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id="mw-head-base" class="noprint"></div> <div id="content" class="mw-body" role="main"> <a id="top"></a> <div id="siteNotice"></div> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</h1> <div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content"> <div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> <div id="contentSub"></div> <div id="jump-to-nav" class="mw-jump"> Jump to: <a href="#mw-head">navigation</a>, <a href="#p-search">search</a> </div> <div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:22em"> <tr> <th colspan="2" class="summary" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;background-color: #EEDD82">The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nobel_Prize.png" class="image" title="A golden medallion with an embossed image of a bearded man facing left in profile. To the left of the man is the text "ALFR•" then "NOBEL", and on the right, the text (smaller) "NAT•" then "MDCCCXXXIII" above, followed by (smaller) "OB•" then "MDCCCXCVI" below."><img alt="A golden medallion with an embossed image of a bearded man facing left in profile. To the left of the man is the text "ALFR•" then "NOBEL", and on the right, the text (smaller) "NAT•" then "MDCCCXXXIII" above, followed by (smaller) "OB•" then "MDCCCXCVI" below." src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/220px-Nobel_Prize.png" width="220" height="216" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/330px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/440px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492"/></a></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left;width:33%;">Awarded for</th> <td>Discoveries in physiology or medicine that led to benefit for mankind</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left;width:33%;">Location</th> <td class="location"><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solna_Municipality" title="Solna Municipality">Solna</a> within the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm_urban_area" title="Stockholm urban area">Stockholm urban area</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left;width:33%;">Presented by</th> <td class="attendee"><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Assembly_at_Karolinska_Institutet" title="Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet">Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left;width:33%;">First awarded</th> <td>1901</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left;width:33%;">Official website</th> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/">nobelprize.org</a></td> </tr> </table> The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (<a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>: Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin) administered by the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Foundation" title="Nobel Foundation">Nobel Foundation</a>, is awarded once a year for outstanding discoveries in the fields of <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_sciences" title="Life sciences" class="mw-redirect">life sciences</a> and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>. It is one of five <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prizes</a> established in 1895 by Swedish chemist <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Nobel" title="Alfred Nobel">Alfred Nobel</a>, the inventor of <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamite" title="Dynamite">dynamite</a>, in his will. Nobel was personally interested in experimental physiology and wanted to establish a prize for progress through scientific discoveries in laboratories. The Nobel prize is presented to the recipient(s) at an annual ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death, along with a diploma and a certificate for the monetary award. The front side of the medal provides the same profile of <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Nobel" title="Alfred Nobel">Alfred Nobel</a> as depicted on the medals for Physics, Chemistry, and Literature; its reverse side is unique to this medal. As of 2014, 105 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 206 men and 11 women. The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologist" title="Physiologist" class="mw-redirect">physiologist</a> <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Adolf_von_Behring" title="Emil Adolf von Behring" class="mw-redirect">Emil Adolf von Behring</a>, for his work on <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">serum</a> therapy and the development of a <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccine</a> against <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a>. The first woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerty_Cori" title="Gerty Cori">Gerty Cori</a>, received it in 1947 for her role in elucidating the metabolism of <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>, important in many aspects of medicine, including treatment of diabetes. Some awards have been controversial. This includes one to <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Egas_Moniz" title="António Egas Moniz">António Egas Moniz</a> in 1949 for the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobotomy" title="Lobotomy">prefrontal leucotomy</a>, bestowed despite protests from the medical establishment. Other controversies resulted from disagreements over who was included in the award. The 1952 prize to <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selman_Waksman" title="Selman Waksman">Selman Waksman</a> was litigated in court, and half the patent rights awarded to his co-discoverer <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Schatz_(scientist)" title="Albert Schatz (scientist)">Albert Schatz</a> who was not recognized by the prize. The 1962 prize awarded to <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watson" title="James D. Watson" class="mw-redirect">James D. Watson</a>, <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a> for their work on <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> structure and properties did not acknowledge the contributing work from others, such as <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald_Avery" title="Oswald Avery">Oswald Avery</a> and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a> who had died by the time of the nomination. Since the Nobel Prize rules forbid nominations of the deceased, longevity is an asset, one prize being awarded as long as 50 years after the discovery. Also forbidden is awarding any one prize to more than three recipients, and since in the last half century there has been an increasing tendency for scientists to work as teams, this rule has resulted in controversial exclusions. <div id="toc" class="toc"> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Background">1 Background</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Nomination_and_selection">2 Nomination and selection</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Prizes">3 Prizes</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Medals">3.1 Medals</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Diplomas">3.2 Diplomas</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Award_money">3.3 Award money</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Ceremony_and_banquet">3.4 Ceremony and banquet</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Laureates">4 Laureates</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Time_factor_and_death">4.1 Time factor and death</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Controversial_inclusions_and_exclusions">4.2 Controversial inclusions and exclusions</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Limits_on_number_of_awardees">4.3 Limits on number of awardees</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Years_without_awards">5 Years without awards</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#References">6 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Bibliography">7 Bibliography</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Further_reading">8 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#External_links">9 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> <h2><a href="#Background" class="mw-headline-anchor" aria-hidden="true" title="Link to this section">§</a>Background[<a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AlfredNobel_adjusted.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/AlfredNobel_adjusted.jpg/220px-AlfredNobel_adjusted.jpg" width="220" height="296" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/AlfredNobel_adjusted.jpg/330px-AlfredNobel_adjusted.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/AlfredNobel_adjusted.jpg/440px-AlfredNobel_adjusted.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1872" data-file-height="2516"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AlfredNobel_adjusted.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Nobel was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own laboratories.</div> </div> </div> <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Nobel" title="Alfred Nobel">Alfred Nobel</a> was born on 21 October 1833 in <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a>, Sweden into a family of engineers.<a href="#cite_note-Levinovitz5-1">[1]</a> He was a chemist, engineer and inventor who amassed a fortune during his lifetime, most of it from his 355 inventions of which dynamite is the most famous.<a href="#cite_note-Levinovitz11-2">[2]</a> He was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own labs in France and Italy to conduct experiments in blood transfusions. Keeping abreast of scientific findings, he was generous in his donations to <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a>'s laboratory in Russia, and was optimistic about the progress resulting from scientific discoveries made in laboratories.<a href="#cite_note-Feldman237-238-3">[3]</a> In 1888, Nobel was surprised to read his own obituary, titled ‘The merchant of death is dead’, in a French newspaper. As it happened, it was Nobel's brother <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludvig_Nobel" title="Ludvig Nobel">Ludvig</a> who had died, but Nobel, unhappy with the content of the obituary and concerned that his legacy would reflect poorly on him, was inspired to change his will.<a href="#cite_note-Time-4">[4]</a> In his last will, Nobel requested that his money be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the "greatest benefit on mankind" in <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">peace</a>, <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> or <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BBCHistory-5">[5]</a> Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died at the age of 63.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Because his will was contested, it was not approved by the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Norway" title="Parliament of Norway" class="mw-redirect">Storting</a> (Norwegian Parliament) until 26 April 1897.<a href="#cite_note-Levinovitz13-7">[7]</a> After Nobel's death, the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Foundation" title="Nobel Foundation">Nobel Foundation</a> was set up to manage the assets of the bequest.<a href="#cite_note-nobelfoundation-8">[8]</a> In 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statutes</a> were promulgated by Swedish King <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_II_of_Sweden" title="Oscar II of Sweden">Oscar II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-thelocal1-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Levinovitz14-10">[10]</a> According to Nobel's will, the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska_Institutet" title="Karolinska Institutet">Karolinska Institutet</a> in Sweden, a medical school and research center, is responsible for the Prize in Physiology or Medicine.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Today the prize is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine.<a href="#cite_note-Levinovitz112-12">[12]</a> <h2><a href="#Nomination_and_selection" class="mw-headline-anchor" aria-hidden="true" title="Link to this section">§</a>Nomination and selection[<a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Nomination and selection">edit</a>]</h2> It was important to Nobel that the prize be awarded for a "discovery" and that it was of "greatest benefit on mankind".<a href="#cite_note-Lindsten-13">[13]</a> Per the provisions of the will, only select persons are eligible to nominate individuals for the award. These include members of academies around the world, professors of medicine in Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Iceland and Finland, as well as professors of selected universities and research institutions in other lands. Past Nobel laureates may also nominate.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Until 1977, all professors of Karolinska Institutet together decided on the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. That year, changes in Swedish law forced the Institute to make any documents pertaining to the Nobel Prize public and it was considered necessary to establish a legally independent body for the Prize work. Therefore, the Nobel Assembly was constituted, consisting of 50 professors at Karolinska Institutet. It elects the Nobel Committee with 5 members who evaluate the nominees, the Secretary who is in charge of the organization, and each year 10 adjunct members to assist in the evaluation of candidates. In 1968, a provision was added that no more than three persons may share a Nobel prize.<a href="#cite_note-Levinovitz17-15">[15]</a> True to its mandate, the Committee has selected researchers working in the basic sciences over those who have made applied contributions. <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_Cushing" title="Harvey Cushing">Harvey Cushing</a>, a pioneering American <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosurgeon" title="Neurosurgeon" class="mw-redirect">neurosurgeon</a> who identified <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cushing%27s_syndrome" title="Cushing's syndrome">Cushing's syndrome</a> never was awarded the prize, nor was <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>, as his <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a> lacks hypotheses that can be tested experimentally.<a href="#cite_note-Feldman238-16">[16]</a> The public expected <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a> or <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Sabin" title="Albert Sabin">Albert Sabin</a> to receive the prize for their development of the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polio_vaccine" title="Polio vaccine">polio vaccines</a>, but instead the award went to <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Enders" title="John Enders" class="mw-redirect">John Enders</a>, <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Weller" title="Thomas Weller">Thomas Weller</a>, and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Robbins" title="Frederick Robbins" class="mw-redirect">Frederick Robbins</a> whose basic discovery that the polio virus could reproduce in monkey cells in laboratory preparations was a fundamental finding that led to the elimination of the disease of polio.<a href="#cite_note-bishop-17">[17]</a> Through the 1930s, there were frequent prize laureates in classical <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>, but after that the field began dissolving into specialties. The last classical physiology laureates were <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Eccles_(neurophysiologist)" title="John Eccles (neurophysiologist)">John Eccles</a>, <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Hodgkin" title="Alan Hodgkin" class="mw-redirect">Alan Hodgkin</a> and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a> in 1963 for their findings regarding "unitary electrical events in the central and peripheral nervous system."<a href="#cite_note-Feldman239-18">[18]</a> <h2><a href="#Prizes" class="mw-headline-anchor" aria-hidden="true" title="Link to this section">§</a>Prizes[<a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Prizes">edit</a>]</h2> A Medicine or Physiology Nobel Prize laureate, earns a <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_medal" title="Gold medal">gold medal</a>, a <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diploma" title="Diploma">diploma</a> bearing a <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation" title="Citation">citation</a>, and a sum of money.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> These are awarded at the Nobel Banquet. <h3><a href="#Medals" class="mw-headline-anchor" aria-hidden="true" title="Link to this section">§</a>Medals[<a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Medals">edit</a>]</h3> The Nobel Prize medals, minted by <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myntverket" title="Myntverket">Myntverket</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> in Sweden are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse (front side of the medal). The Nobel Prize medals for Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death (1833–1896). Before 1980, the medals were made of 23K gold; since then the medals are of 18K green gold, plated with 23K gold.<a href="#cite_note-ceptualinstitute1-21">[21]</a> The medal awarded by the Karolinska Institute displays an image of "the Genius of Medicine holding an open book in her lap, collecting the water pouring out from a rock in order to quench a sick girl's thirst." The medal is inscribed with words taken from Virgil's <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> and reads: Inventas vitam juvat excoluisse per artes, which translates to "inventions enhance life which is beautified through art."<a href="#cite_note-nobelmedal-22">[22]</a> <h3><a href="#Diplomas" class="mw-headline-anchor" aria-hidden="true" title="Link to this section">§</a>Diplomas[<a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Diplomas">edit</a>]</h3> Nobel laureates receive a Diploma directly from the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Sweden" title="King of Sweden" class="mw-redirect">King of Sweden</a>. Each Diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureate that receives it. In the case of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, that is the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institute. Well-known artists and calligraphers from Sweden are commissioned to create it.<a href="#cite_note-nobelprize5-23">[23]</a> The Diploma contains a picture and text which states the name of the laureate and a citation as to why they received the prize.<a href="#cite_note-nobelprize5-23">[23]</a> <h3><a href="#Award_money" class="mw-headline-anchor" aria-hidden="true" title="Link to this section">§</a>Award money[<a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Award money">edit</a>]</h3> The amount of prize money fluctuates depending on how much money the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Foundation" title="Nobel Foundation">Nobel Foundation</a> can award that year, and is awarded in <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_kronor" title="Swedish kronor" class="mw-redirect">Swedish kronor</a> (SEK).<a href="#cite_note-prizemoney-24">[24]</a> The first award in 1901 was for 150,782 kronor (7,872,648 kronor in 2009 value).<a href="#cite_note-prizemoney-24">[24]</a> In 2009, the prize money totaled 10,000,000 kronor.<a href="#cite_note-prizemoney-24">[24]</a> Due to budget cuts, in 2012, the amount for each Nobel prize was 8 million Swedish Krona, or US$1.1 million.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> If there are two laureates in a particular category, the award grant is divided equally between the recipients. If there are three, the awarding committee has the option of dividing the grant equally, or awarding one-half to one recipient and one-quarter to each of the others.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <h3><a href="#Ceremony_and_banquet" class="mw-headline-anchor" aria-hidden="true" title="Link to this section">§</a>Ceremony and banquet[<a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ceremony and banquet">edit</a>]</h3> The awards are bestowed at a gala ceremony followed by a banquet.<a href="#cite_note-local-27">[27]</a> The Nobel Banquet is an extravagant affair with the menu, planned months ahead of time, kept secret until the day of the event. The Nobel Foundation chooses the menu after tasting and testing selections submitted by selected chefs of international repute. Currently it is a three course dinner, although it was originally six courses when it began in 1901. Every Nobel Prize laureate is allowed to bring up to 16 guests, and Sweden's royal family is always there. Typically the Prime Minister and other members of the government attend as well as representatives of the Nobel family.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <h2><a href="#Laureates" class="mw-headline-anchor" aria-hidden="true" title="Link to this section">§</a>Laureates[<a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Laureates">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine">List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine</a></div> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lorenz_and_Tinbergen1.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Lorenz_and_Tinbergen1.jpg/220px-Lorenz_and_Tinbergen1.jpg" width="220" height="152" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Lorenz_and_Tinbergen1.jpg/330px-Lorenz_and_Tinbergen1.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Lorenz_and_Tinbergen1.jpg/440px-Lorenz_and_Tinbergen1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2087" data-file-height="1440"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lorenz_and_Tinbergen1.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a> (left), <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> (right) was awarded (with <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a>) for their discoveries concerning animal behavior.<a href="#cite_note-nobel-1973-29">[29]</a></div> </div> </div> The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> physiologist <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Adolf_von_Behring" title="Emil Adolf von Behring" class="mw-redirect">Emil Adolf von Behring</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Feldman242-30">[30]</a> Behring's discovery of <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serum_therapy" title="Serum therapy" class="mw-redirect">serum therapy</a> in the development of the diphtheria and tetanus vaccines put "in the hands of the physician a victorious weapon against illness and deaths".<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Behring-32">[32]</a> In 1902, the award went to <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Ronald Ross</a> for his work on malaria, "by which he has shown how it enters the organism and thereby has laid the foundation for successful research on this disease and methods of combating it".<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> He identified the mosquito as the transmitter of malaria, and worked tirelessly on measures to prevent malaria worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The 1903 prize was awarded to <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Ryberg_Finsen" title="Niels Ryberg Finsen">Niels Ryberg Finsen</a>, the first Danish laureate, "in recognition of his contribution to the treatment of diseases, especially <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lupus_vulgaris" title="Lupus vulgaris">lupus vulgaris</a>, with <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phototherapy" title="Phototherapy" class="mw-redirect">concentrated light radiation</a>, whereby he has opened a new avenue for medical science".<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> He died within a year after receiving the prize at the age of 43.<a href="#cite_note-finsen-38">[38]</a> <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a>, whose work Nobel admired and supported, received the prize in 1904 for his work on the physiology of <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">digestion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Subsequently, those selecting the recipients have exercised wide latitude in determining what falls under the umbrella of Physiology or Medicine. The awarding of the prize in 1973 to <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a>, <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a> for their observations of animal behavioral patterns could be considered a prize in the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" title="Behavioral sciences" class="mw-redirect">behavioral sciences</a> rather than medicine or physiology.<a href="#cite_note-Levinovitz112-12">[12]</a> Tinbergen expressed surprise in his Nobel Prize acceptance speech at "the unconventional decision of the Nobel Foundation to award this year’s prize ‘for Physiology or Medicine’ to three men who had until recently been regarded as ‘mere animal watchers’".<a href="#cite_note-Tinbergen-40">[40]</a> Laureates have been awarded the Nobel Prize in a wide range of fields that relate to physiology or medicine. As of 2010<a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit">[update]</a>, eight Prizes have been awarded for contributions in the field of <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_transduction" title="Signal transduction">signal transduction</a> through <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_protein" title="G protein">G proteins</a> and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_messenger" title="Second messenger" class="mw-redirect">second messengers</a>. 13 have been awarded for contributions in the field of <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurobiology" title="Neurobiology" class="mw-redirect">neurobiology</a><a href="#cite_note-nervesignaling-41">[41]</a> and 13 have been awarded for contributions in <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Intermediary metabolism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The 100 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 195 individuals through 2009.<a href="#cite_note-factsmedprize-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-prizefacts-44">[44]</a> Ten women have received the prize: <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerty_Cori" title="Gerty Cori">Gerty Cori</a> (1947), <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalyn_Yalow" title="Rosalyn Yalow" class="mw-redirect">Rosalyn Yalow</a> (1977), <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a> (1983), <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a> (1986), <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gertrude_B._Elion" title="Gertrude B. Elion">Gertrude B. Elion</a> (1988), <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiane_N%C3%BCsslein-Volhard" title="Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard">Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard</a> (1995), <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linda_B._Buck" title="Linda B. Buck">Linda B. Buck</a> (2004), <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi" title="Françoise Barré-Sinoussi">Françoise Barré-Sinoussi</a> (2008), <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_H._Blackburn" title="Elizabeth H. Blackburn" class="mw-redirect">Elizabeth H. Blackburn</a> (2009) and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_W._Greider" title="Carol W. Greider">Carol W. Greider</a> (2009).<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Only one woman, Barbara McClintock, has received an unshared prize in this category, for the discovery of genetic <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transposon" title="Transposon" class="mw-redirect">transposition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-factsmedprize-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-McClintock-46">[46]</a> <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Capecchi" title="Mario Capecchi">Mario Capecchi</a>, <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Evans" title="Martin Evans">Martin Evans</a> and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Smithies" title="Oliver Smithies">Oliver Smithies</a> was awarded the prize in 2007 for the discovery of a <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_targeting" title="Gene targeting">gene targeting</a> procedure (a type of <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">genetic recombination</a>) for introducing <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombination</a> in mice, employing <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryonic_stem_cell" title="Embryonic stem cell">embryonic stem cells</a> through the development of the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knockout_mouse" title="Knockout mouse">knockout mouse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hansson-48">[48]</a> There have been 37 times when the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to a single individual, 31 times when it was shared by two, and 33 times there were three laureates (the maximum allowed). In 2009, the Nobel Prize was awarded to <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackburn" title="Elizabeth Blackburn">Elizabeth Blackburn</a>, <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_W._Greider" title="Carol W. Greider">Carol W. Greider</a> and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_W._Szostak" title="Jack W. Szostak">Jack W. Szostak</a> of the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> for discovering the process by which <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> are protected by <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telomere" title="Telomere">telomeres</a> (regions of repetitive <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> at the ends of <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a>) and the enzyme <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telomerase" title="Telomerase">telomerase</a>; they shared the prize of 10,000,000 <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_krona" title="Swedish krona">SEK</a> (slightly more than <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">€</a>1 million, or <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US$</a>1.4 million).<a href="#cite_note-Wade-49">[49]</a> Rita Levi-Montalcini, an <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian</a> <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">neurologist</a>, who together with colleague <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Cohen_(doctor)" title="Stanley Cohen (doctor)" class="mw-redirect">Stanley Cohen</a>, received the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerve_growth_factor" title="Nerve growth factor">Nerve growth factor (NGF)</a>, was the first Nobel laureate to reach the 100th birthday.<a href="#cite_note-prizefacts-44">[44]</a> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gerty_Theresa_Cori.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Gerty_Theresa_Cori.jpg/170px-Gerty_Theresa_Cori.jpg" width="170" height="240" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Gerty_Theresa_Cori.jpg/255px-Gerty_Theresa_Cori.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Gerty_Theresa_Cori.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gerty_Theresa_Cori.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> In 1947, <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerty_Cori" title="Gerty Cori">Gerty Cori</a> was the first woman to be awarded the Prize in Physiology or Medicine.</div> </div> </div> <h3><a href="#Time_factor_and_death" class="mw-headline-anchor" aria-hidden="true" title="Link to this section">§</a>Time factor and death[<a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Time factor and death">edit</a>]</h3> Because of the length of time that may pass before the significance of a discovery becomes apparent, some prizes are awarded many years after the initial discovery. Barbara McClintock made her discoveries in 1944, before the structure of the DNA molecule was known; she was not awarded the prize until 1983. Similarly, in 1916 <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peyton_Rous" title="Peyton Rous" class="mw-redirect">Peyton Rous</a> discovered the role of tumor viruses in chickens, but was not awarded the prize until 50 years later, in 1966.<a href="#cite_note-Levinovitz114-50">[50]</a> Nobel laureate <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_Greider" title="Carol Greider" class="mw-redirect">Carol Greider</a>'s research leading to the prize was conducted over 20 years before. She noted that the passage of time is an advantage in the medical sciences, as it may take many years for the significance of a discovery to become apparent.<a href="#cite_note-Dreifus-51">[51]</a> The 2009 award in medicine was the first in the Nobel Prize's history that more than one woman has been the recipient of the Nobel Prize in a single year.<a href="#cite_note-harmon-52">[52]</a> It is also the first time two women have been awarded the Physiology or Medicine prize.<a href="#cite_note-discoverynews-53">[53]</a> In 2011, Canadian immunologist <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman">Ralph M. Steinman</a> was awarded the prize; however, unknown to the committee, he had died three days before the announcement. The committee decided that since the prize was awarded "in good faith," it would be allowed to stand. <h3><a href="#Controversial_inclusions_and_exclusions" class="mw-headline-anchor" aria-hidden="true" title="Link to this section">§</a>Controversial inclusions and exclusions[<a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Controversial inclusions and exclusions">edit</a>]</h3> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_controversies" title="Nobel Prize controversies">Nobel Prize controversies</a></div> Some of the awards have been controversial. The person who was deserving of the 1923 prize for the discovery of <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a> as a central hormone for controlling diabetes (awarded only a year after its discovery)<a href="#cite_note-Judson291-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shalev-55">[55]</a> has been heatedly debated. It was shared between <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Banting" title="Frederick Banting">Frederick Banting</a> and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_James_Rickard_Macleod" title="John James Rickard Macleod">John Macleod</a>; this infuriated Banting who regarded Macleod's involvement as minimal. Macleod was the department head at the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Toronto" title="University of Toronto">University of Toronto</a> but otherwise was not directly involved in the findings. Banting thought his laboratory partner <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Herbert_Best" title="Charles Herbert Best">Charles Best</a>, who had shared in the laboratory work of discovery, should have shared the prize with him as well. In fairness, he decided to give half of his prize money to Best. Macleod on his part felt the biochemist <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Collip" title="James Collip">James Collip</a>, who joined the laboratory team later, deserved to be included in the award and shared his prize money with him.<a href="#cite_note-Judson291-54">[54]</a> Some maintain that <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolae_Paulescu" title="Nicolae Paulescu">Nicolae Paulescu</a>, a <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanians" title="Romanians">Romanian</a> professor of physiology at the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_Davila_University_of_Medicine_and_Pharmacy" title="Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy">University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Bucharest</a>, was the first to isolate insulin, in 1916, although his pancrein was an impure aqueous extract unfit for human treatment similar to the one used previously by Israel Kleiner.<a href="#cite_note-J._Nutrition_92-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-nrjs-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-nrps-58">[58]</a> In the paper that brought him the Nobel,<a href="#cite_note-nrks-59">[59]</a> Paulescu already held a patent for his discovery (10 April 1922, patent no. 6254 (8322) "Pancreina şi procedeul fabricaţiei ei"/"Pancrein and the process of making it", from the Romanian Ministry of Industry and Trade).<a href="#cite_note-nrms-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-nrns-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-nrqs-62">[62]</a> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Montagnier-Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi-zur_Hausen-press_conference_Dec_06th,_2008-1.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Montagnier-Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi-zur_Hausen-press_conference_Dec_06th%2C_2008-1.jpg/220px-Montagnier-Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi-zur_Hausen-press_conference_Dec_06th%2C_2008-1.jpg" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Montagnier-Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi-zur_Hausen-press_conference_Dec_06th%2C_2008-1.jpg/330px-Montagnier-Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi-zur_Hausen-press_conference_Dec_06th%2C_2008-1.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Montagnier-Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi-zur_Hausen-press_conference_Dec_06th%2C_2008-1.jpg/440px-Montagnier-Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi-zur_Hausen-press_conference_Dec_06th%2C_2008-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Montagnier-Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi-zur_Hausen-press_conference_Dec_06th,_2008-1.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Scandal and controversy resulted from the 2008 award to <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harald_zur_Hausen" title="Harald zur Hausen">Harald zur Hausen</a> for the discovery of <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPV" title="HPV" class="mw-redirect">HPV</a>, and to <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi" title="Françoise Barré-Sinoussi">Françoise Barré-Sinoussi</a> and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luc_Montagnier" title="Luc Montagnier">Luc Montagnier</a> for discovering <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_immunodeficiency_virus" title="Human immunodeficiency virus" class="mw-redirect">HIV</a>.</div> </div> </div> In 1949, despite protests from the medical establishment, the Portuguese neurologist <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Egas_Moniz" title="António Egas Moniz">António Egas Moniz</a> received the Physiology or Medicine Prize for his development of the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_leucotomy" title="Prefrontal leucotomy" class="mw-redirect">prefrontal leucotomy</a>, which he promoted by declaring the procedure's success just 10 days postoperative. Due largely to the publicity surrounding the award, it was prescribed without regard for modern <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">medical ethics</a>. Favorable results were reported by such publications as <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. It is estimated that around 40,000 lobotomies were performed in the United States before the procedure's popularity faded.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Kennedy" title="Joseph Kennedy" class="mw-redirect">Joseph Kennedy</a>, the father of <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John Kennedy</a>, subjected his daughter, <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosemary_Kennedy" title="Rosemary Kennedy">Rosemary</a>, to the procedure which incapacitated her to the degree that she needed to be institutionalized for the rest of her life.<a href="#cite_note-Feldman287-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> The 1952 prize, awarded solely to <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selman_Waksman" title="Selman Waksman">Selman Waksman</a> for his discovery of <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptomycin" title="Streptomycin">streptomycin</a>, omitted the recognition some felt due to his co-discoverer <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Schatz_(scientist)" title="Albert Schatz (scientist)">Albert Schatz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pharmj-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wainwright-67">[67]</a> There was litigation brought by Schatz against Waksman over the details and credit of the streptomycin discovery; Schatz was awarded a substantial settlement, and, together with Waksman, Schatz was to be officially recognized as a co-discoverer of streptomycin as concerned patent rights. However, he is not recognized as a Nobel Prize laureate.<a href="#cite_note-pharmj-66">[66]</a> The 1962 Prize awarded to <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watson" title="James D. Watson" class="mw-redirect">James D. Watson</a>, <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a>—for their work on <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> structure and properties—did not recognize contributing work from others, such as <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alec_Stokes" title="Alec Stokes" class="mw-redirect">Alec Stokes</a> and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Wilson" title="Herbert Wilson">Herbert Wilson</a>. In addition, <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Chargaff" title="Erwin Chargaff">Erwin Chargaff</a>, <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald_Avery" title="Oswald Avery">Oswald Avery</a> and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a> (whose key DNA <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystallography" title="X-ray crystallography">x-ray crystallography</a> work was the most detailed yet least acknowledged among the three)<a href="#cite_note-franklin-68">[68]</a> contributed directly to the ability of Watson and Crick to solve the structure of the DNA molecule—but Avery died in 1955, and Franklin in 1958 and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize#Posthumous_nominations" title="Nobel Prize">posthumous nominations</a> for the Nobel Prize are not permitted. However, recently unsealed files of the Nobel Prize nominations reveal that no one ever nominated Franklin for the prize when she was alive.<a href="#cite_note-Fredholm-69">[69]</a> Wilkins' only contribution was to show Rosalind Franklin's key x-ray photos to Watson.<a href="#cite_note-nytimesnobel-70">[70]</a> As a result of Watson's misrepresentations of Franklin and her role in the discovery of the double helix in his controversial book <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Double_Helix" title="The Double Helix">The Double Helix</a>, Franklin has come to be portrayed as a classic victim of sexism in science.<a href="#cite_note-Holt-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Chargaff, for his part, was not quiet about his exclusion from the prize, bitterly writing to other scientists about his disillusionment regarding the field of molecular biology.<a href="#cite_note-nytimesnobel-70">[70]</a> The 2008 award went to <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harald_zur_Hausen" title="Harald zur Hausen">Harald zur Hausen</a> in recognition of his discovery that <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPV" title="HPV" class="mw-redirect">human papillomavirus (HPV)</a> can cause <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">cervical cancer</a>, and to <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi" title="Françoise Barré-Sinoussi">Françoise Barré-Sinoussi</a> and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luc_Montagnier" title="Luc Montagnier">Luc Montagnier</a> for discovering the <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_immunodeficiency_virus" title="Human immunodeficiency virus" class="mw-redirect">human immunodeficiency virus</a> (HIV).<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Whether <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gallo" title="Robert Gallo">Robert Gallo</a> or Luc Montagnier deserved more credit for the discovery of the virus that causes AIDS has been a matter of <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gallo#HIV.2FAIDS_research_and_subsequent_controversy" title="Robert Gallo">considerable controversy</a>. As it was, Gallo was left out and not awarded a prize.<a href="#cite_note-science_nobel-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Additionally, there was scandal when it was learned that Harald zur Hausen was being investigated for having a financial interest in vaccines for the cervical cancer that HPV can cause. <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AstraZeneca" title="AstraZeneca">AstraZeneca</a>, who with a stake in two lucrative HPV vaccines could benefit financially from the prize, had agreed to sponsor Nobel Media and Nobel Web. According to Times Online, two senior figures in the selection process that chose zur Hausen also had strong links with AstraZeneca.<a href="#cite_note-AstraZeneca-76">[76]</a> <h3><a href="#Limits_on_number_of_awardees" class="mw-headline-anchor" aria-hidden="true" title="Link to this section">§</a>Limits on number of awardees[<a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Limits on number of awardees">edit</a>]</h3> The provision that restricts the maximum number of nominees to three for any one prize, introduced in 1968, has caused considerable controversy.<a href="#cite_note-Levinovitz17-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Levinovitz61-77">[77]</a> From the 1950s onward, there has been an increasing trend to award the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to more than one person. There were 59 people who received the prize in the first 50 years of the last century, while 113 individuals received it between 1951 and 2000. This increase could be attributed to the rise of the international scientific community after World War II, resulting in more persons being responsible for the discovery, and nominated for, a particular prize. Also, current biomedical research is more often carried out by teams rather than by scientists working alone, making it unlikely that any one scientist, or even a few, is primarily responsible for a discovery;<a href="#cite_note-bishop-17">[17]</a> this has meant that a prize nomination that would have to include more than three contributors is automatically excluded from consideration.<a href="#cite_note-Levinovitz114-50">[50]</a> Also, deserving contributors may not be nominated at all because the restriction results in a cut off point of three nominees per prize, leading to controversial exclusions.<a href="#cite_note-Lindsten-13">[13]</a> <h2><a href="#Years_without_awards" class="mw-headline-anchor" aria-hidden="true" title="Link to this section">§</a>Years without awards[<a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Years without awards">edit</a>]</h2> There have been nine years in which the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was not awarded (1915–1918, 1921, 1925, 1940–1942). Most of these occurred during either World War I (1914–1918) or World War II (1939–1945).<a href="#cite_note-prizefacts-44">[44]</a> In 1939, <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>'s <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Reich" title="Third Reich" class="mw-redirect">Third Reich</a> forbade <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Domagk" title="Gerhard Domagk">Gerhard Domagk</a> to accept his prize.<a href="#cite_note-Levinovitz23-78">[78]</a> He was later able to receive the diploma and medal but not the money.<a href="#cite_note-prizefacts-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <h2><a href="#References" class="mw-headline-anchor" aria-hidden="true" title="Link to this section">§</a>References[<a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="reflist references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Levinovitz5-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Levinovitz5_1-0">^</a> <a href="#Levinovitz">Levinovitz</a>, p. 5</li> <li id="cite_note-Levinovitz11-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Levinovitz11_2-0">^</a> <a href="#Levinovitz">Levinovitz</a>, p. 11</li> <li id="cite_note-Feldman237-238-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Feldman237-238_3-0">^</a> <a href="#Feldman">Feldman</a>, pp. 237–238</li> <li id="cite_note-Time-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Time_4-0">^</a> Golden, Frederic (16 October 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,998209,00.html">"The Worst And The Brightest"</a>. <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Magazine" title="Time Magazine" class="mw-redirect">Time Magazine</a> (Time Warner). 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The Nobel Foundation. p. 13. <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-370-30990-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-370-30990-1">0-370-30990-1</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.aufirst=Ragnar&rft.aulast=Sohlman&rft.au=Sohlman%2C+Ragnar&rft.btitle=The+Legacy+of+Alfred+Nobel+%E2%80%93+The+Story+Behind+the+Nobel+Prizes&rft.date=1983&rft.edition=First&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-370-30990-1&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=The+Nobel+Foundation&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Levinovitz13-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Levinovitz13_7-0">^</a> <a href="#Levinovitz">Levinovitz</a>, p. 13</li> <li id="cite_note-nobelfoundation-8"><a href="#cite_ref-nobelfoundation_8-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://web.archive.org/web/19960101-re_/http://nobelprize.org/nobelfoundation/index.html">"The Nobel Foundation"</a>. nobelprize.org. 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Infoplease.com. 13 October 1999. Retrieved 15 January 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=Nobel+Prize+History+%E2%80%94&rft.date=13+October+1999&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoplease.com%2Fspot%2Fnobel-prize-history.html&rft.pub=Infoplease.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Levinovitz112-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Levinovitz112_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levinovitz112_12-1">b</a> <a href="#Levinovitz">Levinovitz</a>, p. 112</li> <li id="cite_note-Lindsten-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lindsten_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindsten_13-1">b</a> Lindsten, Jan; Nils Ringertz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/articles/lindsten-ringertz-rev/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1901–2000"</a>. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 11 July 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft.aulast=Lindsten&rft.au=Lindsten%2C+Jan&rft.au=Nils+Ringertz&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine%2C+1901%E2%80%932000&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Farticles%2Flindsten-ringertz-rev%2Findex.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Foundation Books National Council of Science (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://books.google.com/?id=_K2RaFgFPCUC&printsec=frontcover">Nobel Prize Winners in Pictures</a>. Foundation Books. p. viii. <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7596-245-3" title="Special:BookSources/81-7596-245-3">81-7596-245-3</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.au=Foundation+Books+National+Council+of+Science&rft.aulast=Foundation+Books+National+Council+of+Science&rft.btitle=Nobel+Prize+Winners+in+Pictures&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D_K2RaFgFPCUC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover&rft.isbn=81-7596-245-3&rft.pages=viii&rft.pub=Foundation+Books&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Levinovitz17-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Levinovitz17_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levinovitz17_15-1">b</a> <a href="#Levinovitz">Levinovitz</a>, p. 17</li> <li id="cite_note-Feldman238-16"><a href="#cite_ref-Feldman238_16-0">^</a> <a href="#Feldman">Feldman</a>, p. 238</li> <li id="cite_note-bishop-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bishop_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bishop_17-1">b</a> Bishop, J. 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Retrieved 15 January 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.aulast=Sample&rft.au=Sample%2C+Ian&rft.btitle=Nobel+prize+for+medicine+shared+by+scientists+for+work+on+ageing+and+cancer&rft.date=5+October+2009&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.guardian.co.uk%2Fscience%2F2009%2Foct%2F05%2Fnobel-prize-medicine-2009-award&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Guardian&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-local-27"><a href="#cite_ref-local_27-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://www.thelocal.se/23784/20091210/">"Pomp aplenty as winners gather for Nobel gala"</a>. The Local. 10 December 2009. Retrieved 22 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=Pomp+aplenty+as+winners+gather+for+Nobel+gala&rft.date=10+December+2009&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelocal.se%2F23784%2F20091210%2F&rft.pub=The+Local&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://www.dnaindia.com/world/report_nobel-laureates-dinner-banquet-tomorrow-at-stokholm-city-hall_1321860">"Nobel Laureates dinner banquet tomorrow at Stokholm City Hall"</a>. DNA. 9 December 2009. Retrieved 18 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=Nobel+Laureates+dinner+banquet+tomorrow+at+Stokholm+City+Hall&rft.date=9+December+2009&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dnaindia.com%2Fworld%2Freport_nobel-laureates-dinner-banquet-tomorrow-at-stokholm-city-hall_1321860&rft.pub=DNA&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-1973-29"><a href="#cite_ref-nobel-1973_29-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1973/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1973"</a>. Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 28 July 2007.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1973&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1973%2Findex.html&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Feldman242-30"><a href="#cite_ref-Feldman242_30-0">^</a> <a href="#Feldman">Feldman</a>, p. 242</li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1901/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1901 Emil von Behring"</a>. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 1 July 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1901+Emil+von+Behring&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1901%2Findex.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Behring-32"><a href="#cite_ref-Behring_32-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://web.archive.org/web/20080513155541/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/articles/behring/index.html">"Emil von Behring: The Founder of Serum Therapy"</a>. Nobelprize.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/articles/behring/index.html">the original</a> on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 1 July 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=Emil+von+Behring%3A+The+Founder+of+Serum+Therapy&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Farticles%2Fbehring%2Findex.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1902/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1902 Ronald Ross"</a>. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 20 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1902+Ronald+Ross&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1902%2Findex.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/510100/Sir-Ronald-Ross">"Sir Ronald Ross"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 20 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=Sir+Ronald+Ross&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F510100%2FSir-Ronald-Ross&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1902/ross-bio.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1902 Ronald Ross"</a>. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 21 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1902+Ronald+Ross&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1902%2Fross-bio.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1903/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1903 Niels Ryberg Finsen"</a>. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 1 July 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1903+Niels+Ryberg+Finsen&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1903%2Findex.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1903/press.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1903 Niels Ryberg Finsen – Award Ceremony Speech"</a>. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 1 July 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1903+Niels+Ryberg+Finsen+%E2%80%93+Award+Ceremony+Speech&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1903%2Fpress.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-finsen-38"><a href="#cite_ref-finsen_38-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1903/finsen-bio.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1903 Niels Ryberg Finsen – Biography"</a>. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 21 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1903+Niels+Ryberg+Finsen+%E2%80%93+Biography&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1903%2Ffinsen-bio.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1904/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1904 Ivan Pavlov"</a>. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 16 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1904+Ivan+Pavlov&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1904%2Findex.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tinbergen-40"><a href="#cite_ref-Tinbergen_40-0">^</a> Tinbergen, Nikolaas (12 December 1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1973/tinbergen-lecture.pdf">"Ethology and Stress Diseases"</a>. nobelprize.org. 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Retrieved 16 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=Nobel+Prizes+in+Nerve+Signaling&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Fnerve_signaling.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/articles/lindsten-ringertz-rev/index.html">"The Nobel Prize Awarders"</a>. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 21 November 2008.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+Awarders&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Farticles%2Flindsten-ringertz-rev%2Findex.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-factsmedprize-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-factsmedprize_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factsmedprize_43-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/shortfacts.html">"Facts on the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine"</a>. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 19 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=Facts+on+the+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Fshortfacts.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-prizefacts-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-prizefacts_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-prizefacts_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-prizefacts_44-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-prizefacts_44-3">d</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/nobelprize_facts.html">"Nobel Prize Facts"</a>. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 15 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=Nobel+Prize+Facts&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fnobelprize_facts.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/lists/women.html">"Women Nobel Laureates"</a>. Nobelprize.org. 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Retrieved 21 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1983+Barbara+McClintock&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1983%2Fmcclintock.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2007/inwinnerdex.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2007 Mario R. Capecchi, Sir Martin J. Evans, Oliver Smithies"</a>. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 20 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+2007+Mario+R.+Capecchi%2C+Sir+Martin+J.+Evans%2C+Oliver+Smithies&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F2007%2Finwinnerdex.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hansson-48"><a href="#cite_ref-Hansson_48-0">^</a> Hansson, Göran K. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2007/adv.html">"The 2007 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine – Advanced Information"</a>. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 26 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.aufirst=G%C3%B6ran+K&rft.au=Hansson%2C+G%C3%B6ran+K&rft.aulast=Hansson&rft.btitle=The+2007+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+%E2%80%93+Advanced+Information&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F2007%2Fadv.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wade-49"><a href="#cite_ref-Wade_49-0">^</a> Wade, Nicholas (5 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/06/science/06nobel.html">"3 Americans Share Nobel for Medicine"</a>. The New York Times (nytimes.com). 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The New York Times (nytimes.com). Retrieved 22 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.atitle=On+Winning+a+Nobel+Prize+in+Science&rft.au=Dreifus%2C+Claudia&rft.aufirst=Claudia&rft.aulast=Dreifus&rft.date=12+October+2009&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F10%2F13%2Fscience%2F13conv.html%3F_r%3D1%26ref%3Dnobel_prizes&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.pub=nytimes.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-harmon-52"><a href="#cite_ref-harmon_52-0">^</a> Harmon, Katherine (5 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=nobel-prize-medicine-2009-genetics">"Work on Telomeres Wins Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 3 U.S. Genetic Researchers (Update)"</a>. Scientific American. Retrieved 16 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.aufirst=Katherine&rft.au=Harmon%2C+Katherine&rft.aulast=Harmon&rft.btitle=Work+on+Telomeres+Wins+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+for+3+U.S.+Genetic+Researchers+%28Update%29&rft.date=5+October+2009&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle.cfm%3Fid%3Dnobel-prize-medicine-2009-genetics&rft.pub=Scientific+American&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-discoverynews-53"><a href="#cite_ref-discoverynews_53-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://news.discovery.com/human/nobel-prize-medicine.html">"Cancer researchers win the Nobel Prize in medicine"</a>. Discovery News. 5 October 2009. 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Retrieved 16 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.aufirst=Lotta&rft.au=Fredholm%2C+Lotta&rft.aulast=Fredholm&rft.btitle=The+Discovery+of+the+Molecular+Structure+of+DNA+%E2%80%93+The+Double+Helix&rft.date=30+September+2003&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Feducational%2Fmedicine%2Fdna_double_helix%2Freadmore.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nytimesnobel-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nytimesnobel_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nytimesnobel_70-1">b</a> Judson, Horace (20 October 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9C02E4DE123EF933A15753C1A9659C8B63">"No Nobel Prize for Whining"</a>. New York Times. Retrieved 23 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.au=Judson%2C+Horace&rft.aulast=Judson%2C+Horace&rft.btitle=No+Nobel+Prize+for+Whining&rft.date=20+October+2003&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fsec%3Dhealth%26res%3D9C02E4DE123EF933A15753C1A9659C8B63&rft.pub=%27%27New+York+Times%27%27&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holt-71"><a href="#cite_ref-Holt_71-0">^</a> Holt, Jim (28 October 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2002/10/28/021028crbo_books">"Photo Finish: Rosalind Franklin and the great DNA race."</a>. The New Yorker. Retrieved 19 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft.au=Holt%2C+Jim&rft.aulast=Holt&rft.btitle=Photo+Finish%3A+Rosalind+Franklin+and+the+great+DNA+race.&rft.date=28+October+2002&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Farchive%2F2002%2F10%2F28%2F021028crbo_books&rft.pub=The+New+Yorker&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Brenda Maddox (23 January 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://www.biomath.nyu.edu/index/course/hw_articles/nature4.pdf">"The double helix and the 'wronged heroine'"</a> (PDF). Nature 421 (6921): 407–408. <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01399">10.1038/nature01399</a>. <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier" class="mw-redirect">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12540909">12540909</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+double+helix+and+the+%27wronged+heroine%27&rft.au=Brenda+Maddox&rft.aulast=Brenda+Maddox&rft.date=23+January+2003&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biomath.nyu.edu%2Findex%2Fcourse%2Fhw_articles%2Fnature4.pdf&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature01399&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12540909&rft.issue=6921&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.pages=407-408&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=421" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2008/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2008 Harald zur Hausen, Françoise Barré-Sinoussi, Luc Montagnier"</a>. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 20 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+2008+Harald+zur+Hausen%2C+Fran%C3%A7oise+Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi%2C+Luc+Montagnier&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F2008%2Findex.html&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-science_nobel-74"><a href="#cite_ref-science_nobel_74-0">^</a> Cohen J, Enserink M (October 2008). "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. HIV, HPV researchers honored, but one scientist is left out". Science 322 (5899): 174–5. <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.322.5899.174">10.1126/science.322.5899.174</a>. <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier" class="mw-redirect">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18845715">18845715</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.atitle=Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine.+HIV%2C+HPV+researchers+honored%2C+but+one+scientist+is+left+out&rft.au=Cohen+J%2C+Enserink+M&rft.aulast=Cohen+J%2C+Enserink+M&rft.date=October+2008&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.322.5899.174&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18845715&rft.issue=5899&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.pages=174-5&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=322" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Enserink, Martin; Jon Cohen (6 October 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2008/10/06-01.html">"Nobel Prize Surprise"</a>. Science Now (AAAS).<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.atitle=Nobel+Prize+Surprise&rft.au=Enserink%2C+Martin&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Jon++Cohen&rft.aulast=Enserink&rft.date=6+October+2008&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.sciencemag.org%2Fsciencenow%2F2008%2F10%2F06-01.html&rft.jtitle=Science+Now&rft.pub=AAAS&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AstraZeneca-76"><a href="#cite_ref-AstraZeneca_76-0">^</a> Charter, David (19 December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article5367941.ece">"AstraZeneca row as corruption claims engulf Nobel prize"</a>. The Sunday Times (timesonline.co.uk). Retrieved 22 June 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.atitle=AstraZeneca+row+as+corruption+claims+engulf+Nobel+prize&rft.au=Charter%2C+David&rft.aufirst=David&rft.aulast=Charter&rft.date=19+December+2008&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesonline.co.uk%2Ftol%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Farticle5367941.ece&rft.jtitle=The+Sunday+Times&rft.pub=timesonline.co.uk&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  (Archived by WebCite at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://www.webcitation.org/5qpa5pF7G">http://www.webcitation.org/5qpa5pF7G</a>)</li> <li id="cite_note-Levinovitz61-77"><a href="#cite_ref-Levinovitz61_77-0">^</a> <a href="#Levinovitz">Levinovitz</a>, p. 61</li> <li id="cite_note-Levinovitz23-78"><a href="#cite_ref-Levinovitz23_78-0">^</a> <a href="#Levinovitz">Levinovitz</a>, p. 23</li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Wilhelm, Peter (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://books.google.com/?id=CNnZKHxQpO4C">The Nobel Prize</a>. Springwood Books. p. 85. <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86254-111-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-86254-111-5">0-86254-111-5</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.aulast=Wilhelm&rft.au=Wilhelm%2C+Peter&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize&rft.date=1983&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DCNnZKHxQpO4C&rft.isbn=0-86254-111-5&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Springwood+Books&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol> </div> <h2><a href="#Bibliography" class="mw-headline-anchor" aria-hidden="true" title="Link to this section">§</a>Bibliography[<a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</h2> <ul> <li>Feldman, Burton (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://books.google.com/?id=xnckeeTICn0C&printsec=frontcover&q=">The Nobel prize: a history of genius, controversy, and prestige</a>. Arcade Publishing. <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55970-592-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-55970-592-2">1-55970-592-2</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.au=Feldman%2C+Burton&rft.aulast=Feldman%2C+Burton&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+prize%3A+a+history+of+genius%2C+controversy%2C+and+prestige&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DxnckeeTICn0C%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26q%3D&rft.isbn=1-55970-592-2&rft.pub=Arcade+Publishing&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li>Levinovitz, Agneta Wallin (2001). Nils Ringertz, ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://books.google.com/?id=QMSg5mRJiukC&printsec=frontcover&q=">The Nobel Prize: The First 100 Years</a>. <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_College_Press" title="Imperial College Press">Imperial College Press</a> and <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Scientific" title="World Scientific">World Scientific Publishing</a>. <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-02-4664-1" title="Special:BookSources/981-02-4664-1">981-02-4664-1</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.aufirst=Agneta+Wallin&rft.aulast=Levinovitz&rft.au=Levinovitz%2C+Agneta+Wallin&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize%3A+The+First+100+Years&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DQMSg5mRJiukC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26q%3D&rft.isbn=981-02-4664-1&rft.pub=Imperial+College+Press+and+World+Scientific+Publishing&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> </ul> <h2><a href="#Further_reading" class="mw-headline-anchor" aria-hidden="true" title="Link to this section">§</a>Further reading[<a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</h2> <ul> <li>Doherty, Peter (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://books.google.com/?id=VqFnARWKeKUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Nobel+prize&q">The Beginner's Guide to Winning the Nobel Prize: Advice for Young Scientists</a>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-13897-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-13897-0">0-231-13897-0</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.au=Doherty%2C+Peter&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.aulast=Doherty&rft.btitle=The+Beginner%27s+Guide+to+Winning+the+Nobel+Prize%3A+Advice+for+Young+Scientists&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DVqFnARWKeKUC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26dq%3DNobel%2Bprize%26q&rft.isbn=0-231-13897-0&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li>Leroy, Francis (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://books.google.com/?id=8DjwaFWE4fYC&printsec=frontcover&q">A century of Nobel Prizes recipients: chemistry, physics, and medicine</a>. CRC Press. <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8247-0876-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8247-0876-8">0-8247-0876-8</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft.aulast=Leroy&rft.au=Leroy%2C+Francis&rft.btitle=A+century+of+Nobel+Prizes+recipients%3A+chemistry%2C+physics%2C+and+medicine&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D8DjwaFWE4fYC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26q&rft.isbn=0-8247-0876-8&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li>Rifkind, David; Freeman, Geraldine L. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://books.google.com/?id=d3wdy3b9VUkC&printsec=frontcover">The Nobel Prize winning discoveries in infectious diseases</a>. Academic Press. <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-369353-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-369353-5">0-12-369353-5</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Freeman%2C+Geraldine+L.&rft.aulast=Rifkind&rft.au=Rifkind%2C+David&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+winning+discoveries+in+infectious+diseases&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3Dd3wdy3b9VUkC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover&rft.isbn=0-12-369353-5&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> </ul> <h2><a href="#External_links" class="mw-headline-anchor" aria-hidden="true" title="Link to this section">§</a>External links[<a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</h2> <table class="mbox-small plainlinks" style="border:1px solid #aaa;background-color:#f9f9f9"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="30" height="40" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"/></td> <td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a>.</td> </tr> </table> <ul> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://www.nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/index.html">All Nobel Laureates in Medicine</a> – Index webpage on the official site of the Nobel Foundation.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/">The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nobelprize.org/index.html">Official site of the Nobel Foundation.</a></li> <li>Graphics: National Medicine Nobel Prize shares 1901–2009 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/med.html">by citizenship at the time of the award</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/mednat.html">by country of birth</a>. From <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Schmidhuber" title="Jürgen Schmidhuber">J. Schmidhuber</a> (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/nobelshare.html">Evolution of National Nobel Prize Shares in the 20th Century</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://arxiv.org/abs/1009.2634">arXiv:1009.2634v1</a></li> </ul> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Template:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">v</a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Template talk:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">t</a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine&action=edit">e</a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine">Laureates</a> of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">1901–1925</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_von_Behring" title="Emil von Behring">Emil Behring</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Ronald Ross</a> (1902)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Ryberg_Finsen" title="Niels Ryberg Finsen">Niels Finsen</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a> (1904)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camillo_Golgi" title="Camillo Golgi">Camillo Golgi</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Louis_Alphonse_Laveran" title="Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran">Alphonse Laveran</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lie_Metchnikoff" title="Élie Metchnikoff">Élie Metchnikoff</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich" title="Paul Ehrlich">Paul Ehrlich</a> (1908)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Theodor_Kocher" title="Emil Theodor Kocher">Emil Kocher</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Kossel" title="Albrecht Kossel">Albrecht Kossel</a> (1910)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allvar_Gullstrand" title="Allvar Gullstrand">Allvar Gullstrand</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Carrel" title="Alexis Carrel">Alexis Carrel</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Richet" title="Charles Richet">Charles Richet</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3bert_B%C3%A1r%C3%A1ny" title="Róbert Bárány">Róbert Bárány</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Bordet" title="Jules Bordet">Jules Bordet</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Krogh" title="August Krogh">August Krogh</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Hill" title="Archibald Hill">Archibald Hill</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Fritz_Meyerhof" title="Otto Fritz Meyerhof">Otto Meyerhof</a> (1922)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Banting" title="Frederick Banting">Frederick Banting</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_James_Rickard_Macleod" title="John James Rickard Macleod">John Macleod</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_Einthoven" title="Willem Einthoven">Willem Einthoven</a> (1924)</li> </ul> </div> </td> <td class="navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:0%;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"> <div><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nobel_Prize.png" class="image"><img alt="Nobel Prize.png" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" width="80" height="79" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150319075812im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492"/></a></div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">1926–1950</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Fibiger" title="Johannes Fibiger">Johannes Fibiger</a> (1926)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Wagner-Jauregg" title="Julius Wagner-Jauregg">Julius Wagner-Jauregg</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Nicolle" title="Charles Nicolle">Charles Nicolle</a> (1928)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_Eijkman" title="Christiaan Eijkman">Christiaan Eijkman</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Gowland_Hopkins" title="Frederick Gowland Hopkins">Frederick Gowland Hopkins</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Landsteiner" title="Karl Landsteiner">Karl Landsteiner</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Heinrich_Warburg" title="Otto Heinrich Warburg">Otto Warburg</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Scott Sherrington</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Adrian,_1st_Baron_Adrian" title="Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian">Edgar Adrian</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Morgan</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Whipple" title="George Whipple">George Whipple</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Minot" title="George Minot">George Minot</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_P._Murphy" title="William P. Murphy">William Murphy</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Spemann" title="Hans Spemann">Hans Spemann</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Dale</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Loewi" title="Otto Loewi">Otto Loewi</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyi" title="Albert Szent-Györgyi">Albert Szent-Györgyi</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corneille_Heymans" title="Corneille Heymans">Corneille Heymans</a> (1938)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Domagk" title="Gerhard Domagk">Gerhard Domagk</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik_Dam" title="Henrik Dam">Henrik Dam</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Adelbert_Doisy" title="Edward Adelbert Doisy">Edward Doisy</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Erlanger" title="Joseph Erlanger">Joseph Erlanger</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Spencer_Gasser" title="Herbert Spencer Gasser">Herbert Gasser</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Boris_Chain" title="Ernst Boris Chain">Ernst Chain</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Joseph_Muller" title="Hermann Joseph Muller">Hermann Muller</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Ferdinand_Cori" title="Carl Ferdinand Cori">Carl Cori</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerty_Cori" title="Gerty Cori">Gerty Cori</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernardo_Houssay" title="Bernardo Houssay">Bernardo Houssay</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Hermann_M%C3%BCller" title="Paul Hermann Müller">Paul Müller</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Rudolf_Hess" title="Walter Rudolf Hess">Walter Hess</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Egas_Moniz" title="António Egas Moniz">António Egas Moniz</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Calvin_Kendall" title="Edward Calvin Kendall">Edward Kendall</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadeusz_Reichstein" title="Tadeusz Reichstein">Tadeusz Reichstein</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Showalter_Hench" title="Philip Showalter Hench">Philip Hench</a> (1950)</li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">1951–1975</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Theiler" title="Max Theiler">Max Theiler</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selman_Waksman" title="Selman Waksman">Selman Waksman</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Adolf_Krebs" title="Hans Adolf Krebs">Hans Krebs</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Albert_Lipmann" title="Fritz Albert Lipmann">Fritz Lipmann</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders" title="John Franklin Enders">John Enders</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Huckle_Weller" title="Thomas Huckle Weller">Thomas Weller</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Chapman_Robbins" title="Frederick Chapman Robbins">Frederick Robbins</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Theorell" title="Hugo Theorell">Hugo Theorell</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Cournand" title="André Frédéric Cournand">André Cournand</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Forssmann" title="Werner Forssmann">Werner Forssmann</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dickinson_W._Richards" title="Dickinson W. Richards">Dickinson W. Richards</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Bovet" title="Daniel Bovet">Daniel Bovet</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Wells_Beadle" title="George Wells Beadle">George Beadle</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Lawrie_Tatum" title="Edward Lawrie Tatum">Edward Tatum</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severo_Ochoa" title="Severo Ochoa">Severo Ochoa</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Kornberg" title="Arthur Kornberg">Arthur Kornberg</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Macfarlane_Burnet" title="Frank Macfarlane Burnet">Frank Burnet</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Peter Medawar</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy" title="Georg von Békésy">Georg von Békésy</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Eccles_(neurophysiologist)" title="John Eccles (neurophysiologist)">John Eccles</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin" title="Alan Lloyd Hodgkin">Alan Hodgkin</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Emil_Bloch" title="Konrad Emil Bloch">Konrad Bloch</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feodor_Felix_Konrad_Lynen" title="Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen">Feodor Lynen</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Jacob" title="François Jacob">François Jacob</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Michel_Lwoff" title="André Michel Lwoff">André Lwoff</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Monod" title="Jacques Monod">Jacques Monod</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Peyton_Rous" title="Francis Peyton Rous">Francis Rous</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Brenton_Huggins" title="Charles Brenton Huggins">Charles B. Huggins</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ragnar_Granit" title="Ragnar Granit">Ragnar Granit</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haldan_Keffer_Hartline" title="Haldan Keffer Hartline">Haldan Hartline</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Wald" title="George Wald">George Wald</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_W._Holley" title="Robert W. Holley">Robert W. Holley</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khorana" title="Har Gobind Khorana">Har Khorana</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberg" title="Marshall Warren Nirenberg">Marshall Nirenberg</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Max Delbrück">Max Delbrück</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Hershey" title="Alfred Hershey">Alfred Hershey</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Salvador Luria</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulf_von_Euler" title="Ulf von Euler">Ulf von Euler</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod">Julius Axelrod</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Wilbur_Sutherland,_Jr." title="Earl Wilbur Sutherland, Jr." class="mw-redirect">Earl Sutherland, Jr.</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Edelman" title="Gerald Edelman">Gerald Edelman</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodney_Robert_Porter" title="Rodney Robert Porter">Rodney Porter</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Claude" title="Albert Claude">Albert Claude</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_de_Duve" title="Christian de Duve">Christian de Duve</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Emil_Palade" title="George Emil Palade">George Palade</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Baltimore" title="David Baltimore">David Baltimore</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renato_Dulbecco" title="Renato Dulbecco">Renato Dulbecco</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Martin_Temin" title="Howard Martin Temin">Howard Temin</a> (1975)</li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">1976–2000</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Samuel_Blumberg" title="Baruch Samuel Blumberg">Baruch Blumberg</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Carleton_Gajdusek" title="Daniel Carleton Gajdusek">Daniel Gajdusek</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Guillemin" title="Roger Guillemin">Roger Guillemin</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Schally" title="Andrew Schally">Andrew Schally</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalyn_Sussman_Yalow" title="Rosalyn Sussman Yalow">Rosalyn Yalow</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Arber" title="Werner Arber">Werner Arber</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Nathans" title="Daniel Nathans">Daniel Nathans</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton_O._Smith" title="Hamilton O. Smith">Hamilton O. Smith</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_McLeod_Cormack" title="Allan McLeod Cormack">Allan Cormack</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godfrey_Hounsfield" title="Godfrey Hounsfield">Godfrey Hounsfield</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruj_Benacerraf" title="Baruj Benacerraf">Baruj Benacerraf</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Dausset" title="Jean Dausset">Jean Dausset</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Davis_Snell" title="George Davis Snell">George Snell</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Wolcott_Sperry" title="Roger Wolcott Sperry">Roger Sperry</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_H._Hubel" title="David H. Hubel">David H. Hubel</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsten_Wiesel" title="Torsten Wiesel">Torsten Wiesel</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sune_Bergstr%C3%B6m" title="Sune Bergström">Sune Bergström</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengt_I._Samuelsson" title="Bengt I. Samuelsson">Bengt I. Samuelsson</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Vane" title="John Vane">John Vane</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Kaj_Jerne" title="Niels Kaj Jerne">Niels Jerne</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_J._F._K%C3%B6hler" title="Georges J. F. Köhler">Georges Köhler</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Milstein" title="César Milstein">César Milstein</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Stuart_Brown" title="Michael Stuart Brown">Michael Brown</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_L._Goldstein" title="Joseph L. Goldstein">Joseph L. Goldstein</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Cohen_(biochemist)" title="Stanley Cohen (biochemist)">Stanley Cohen</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Black_(pharmacologist)" title="James Black (pharmacologist)">James W. Black</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gertrude_B._Elion" title="Gertrude B. Elion">Gertrude B. Elion</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_H._Hitchings" title="George H. Hitchings">George H. Hitchings</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Michael_Bishop" title="J. Michael Bishop">J. Michael Bishop</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_E._Varmus" title="Harold E. Varmus">Harold E. Varmus</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Murray" title="Joseph Murray">Joseph Murray</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._Donnall_Thomas" title="E. Donnall Thomas">E. Donnall Thomas</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Neher" title="Erwin Neher">Erwin Neher</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bert_Sakmann" title="Bert Sakmann">Bert Sakmann</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_H._Fischer" title="Edmond H. Fischer">Edmond Fischer</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_G._Krebs" title="Edwin G. Krebs">Edwin G. Krebs</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_J._Roberts" title="Richard J. Roberts">Richard J. Roberts</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillip_Allen_Sharp" title="Phillip Allen Sharp">Phillip Sharp</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_G._Gilman" title="Alfred G. Gilman">Alfred G. Gilman</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Rodbell" title="Martin Rodbell">Martin Rodbell</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_B._Lewis" title="Edward B. Lewis">Edward B. Lewis</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiane_N%C3%BCsslein-Volhard" title="Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard">Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_F._Wieschaus" title="Eric F. Wieschaus">Eric F. Wieschaus</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_C._Doherty" title="Peter C. Doherty">Peter C. Doherty</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolf_M._Zinkernagel" title="Rolf M. Zinkernagel">Rolf M. Zinkernagel</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_B._Prusiner" title="Stanley B. Prusiner">Stanley B. Prusiner</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_F._Furchgott" title="Robert F. Furchgott">Robert F. Furchgott</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Ignarro" title="Louis Ignarro">Louis Ignarro</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferid_Murad" title="Ferid Murad">Ferid Murad</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Blobel" title="Günter Blobel">Günter Blobel</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arvid_Carlsson" title="Arvid Carlsson">Arvid Carlsson</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Greengard" title="Paul Greengard">Paul Greengard</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a> (2000)</li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">2001–present</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leland_H._Hartwell" title="Leland H. Hartwell">Leland H. Hartwell</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Hunt" title="Tim Hunt">Tim Hunt</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Nurse" title="Paul Nurse">Paul Nurse</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_Brenner" title="Sydney Brenner">Sydney Brenner</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._Robert_Horvitz" title="H. Robert Horvitz">H. Robert Horvitz</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Sulston" title="John Sulston">John E. Sulston</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Lauterbur" title="Paul Lauterbur">Paul Lauterbur</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Mansfield" title="Peter Mansfield">Peter Mansfield</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Axel" title="Richard Axel">Richard Axel</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linda_B._Buck" title="Linda B. Buck">Linda B. Buck</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Marshall" title="Barry Marshall">Barry Marshall</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Warren" title="Robin Warren">Robin Warren</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Fire" title="Andrew Fire">Andrew Fire</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Mello" title="Craig Mello">Craig Mello</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Capecchi" title="Mario Capecchi">Mario Capecchi</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Evans" title="Martin Evans">Martin Evans</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Smithies" title="Oliver Smithies">Oliver Smithies</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harald_zur_Hausen" title="Harald zur Hausen">Harald zur Hausen</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luc_Montagnier" title="Luc Montagnier">Luc Montagnier</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi" title="Françoise Barré-Sinoussi">Françoise Barré-Sinoussi</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackburn" title="Elizabeth Blackburn">Elizabeth Blackburn</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_W._Greider" title="Carol W. Greider">Carol W. Greider</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_W._Szostak" title="Jack W. Szostak">Jack W. Szostak</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_G._Edwards" title="Robert G. Edwards" class="mw-redirect">Robert G. Edwards</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Beutler" title="Bruce Beutler">Bruce Beutler</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_A._Hoffmann" title="Jules A. Hoffmann">Jules A. Hoffmann</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman">Ralph M. Steinman</a> (posthumously) (2011)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Gurdon" title="John B. Gurdon" class="mw-redirect">John B. Gurdon</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinya_Yamanaka" title="Shinya Yamanaka">Shinya Yamanaka</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Rothman" title="James Rothman">James Rothman</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randy_Schekman" title="Randy Schekman">Randy Schekman</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_C._S%C3%BCdhof" title="Thomas C. Südhof">Thomas C. Südhof</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_O%27Keefe_(neuroscientist)" title="John O'Keefe (neuroscientist)">John O'Keefe</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May-Britt_Moser" title="May-Britt Moser">May-Britt Moser</a> / <a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edvard_Moser" title="Edvard Moser">Edvard Moser</a> (2014)</li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Nobel_Prizes" title="Template:Nobel Prizes">v</a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prizes" title="Template talk:Nobel Prizes">t</a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Nobel_Prizes&action=edit">e</a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prizes</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Prizes</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Economics</a>1</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></li> <li>Physiology or Medicine</li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Laureates</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="font-weight:normal;">by subject</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Chemistry" title="List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_Memorial_Prize_laureates_in_Economics" title="List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Literature" title="List of Nobel laureates in Literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates" title="List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physics" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="font-weight:normal;">by criterion</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_black_Nobel_laureates" title="List of black Nobel laureates">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chinese_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Chinese Nobel laureates">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Christian_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Christian Nobel laureates">Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_by_country" title="List of Nobel laureates by country">Country</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_female_Nobel_laureates" title="List of female Nobel laureates">Female</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_laureates_of_India" title="Nobel laureates of India">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Japanese_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Japanese Nobel laureates">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Jewish_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Jewish Nobel laureates">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muslim_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Muslim Nobel laureates">Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_by_university_affiliation" title="List of Nobel laureates by university affiliation">University affiliation</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="font-weight:normal;">by year</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319075812/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">By year</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Committees and organisations</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" 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I-ha̍k Chióng – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%9E%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%96_%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Нобелеўская прэмія па фізіялогіі і медыцыне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">Беларуская</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%9E%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%96_%D1%86%D1%96_%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Нобэлеўская прэмія па фізыялёгіі ці мэдыцыне – беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Нобелова награда за физиология или медицина – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Български</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelova_nagrada_za_fiziologiju_ili_medicinu" title="Nobelova nagrada za fiziologiju ili medicinu – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priz_Nobel_ar_Fiziologiezh_pe_ar_Medisinerezh" title="Priz Nobel ar Fiziologiezh pe ar Medisinerezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br">Brezhoneg</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premi_Nobel_de_Medicina_o_Fisiologia" title="Premi Nobel de Medicina o Fisiologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelova_cena_za_fyziologii_a_l%C3%A9ka%C5%99stv%C3%AD" title="Nobelova cena za fyziologii a lékařství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwobr_Nobel_mewn_Ffisioleg_neu_Feddygaeth" title="Gwobr Nobel mewn Ffisioleg neu Feddygaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelprisen_i_fysiologi_eller_medicin" title="Nobelprisen i fysiologi eller medicin – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelpreis_f%C3%BCr_Physiologie_oder_Medizin" title="Nobelpreis für Physiologie oder Medizin – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobeli_f%C3%BCsioloogia-_v%C3%B5i_meditsiiniauhind" title="Nobeli füsioloogia- või meditsiiniauhind – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%B2%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%BF_%CE%9D%CF%8C%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%B5%CE%BB_%CE%99%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82" title="Βραβείο Νόμπελ Ιατρικής – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel-premio_pri_fiziologio_a%C5%AD_medicino" title="Nobel-premio pri fiziologio aŭ medicino – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medikuntzako_Nobel_Saria" title="Medikuntzako Nobel Saria – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%87_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%84_%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C_%D9%88_%D9%BE%D8%B2%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="جایزه نوبل فیزیولوژی و پزشکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">فارسی</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prix_Nobel_de_physiologie_ou_m%C3%A9decine" title="Prix Nobel de physiologie ou médecine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelpriis_foar_de_Fysiology_of_Gen%C3%AAskunde" title="Nobelpriis foar de Fysiology of Genêskunde – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy">Frysk</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duais_Nobel_ann_an_Leigheas" title="Duais Nobel ann an Leigheas – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd">Gàidhlig</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premio_Nobel_de_Fisiolox%C3%ADa_ou_Medicina" title="Premio Nobel de Fisioloxía ou Medicina – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%85%B8%EB%B2%A8_%EC%83%9D%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99%C2%B7%EC%9D%98%ED%95%99%EC%83%81" title="노벨 생리학·의학상 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelova_nagrada_za_fiziologiju_ili_medicinu" title="Nobelova nagrada za fiziologiju ili medicinu – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daftar_penerima_Nobel_Fisiologi_atau_Kedokteran" title="Daftar penerima Nobel Fisiologi atau Kedokteran – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premio_Nobel_pro_Physiologia_o_Medicina" title="Premio Nobel pro Physiologia o Medicina – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia">Interlingua</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B3belsver%C3%B0laun_%C3%AD_l%C3%ADfe%C3%B0lis-_og_l%C3%A6knisfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Nóbelsverðlaun í lífeðlis- og læknisfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">Íslenska</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premio_Nobel_per_la_medicina" title="Premio Nobel per la medicina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A1_%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%91%D7%9C_%D7%9C%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%95_%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%90%D7%94" title="פרס נובל לפיזיולוגיה או לרפואה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuzo_ya_Nobel_ya_Tiba" title="Tuzo ya Nobel ya Tiba – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw">Kiswahili</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praemium_Nobelianum_physiologiae_et_medicinae" title="Praemium Nobelianum physiologiae et medicinae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobela_pr%C4%93mija_fiziolo%C4%A3ij%C4%81_vai_medic%C4%ABn%C4%81" title="Nobela prēmija fizioloģijā vai medicīnā – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelpr%C3%A4is_fir_Physiologie_oder_Medezin" title="Nobelpräis fir Physiologie oder Medezin – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%85ra%C5%A1as:Nobelio_fiziologijos_ir_medicinos_premija" title="Sąrašas:Nobelio fiziologijos ir medicinos premija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziol%C3%B3giai_%C3%A9s_orvostudom%C3%A1nyi_Nobel-d%C3%ADj" title="Fiziológiai és orvostudományi Nobel-díj – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B3_%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="വൈദ്യശാസ്ത്രത്തിനുള്ള നോബൽ സമ്മാനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="वैद्यकशास्त्रातील नोबेल पारितोषिक – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr">मराठी</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B2%D8%A9_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%84_%D9%81%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%88_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A8" title="جايزة نوبل فى الفيسيولوجيا او الطب – Egyptian Spoken Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz">مصرى</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadiah_Nobel_dalam_Fisiologi_atau_Perubatan" title="Hadiah Nobel dalam Fisiologi atau Perubatan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelprijs_voor_de_Fysiologie_of_Geneeskunde" title="Nobelprijs voor de Fysiologie of Geneeskunde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="क्रिया विज्ञान तथा चिकित्सामा नोबेल पुरस्कार – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne">नेपाली</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8E%E3%83%BC%E3%83%99%E3%83%AB%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6%E3%83%BB%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6%E8%B3%9E" title="ノーベル生理学・医学賞 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelprisen_i_fysiologi_eller_medisin" title="Nobelprisen i fysiologi eller medisin – Norwegian (bokmål)" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelprisen_i_medisin" title="Nobelprisen i medisin – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A8mi_Nobel_de_Fisiologia_o_Medecina" title="Prèmi Nobel de Fisiologia o Medecina – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelpries_f%C3%B6r_Physiologie_oder_Medizin" title="Nobelpries för Physiologie oder Medizin – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds">Plattdüütsch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17506997 badge-featuredlist" title="featured list"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laureaci_Nagrody_Nobla_w_dziedzinie_fizjologii_lub_medycyny" title="Laureaci Nagrody Nobla w dziedzinie fizjologii lub medycyny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laureados_com_o_Nobel_de_Fisiologia_ou_Medicina" title="Laureados com o Nobel de Fisiologia ou Medicina – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Su%C3%B1ay_Hampi_Yachaypi" title="Nobel Suñay Hampi Yachaypi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu">Runa Simi</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87mimi_Nobel_p%C3%ABr_Fiziologji_dhe_Mjek%C3%ABsi" title="Çmimi Nobel për Fiziologji dhe Mjekësi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premiu_Nobel_p%C3%A2_midicina" title="Premiu Nobel pâ midicina – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn">Sicilianu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelova_nagrada_za_fiziologijo_ali_medicino" title="Nobelova nagrada za fiziologijo ali medicino – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenščina</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%83_%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Нобелова награда за физиологију или медицину – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Српски / srpski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelova_nagrada_za_fiziologiju_ili_medicinu" title="Nobelova nagrada za fiziologiju ili medicinu – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319075812/http://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelin_fysiologian_tai_l%C3%A4%C3%A4ketieteen_palkinto" title="Nobelin fysiologian tai lääketieteen palkinto – Finnish" lang="fi" 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