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href="#Thermal_generators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Thermal generators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_generators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Waste_heat_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Waste_heat_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Waste heat sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Waste_heat_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cooling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cooling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Cooling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cooling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Electrochemical cell in which a temperature difference produces a voltage</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thermogalvanic_cell_General.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Thermogalvanic_cell_General.png/220px-Thermogalvanic_cell_General.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Thermogalvanic_cell_General.png/330px-Thermogalvanic_cell_General.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Thermogalvanic_cell_General.png/440px-Thermogalvanic_cell_General.png 2x" data-file-width="1095" data-file-height="764" /></a><figcaption>Thermogalvanic cell displaying the elements making up the cell</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">electrochemistry</a>, a <b>thermogalvanic cell</b> is a kind of <a href="/wiki/Galvanic_cell" title="Galvanic cell">galvanic cell</a> in which <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a> is employed to provide <a href="/wiki/Electrical_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical power">electrical power</a> directly.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These cells are <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrochemical cells">electrochemical cells</a> in which the two <a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrodes</a> are deliberately maintained at different temperatures. This temperature difference generates a <a href="/wiki/Potential_difference" class="mw-redirect" title="Potential difference">potential difference</a> between the electrodes.<sup id="cite_ref-Agar1963_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Agar1963-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The electrodes can be of identical composition and the <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> solution homogeneous. This is usually the case in these cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Chum1981_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chum1981-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is in contrast to galvanic cells in which electrodes and/or solutions of different compositions provide the electromotive potential. As long as there is a difference in temperature between the electrodes a <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a> will flow through the circuit. A thermogalvanic cell can be seen as analogous to a <a href="/wiki/Concentration_cell" title="Concentration cell">concentration cell</a> but instead of running on differences in the concentration/pressure of the reactants they make use of differences in the "concentrations" of thermal energy.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Quickenden1995_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quickenden1995-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The principal application of thermogalvanic cells is the production of electricity from low-temperature heat sources (<a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_energy" title="Solar thermal energy">solar heat</a>). Their energetic efficiency is low, in the range of 0.1% to 1% for conversion of heat into electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-Quickenden1995_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quickenden1995-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermogalvanic_cell&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The use of heat to empower galvanic cells was first studied around 1880.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However it was not until the 1950s that more serious research was undertaken in this field.<sup id="cite_ref-Agar1963_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Agar1963-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Working_mechanism">Working mechanism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermogalvanic_cell&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Working mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thermogalvanic cells are a kind of <a href="/wiki/Heat_engine" title="Heat engine">heat engine</a>. Ultimately the driving force behind them is the transport of <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> from the high temperature source to the low temperature sink.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, these cells work thanks to a thermal gradient established between different parts of the cell. Because the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">rate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">enthalpy</a> of chemical reactions depend directly on the temperature, different temperatures at the electrodes imply different <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">chemical equilibrium</a> constants. This translates into unequal chemical equilibrium conditions on the hot side and on the cold side. The thermocell tries to approach a homogeneous equilibrium and, in doing so, produces a flow of chemical species and electrons. The electrons flow through the path of least resistance (the outer circuit) making it possible to extract power from the cell. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermogalvanic_cell&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Different thermogalvanic cells have been constructed attending to their uses and properties. Usually they are classified according to the electrolyte employed in each specific type of cell. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aqueous_electrolytes">Aqueous electrolytes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermogalvanic_cell&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Aqueous electrolytes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In these cells the electrolyte between the electrodes is a water solution of some salt or hydrophylic compound.<sup id="cite_ref-Chum1981_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chum1981-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An essential property of these compounds is that they must be able to undergo <a href="/wiki/Redox_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Redox reaction">redox reactions</a> in order to shuttle electrons from one electrode to the other during the cell operation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-aqueous_electrolytes">Non-aqueous electrolytes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermogalvanic_cell&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Non-aqueous electrolytes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The electrolyte is a solution of some other solvent different from water.<sup id="cite_ref-Chum1981_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chum1981-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Solvents like <a href="/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acetone" title="Acetone">acetone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dimethyl_sulphoxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimethyl sulphoxide">dimethyl sulphoxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dimethyl_formamide" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimethyl formamide">dimethyl formamide</a> have been successfully employed in thermogalvanic cells running on copper sulfate.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Molten_salts">Molten salts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermogalvanic_cell&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Molten salts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In this type of thermocell the electrolyte is some kind of salt with a relatively low melting point. Their use solves two problems. On one hand the temperature range of the cell is much larger. This is an advantage as these cells produce more power the larger the difference between the hot and cold sides. On the other hand, the liquid salt directly provides the anions and cations necessary for sustainment of a current through the cell. Therefore, no additional current-carrying compounds are necessary as the melted salt is the electrolyte itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuzminskii1994_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuzminskii1994-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typical hot source temperatures are between 600–900 K, but can get as high as 1730 K. Cold sink temperatures are in the 400–500 K range. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solid_electrolytes">Solid electrolytes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermogalvanic_cell&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Solid electrolytes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thermocells in which the electrolyte connecting the electrodes is an ionic material have been considered and constructed too.<sup id="cite_ref-Chum1981_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chum1981-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The temperature range is also elevated as compared to liquid electrolytes. Studied systems fall in the 400–900 K. Some solid ionic materials that have been employed to construct thermogalvanic cells are <a href="/wiki/AgI" class="mw-redirect" title="AgI">AgI</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pbcl2" class="mw-redirect" title="Pbcl2">PbCl<sub>2</sub></a> and <a href="/wiki/PbBr2" class="mw-redirect" title="PbBr2">PbBr<sub>2</sub></a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermogalvanic_cell&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Thermogalvanic_cell" title="Special:EditPage/Thermogalvanic cell">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Thermogalvanic+cell%22">"Thermogalvanic cell"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Thermogalvanic+cell%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Thermogalvanic+cell%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Thermogalvanic+cell%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Thermogalvanic+cell%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Thermogalvanic+cell%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2025</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The main application of thermogalvanic cells is electricity production under conditions where excess heat is available. In particular thermogalvanic cells are being used in the following areas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solar_energy">Solar energy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermogalvanic_cell&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Solar energy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The heat collected from this process generates steam, which can be used in a conventional steam turbine system to make electricity. In contrast to the low-temperature solar thermal systems that are used for air or water heating in domestic or commercial buildings, these solar thermal electricity plants operate at high temperatures, requiring both concentrated sunlight and a large collection area, making the Moroccan desert an ideal location. </p><p>This is an alternative approach to the more widely used “photovoltaic” technology for producing electricity from sunlight. In a photovoltaic system, the sunlight is absorbed in the photovoltaic device (commonly called a solar cell) and energy is passed to electrons in the material, converting the solar energy directly into electricity. Sometimes, solar thermal electricity and photovoltaics are portrayed as competing technologies and, while this may be true when deciding on the way forward for a specific site, in general they are complementary, using solar energy as extensively as possible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermal_generators">Thermal generators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermogalvanic_cell&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Thermal generators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Waste_heat_sources">Waste heat sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermogalvanic_cell&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Waste heat sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thermogalvanic cells can be used to extract a useful quantity of energy from waste heat sources even when the temperature gradient is less than 100C (sometimes only a few tens of degrees). This is often the case in many industrial areas.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research has suggested that thermogalvanic hydrogel could be used to generate electricity from the heat produced by a mobile phone battery when the phone is using power, while also cooling the battery.<sup id="cite_ref-lee_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lee-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cooling">Cooling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermogalvanic_cell&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cooling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thermogalvanism uses chemical energy to move heat from a colder to a hotter body. It was claimed in 2025 that thermogalvanic cooling technology could be a sustainable alternative to the vapour compression technology used in <a href="/wiki/Refrigerator" title="Refrigerator">refrigerators</a>. It was claimed that the cooling power of hydrogalvanic cells could be improved by 70% by optimising electrolytes, and that this made cooling viable.<sup id="cite_ref-lee_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lee-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermogalvanic_cell&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output 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effect">Thermoelectric effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_generator" title="Thermoelectric generator">Thermoelectric generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OTEC" class="mw-redirect" title="OTEC">OTEC</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermogalvanic_cell&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChumOsteryoung1980" class="citation report cs1">Chum, H. 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style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galvanic_cell" title="Galvanic cell">Galvanic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_cell" title="Concentration cell">Concentration cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Electric battery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flow_battery" title="Flow battery">Flow battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trough_battery" title="Trough battery">Trough battery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Thermogalvanic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">Voltaic pile</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Galvanic_Cell.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Galvanic cell"><img alt="Galvanic cell" 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title="Aluminium–air battery">Aluminium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunsen_cell" title="Bunsen cell">Bunsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromic_acid_cell" title="Chromic acid cell">Chromic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_cell" title="Clark cell">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniell_cell" title="Daniell cell">Daniell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cell" title="Dry cell">Dry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison%E2%80%93Lalande_cell" title="Edison–Lalande cell">Edison–Lalande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grove_cell" title="Grove cell">Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leclanch%C3%A9_cell" title="Leclanché cell">Leclanché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_metal_battery" title="Lithium metal battery">Lithium metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_hybrid_organic_battery" title="Lithium hybrid organic battery">Lithium organic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">Lithium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_battery" title="Mercury battery">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93air_electrochemical_cell" title="Metal–air electrochemical cell">Metal–air electrochemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel_oxyhydroxide_battery" title="Nickel oxyhydroxide battery">Nickel oxyhydroxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Silicon–air battery">Silicon–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_oxide_battery" title="Silver oxide battery">Silver oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weston_cell" title="Weston cell">Weston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamboni_pile" title="Zamboni pile">Zamboni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Zinc–air battery">Zinc–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93carbon_battery" title="Zinc–carbon battery">Zinc–carbon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_battery" title="Rechargeable battery">Secondary cell</a><br /><span class="nobold">(rechargeable)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_battery" title="Automotive battery">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery" title="Lead–acid battery">Lead–acid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VRLA_battery" title="VRLA battery">gel–VRLA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">Lithium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">Lithium ion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dual_carbon_battery" title="Dual carbon battery">Dual carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_iron_phosphate_battery" title="Lithium iron phosphate battery">Lithium–iron–phosphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_polymer_battery" title="Lithium polymer battery">Lithium–polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Lithium–sulfur battery">Lithium–sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium-titanate_battery" title="Lithium-titanate battery">Lithium–titanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93air_electrochemical_cell" title="Metal–air electrochemical cell">Metal–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-salt_battery" title="Molten-salt battery">Molten salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanopore_battery" title="Nanopore battery">Nanopore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanowire_battery" title="Nanowire battery">Nanowire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Nickel–cadmium battery">Nickel–cadmium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93hydrogen_battery" title="Nickel–hydrogen battery">Nickel–hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93iron_battery" title="Nickel–iron battery">Nickel–iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93lithium_battery" title="Nickel–lithium battery">Nickel–lithium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93metal_hydride_battery" title="Nickel–metal hydride battery">Nickel–metal hydride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93zinc_battery" title="Nickel–zinc battery">Nickel–zinc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysulfide%E2%80%93bromide_battery" title="Polysulfide–bromide battery">Polysulfide–bromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium-ion_battery" title="Potassium-ion battery">Potassium ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_alkaline_battery" title="Rechargeable alkaline battery">Rechargeable alkaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Silver–cadmium battery">Silver–cadmium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_zinc_battery" title="Silver zinc battery">Silver–zinc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-ion_battery" title="Sodium-ion battery">Sodium ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Sodium–sulfur battery">Sodium–sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_battery" title="Solid-state battery">Solid state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanadium_redox_battery" title="Vanadium redox battery">Vanadium redox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93bromine_battery" title="Zinc–bromine battery">Zinc–bromine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93cerium_battery" title="Zinc–cerium battery">Zinc–cerium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Other cell</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_battery" title="Atomic battery">Atomic battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cell parts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">Anode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binder_(material)" title="Binder (material)">Binder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">Cathode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">Electrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">Electrolyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-cell" title="Half-cell">Half-cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_bridge" title="Salt bridge">Salt bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semipermeable_membrane" title="Semipermeable membrane">Semipermeable membrane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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