Chemical element | Definition, Origins, Distribution, & Facts

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</button> <button disabled class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <main> <div class="md-page-wrapper"> <div id="content" class="md-content"> <div class="md-article-container template-desktop infinite-pagination"> <div class="infinite-scroll-container article last"> <script> Object.assign( window.Mendel.config, { "infiniteScrollList": [{"p":19,"t":108636},{"p":5,"t":451929},{"p":15,"t":41549},{"p":25,"t":684121},{"p":10,"t":108987},{"p":1,"t":421752},{"p":5,"t":13282},{"p":20,"t":377665},{"p":1,"t":65886},{"p":28,"t":558901}], "sequence": 1, "topics": {} }); </script> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="108636"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-element">chemical element</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/science/chemical-element">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref81204"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element#ref81204">General observations</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref81205"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element#ref81205">Historical development of the concept of element</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref81206"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/The-atomic-nature-of-the-elements">The atomic nature of the elements</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81207"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/The-atomic-nature-of-the-elements#ref81207">The structure of atoms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81208"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/The-atomic-nature-of-the-elements#ref81208">The existence of isotopes</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref81209"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/The-atomic-nature-of-the-elements#ref81209">Origin of the elements</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81210"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Cosmic-abundances-of-the-elements">Cosmic abundances of the elements</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81211"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Cosmic-abundances-of-the-elements#ref81211">Stars and gas clouds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81212"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Cosmic-abundances-of-the-elements#ref81212">Cosmic rays</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81213"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Solar-system">Solar system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81214"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Solar-system#ref81214">Summary of observations</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81215"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Processes-producing-heavier-elements">Processes producing heavier elements</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81216" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Processes-producing-heavier-elements#ref81216">Reaction stages reflecting increasing temperature</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref81217"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Processes-producing-heavier-elements#ref81217">Hydrogen burning</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref81218"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Processes-producing-heavier-elements#ref81218">Helium burning</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref81219"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Processes-producing-heavier-elements#ref81219">Carbon and oxygen burning</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref81220"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Processes-producing-heavier-elements#ref81220">Silicon burning</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref81221"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Processes-producing-heavier-elements#ref81221">Reversible nuclear reaction equilibrium</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81222"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Neutron-capture">Neutron capture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81223"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Neutron-capture#ref81223">Regions of element synthesis</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81224"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Neutron-capture#ref81224">Element production in the universe as a whole</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81225"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Element-production-in-stars">Element production in stars</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81226"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Element-production-in-massive-objects">Element production in massive objects</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81227"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Element-production-in-massive-objects#ref81227">Radioactive chronologies</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref81228"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Geochemical-distribution-of-the-elements">Geochemical distribution of the elements</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81229"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Geochemical-distribution-of-the-elements#ref81229">Terrestrial distribution</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81230"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Geochemical-distribution-of-the-elements#ref81230">The Earth’s core</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81231"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/The-Earths-mantle">The Earth’s mantle</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81232" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/The-Earths-mantle#ref81232">The Earth’s crust</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref81233"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/The-Earths-mantle#ref81233">Igneous rocks</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref81234"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Major-components">Major components</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref81235"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Major-components#ref81235">Elements of minor and trace abundance</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref81236"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Sedimentary-rocks">Sedimentary rocks</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref81237"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Sedimentary-rocks#ref81237">Metamorphic rocks</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref81238"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Ore-deposits">Ore deposits</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref81239"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Mineral-fuels">Mineral fuels</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref81240"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Soils">Soils</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81241" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Soils#ref81241">The hydrosphere</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref81242"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Composition-of-seawater">Composition of seawater</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref81243"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Composition-of-seawater#ref81243">Circulation of water through the hydrosphere</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref81244"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Composition-of-seawater#ref81244">Geochemical balance of seawater over time</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81245" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/The-atmosphere">The atmosphere</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref81246"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/The-atmosphere#ref81246">Composition</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref81247"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/The-atmosphere#ref81247">Geochemical history</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81248"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/The-geochemical-cycle">The geochemical cycle</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81249"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/The-geochemical-cycle#ref81249">Early history of the Earth</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81250"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-element/Results-of-magmatism-sedimentation-and-metamorphism">Results of magmatism, sedimentation, and metamorphism</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-element/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/chemical-element">Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-element/images-videos">Images & Videos</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/7440-004-07959002/cycle.jpg" data-href="/media/1/108636/916" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/7440-004-07959002/cycle.jpg" alt="geochemical cycle" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/39/7439-004-5BD061A8/abundances-elements-atomic-numbers.jpg" 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Mason</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Emeritus Curator, Department of Mineral Sciences, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. An authority on the distribution of elements in the Earth's crust. Author of <i>Principles of Geochemistry.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Brian H. Mason</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Roger-John-Tayler/2921" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Roger John Tayler</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Professor of Astronomy, University of Sussex, Brighton, England, 1967–95. Author of <i>The Origin of the Chemical Elements </i>and others.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Roger John Tayler</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-element/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2025-01-14T00:00:00CST" >Jan 14, 2025</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-element/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Also called: </dt> <dd>element</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/Lothar-Meyer" topicid="379472">Lothar Meyer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Antoine-Lavoisier" topicid="332700">Antoine Lavoisier</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Dmitri-Mendeleev" topicid="374765">Dmitri Mendeleev</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Louis-Bernard-Guyton-de-Morveau" topicid="250098">Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Joseph-Loschmidt" topicid="348368">Joseph Loschmidt</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/science/rare-earth-element" topicid="491579">rare-earth element</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/isotope" topicid="296583">isotope</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/transition-metal" topicid="602775">transition metal</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/periodic-table" topicid="451929">periodic table</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/hydrogen" topicid="278523">hydrogen</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/chemical-element"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref622210"></span>chemical element</strong>, any substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by ordinary chemical processes. Elements are the fundamental materials of which all matter is composed.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">This article considers the origin of the elements and their abundances throughout the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/universe" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">universe</a>. The geochemical distribution of these elementary substances in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Earth" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Earth’s</a> crust and interior is treated in some detail, as is their occurrence in the hydrosphere and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/atmosphere" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">atmosphere</a>. The article also discusses the periodic law and the tabular arrangement of the elements based on it. For detailed information about the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="compounds" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/compounds" data-type="MW">compounds</a> of the elements, <em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-compound" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">chemical compound</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></span> <span class="marker h2"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref81204"> <h2 class="h1">General observations</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">At present there are 118 known chemical elements. About 20 percent of them do not exist in nature (or are present only in trace amounts) and are known only because they have been synthetically prepared in the laboratory. Of the known elements, 11 (hydrogen, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/nitrogen" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">nitrogen</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/oxygen" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">oxygen</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/fluorine" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">fluorine</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chlorine" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">chlorine</a>, and the six noble gases) are gases under ordinary conditions, two (bromine and mercury) are liquids (two more, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/cesium" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">cesium</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/gallium" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">gallium</a>, melt at about or just above room temperature), and the rest are solids. Elements can combine with one another to form a wide variety of more complex substances called <span id="ref622211"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-compound" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">compounds</a>. The number of possible compounds is almost infinite; perhaps a million are known, and more are being discovered every day. When two or more elements combine to form a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="compound" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/compound" data-type="MW">compound</a>, they lose their separate identities, and the product has characteristics quite different from those of the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constituent" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constituent" data-type="MW">constituent</a> elements. The gaseous elements <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/hydrogen" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">hydrogen</a> and oxygen, for example, with quite different properties, can combine to form the compound <span id="ref622213"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/water" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">water</a>, which has altogether different properties from either oxygen or hydrogen. Water clearly is not an element because it consists of, and actually can be decomposed chemically into, the two substances hydrogen and oxygen; these two substances, however, are elements because they cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by any known chemical process. Most samples of naturally occurring matter are physical <span id="ref622214"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/mixture" class="md-crosslink ">mixtures</a> of compounds. Seawater, for example, is a mixture of water and a large number of other compounds, the most common of which is <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/salt" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">sodium chloride</a>, or table salt. Mixtures differ from compounds in that they can be separated into their component parts by physical processes; for example, the simple process of evaporation separates water from the other compounds in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/seawater" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">seawater</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker h3"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref81205"><h2 class="h1">Historical development of the concept of element</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The modern <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="concept" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/concept" data-type="EB">concept</a> of an element is unambiguous, depending as it does on the use of chemical and physical processes as a means of discriminating elements from compounds and mixtures. The existence of fundamental substances from which all matter is made, however, has been the basis of much theoretical speculation since the dawn of history. The ancient <span id="ref622215"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Greece" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Greek</a> philosophers Thales, Anaximenes, and Heracleitus each suggested that all matter is composed of one essential principle—or element. Thales believed this element to be water; Anaximenes suggested air; and Heracleitus, fire. Another Greek philosopher, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Empedocles" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Empedocles</a>, expressed a different belief—that all substances are composed of four elements: <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/air" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">air</a>, earth, fire, and water. <span id="ref622216"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aristotle" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Aristotle</a> agreed and emphasized that these four elements are bearers of fundamental properties, dryness and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/heat" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">heat</a> being associated with fire, heat and moisture with air, moisture and cold with water, and cold and dryness with earth. In the thinking of these philosophers all other substances were supposed to be combinations of the four elements, and the properties of substances were thought to reflect their elemental <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="compositions" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/compositions" data-type="MW">compositions</a>. Thus, Greek thought <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="encompassed" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/encompassed" data-type="MW">encompassed</a> the idea that all matter could be understood in terms of elemental qualities; in this sense, the elements themselves were thought of as nonmaterial. The Greek concept of an element, which was accepted for nearly 2,000 years, contained only one aspect of the modern definition—namely, that elements have characteristic properties.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In the latter part of the Middle Ages, as <span id="ref622217"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/alchemy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">alchemists</a> became more sophisticated in their knowledge of chemical processes, the Greek concepts of the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="composition" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/composition" data-type="MW">composition</a> of matter became less satisfactory. Additional elemental qualities were introduced to accommodate newly discovered chemical transformations. Thus, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/sulfur" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">sulfur</a> came to represent the quality of combustibility, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/mercury-chemical-element" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">mercury</a> that of volatility or fluidity, and salt that of fixity in fire (or incombustibility). These three alchemical elements, or principles, also represented abstractions of properties reflecting the nature of matter, not physical substances.</p><a class="link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-quiz-module" href="/quiz/facts-you-should-know-the-periodic-table-quiz" data-link-module-iframe-link=""> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/58/203458-131-D94E9327/periodic-table-concept.jpg" alt="Periodic Table of the elements concept image (chemistry)" class="rounded-sm mr-15" width="70" /> <div class="line-clamp clamp-5"> <div class="module-title bg-green">Britannica Quiz</div> <div class="font-weight-semi-bold mt-5">Facts You Should Know: The Periodic Table Quiz</div> </div> </a><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The important difference between a mixture and a chemical compound eventually was understood, and in 1661 the English chemist <span id="ref622218"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-Boyle" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Robert Boyle</a> recognized the fundamental nature of a chemical element. He argued that the four Greek elements could not be the real chemical elements because they cannot <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="combine" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/combine" data-type="EB">combine</a> to form other substances nor can they be extracted from other substances. Boyle stressed the physical nature of elements and related them to the compounds they formed in the modern operational way.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In 1789 the French chemist <span id="ref622219"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Antoine-Lavoisier" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier</a> published what might be considered the first list of elemental substances based on Boyle’s definition. Lavoisier’s list of elements was established on the basis of a careful, quantitative study of decomposition and recombination reactions. Because he could not devise experiments to decompose certain substances, or to form them from known elements, Lavoisier included in his list of elements such substances as lime, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/alumina" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">alumina</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/silica" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">silica</a>, which now are known to be very stable compounds. That Lavoisier still retained a measure of influence from the ancient Greek concept of the elements is indicated by his inclusion of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/light" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">light</a> and heat (caloric) among the elements.</p><div class="module-spacing"> <DIV class="marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; margin-bottom: 15px; } @container (min-width: 475px) { .student-promo-banner { flex-direction: row; } .student-promo-banner-img-wrapper { margin-bottom: 0; margin-right: 10px; justify-content: flex-start; } .student-promo-banner-text-wrapper { text-align: left; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10px; } .student-promo-banner-button-wrapper { margin-right: 0; } }</style> <div class="student-promo-banner-wrapper"> <div class="student-promo-banner d-flex flex-column align-items-center bg-blue rounded p-20"> <div class="student-promo-banner-img-wrapper mb-20 mr-0 d-flex justify-content-center"> <img class="rounded" style="max-width: 100px; min-width: 80px" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp" /> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-text-wrapper ml-0 mb-10 text-center text-white"> <div class="h2 mb-10">Get Unlimited Access</div> <div class="h4 font-weight-semi-bold">Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more.</div> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-button-wrapper d-flex justify-content-center align-items-center ml-auto mr-auto"> <a class="btn btn-m btn-orange" href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=august-2024">Subscribe</a> </div> </div> </div> </DIV></div><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Seven substances recognized today as elements—gold, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/silver" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">silver</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/copper" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">copper</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/iron-chemical-element" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">iron</a>, lead, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/tin" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">tin</a>, and mercury—were known to the ancients because they occur in nature in relatively pure form. They are mentioned in the Bible and in an early Hindu medical <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="treatise" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/treatise" data-type="MW">treatise</a>, the <em>Caraka-samhita</em>. Sixteen other elements were discovered in the second half of the 18th century, when methods of separating elements from their compounds became better understood. Eighty-two more followed after the introduction of quantitative <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="analytical" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/analytical" data-type="MW">analytical</a> methods.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":19,"pageId":108636,"pageLength":1012,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.9"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.9' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"D","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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Chemical element | Definition, Origins, Distribution, & Facts | Britannica