-_Museo_scienza_e_tecnologia_Milano.jpg/440px-Olivetti_Programma_101_-_Museo_scienza_e_tecnologia_Milano.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1980" data-file-height="1320" /></a><figcaption>The Italian <a href="/wiki/Programma_101" title="Programma 101">Programma 101</a>, an early commercial programmable calculator produced by <a href="/wiki/Olivetti" title="Olivetti">Olivetti</a> in 1964</figcaption></figure> <p>The first desktop <i>programmable calculators</i> were produced in the mid-1960s. They included the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mathatronics_Mathatron&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mathatronics Mathatron (page does not exist)">Mathatronics Mathatron</a> (1964) and the <a href="/wiki/Olivetti" title="Olivetti">Olivetti</a> <a href="/wiki/Programma_101" title="Programma 101">Programma 101</a> (late 1965) which were solid-state, desktop, printing, floating point, algebraic entry, programmable, stored-program electronic calculators.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oldcalculatormuseum.com_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oldcalculatormuseum.com-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both could be programmed by the end user and print out their results. The Programma 101 saw much wider distribution and had the added feature of offline storage of programs via magnetic cards.<sup id="cite_ref-oldcalculatormuseum.com_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oldcalculatormuseum.com-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another early programmable desktop calculator (and maybe the first Japanese one) was the <a href="/wiki/Casio" title="Casio">Casio</a> (AL-1000) produced in 1967. It featured a <a href="/wiki/Nixie_tube" title="Nixie tube">nixie tubes</a> display and had transistor electronics and ferrite core memory.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Epic" title="Monroe Epic">Monroe Epic</a></i> programmable calculator came on the market in 1967. A large, printing, desk-top unit, with an attached floor-standing logic tower, it could be programmed to perform many computer-like functions. However, the only <i>branch</i> instruction was an implied unconditional branch (GOTO) at the end of the operation stack, returning the program to its starting instruction. Thus, it was not possible to include any <a href="/wiki/Conditional_branch" class="mw-redirect" title="Conditional branch">conditional branch</a> (IF-THEN-ELSE) logic. During this era, the absence of the conditional branch was sometimes used to distinguish a programmable calculator from a computer. </p><p>The first Soviet programmable desktop calculator <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISKRA_123&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISKRA 123 (page does not exist)">ISKRA 123</a>, powered by the power grid, was released at the start of the 1970s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1970s_to_mid-1980s">1970s to mid-1980s</h3></div> <p>The electronic calculators of the mid-1960s were large and heavy desktop machines due to their use of hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a> on several circuit boards with a large power consumption that required an AC power supply. There were great efforts to put the logic required for a calculator into fewer and fewer <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> (chips) and calculator electronics was one of the leading edges of <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> development. U.S. semiconductor manufacturers led the world in <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit#SSI,_MSI_and_LSI" title="Integrated circuit">large scale integration</a> (LSI) semiconductor development, squeezing more and more functions into individual integrated circuits. This led to alliances between Japanese calculator manufacturers and U.S. semiconductor companies: <a href="/wiki/Canon_Inc." title="Canon Inc.">Canon Inc.</a> with <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hayakawa_Electric" class="mw-redirect" title="Hayakawa Electric">Hayakawa Electric</a> (later renamed <a href="/wiki/Sharp_Corporation" title="Sharp Corporation">Sharp Corporation</a>) with North-American Rockwell Microelectronics (later renamed <a href="/wiki/Rockwell_International" title="Rockwell International">Rockwell International</a>), <a href="/wiki/Busicom" title="Busicom">Busicom</a> with <a href="/wiki/Mostek" title="Mostek">Mostek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/General_Instrument" title="General Instrument">General Instrument</a> with <a href="/wiki/Sanyo" title="Sanyo">Sanyo</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pocket_calculators">Pocket calculators</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Pocket calculator" redirects here. For the song, see <a href="/wiki/Computer_World" title="Computer World">Computer World</a>.</div> <p>By 1970, a calculator could be made using just a few chips of low power consumption, allowing portable models powered from rechargeable batteries. <span class="anchor" id="Cal_Tech"></span>The first handheld calculator was a 1967 prototype called <i><b>Cal Tech</b></i>, whose development was led by <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Jack Kilby</a> at <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a> in a research project to produce a portable calculator. It could add, multiply, subtract, and divide, and its output device was a paper tape.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of the "Cal-Tech" project, Texas Instruments was granted master patents on portable calculators.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first commercially produced portable calculators appeared in Japan in 1970, and were soon marketed around the world. These included the <a href="/wiki/Sanyo" title="Sanyo">Sanyo</a> ICC-0081 "Mini Calculator", the <a href="/wiki/Canon_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon (company)">Canon</a> Pocketronic, and the <a href="/wiki/Sharp_QT-8B" title="Sharp QT-8B">Sharp QT-8B</a> "micro Compet". The Canon Pocketronic was a development from the "Cal-Tech" project. It had no traditional display; numerical output was on thermal paper tape. </p><p>Sharp put in great efforts in size and power reduction and introduced in January 1971 the <a href="/wiki/Sharp_EL-8" title="Sharp EL-8">Sharp EL-8</a>, also marketed as the Facit 1111, which was close to being a pocket calculator. It weighed 1.59 pounds (721 grams), had a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_fluorescent_display" title="Vacuum fluorescent display">vacuum fluorescent display</a>, rechargeable <a href="/wiki/NiCad" class="mw-redirect" title="NiCad">NiCad</a> batteries, and initially sold for US$395. </p><p>However, <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated circuit development">integrated circuit development</a> efforts culminated in early 1971 with the introduction of the first "calculator on a chip", the MK6010 by <a href="/wiki/Mostek" title="Mostek">Mostek</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by Texas Instruments later in the year. Although these early hand-held calculators were very costly, these advances in electronics, together with developments in display technology (such as the <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_fluorescent_display" title="Vacuum fluorescent display">vacuum fluorescent display</a>, <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">LED</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display" title="Liquid-crystal display">LCD</a>), led within a few years to the cheap pocket calculator available to all. </p><p>In 1971, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pico_Electronics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pico Electronics (page does not exist)">Pico Electronics</a><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/General_Instrument" title="General Instrument">General Instrument</a> also introduced their first collaboration in ICs, a full single chip calculator IC for the Monroe Royal Digital III calculator. Pico was a spinout by five GI design engineers whose vision was to create single chip calculator ICs. Pico and GI went on to have significant success in the burgeoning handheld calculator market. </p><p>The first truly pocket-sized electronic calculator was the <a href="/wiki/Busicom" title="Busicom">Busicom</a> LE-120A "HANDY", which was marketed early in 1971.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Made in Japan, this was also the first calculator to use an LED display, the first hand-held calculator to use a single integrated circuit (then proclaimed as a "calculator on a chip"), the <a href="/wiki/Mostek" title="Mostek">Mostek</a> MK6010, and the first electronic calculator to run off replaceable batteries. Using four AA-size cells the LE-120A measures 4.9 by 2.8 by 0.9 inches (124 mm × 71 mm × 23 mm). </p><p>The first European-made pocket-sized calculator, DB 800<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was made in May 1971 by <a href="/wiki/Digitron_(company)" title="Digitron (company)">Digitron</a> in <a href="/wiki/Buje" title="Buje">Buje</a>, <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> (former <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>) with four functions and an eight-digit display and special characters for a negative number and a warning that the calculation has too many digits to display. </p><p>The first American-made pocket-sized calculator, the Bowmar 901B (popularly termed <i>The Bowmar Brain</i>), measuring 5.2 by 3.0 by 1.5 inches (132 mm × 76 mm × 38 mm), came out in the Autumn of 1971, with four functions and an eight-digit red <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">LED</a> display, for <span style="white-space: nowrap">US$240</span>, while in August 1972 the four-function <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Executive" title="Sinclair Executive">Sinclair Executive</a> became the first slimline pocket calculator measuring 5.4 by 2.2 by 0.35 inches (137.2 mm × 55.9 mm × 8.9 mm) and weighing 2.5 ounces (71 g). It retailed for around £79 (<span style="white-space: nowrap">US$194</span> at the time). By the end of the decade, similar calculators were priced less than £5 ($6.85). Following protracted development over the course of two years including a botched partnership with Texas Instruments, <a href="/wiki/Eldorado_Electrodata" title="Eldorado Electrodata">Eldorado Electrodata</a> released five pocket calculators in 1972. One called the Touch Magic was "no bigger than a pack of cigarettes" according to <i>Administrative Management</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> made pocket-sized calculator, the <i>Elektronika B3-04</i><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was developed by the end of 1973 and sold at the start of 1974. </p><p>One of the first low-cost calculators was the <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Cambridge" title="Sinclair Cambridge">Sinclair Cambridge</a>, launched in August 1973. It retailed for £29.95 ($41.03), or £5 ($6.85) less in kit form, and later models included some scientific functions. The Sinclair calculators were successful because they were far cheaper than the competition; however, their design led to slow and less accurate computations of <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_function" title="Transcendental function">transcendental functions</a> (maximum three decimal places of accuracy).<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_pocket_calculators">Scientific pocket calculators</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_calculator" title="Scientific calculator">Scientific calculator</a></div> <p>Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Hewlett-Packard" title="Hewlett-Packard">Hewlett-Packard</a> (HP) had been developing a pocket calculator. Launched in early 1972, it was unlike the other basic four-function pocket calculators then available in that it was the first pocket calculator with <i>scientific</i> functions that could replace a <a href="/wiki/Slide_rule" title="Slide rule">slide rule</a>. The $395 <a href="/wiki/HP-35" title="HP-35">HP-35</a>, along with nearly all later HP engineering calculators, uses <a href="/wiki/Reverse_Polish_notation" title="Reverse Polish notation">reverse Polish notation</a> (RPN), also called postfix notation. A calculation like "8 plus 5" is, using RPN, performed by pressing <kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap" style="border: 0.1em solid #AAA; border-radius:0.2em; box-shadow: 0.1em 0.2em 0.2em #DDD; background-color: #F9F9F9; background-image: linear-gradient(to bottom, #EEE, #F9F9F9, #EEE); padding: 0.1em 0.3em; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.85em;">8</kbd>, <kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap" style="border: 0.1em solid #AAA; border-radius:0.2em; box-shadow: 0.1em 0.2em 0.2em #DDD; background-color: #F9F9F9; background-image: linear-gradient(to bottom, #EEE, #F9F9F9, #EEE); padding: 0.1em 0.3em; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.85em;">Enter↑</kbd>, <kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap" style="border: 0.1em solid #AAA; border-radius:0.2em; box-shadow: 0.1em 0.2em 0.2em #DDD; background-color: #F9F9F9; background-image: linear-gradient(to bottom, #EEE, #F9F9F9, #EEE); padding: 0.1em 0.3em; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.85em;">5</kbd>, and <kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap" style="border: 0.1em solid #AAA; border-radius:0.2em; box-shadow: 0.1em 0.2em 0.2em #DDD; background-color: #F9F9F9; background-image: linear-gradient(to bottom, #EEE, #F9F9F9, #EEE); padding: 0.1em 0.3em; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.85em;">+</kbd>; instead of the algebraic <a href="/wiki/Infix_notation" title="Infix notation">infix notation</a>: <kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap" style="border: 0.1em solid #AAA; border-radius:0.2em; box-shadow: 0.1em 0.2em 0.2em #DDD; background-color: #F9F9F9; background-image: linear-gradient(to bottom, #EEE, #F9F9F9, #EEE); padding: 0.1em 0.3em; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.85em;">8</kbd>, <kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap" style="border: 0.1em solid #AAA; border-radius:0.2em; box-shadow: 0.1em 0.2em 0.2em #DDD; background-color: #F9F9F9; background-image: linear-gradient(to bottom, #EEE, #F9F9F9, #EEE); padding: 0.1em 0.3em; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.85em;">+</kbd>, <kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap" style="border: 0.1em solid #AAA; border-radius:0.2em; box-shadow: 0.1em 0.2em 0.2em #DDD; background-color: #F9F9F9; background-image: linear-gradient(to bottom, #EEE, #F9F9F9, #EEE); padding: 0.1em 0.3em; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.85em;">5</kbd>, <kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap" style="border: 0.1em solid #AAA; border-radius:0.2em; box-shadow: 0.1em 0.2em 0.2em #DDD; background-color: #F9F9F9; background-image: linear-gradient(to bottom, #EEE, #F9F9F9, #EEE); padding: 0.1em 0.3em; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.85em;">=</kbd>. It had 35 buttons and was based on Mostek Mk6020 chip. </p><p>The first Soviet <i>scientific</i> pocket-sized calculator the "B3-18" was completed by the end of 1975. </p><p>In 1973, <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a> (TI) introduced the <a href="/w/index.php?title=TI_SR-10&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TI SR-10 (page does not exist)">SR-10</a>, (<i>SR</i> signifying <a href="/wiki/Slide_rule" title="Slide rule">slide rule</a>) an <i>algebraic entry</i> pocket calculator using <a href="/wiki/Scientific_notation" title="Scientific notation">scientific notation</a> for $150. Shortly after the <a href="/w/index.php?title=TI_SR-11&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TI SR-11 (page does not exist)">SR-11</a> featured an added key for entering <a href="/wiki/Pi" title="Pi">pi</a> (π). It was followed the next year by the <a href="/wiki/TI_SR-50" title="TI SR-50">SR-50</a> which added log and trig functions to compete with the HP-35, and in 1977 the mass-marketed <a href="/wiki/TI-30" title="TI-30">TI-30</a> line which is still produced. </p><p>In 1978, a new company, <a href="/wiki/Calculated_Industries" title="Calculated Industries">Calculated Industries</a> arose which focused on specialized markets. Their first calculator, the Loan Arranger<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1978) was a pocket calculator marketed to the Real Estate industry with preprogrammed functions to simplify the process of calculating payments and future values. In 1985, CI launched a calculator for the construction industry called the Construction Master<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which came preprogrammed with common construction calculations (such as angles, stairs, roofing math, pitch, rise, run, and feet-inch fraction conversions). This would be the first in a line of construction related calculators. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Calculator_Adler_81S.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Adler 81S pocket calculator with vacuum fluorescent display (VFD) from the mid-1970s."><img alt="Adler 81S pocket calculator with vacuum fluorescent display (VFD) from the mid-1970s." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Calculator_Adler_81S.jpg/150px-Calculator_Adler_81S.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Calculator_Adler_81S.jpg/225px-Calculator_Adler_81S.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Calculator_Adler_81S.jpg/300px-Calculator_Adler_81S.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Adler 81S pocket calculator with <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_fluorescent_display" title="Vacuum fluorescent display">vacuum fluorescent display</a> (VFD) from the mid-1970s.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Casio_cm602.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Casio CM-602 Mini electronic calculator provided basic functions in the 1970s."><img alt="The Casio CM-602 Mini electronic calculator provided basic functions in the 1970s." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Casio_cm602.jpg/200px-Casio_cm602.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Casio_cm602.jpg/300px-Casio_cm602.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Casio_cm602.jpg/400px-Casio_cm602.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1154" data-file-height="595" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Casio CM-602 Mini electronic calculator provided basic functions in the 1970s.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SinclairExecutive-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The 1972 Sinclair Executive pocket calculator."><img alt="The 1972 Sinclair Executive pocket calculator." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/SinclairExecutive-01.jpg/117px-SinclairExecutive-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="117" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/SinclairExecutive-01.jpg/176px-SinclairExecutive-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/SinclairExecutive-01.jpg/235px-SinclairExecutive-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The 1972 <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Executive" title="Sinclair Executive">Sinclair Executive</a> pocket calculator.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hp-35_1972.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The HP-35, the world's first scientific pocket calculator by Hewlett Packard (1972)."><img alt="The HP-35, the world's first scientific pocket calculator by Hewlett Packard (1972)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Hp-35_1972.jpg/126px-Hp-35_1972.jpg" decoding="async" width="126" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Hp-35_1972.jpg/189px-Hp-35_1972.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Hp-35_1972.jpg/252px-Hp-35_1972.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1268" data-file-height="2012" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/HP-35" title="HP-35">HP-35</a>, the world's first scientific pocket calculator by Hewlett Packard (1972).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Canon_Pocketronic.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Canon Pocketronic calculator prints output using paper tape (1971)."><img alt="Canon Pocketronic calculator prints output using paper tape (1971)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Canon_Pocketronic.jpg/200px-Canon_Pocketronic.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Canon_Pocketronic.jpg/300px-Canon_Pocketronic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Canon_Pocketronic.jpg/400px-Canon_Pocketronic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2230" data-file-height="1830" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Canon Pocketronic calculator prints output using paper tape (1971).</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Programmable_pocket_calculators">Programmable pocket calculators</h4></div> <p>The first programmable pocket calculator was the <a href="/wiki/HP-65" title="HP-65">HP-65</a>, in 1974; it had a capacity of 100 instructions, and could store and retrieve programs with a built-in magnetic card reader. Two years later the <a href="/wiki/HP-25C" class="mw-redirect" title="HP-25C">HP-25C</a> introduced <i><a href="/wiki/Continuous_memory" title="Continuous memory">continuous memory</a></i>, i.e., programs and data were retained in <a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> memory during power-off. In 1979, HP released the first <i><a href="/wiki/Alphanumeric" class="mw-redirect" title="Alphanumeric">alphanumeric</a></i>, programmable, <i>expandable</i> calculator, the <a href="/wiki/HP-41" class="mw-redirect" title="HP-41">HP-41</a>C. It could be expanded with <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">random-access memory</a> (RAM, for memory) and <a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">read-only memory</a> (ROM, for software) modules, and peripherals like <a href="/wiki/Bar_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Bar code">bar code</a> readers, <a href="/wiki/Microcassette" title="Microcassette">microcassette</a> and <a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">floppy disk</a> drives, paper-roll <a href="/wiki/Thermal_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal printer">thermal printers</a>, and miscellaneous communication interfaces (<a href="/wiki/RS-232" title="RS-232">RS-232</a>, <a href="/wiki/HP-IL" title="HP-IL">HP-IL</a>, <a href="/wiki/HP-IB" class="mw-redirect" title="HP-IB">HP-IB</a>). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HP-65_white_background.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/HP-65_white_background.jpg/220px-HP-65_white_background.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/HP-65_white_background.jpg/330px-HP-65_white_background.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/HP-65_white_background.jpg/440px-HP-65_white_background.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="353" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/HP-65" title="HP-65">HP-65</a>, the first programmable pocket calculator (1974)</figcaption></figure> <p>The first Soviet pocket battery-powered programmable calculator, <a href="/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika">Elektronika</a> <i><a href="/wiki/B3-21" class="mw-redirect" title="B3-21">B3-21</a></i>, was developed by the end of 1976 and released at the start of 1977.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The successor of B3-21, the <a href="/wiki/Elektronika_B3-34" title="Elektronika B3-34">Elektronika B3-34</a> wasn't backward compatible with B3-21, even if it kept the <a href="/wiki/Reverse_Polish_notation" title="Reverse Polish notation">reverse Polish notation</a> (RPN). Thus B3-34 defined a new command set, which later was used in a series of later programmable Soviet calculators. Despite very limited abilities (98 bytes of instruction memory and about 19 stack and addressable registers), people managed to write all kinds of programs for them, including <a href="/wiki/Adventure_game" title="Adventure game">adventure games</a> and libraries of calculus-related functions for engineers. Hundreds, perhaps thousands, of programs were written for these machines, from practical scientific and business software, which were used in real-life offices and labs, to fun games for children. The <a href="/wiki/Elektronika_MK-52" title="Elektronika MK-52">Elektronika MK-52</a> calculator (using the extended B3-34 command set, and featuring internal <a href="/wiki/EEPROM" title="EEPROM">EEPROM</a> memory for storing programs and external interface for EEPROM cards and other periphery) was used in Soviet spacecraft program (for <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_TM-7" title="Soyuz TM-7">Soyuz TM-7</a> flight) as a backup of the board computer. </p><p>This series of calculators was also noted for a large number of highly counter-intuitive mysterious undocumented features, somewhat similar to "<a href="/wiki/Synthetic_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic programming">synthetic programming</a>" of the American <a href="/wiki/HP-41" class="mw-redirect" title="HP-41">HP-41</a>, which were exploited by applying normal arithmetic operations to error messages, jumping to nonexistent addresses and other methods. A number of respected monthly publications, including the popular science magazine <i><a href="/wiki/Nauka_i_Zhizn" title="Nauka i Zhizn">Nauka i Zhizn</a></i> (<i>Наука и жизнь</i>, <i>Science and Life</i>), featured special columns, dedicated to optimization methods for calculator programmers and updates on undocumented features for hackers, which grew into a whole esoteric science with many branches, named "<a href="/wiki/Yeggogology" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeggogology">yeggogology</a>" ("еггогология"). The error messages on those calculators appear as a Russian word "YEGGOG" ("ЕГГОГ") which, unsurprisingly, is translated to "Error". </p><p>A similar hacker culture in the US revolved around the <a href="/wiki/HP-41" class="mw-redirect" title="HP-41">HP-41</a>, which was also noted for a large number of undocumented features and was much more powerful than <a href="/wiki/B3-34" class="mw-redirect" title="B3-34">B3-34</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Technical_improvements">Technical improvements</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solar-calculator.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Solar-calculator.jpg/220px-Solar-calculator.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Solar-calculator.jpg/330px-Solar-calculator.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Solar-calculator.jpg/440px-Solar-calculator.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>A calculator which runs on solar and battery power</figcaption></figure> <p>Through the 1970s the hand-held electronic calculator underwent rapid development. The red LED and blue/green <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_fluorescent_display" title="Vacuum fluorescent display">vacuum fluorescent displays</a> consumed a lot of power and the calculators either had a short battery life (often measured in hours, so rechargeable <a href="/wiki/Nickel-cadmium_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Nickel-cadmium battery">nickel-cadmium batteries</a> were common) or were large so that they could take larger, higher capacity batteries. In the early 1970s <a href="/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display" title="Liquid-crystal display">liquid-crystal displays</a> (LCDs) were in their infancy and there was a great deal of concern that they only had a short operating lifetime. Busicom introduced the Busicom <i>LE-120A "HANDY"</i> calculator, the first pocket-sized calculator and the first with an <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">LED</a> display, and announced the Busicom <i>LC</i> with LCD. However, there were problems with this display and the calculator never went on sale. The first successful calculators with LCDs were manufactured by <a href="/wiki/Rockwell_International" title="Rockwell International">Rockwell International</a> and sold from 1972 by other companies under such names as: Dataking <i>LC-800</i>, Harden <i>DT/12</i>, Ibico <i>086</i>, Lloyds <i>40</i>, Lloyds <i>100</i>, Prismatic <i>500</i> (a.k.a. <i>P500</i>), Rapid Data <i>Rapidman 1208LC</i>. The LCDs were an early form using the <i>Dynamic Scattering Mode DSM</i> with the numbers appearing as bright against a dark background. To present a high-contrast display these models illuminated the LCD using a filament lamp and solid plastic light guide, which negated the low power consumption of the display. These models appear to have been sold only for a year or two. </p><p>A more successful series of calculators using a reflective DSM-LCD was launched in 1972 by <a href="/wiki/Sharp_Inc" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharp Inc">Sharp Inc</a> with the Sharp <i>EL-805</i>, which was a slim pocket calculator. This, and another few similar models, used Sharp's <i>Calculator On Substrate</i> (COS) technology. An extension of one glass plate needed for the liquid crystal display was used as a substrate to mount the needed chips based on a new hybrid technology. The COS technology may have been too costly since it was only used in a few models before Sharp reverted to conventional circuit boards. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Braun_4856_solar_card_calculator,_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Braun_4856_solar_card_calculator%2C_2.jpg/220px-Braun_4856_solar_card_calculator%2C_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Braun_4856_solar_card_calculator%2C_2.jpg/330px-Braun_4856_solar_card_calculator%2C_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Braun_4856_solar_card_calculator%2C_2.jpg/440px-Braun_4856_solar_card_calculator%2C_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3531" data-file-height="2347" /></a><figcaption>Credit-card-sized, solar-powered calculator by <a href="/wiki/Braun_(company)" title="Braun (company)">Braun</a> (1987)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Citizen_SLD-100NR_calculator.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Citizen_SLD-100NR_calculator.jpg/220px-Citizen_SLD-100NR_calculator.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Citizen_SLD-100NR_calculator.jpg/330px-Citizen_SLD-100NR_calculator.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Citizen_SLD-100NR_calculator.jpg/440px-Citizen_SLD-100NR_calculator.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2517" data-file-height="3078" /></a><figcaption>Modern pocket calculator with solar and battery powering</figcaption></figure> <p>In the mid-1970s the first calculators appeared with field-effect, <i>twisted nematic</i> (TN) LCDs with dark numerals against a grey background, though the early ones often had a yellow filter over them to cut out damaging <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> rays. The advantage of LCDs is that they are passive light modulators reflecting light, which require much less power than light-emitting displays such as LEDs or VFDs. This led the way to the first credit-card-sized calculators, such as the <a href="/wiki/Casio" title="Casio">Casio</a> <i>Mini Card LC-78</i> of 1978, which could run for months of normal use on button cells. </p><p>There were also improvements to the electronics inside the calculators. All of the logic functions of a calculator had been squeezed into the first "calculator on a chip" <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> (ICs) in 1971, but this was leading edge technology of the time and yields were low and costs were high. Many calculators continued to use two or more ICs, especially the scientific and the programmable ones, into the late 1970s. </p><p>The power consumption of the integrated circuits was also reduced, especially with the introduction of <a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> technology. Appearing in the Sharp "EL-801" in 1972, the <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a> in the logic cells of CMOS ICs only used any appreciable power when they changed state. The <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">LED</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_fluorescent_display" title="Vacuum fluorescent display">VFD</a> displays often required added driver transistors or ICs, whereas the LCDs were more amenable to being driven directly by the calculator IC itself. </p><p>With this low power consumption came the possibility of using <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a> as the power source, realised around 1978 by calculators such as the Royal <i>Solar 1</i>, Sharp <i>EL-8026</i>, and Teal <i>Photon</i>. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CasioFX20-inside.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The interior of a Casio fx-20 scientific calculator from the mid-1970s, using a VFD. The processor integrated circuit (IC) is made by NEC (marked μPD978C). Discrete electronic components like capacitors and resistors and the IC are mounted on a printed circuit board (PCB). This calculator uses a battery pack as a power source."><img alt="The interior of a Casio fx-20 scientific calculator from the mid-1970s, using a VFD. The processor integrated circuit (IC) is made by NEC (marked μPD978C). Discrete electronic components like capacitors and resistors and the IC are mounted on a printed circuit board (PCB). This calculator uses a battery pack as a power source." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/CasioFX20-inside.jpg/150px-CasioFX20-inside.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/CasioFX20-inside.jpg/225px-CasioFX20-inside.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/CasioFX20-inside.jpg/300px-CasioFX20-inside.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The interior of a Casio fx-20 scientific calculator from the mid-1970s, using a VFD. The processor integrated circuit (IC) is made by <a href="/wiki/NEC" title="NEC">NEC</a> (marked μPD978C). Discrete electronic components like <a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">resistors</a> and the IC are mounted on a <a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">printed circuit board</a> (PCB). This calculator uses a battery pack as a power source.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sharp_el-323_ic_1ae.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The processor chip (integrated circuit package) inside a 1980s Sharp pocket calculator, marked SC6762 1•H. An LCD is directly under the chip. This was a PCB-less design. No discrete components are used. The battery compartment at the top can hold two button cells."><img alt="The processor chip (integrated circuit package) inside a 1980s Sharp pocket calculator, marked SC6762 1•H. An LCD is directly under the chip. This was a PCB-less design. No discrete components are used. The battery compartment at the top can hold two button cells." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Sharp_el-323_ic_1ae.jpg/200px-Sharp_el-323_ic_1ae.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Sharp_el-323_ic_1ae.jpg/300px-Sharp_el-323_ic_1ae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Sharp_el-323_ic_1ae.jpg/400px-Sharp_el-323_ic_1ae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="460" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The processor chip (integrated circuit package) inside a 1980s Sharp pocket calculator, marked SC6762 1•H. An LCD is directly under the chip. This was a PCB-less design. No discrete components are used. The battery compartment at the top can hold two <a href="/wiki/Button_cell" title="Button cell">button cells</a>. </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Casio_fx-992VB_interior_both_aa1.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Inside a Casio scientific calculator from the mid-1990s, showing the processor chip (small square; top-middle; left), keypad contacts, right (with matching contacts on the left), the back of the LCD (top; marked 4L102E), battery compartment, and other components. The solar cell assembly is under the chip."><img alt="Inside a Casio scientific calculator from the mid-1990s, showing the processor chip (small square; top-middle; left), keypad contacts, right (with matching contacts on the left), the back of the LCD (top; marked 4L102E), battery compartment, and other components. The solar cell assembly is under the chip." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Casio_fx-992VB_interior_both_aa1.JPG/200px-Casio_fx-992VB_interior_both_aa1.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Casio_fx-992VB_interior_both_aa1.JPG/300px-Casio_fx-992VB_interior_both_aa1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Casio_fx-992VB_interior_both_aa1.JPG/400px-Casio_fx-992VB_interior_both_aa1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Inside a Casio scientific calculator from the mid-1990s, showing the processor chip (small square; top-middle; left), keypad contacts, right (with matching contacts on the left), the back of the LCD (top; marked 4L102E), battery compartment, and other components. The solar cell assembly is under the chip.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Citizen_se-733_int_1ac.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The interior of a newer (c. 2000) pocket calculator. It uses a button battery in combination with a solar cell. The processor is a "Chip on Board" type, covered with dark epoxy."><img alt="The interior of a newer (c. 2000) pocket calculator. It uses a button battery in combination with a solar cell. The processor is a "Chip on Board" type, covered with dark epoxy." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Citizen_se-733_int_1ac.jpg/200px-Citizen_se-733_int_1ac.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Citizen_se-733_int_1ac.jpg/300px-Citizen_se-733_int_1ac.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Citizen_se-733_int_1ac.jpg/400px-Citizen_se-733_int_1ac.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The interior of a newer (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2000</span>) pocket calculator. It uses a button battery in combination with a solar cell. The processor is a "Chip on Board" type, covered with dark <a href="/wiki/Epoxy" title="Epoxy">epoxy</a>.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mass-market_phase">Mass-market phase</h4></div> <p>At the start of the 1970s, hand-held electronic calculators were very costly, at two or three weeks' wages, and so were a luxury item. The high price was due to their construction requiring many mechanical and electronic components which were costly to produce, and production runs that were too small to exploit <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a>. Many firms saw that there were good profits to be made in the calculator business with the margin on such high prices. However, the cost of calculators fell as components and their production methods improved, and the effect of economies of scale was felt. </p><p>By 1976, the cost of the cheapest four-function pocket calculator had dropped to a few dollars, about 1/20 of the cost five years before. The results of this were that the pocket calculator was affordable, and that it was now difficult for the manufacturers to make a profit from calculators, leading to many firms dropping out of the business or closing. The firms that survived making calculators tended to be those with high outputs of higher quality calculators, or producing high-specification scientific and programmable calculators.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mid-1980s_to_present">Mid-1980s to present</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elektronika_MK-52.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Elektronika_MK-52.JPG/220px-Elektronika_MK-52.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Elektronika_MK-52.JPG/330px-Elektronika_MK-52.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Elektronika_MK-52.JPG/440px-Elektronika_MK-52.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Elektronika_MK-52" title="Elektronika MK-52">Elektronika MK-52</a> was a programmable RPN-style calculator that accepted extension modules; it was manufactured in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> from 1985 to 1992</figcaption></figure> <p>The first calculator capable of symbolic computing was the <a href="/wiki/HP-28C" class="mw-redirect" title="HP-28C">HP-28C</a>, released in 1987. It could, for example, solve quadratic equations symbolically. The first <a href="/wiki/Graphing_calculator" title="Graphing calculator">graphing calculator</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Casio_fx-7000G" title="Casio fx-7000G">Casio fx-7000G</a> released in 1985. </p><p>The two leading manufacturers, HP and TI, released increasingly feature-laden calculators during the 1980s and 1990s. At the turn of the millennium, the line between a graphing calculator and a <a href="/wiki/Handheld_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Handheld computer">handheld computer</a> was not always clear, as some very advanced calculators such as the <a href="/wiki/TI-89" class="mw-redirect" title="TI-89">TI-89</a>, the <a href="/wiki/TI-92_series" title="TI-92 series">Voyage 200</a> and <a href="/wiki/HP-49G" class="mw-redirect" title="HP-49G">HP-49G</a> could <a href="/wiki/Derivative" title="Derivative">differentiate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Integral" title="Integral">integrate</a> <a href="/wiki/Function_(mathematics)" title="Function (mathematics)">functions</a>, solve <a href="/wiki/Differential_equation" title="Differential equation">differential equations</a>, run <a href="/wiki/Word_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Word processing">word processing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Personal_information_manager" title="Personal information manager">PIM</a> software, and connect by wire or <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">IR</a> to other calculators/computers. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/HP-12C" title="HP-12C">HP 12c</a> financial calculator is still produced. It was introduced in 1981 and is still being made with few changes. The HP 12c featured the <a href="/wiki/Reverse_Polish_notation" title="Reverse Polish notation">reverse Polish notation</a> mode of data entry. In 2003 several new models were released, including an improved version of the HP 12c, the "HP 12c platinum edition" which added more memory, more built-in functions, and the addition of the algebraic mode of data entry. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Calculated_Industries" title="Calculated Industries">Calculated Industries</a> competed with the <a href="/wiki/HP-12C" title="HP-12C">HP 12c</a> in the mortgage and real estate markets by differentiating the key labeling; changing the "I", "PV", "FV" to easier labeling terms such as "Int", "Term", "Pmt", and not using the <a href="/wiki/Reverse_Polish_notation" title="Reverse Polish notation">reverse Polish notation</a>. However, CI's more successful calculators involved a line of construction calculators, which evolved and expanded in the 1990s to present. According to Mark Bollman,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a mathematics and calculator historian and associate professor of mathematics at Albion College, the "Construction Master is the first in a long and profitable line of CI construction calculators" which carried them through the 1980s, 1990s, and to the present. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_in_education">Use in education</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:322px;max-width:322px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:179px;max-width:179px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:283px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Scientific_Calculator,_TI-30XIIS,_removed_background,_shadow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Scientific_Calculator%2C_TI-30XIIS%2C_removed_background%2C_shadow.jpg/177px-Scientific_Calculator%2C_TI-30XIIS%2C_removed_background%2C_shadow.jpg" decoding="async" width="177" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Scientific_Calculator%2C_TI-30XIIS%2C_removed_background%2C_shadow.jpg/266px-Scientific_Calculator%2C_TI-30XIIS%2C_removed_background%2C_shadow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Scientific_Calculator%2C_TI-30XIIS%2C_removed_background%2C_shadow.jpg/354px-Scientific_Calculator%2C_TI-30XIIS%2C_removed_background%2C_shadow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="576" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A Texas Instruments TI-30XIIS scientific calculator</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:139px;max-width:139px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:283px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Scientific_Calculator.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Scientific_Calculator.jpg/137px-Scientific_Calculator.jpg" decoding="async" width="137" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Scientific_Calculator.jpg/206px-Scientific_Calculator.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Scientific_Calculator.jpg/274px-Scientific_Calculator.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="2284" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A Catiga CS-103 scientific calculator</div></div></div></div></div> <p>In most countries, <a href="/wiki/Student" title="Student">students</a> use calculators for schoolwork. There was some<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (June 2022)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> initial resistance to the idea out of fear that basic or <a href="/wiki/Elementary_arithmetic" title="Elementary arithmetic">elementary arithmetic</a> skills would suffer.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There remains disagreement about the importance of the ability to perform calculations <i>in the head</i>, with some curricula restricting calculator use until a certain level of proficiency has been obtained, while others concentrate more on teaching <a href="/wiki/Approximation" title="Approximation">estimation</a> methods and problem-solving. Research suggests that inadequate guidance in the use of calculating tools can restrict the kind of mathematical thinking that students engage in.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others have argued<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (December 2011)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> that calculator use can even cause core mathematical skills to atrophy, or that such use can prevent understanding of advanced algebraic concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December 2011 the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Department_for_Education" title="Department for Education">Minister of State for Schools</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nick_Gibb" title="Nick Gibb">Nick Gibb</a>, voiced concern that children can become "too dependent" on the use of calculators.<sup id="cite_ref-guardian_subtracting_calculators_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guardian_subtracting_calculators-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, the use of calculators is to be included as part of a review of the <a href="/wiki/National_Curriculum_(England,_Wales_and_Northern_Ireland)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Curriculum (England, Wales and Northern Ireland)">Curriculum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-guardian_subtracting_calculators_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guardian_subtracting_calculators-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, many math educators and boards of education have enthusiastically endorsed the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Teachers_of_Mathematics" title="National Council of Teachers of Mathematics">National Council of Teachers of Mathematics</a> (NCTM) standards and actively promoted the use of classroom calculators from kindergarten through high school. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_computers">Personal computers</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Precise_Calculator_Pi_20210113.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Precise_Calculator_Pi_20210113.png/220px-Precise_Calculator_Pi_20210113.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Precise_Calculator_Pi_20210113.png/330px-Precise_Calculator_Pi_20210113.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Precise_Calculator_Pi_20210113.png/440px-Precise_Calculator_Pi_20210113.png 2x" data-file-width="3090" data-file-height="2190" /></a><figcaption>A calculator with a graphical user interface</figcaption></figure> <p>Personal computers often come with a calculator utility program that emulates the appearance and functions of a calculator, using the <a href="/wiki/Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">graphical user interface</a> to portray a calculator. Examples include the <a href="/wiki/Windows_Calculator" title="Windows Calculator">Windows Calculator</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calculator_(Apple)" title="Calculator (Apple)">Apple's Calculator</a>, and <a href="/wiki/KCalc" title="KCalc">KDE's KCalc</a>. Most <a href="/wiki/Personal_data_assistant" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal data assistant">personal data assistants</a> (PDAs) and <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a> also have such a feature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Calculators_compared_to_computers">Calculators compared to computers</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Calculator" title="Special:EditPage/Calculator">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2009</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The fundamental difference between a calculator and <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a> is that a computer can be <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">programmed</a> in a way that allows the <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">program</a> to take different <a href="/wiki/Branch_(computer_science)" title="Branch (computer science)">branches according to intermediate results</a>, while calculators are pre-designed with specific functions (such as <a href="/wiki/Addition" title="Addition">addition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multiplication" title="Multiplication">multiplication</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Logarithm" title="Logarithm">logarithms</a>) built in. The distinction is not clear-cut: some devices classed as <a href="/wiki/Programmable_calculator" title="Programmable calculator">programmable calculators</a> have <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">programming</a> functions, sometimes with support for <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming languages</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/RPL_(programming_language)" title="RPL (programming language)">RPL</a> or <a href="/wiki/TI-BASIC" title="TI-BASIC">TI-BASIC</a>). </p><p>For instance, instead of a hardware multiplier, a calculator might implement <a href="/wiki/Floating_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating point">floating point</a> mathematics with code in <a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">read-only memory</a> (ROM), and compute <a href="/wiki/Trigonometric_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Trigonometric function">trigonometric functions</a> with the <a href="/wiki/CORDIC" title="CORDIC">CORDIC</a> algorithm because CORDIC does not require much multiplication. <a href="/wiki/Serial_communication" title="Serial communication">Bit serial</a> logic designs are more common in calculators whereas <a href="/wiki/Parallel_communication" title="Parallel communication">bit parallel</a> designs dominate general-purpose computers, because a bit serial design minimizes <a href="/wiki/Chipset" title="Chipset">chip</a> complexity, but takes many more <a href="/wiki/Clock_signal" title="Clock signal">clock cycles</a>. This distinction blurs with high-end calculators, which use processor chips associated with computer and embedded systems design, more so the <a href="/wiki/Zilog_Z80" title="Zilog Z80">Z80</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motorola_68000" title="Motorola 68000">MC68000</a>, and <a href="/wiki/ARM_architecture_family" title="ARM architecture family">ARM</a> architectures, and some custom designs specialized for the calculator market. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calculator_spelling" title="Calculator spelling">Calculator spelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_HP_graphing_calculators" title="Comparison of HP graphing calculators">Comparison of HP graphing calculators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Texas_Instruments_graphing_calculators" title="Comparison of Texas Instruments graphing calculators">Comparison of Texas Instruments graphing calculators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formula_calculator" title="Formula calculator">Formula calculator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HP_calculators" title="HP calculators">HP calculators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_calculator" title="Scientific calculator">Scientific calculator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_calculator" title="Software calculator">Software calculator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_calculator" title="Solar-powered calculator">Solar-powered calculator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photomath" title="Photomath">Photomath</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Japanese Patent Office granted a patent in June 1978 to Texas Instruments (TI) based on US patent 3819921, notwithstanding objections from 12 Japanese calculator manufacturers. This gave TI the right to claim royalties retroactively to the original publication of the Japanese patent application in August 1974. A TI spokesman said that it would actively seek what was due, either in cash or technology cross-licensing agreements. 19 other countries, including the United Kingdom, had already granted a similar patent to Texas Instruments.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHouston2023-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHouston2023_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHouston2023_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHouston2023">Houston (2023)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMartin_HilbertPriscila_López2011" class="citation journal cs1">Martin Hilbert; Priscila López (1 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121026235546/http://www.uvm.edu/~pdodds/files/papers/others/2011/hilbert2011a.pdf">"The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>332</b> (6025): 60–65. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Sci...332...60H">2011Sci...332...60H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1200970">10.1126/science.1200970</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21310967">21310967</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206531385">206531385</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uvm.edu/~pdodds/files/papers/others/2011/hilbert2011a.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2012-10-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+World%27s+Technological+Capacity+to+Store%2C+Communicate%2C+and+Compute+Information&rft.volume=332&rft.issue=6025&rft.pages=60-65&rft.date=2011-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1200970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206531385%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21310967&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Sci...332...60H&rft.au=Martin+Hilbert&rft.au=Priscila+L%C3%B3pez&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uvm.edu%2F~pdodds%2Ffiles%2Fpapers%2Fothers%2F2011%2Fhilbert2011a.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://education.ti.com/en/guidebook/details/en/706B2B75F7D3464EBE6A8F8BE9F00EAC/30xii">Texas Instruments TI-30X IIB Quick Reference Guide</a>, Page 1 - Last Answer</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Lewis, <i>The Pocket Calculator Book</i>. (London: Usborne, 1982)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUniversity_of_Alicante" class="citation web cs1">University of Alicante. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/11826/1/VF-016519.pdf">"A Cordic-based Architecture for High Performance Decimal Calculations"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/IEEE" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE">IEEE</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303235832/http://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/11826/1/VF-016519.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2016-03-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-08-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Cordic-based+Architecture+for+High+Performance+Decimal+Calculations&rft.pub=IEEE&rft.au=University+of+Alicante&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frua.ua.es%2Fdspace%2Fbitstream%2F10045%2F11826%2F1%2FVF-016519.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculties.sbu.ac.ir/~jaberipur/Papers/Journals/19.pdf">"Decimal CORDIC Rotation based on Selection by Rounding: Algorithm and Architecture"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/British_Computer_Society" title="British Computer Society">British Computer Society</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304045707/http://faculties.sbu.ac.ir/~jaberipur/Papers/Journals/19.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2016-03-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-08-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Decimal+CORDIC+Rotation+based+on+Selection+by+Rounding%3A+Algorithm+and+Architecture&rft.pub=British+Computer+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculties.sbu.ac.ir%2F~jaberipur%2FPapers%2FJournals%2F19.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hpl.hp.com/hpjournal/72jun/jun72a2.pdf">"David S. Cochran, <i>Algorithms and accuracy in the HP35</i>, <i>Hewlett Packard Journal</i>, June 1972"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131004225515/http://www.hpl.hp.com/hpjournal/72jun/jun72a2.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2013-10-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-10-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=David+S.+Cochran%2C+Algorithms+and+accuracy+in+the+HP35%2C+Hewlett+Packard+Journal%2C+June+1972&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hpl.hp.com%2Fhpjournal%2F72jun%2Fjun72a2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIfrah200111-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIfrah200111_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIfrah2001">Ifrah (2001)</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJim_Falk" class="citation web cs1">Jim Falk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140416210350/http://metastudies.net/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?n=Site.TheModernEpochAndTheEmergenceOfTheModernCalculator">"Early Evolution of the Modern Calculator, Part 2. The Modern Era: 4.1 Schickard's Calculating Clock"</a>. <i>Things that Count</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://metastudies.net/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?n=Site.TheModernEpochAndTheEmergenceOfTheModernCalculator">the original</a> on 2014-04-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Things+that+Count&rft.atitle=Early+Evolution+of+the+Modern+Calculator%2C+Part+2.+The+Modern+Era%3A+4.1+Schickard%27s+Calculating+Clock&rft.au=Jim+Falk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmetastudies.net%2Fpmwiki%2Fpmwiki.php%3Fn%3DSite.TheModernEpochAndTheEmergenceOfTheModernCalculator&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChapman1942">Chapman (1942)</a>, pp. 508, 509; "Pascal's invention of the <a href="/wiki/Calculating_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Calculating machine">calculating machine</a>. Pascal invented his machine just four hundred years ago, as a youth of nineteen. He was spurred to it by sharing the burden of arithmetical labor involved in his father's official work as supervisor of taxes at Rouen. He conceived the idea of doing the work mechanically, and developed a design appropriate for this purpose; showing herein the same combination of pure science and mechanical genius that characterized his whole life. But it was one thing to conceive and design the machine, and another to get it made and put into use. Here were needed those practical gifts that he displayed later in his inventions....<br /> In a sense, Pascal's invention was premature, in that the mechanical arts in his time were not sufficiently advanced to enable his machine to be made at an economic price, with the accuracy and strength needed for reasonably long use. This difficulty was not overcome until well on into the nineteenth century, by which time also a renewed stimulus to invention was given by the need for many kinds of calculation more intricate than those considered by Pascal."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rf0IAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA100">"A New Calculator"</a>. <i>The Gentleman's magazine</i>. Vol. 202. 1857. p. 100. <q>Pascal and Leibnitz, in the seventeenth century, and Diderot at a later period, endeavored to construct a machine which might serve as a substitute for human intelligence in the combination of figures.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Gentleman%27s+magazine&rft.atitle=A+New+Calculator&rft.volume=202&rft.pages=100&rft.date=1857&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRf0IAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJim_Falk" class="citation web cs1">Jim Falk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140408215848/http://metastudies.net/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?n=Site.SchicardvsPascal">"Schickard versus Pascal - an empty debate?"</a>. <i>Things that Count</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://metastudies.net/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?n=Site.SchicardvsPascal">the original</a> on 2014-04-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Things+that+Count&rft.atitle=Schickard+versus+Pascal+-+an+empty+debate%3F&rft.au=Jim+Falk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmetastudies.net%2Fpmwiki%2Fpmwiki.php%3Fn%3DSite.SchicardvsPascal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGinsburg1933" class="citation journal cs1">Ginsburg, Jekuthiel (1933). "Scripta Mathematica". <i>Science</i>. <b>86</b> (2218). Kessinger Publishing, LLC: 149. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.86.2218.13-a">10.1126/science.86.2218.13-a</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-3835-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-3835-3"><bdi>978-0-7661-3835-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17737911">17737911</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28216043">28216043</a>. <q>In 1893, the German calculating machine inventor Arthur Burkhardt was asked to put Leibniz machine in operating condition if possible. His report was favorable except for the sequence in the carry.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Scripta+Mathematica&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=2218&rft.pages=149&rft.date=1933&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.86.2218.13-a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A28216043%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17737911&rft.isbn=978-0-7661-3835-3&rft.aulast=Ginsburg&rft.aufirst=Jekuthiel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_calculator#Other_calculating_machines" title="Mechanical calculator">Mechanical calculator#Other calculating machines</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDenis_Roegel2016" class="citation journal cs1">Denis Roegel (October–December 2016). David Walden (ed.). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7763737">"Before Torchi and Schwilgué, There Was White"</a></span>. <i>IEEE Annals of the History of Computing</i>. <b>38</b> (4): 92–93. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMAHC.2016.46">10.1109/MAHC.2016.46</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28873771">28873771</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-05-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Annals+of+the+History+of+Computing&rft.atitle=Before+Torchi+and+Schwilgu%C3%A9%2C+There+Was+White&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=92-93&rft.date=2016-10%2F2016-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMAHC.2016.46&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A28873771%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Denis+Roegel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F7763737&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arithmometre.org/NumerosSerie/PageNumerosSeriePayen.html">"Modèles Payen"</a>. <i>Arithmometre.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130521075617/http://www.arithmometre.org/NumerosSerie/PageNumerosSeriePayen.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-05-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-10-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Arithmometre.org&rft.atitle=Mod%C3%A8les+Payen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arithmometre.org%2FNumerosSerie%2FPageNumerosSeriePayen.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFelt1916" class="citation book cs1">Felt, Dorr E. (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mechanicalarithm00feltrich"><i>Mechanical arithmetic, or The history of the counting machine</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-10-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vintage+Calculators+Web+Museum&rft.atitle=ELKA+101&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vintagecalculators.com%2Fhtml%2Felka_101.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/c-programma101.html">"Olivetti Programma 101 Electronic Calculator"</a>. <i>The Old Calculator Web Museum</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Old+Calculator+Web+Museum&rft.atitle=Olivetti+Programma+101+Electronic+Calculator&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oldcalculatormuseum.com%2Fc-programma101.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oldcalculatormuseum.com-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oldcalculatormuseum.com_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oldcalculatormuseum.com_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/c-math8-48m.html">"Mathatronics Mathatron 8-48M Mod II Electronic Calculator"</a>. <i>The Old Calculator Web Museum</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Old+Calculator+Web+Museum&rft.atitle=Mathatronics+Mathatron+8-48M+Mod+II+Electronic+Calculator&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oldcalculatormuseum.com%2Fc-math8-48m.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ma.as/365845">"Casio AL-1000 calculator"</a>. 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NPR. 30 September 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081205151504/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14845433">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-12-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=All+Things+Considered&rft.atitle=Electronic+Calculator+Invented+40+Years+Ago&rft.date=2007-09-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Fstory%2Fstory.php%3FstoryId%3D14845433&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span> Audio interview with one of the inventors.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/wirtschaftswissen/50-jahre-taschenrechner-die-erfindung-die-niemand-haben-wollte-14944569.html">"50 Jahre Taschenrechner – Die Erfindung, die niemand haben wollte"</a> [50th anniversary of calculators – the invention not wanted by anyone]. <i><a href="/wiki/Frankfurter_Allgemeine_Zeitung" title="Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung">Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung</a> (FAZ)</i> (in German). 27 March 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170329202602/https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/wirtschaftswissen/50-jahre-taschenrechner-die-erfindung-die-niemand-haben-wollte-14944569.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-03-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-03-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frankfurter+Allgemeine+Zeitung+%28FAZ%29&rft.atitle=50+Jahre+Taschenrechner+%E2%80%93+Die+Erfindung%2C+die+niemand+haben+wollte&rft.date=2017-03-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.faz.net%2Faktuell%2Fwirtschaft%2Fwirtschaftswissen%2F50-jahre-taschenrechner-die-erfindung-die-niemand-haben-wollte-14944569.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMay2000" class="citation magazine cs1">May, Mike (Spring 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dropbox.com/s/bwwc9q3y090d2r8/How_the_Computer_Got_Into_Your_Pocket.pdf">"How the Computer Got Into Your Pocket"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Heritage_of_Invention_%26_Technology" title="American Heritage of Invention & Technology">American Heritage of Invention & Technology</a></i>. Vol. 15, no. 4. pp. 42–54<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-03-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Heritage+of+Invention+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=How+the+Computer+Got+Into+Your+Pocket&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=42-54&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=May&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dropbox.com%2Fs%2Fbwwc9q3y090d2r8%2FHow_the_Computer_Got_Into_Your_Pocket.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReid1982" class="citation magazine cs1">Reid, T. R. (July 1982). 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October 1978 – via World Radio History.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Practical+Electronics&rft.atitle=Patent+Victory&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=1095&rft.date=1978-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldradiohistory.com%2FUK%2FPractical-Electronics%2F70s%2FPractical-Electronics-1978-10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Single Chip Calculator Hits the Finish Line", <i>Electronics</i>, February 1, 1971, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_McGonigal2010" class="citation web cs1">James McGonigal (September 2010) [September 2006]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110720142104/http://www.spingal.plus.com/micro/">"Microprocessor History – Foundations in Glenrothes, Scotland"</a>. Spingal.plus.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spingal.plus.com/micro">the original</a> on 2011-07-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Microprocessor+History+%E2%80%93+Foundations+in+Glenrothes%2C+Scotland&rft.pub=Spingal.plus.com&rft.date=2010-09&rft.au=James+McGonigal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spingal.plus.com%2Fmicro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1">"The one-chip calculator is here, and it's only the beginning". <i>Electronic Design</i>. 18 February 1971. p. 34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Design&rft.atitle=The+one-chip+calculator+is+here%2C+and+it%27s+only+the+beginning&rft.pages=34&rft.date=1971-02-18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161028020141/http://www.epocalc.net/pages/calc_premieres">"The first portable calculators"</a>. <i>epocalc</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epocalc.net/pages/calc_premieres">the original</a> on 2016-10-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-12-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=epocalc&rft.atitle=The+first+portable+calculators&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epocalc.net%2Fpages%2Fcalc_premieres&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003213/http://www.jutarnji.hr/40--rodendan-digitrona--u-bujama-je-izraden-prvi-europski-dzepni-kalkulator--te-1971-kostao-je-koliko-i-fico/954368/">"U Bujama je izrađen prvi europski džepni kalkulator. Te 1971. koštao je koliko i fićo"</a> [The first European pocket calculator was made in Buje. In 1971, it cost as much as a son] (in Croatian). 20 June 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jutarnji.hr/40--rodendan-digitrona--u-bujama-je-izraden-prvi-europski-dzepni-kalkulator--te-1971-kostao-je-koliko-i-fico/954368/">the original</a> on 2016-03-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-12-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U+Bujama+je+izra%C4%91en+prvi+europski+d%C5%BEepni+kalkulator.+Te+1971.+ko%C5%A1tao+je+koliko+i+fi%C4%87o&rft.date=2011-06-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jutarnji.hr%2F40--rodendan-digitrona--u-bujama-je-izraden-prvi-europski-dzepni-kalkulator--te-1971-kostao-je-koliko-i-fico%2F954368%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellotto1972" class="citation journal cs1">Bellotto, Sam Jr. (August 1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_administrative-management_1972-08_33_8/page/n67">"Calculators: They Just Keep Multiplying"</a>. <i>Administrative Management</i>. <b>33</b> (8). Geyer-McAllister Publications: 68–73 – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Administrative+Management&rft.atitle=Calculators%3A+They+Just+Keep+Multiplying&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=68-73&rft.date=1972-08&rft.aulast=Bellotto&rft.aufirst=Sam+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_administrative-management_1972-08_33_8%2Fpage%2Fn67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leningrad.su/museum/show_calc.php?n=26">"ELEKTRONIKA B3-04"</a>. <i>Коллекция советской цифровой электроники</i> [<i>Collection of Soviet digital electronics</i>]. Soviet Digital Electronics Museum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8&rft.atitle=ELEKTRONIKA+B3-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.leningrad.su%2Fmuseum%2Fshow_calc.php%3Fn%3D26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://righto.com/sinclair">"Reversing Sinclair's amazing 1974 calculator hack – half the ROM of the HP-35"</a>. <i>Ken Shirriff's blog</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ken+Shirriff%27s+blog&rft.atitle=Reversing+Sinclair%27s+amazing+1974+calculator+hack+%E2%80%93+half+the+ROM+of+the+HP-35&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frighto.com%2Fsinclair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span> See in particular the section "Limited performance and accuracy". For more coverage of Shirriff's results, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharwood2013" class="citation news cs1">Sharwood, Simon (2 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/09/02/google_chap_reverse_engineers_sinclair_scientific_calculator/">"Google chap reverse engineers Sinclair Scientific Calculator"</a>. <i>The Register</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170823073444/https://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/09/02/google_chap_reverse_engineers_sinclair_scientific_calculator/">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-08-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Register&rft.atitle=Google+chap+reverse+engineers+Sinclair+Scientific+Calculator&rft.date=2013-09-02&rft.aulast=Sharwood&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.co.uk%2F2013%2F09%2F02%2Fgoogle_chap_reverse_engineers_sinclair_scientific_calculator%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mathcs.albion.edu/~mbollman/CI/loanarranger2.htm">"The Loan Arranger II"</a>. <i>Mathcs.albion.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110719134735/http://mathcs.albion.edu/~mbollman/CI/loanarranger2.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-07-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mathcs.albion.edu&rft.atitle=The+Loan+Arranger+II&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmathcs.albion.edu%2F~mbollman%2FCI%2Floanarranger2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mathcs.albion.edu/~mbollman/CI/CM.htm">"Construction Master"</a>. <i>Mathcs.albion.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110719135006/http://mathcs.albion.edu/~mbollman/CI/CM.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-07-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mathcs.albion.edu&rft.atitle=Construction+Master&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmathcs.albion.edu%2F~mbollman%2FCI%2FCM.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rskey.org/b3-21">"Elektronika B3-21"</a>. <i>www.rskey.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150703003847/http://www.rskey.org/b3-21">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.rskey.org&rft.atitle=Elektronika+B3-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rskey.org%2Fb3-21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Bollman" class="citation web cs1">Mark Bollman. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mathcs.albion.edu/~mbollman/Calculators.html">"Mark->'s Calculator Collection"</a>. <i>Mathcs.albion.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110719135244/http://mathcs.albion.edu/~mbollman/Calculators.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-07-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mathcs.albion.edu&rft.atitle=Mark-%3E%27s+Calculator+Collection&rft.au=Mark+Bollman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmathcs.albion.edu%2F~mbollman%2FCalculators.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_J._BingEdward_F._Redish2007" class="citation journal cs1">Thomas J. Bing; Edward F. Redish (7 December 2007). "Symbolic Manipulators Affect Mathematical Mindsets". <i>American Journal of Physics</i>. <b>76</b> (4): 418. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0712.1187">0712.1187</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008AmJPh..76..418B">2008AmJPh..76..418B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.2835053">10.1119/1.2835053</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28555451">28555451</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=Symbolic+Manipulators+Affect+Mathematical+Mindsets&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=418&rft.date=2007-12-07&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0712.1187&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A28555451%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.2835053&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008AmJPh..76..418B&rft.au=Thomas+J.+Bing&rft.au=Edward+F.+Redish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nctm.org/Standards-and-Positions/Position-Statements/Calculator-Use-in-Elementary-Grades/">"Calculator Use in Elementary Grades"</a>. <i>NCTM</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150905072126/http://www.nctm.org/Standards-and-Positions/Position-Statements/Calculator-Use-in-Elementary-Grades/">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-09-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-08-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NCTM&rft.atitle=Calculator+Use+in+Elementary+Grades&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nctm.org%2FStandards-and-Positions%2FPosition-Statements%2FCalculator-Use-in-Elementary-Grades%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-guardian_subtracting_calculators-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-guardian_subtracting_calculators_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-guardian_subtracting_calculators_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVasagar,_JeevanShepherd,_Jessica2011" class="citation news cs1">Vasagar, Jeevan; Shepherd, Jessica (1 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2011/dec/01/subtracting-calculators-adds-children-maths">"Subtracting calculators adds to children's maths abilities, says minister"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160309100226/http://www.theguardian.com/education/2011/dec/01/subtracting-calculators-adds-children-maths">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-03-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-12-07</span></span>. <q>The use of calculators will be looked at as part of a national curriculum review, after the schools minister, Nick Gibb, expressed concern that children's mental and written arithmetic was suffering because of reliance on the devices. Gibb said: "Children can become too dependent on calculators if they use them at too young an age. They shouldn't be reaching for a gadget every time they need to do a simple sum. [...]"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Subtracting+calculators+adds+to+children%27s+maths+abilities%2C+says+minister&rft.date=2011-12-01&rft.au=Vasagar%2C+Jeevan&rft.au=Shepherd%2C+Jessica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Feducation%2F2011%2Fdec%2F01%2Fsubtracting-calculators-adds-children-maths&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapman1942" class="citation journal cs1">Chapman, S. (31 October 1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F150508a0">"Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) Tercentenary of the calculating machine"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>150</b> (3809). London: 508–509. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1942Natur.150..508C">1942Natur.150..508C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F150508a0">10.1038/150508a0</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Blaise+Pascal+%281623%E2%80%931662%29+Tercentenary+of+the+calculating+machine&rft.volume=150&rft.issue=3809&rft.pages=508-509&rft.date=1942-10-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F150508a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1942Natur.150..508C&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F150508a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamrick1996" class="citation journal cs1">Hamrick, Kathy B. (October 1996). "The History of the Hand-Held Electronic Calculator". <i>The American Mathematical Monthly</i>. <b>103</b> (8): 633–639. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2974875">10.2307/2974875</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2974875">2974875</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Mathematical+Monthly&rft.atitle=The+History+of+the+Hand-Held+Electronic+Calculator&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=633-639&rft.date=1996-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2974875&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2974875%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hamrick&rft.aufirst=Kathy+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHouston2023" class="citation book cs1">Houston, Keith (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393882148"><i>Empire of the Sum: The Rise and Reign of the Pocket Calculator</i></a>. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-88214-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-88214-8"><bdi>978-0-393-88214-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+the+Sum%3A+The+Rise+and+Reign+of+the+Pocket+Calculator&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-393-88214-8&rft.aulast=Houston&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwwnorton.com%2Fbooks%2F9780393882148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIfrah2001" class="citation book cs1">Ifrah, Georges (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_w3q2"><i>The Universal History of Computing</i></a></span>. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-39671-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-39671-0"><bdi>978-0-471-39671-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Universal+History+of+Computing&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-471-39671-0&rft.aulast=Ifrah&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funset0000unse_w3q2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarguin1994" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Marguin, Jean (1994). <i>Histoire des instruments et machines à calculer, trois siècles de mécanique pensante 1642–1942</i> (in French). Hermann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7056-6166-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7056-6166-3"><bdi>978-2-7056-6166-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+des+instruments+et+machines+%C3%A0+calculer%2C+trois+si%C3%A8cles+de+m%C3%A9canique+pensante+1642%E2%80%931942&rft.pub=Hermann&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-2-7056-6166-3&rft.aulast=Marguin&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1997" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Michael R. (1997). <i>History of Computing Technology</i>. Los Alamitos, California: IEEE Computer Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8186-7739-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8186-7739-7"><bdi>978-0-8186-7739-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Computing+Technology&rft.place=Los+Alamitos%2C+California&rft.pub=IEEE+Computer+Society&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8186-7739-7&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Michael+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US2668661">U.S. patent 2,668,661</a></span> – <i>Complex computer</i> – <a href="/wiki/George_Stibitz" title="George Stibitz">G. R. Stibitz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bell_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Laboratories">Bell Laboratories</a>, 1954 (filed 1941, refiled 1944), electromechanical (relay) device that could calculate complex numbers, record, and print results.</li> <li><span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US3819921">U.S. patent 3,819,921</a></span> – <i>Miniature electronic calculator</i> – <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">J. S. Kilby</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a>, 1974 (originally filed 1967), handheld (45 ounces (1.3 kg)) battery operated electronic device with thermal printer</li> <li><span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US4001566">U.S. patent 4,001,566</a></span> – <i>Floating Point Calculator With RAM Shift Register</i> – 1977 (originally filed GB March 1971, US July 1971), very early single chip calculator claim.</li> <li><span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US5623433">U.S. patent 5,623,433</a></span> – <i>Extended Numerical Keyboard with Structured Data-Entry Capability</i> – <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jaime_Redin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jaime Redin (page does not exist)">J. H. Redin</a>, 1997 (originally filed 1996), Usage of Verbal Numerals as a way to enter a number.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ep.espacenet.com">European Patent Office Database</a> – Many patents about mechanical calculators are in classifications G06C15/04, G06C15/06, G06G3/02, G06G3/04</li> <li><i>Collectors Guide to Pocket Calculators</i>. by Guy Ball and Bruce Flamm, 1997, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-888840-14-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-888840-14-5">1-888840-14-5</a> – includes an extensive history of early pocket calculators and highlights over 1,500 different models from the early 1970s. Book still in print.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuydam1980" class="citation book cs1">Suydam, Marilyn N. (December 1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED199087.pdf"><i>Calculators: A Categorized Compilation of References. Supplement 1</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Columbus, Ohio, US: Calculator Information Center, <a href="/wiki/Ohio_State_University" title="Ohio State University">Ohio State University</a>. ED199087. SE034434. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210919201034/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED199087.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2021-09-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-10-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calculators%3A+A+Categorized+Compilation+of+References.+Supplement+1.&rft.place=Columbus%2C+Ohio%2C+US&rft.pub=Calculator+Information+Center%2C+Ohio+State+University&rft.date=1980-12&rft.aulast=Suydam&rft.aufirst=Marilyn+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffiles.eric.ed.gov%2Ffulltext%2FED199087.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalculator" class="Z3988"></span> (64 pages)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 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plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Calculators" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Calculators">Calculators</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sharp-world.com/corporate/info/his/h_company/1994/">30th Anniversary of the Calculator</a> – From Sharp's web presentation of its history; including a picture of the CS-10A desktop calculator</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hpmuseum.org">The Museum of HP calculators</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hpmuseum.org/prehp.htm">Slide Rules and Mechanical Calculators section</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110720142104/http://www.spingal.plus.com/micro/">Microprocessor and single chip calculator history; foundations in Glenrothes, Scotland</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220211065021/http://home.citycable.ch/pierrefleur/Jacques-Laporte/HP%2035%20Saga.htm">HP-35</a> – A thorough analysis of the HP-35 firmware including the Cordic algorithms and the bugs in the early ROM</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anita-calculators.info/">Bell Punch Company and the development of the Anita calculator</a> – The story of the first electronic desktop calculator</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220121122943/http://www.dentaku-museum.com/">Dentaku-Museum</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Japanese)</span> – Shows mainly Japanese calculators but also others.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Calculator</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graphing_calculator" title="Graphing calculator">Graphing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_calculator" title="Programmable calculator">Programmable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_calculator" title="Scientific calculator">Scientific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wearable_computer" title="Wearable computer">Wearable</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activity_tracker" title="Activity tracker">Activity tracker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smart_band" class="mw-redirect" title="Smart band">Smart band</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watch#Digital" title="Watch">Digital 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grid_computing" title="Grid computing">Grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">Mainframe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minisupercomputer" title="Minisupercomputer">Minisuper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">Super</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_appliance" title="Information appliance">Information appliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">Microcontroller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanocomputer" title="Nanocomputer">Nano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugged_computer" title="Rugged computer">Rugged</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rugged_smartphone" title="Rugged smartphone">Rugged smartphone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-board_computer" title="Single-board computer">Single-board</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-on-module" title="Computer-on-module">Computer-on-module</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartdust" title="Smartdust">Smartdust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_sensor_network" title="Wireless sensor network">Wireless sensor network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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