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alert-info shadow-sm "> <header class="d-block d-lg-flex justify-content-between align-items-start"> <h2 class="mb-1 text-center flex-grow-1"> L’actualité française et internationale<br /> avec <img src="/_web/assets/img/briefme.svg" alt="Brief.me" height="50" id="briefme-logo" style="height: 50px" /> </h2> <div class="text-center text-lg-right mb-3 mb-lg-0"> Mis à jour le 10/04/2025 <button class="btn btn-sm btn-secondary" data-bs-toggle="modal" data-bs-target="#modal-briefme">?</button> </div> </header> <div class="d-block"> <ul> <li> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2025-04-10-3985-les-nouveaux-droits-de-douane-americains-suspendus-alerte-sur-la-consommation-danxiolytiques-etrange-frontiere?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="Les nouveaux droits de douane américains suspendus | Alerte sur la consommation d’anxiolytiques | Étrange frontière" > <small 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On vous explique aussi l’alerte d’une autorité sanitaire sur les traitements aux anxiolytiques, qu’elle juge trop longs.</em> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2025-04-10-3985-les-nouveaux-droits-de-douane-americains-suspendus-alerte-sur-la-consommation-danxiolytiques-etrange-frontiere?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="Les nouveaux droits de douane américains suspendus | Alerte sur la consommation d’anxiolytiques | Étrange frontière" >[Lire la suite]</a> </p> </li> <li> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2025-04-09-3984-nouveaux-droits-de-douane-americains-peines-dineligibilite-testez-votre-anglais?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="Nouveaux droits de douane américains | Peines d’inéligibilité | Testez votre anglais" > <small class="text-muted">09/04/2025</small> <span>Nouveaux droits de douane américains | Peines d’inéligibilité | Testez votre anglais > Lire</span> </a> <p class="text-sm d-none"> <em>Dans Brief.me aujourd’hui, on s’intéresse aux nouveaux droits de douane américains entrés en vigueur aujourd’hui et à la réaction des territoires visés. On vous présente aussi dans une infographie l’évolution du nombre de peines d’inéligibilité et quelques-unes des principales condamnations à ce…</em> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2025-04-09-3984-nouveaux-droits-de-douane-americains-peines-dineligibilite-testez-votre-anglais?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="Nouveaux droits de douane américains | Peines d’inéligibilité | Testez votre anglais" >[Lire la suite]</a> </p> </li> <li> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2025-04-08-3982-laide-sociale-a-lenfance-en-crise-loup-ramene-a-la-vie-western-art?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="L’aide sociale à l’enfance en crise | Loup ramené à la vie | Western art" > <small class="text-muted">08/04/2025</small> <span>L’aide sociale à l’enfance en crise | Loup ramené à la vie | Western art > Lire</span> </a> <p class="text-sm d-none"> <em>Dans Brief.me aujourd’hui, on s’intéresse à un rapport parlementaire sur l’aide sociale à l’enfance et on vous explique les difficultés rencontrées dans ce domaine. On vous parle aussi de la manipulation d’une biotech américaine pour ramener à la vie une espèce de loup disparue.</em> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2025-04-08-3982-laide-sociale-a-lenfance-en-crise-loup-ramene-a-la-vie-western-art?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="L’aide sociale à l’enfance en crise | Loup ramené à la vie | Western art" >[Lire la suite]</a> </p> </li> <li> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2025-04-07-3981-les-fleuves-europeens-pollues-aux-microplastiques-marathon-international-en-coree-du-nord-voiture-en-carton?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="Les fleuves européens pollués aux microplastiques | Marathon international en Corée du Nord | Voiture en carton" > <small class="text-muted">07/04/2025</small> <span>Les fleuves européens pollués aux microplastiques | Marathon international en Corée du Nord | Voiture en carton > Lire</span> </a> <p class="text-sm d-none"> <em>Dans Brief.me aujourd’hui, on vous explique les résultats de plusieurs études portant sur neuf fleuves européens, qui ont montré une pollution aux microplastiques. On s’intéresse aussi à un marathon international organisé en Corée du Nord.</em> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2025-04-07-3981-les-fleuves-europeens-pollues-aux-microplastiques-marathon-international-en-coree-du-nord-voiture-en-carton?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="Les fleuves européens pollués aux microplastiques | Marathon international en Corée du Nord | Voiture en carton" >[Lire la suite]</a> </p> </li> <li> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2025-04-05-3980-la-quete-dindependance-du-groenland-execution-provisoire-alpinisme-sovietique?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="La quête d’indépendance du Groenland | Exécution provisoire | Alpinisme soviétique" > <small class="text-muted">05/04/2025</small> <span>La quête d’indépendance du Groenland | Exécution provisoire | Alpinisme soviétique > Lire</span> </a> <p class="text-sm d-none"> <em>Dans Brief.me ce week-end, on revient en quatre dates clés sur l’histoire du Groenland, un territoire convoité en quête d’indépendance. On vous résume aussi l’actualité essentielle de la semaine.</em> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2025-04-05-3980-la-quete-dindependance-du-groenland-execution-provisoire-alpinisme-sovietique?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="La quête d’indépendance du Groenland | Exécution provisoire | Alpinisme soviétique" >[Lire la suite]</a> </p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="modal" tabindex="-1" id="modal-briefme"> <div class="modal-dialog modal-lg"> <div class="modal-content"> <div class="modal-header"> <p class="modal-title">Qu'est-ce que <strong>Brief.me</strong> ?</p> <button type="button" class="btn-close" data-bs-dismiss="modal" aria-label="Fermer"></button> </div> <div class="modal-body"> <p>Brief.me est un média indépendant en ligne qui résume et explique l’actualité française et internationale chaque soir à 18h30.</p> <p>Brief.me se distingue par sa capacité à offrir une information synthétique, précise et vérifiée. La rédaction de Brief.me applique une démarche journalistique rigoureuse pour sélectionner et valider l’ensemble des informations publiées.</p> <p>Face à la prolifération de contenus en ligne, Brief.me privilégie la qualité sur la quantité, permettant à ses lecteurs de rester informés efficacement, sans être submergés par des informations superflues ou biaisées.</p> <p>Le format unique de Brief.me permet de mieux comprendre le monde en quelques minutes de lecture chaque jour, avec une vision claire et structurée des événements grâce à des mises en contexte et des analyses pertinentes.</p> <p>En tant que média indépendant, Brief.me s'engage à offrir une information libre de toute influence commerciale ou politique.</p> </div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <section id="home-classification" class="mt-5" data-state="hidden"> <h2>Classification</h2> <div class="row"> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/1/csm_arts_0786003c15.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Arts" href="/classification/arts/"> <span>Arts</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/c/5/csm_astronomie-et-astrophysique_ecf924d709.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Astronomie et astrophysique" href="/classification/astronomie-et-astrophysique/"> <span>Astronomie et astrophysique</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/f/4/csm_chimie_222ea34e50.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Chimie" href="/classification/chimie/"> <span>Chimie</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/7/b/csm_droit-et-institutions_e03ab80d88.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Droit et institutions" href="/classification/droit-et-institutions/"> <span>Droit et institutions</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/3/f/csm_economie-et-gestion_cb33247ab3.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Économie et gestion" href="/classification/economie-et-gestion/"> <span>Économie et gestion</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/6/4/csm_environnement_15d9264ee5.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Environnement" href="/classification/environnement/"> <span>Environnement</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/a/7/csm_geographie_8229c870cd.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Géographie" href="/classification/geographie/"> <span>Géographie</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/1/8/csm_histoire_258e83e09f.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Histoire" href="/classification/histoire/"> <span>Histoire</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/0/f/csm_histoire-des-sciences_2498e1b82d.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Histoire des sciences" href="/classification/histoire-des-sciences/"> <span>Histoire des sciences</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/5/csm_litteratures_a79a82abdb.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Littératures" href="/classification/litteratures/"> <span>Littératures</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/f/4/csm_mathematiques_f510f0d76d.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Mathématiques" href="/classification/mathematiques/"> <span>Mathématiques</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/d/6/csm_medecine_3a70c570f6.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Médecine" href="/classification/medecine/"> <span>Médecine</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/1/b/csm_musiques_b3f411819f.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Musiques" href="/classification/musiques/"> <span>Musiques</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/3/7/csm_philosophie_60f4685265.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Philosophie" href="/classification/philosophie/"> <span>Philosophie</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/a/7/csm_physique_2994939606.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Physique" href="/classification/physique/"> <span>Physique</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/2/3/csm_religions_1813bdc714.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Religions" href="/classification/religions/"> <span>Religions</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/8/5/csm_sciences-de-la-terre_89cfe9ce83.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Sciences de la Terre" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-terre/"> <span>Sciences de la Terre</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/9/e/csm_sciences-de-la-vie_b917b3438a.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Sciences de la vie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/"> <span>Sciences de la vie</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/8/csm_sciences-humaines-et-sociales_43ea3ff39e.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Sciences humaines et sociales" href="/classification/sciences-humaines-et-sociales/"> <span>Sciences humaines et sociales</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/2/7/csm_sciences-generalites_2cf440688a.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Sciences: généralités" href="/classification/sciences-generalites/"> <span>Sciences: généralités</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/7/2/csm_sports-et-loisirs_9645a0be5f.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Sports et loisirs" href="/classification/sports-et-loisirs/"> <span>Sports et loisirs</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/3/6/csm_techniques_8756d434e8.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Techniques" href="/classification/techniques/"> <span>Techniques</span></a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="text-center"> <button class="btn btn-block btn-link" data-action="toggle" data-target=".classif-item-container" data-limit="6" data-message-off="Réduire" data-message-on="Afficher toute la classification">Afficher toute la classification</button> </div> </section> </div> <div class="col-lg-4 col-xl-3 px-0 d-none d-lg-block side-bar position-relative"> <a class="wrapper cta" href="/abonnement" 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Tous droits de propriété industrielle et intellectuelle réservés.</p> </footer> <a href="javascript:" class="btn btn-primary" id="back-to-top" title="Retour en haut de page"><i aria-hidden="true" class="far fa-arrow-up"></i></a> <script> // noinspection ES6ConvertVarToLetConst,JSUnusedGlobalSymbols var subscription_uri = 'https://www.universalis.fr/abonnement/' bodyLoaded = true; loaded(); </script> <div class="modal" id="wd-help" tabindex="-1" style="display:none"> <div class="modal-dialog modal-xl"> <div class="modal-content"> <div class="modal-header"> <h5 class="modal-title">Aide</h5> <button type="button" class="btn-close" data-bs-dismiss="modal" aria-label="Close"></button> </div> <div class="modal-body"> <p>L'outil Données Pays met à disposition un très grand nombre de données. Aussi, pour des raisons de performances et pour conserver une bonne expérience utilisateur, des règles de comparaison en nombre et en durée ont été mises en place :</p> <table class="table table-vcenter table-bordered table-sm"> <thead> <tr> <th>Pays</th> <th>Indicateurs</th> <th>Années</th> <th>Graphe</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td>Jusqu'à 12 pays</td> <td>Toutes les données</td> <td>De 1960 à nos jours</td> <td> <ul class="list-unstyled m-0"> <li> <i class="fa fa-check text-success" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="visually-hidden">Affiché</span> en courbe </li> <li> <i class="fa fa-check text-success" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="visually-hidden">Affiché</span> en barre </li> </ul> </td> </tr> <tr> <td>De 13 à 50 pays</td> <td>5 données simultanées</td> <td>De 1960 à nos jours</td> <td> <ul class="list-unstyled m-0"> <li> <i class="fa fa-times text-danger" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="visually-hidden">Masqué</span> en courbe </li> <li> <i class="fa fa-check text-success" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="visually-hidden">Affiché</span> en barre </li> </ul> </td> </tr> <tr> <td>51 pays et plus</td> <td>1 seule donnée</td> <td>Sur une durée de 25 ans maximum</td> <td> <ul class="list-unstyled m-0"> <li> <i class="fa fa-times text-danger" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="visually-hidden">Masqué</span> en courbe </li> <li> <i class="fa fa-times text-danger" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="visually-hidden">Masqué</span> en barre </li> </ul> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p>Lorsque la recherche porte sur <strong>une seule année</strong>, les résultats s’affichent sous forme de <strong>graphe en barre</strong>.</p> <p>Lorsque la recherche porte sur <strong>une période</strong>, les résultats s’affichent sous forme de <strong>graphe en courbe</strong>.</p> <p>Lorsque la recherche contient uniquement des données <strong>Informations générales</strong>, le champ <strong>Année ou période est désactivé</strong>, ces données ne possédant pas d'historique.</p> <p class="mb-0 text-sm text-muted text-end">v2.0</p> </div> </div> </div> </div> <script>(()=>{var e,a,r,_,c,d={},b={};function __webpack_require__(e){var a=b[e];if(void 0!==a)return a.exports;var r=b[e]={id:e,loaded:!1,exports:{}};return d[e].call(r.exports,r,r.exports,__webpack_require__),r.loaded=!0,r.exports}__webpack_require__.m=d,__webpack_require__.n=e=>{var a=e&&e.__esModule?()=>e.default:()=>e;return __webpack_require__.d(a,),a},__webpack_require__.d=(e,a)=>{for(var r in 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