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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Structure_and_formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pollination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Pollination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pollination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_fossil_record" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_fossil_record"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>In the fossil record</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_fossil_record-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allergy_to_pollen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allergy_to_pollen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Allergy to pollen</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Allergy_to_pollen-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Allergy to pollen subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Allergy_to_pollen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Treatment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nutrition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nutrition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Nutrition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Nutrition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Nutrition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Nutrition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>In humans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parasites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parasites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Parasites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parasites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forensic_palynology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forensic_palynology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Forensic palynology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forensic_palynology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spiritual_purposes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spiritual_purposes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Spiritual purposes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spiritual_purposes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pollen_grain_staining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollen_grain_staining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Pollen grain staining</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pollen_grain_staining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Pollen</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 80 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-80" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">80 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuifmeel" title="Stuifmeel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Stuifmeel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AD" title="حبوب اللقاح – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حبوب اللقاح" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polen" title="Polen – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Polen" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polen" title="Polen – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Polen" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%BA%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D3%99" title="Һеркә – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Һеркә" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA" title="Пылок – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Пылок" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%86" title="Цветен прашец – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Цветен прашец" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polen" title="Polen – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Polen" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C2%B7len" title="Pol·len – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pol·len" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%C4%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Шăрка – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Шăрка" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyl" title="Pyl – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pyl" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paill" title="Paill – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Paill" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Pollen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pollen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%95ietolm" title="Õietolm – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Õietolm" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%B7" title="Γύρη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γύρη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polen" title="Polen – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Polen" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poleno" title="Poleno – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Poleno" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polen" title="Polen – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Polen" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87" title="گرده – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گرده" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pollen" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pailin" title="Pailin – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Pailin" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poilean" title="Poilean – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Poilean" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pole" title="Pole – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pole" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%BD%83%EA%B0%80%EB%A3%A8" title="꽃가루 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="꽃가루" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BE%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%83%D5%B8%D5%B7%D5%AB" title="Ծաղկափոշի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ծաղկափոշի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97" title="पराग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पराग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cvjetni_pelud" title="Cvjetni pelud – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Cvjetni pelud" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poleno" title="Poleno – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Poleno" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbuk_sari" title="Serbuk sari – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Serbuk sari" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polline" title="Polline – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Polline" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frj%C3%B3duft" title="Frjóduft – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Frjóduft" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polline" title="Polline – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Polline" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%91%D7%A7%D7%94_(%D7%91%D7%95%D7%98%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94)" title="אבקה (בוטניקה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אבקה (בוטניקה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%97_%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%81_%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%A3" title="ಪರಾಗ ಮತ್ತು ಪರಾಗಣ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪರಾಗ ಮತ್ತು ಪರಾಗಣ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0%D2%A3" title="Тозаң – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Тозаң" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbelewele" title="Mbelewele – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mbelewele" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Pollen" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Putek%C5%A1%C5%86i" title="Putekšņi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Putekšņi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDiedadulk%C4%97" title="Žiedadulkė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Žiedadulkė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vir%C3%A1gpor" title="Virágpor – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Virágpor" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Полен – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Полен" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vovobony" title="Vovobony – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Vovobony" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%82" title="പരാഗം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പരാഗം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puehu" title="Puehu – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Puehu" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Māori</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debunga" title="Debunga – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Debunga" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuifmeel" title="Stuifmeel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Stuifmeel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E7%B2%89" title="花粉 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="花粉" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Pollen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Pollen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poll%C3%A8n" title="Pollèn – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Pollèn" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habarii" title="Habarii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Habarii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chang_donachalari" title="Chang donachalari – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Chang donachalari" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%AF_(%D9%BE%DA%BE%D9%84)" title="پراگ (پھل) – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پراگ (پھل)" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Pollen" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Py%C5%82ek" title="Pyłek – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pyłek" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B3len" title="Pólen – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pólen" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polen" title="Polen – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Polen" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisa" title="Sisa – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Sisa" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Пыльца – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Пыльца" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B2llini" title="Pòllini – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Pòllini" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Pollen" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pe%C4%BE" title="Peľ – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Peľ" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelod" title="Pelod – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Pelod" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Полен – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Полен" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelud" title="Pelud – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Pelud" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siitep%C3%B6ly" title="Siitepöly – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Siitepöly" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Pollen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulo_(bulaklak)" title="Bulo (bulaklak) – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Bulo (bulaklak)" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மகரந்தம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மகரந்தம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8A%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%BF" title="పుప్పొడి – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పుప్పొడి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B9" title="ละอองเรณู – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ละอองเรณู" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polen" title="Polen – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Polen" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tozgajyk" title="Tozgajyk – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Tozgajyk" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA" title="Пилок – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Пилок" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%E1%BA%A5n_hoa" title="Phấn hoa – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phấn hoa" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Pollen" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E7%B2%89" title="花粉 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="花粉" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E7%B2%89" title="花粉 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="花粉" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E7%B2%89" title="花粉 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="花粉" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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seed plants</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Pollen_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Pollen (disambiguation)">Pollen (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Exine" redirects here. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Exene_Cervenka" title="Exene Cervenka">Exene</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Misc_pollen_colorized.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Misc_pollen_colorized.jpg/220px-Misc_pollen_colorized.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Misc_pollen_colorized.jpg/330px-Misc_pollen_colorized.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Misc_pollen_colorized.jpg/440px-Misc_pollen_colorized.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1228" data-file-height="935" /></a><figcaption>Colorized <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">scanning electron microscope</a> image of pollen grains from a variety of common plants: sunflower (<i><a href="/wiki/Common_sunflower" title="Common sunflower">Helianthus annuus</a></i>), morning glory (<i><a href="/wiki/Ipomoea_purpurea" title="Ipomoea purpurea">Ipomoea purpurea</a></i>), prairie hollyhock (<i><a href="/wiki/Sidalcea_malviflora" title="Sidalcea malviflora">Sidalcea malviflora</a></i>), oriental lily (<i><a href="/wiki/Lilium_auratum" title="Lilium auratum">Lilium auratum</a></i>), evening primrose (<i><a href="/wiki/Oenothera_fruticosa" title="Oenothera fruticosa">Oenothera fruticosa</a></i>), and castor bean (<i><a href="/wiki/Ricinus" title="Ricinus">Ricinus</a> communis</i>).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pollen_Tube.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Pollen_Tube.svg/220px-Pollen_Tube.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="1130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Pollen_Tube.svg/330px-Pollen_Tube.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Pollen_Tube.svg/440px-Pollen_Tube.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="123" data-file-height="632" /></a><figcaption>Pollen tube diagram</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Pollen</b> is a powdery substance produced by most types of flowers of <a href="/wiki/Seed_plant" title="Seed plant">seed plants</a> for the purpose of sexual reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It consists of pollen grains (highly reduced <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte#Heterospory" title="Gametophyte">microgametophytes</a>), which produce male <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a> (sperm cells). </p><p>Pollen grains have a hard coat made of <a href="/wiki/Sporopollenin" title="Sporopollenin">sporopollenin</a> that protects the gametophytes during the process of their movement from the <a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">stamens</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Pistil" class="mw-redirect" title="Pistil">pistil</a> of flowering plants, or from the male <a href="/wiki/Conifer_cone" title="Conifer cone">cone</a> to the female cone of <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperms</a>. If pollen lands on a compatible pistil or female cone, it <a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">germinates</a>, producing a <a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">pollen tube</a> that transfers the <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">ovule</a> containing the female gametophyte. Individual pollen grains are small enough to require magnification to see detail. The study of pollen is called <a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">palynology</a> and is highly useful in <a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">paleoecology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">forensics</a>. </p><p>Pollen in plants is used for transferring <a href="/wiki/Ploidy#Haploid_and_monoploid" title="Ploidy">haploid</a> male genetic material from the <a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">anther</a> of a single flower to the <a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">stigma</a> of another in cross-pollination.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a case of self-pollination, this process takes place from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pollen is infrequently used as food and <a href="/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">food supplement</a>. Because of agricultural practices, it is often contaminated by agricultural pesticides.<sup id="cite_ref-Tosi-2018_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tosi-2018-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure_and_formation">Structure and formation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure and formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pollen itself is not the male gamete.<sup id="cite_ref-facts_and_practice_for_a_level_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-facts_and_practice_for_a_level-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a>, something that could be considered an entire organism, which then produces the male gamete. Each pollen grain contains vegetative (non-reproductive) cells (only a single cell in most flowering plants but several in other seed plants) and a generative (reproductive) cell. In flowering plants the vegetative tube cell produces the <a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">pollen tube</a>, and the generative cell divides to form the two sperm nuclei. </p><p>Pollen grains come in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and surface markings characteristic of the species (see <a href="/wiki/Electron_micrograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron micrograph">electron micrograph</a>, right). Pollen grains of <a href="/wiki/Pine" title="Pine">pines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fir" title="Fir">firs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spruce" title="Spruce">spruces</a> are winged. The smallest pollen grain, that of the <a href="/wiki/Forget-me-not" class="mw-redirect" title="Forget-me-not">forget-me-not</a> (<i>Myosotis</i> spp.),<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2017)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> is 2.5–5 <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">μm</a> (0.005 mm) in diameter.<sup id="cite_ref-sporomex_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sporomex-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Corn pollen grains are large, about 90–100 μm.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most grass pollen is around 20–25 μm.<sup id="cite_ref-sporomex_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sporomex-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some pollen grains are based on <a href="/wiki/Geodesic_polyhedra" class="mw-redirect" title="Geodesic polyhedra">geodesic polyhedra</a> like a <a href="/wiki/Soccer_ball" class="mw-redirect" title="Soccer ball">soccer ball</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerycaption">Micrographs of different types of pollen</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Oenothera_speciosa_pollen_200x.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Triporate pollen of Oenothera speciosa"><img alt="Triporate pollen of Oenothera speciosa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Oenothera_speciosa_pollen_200x.jpg/200px-Oenothera_speciosa_pollen_200x.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Oenothera_speciosa_pollen_200x.jpg/300px-Oenothera_speciosa_pollen_200x.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Oenothera_speciosa_pollen_200x.jpg/400px-Oenothera_speciosa_pollen_200x.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="413" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Triporate pollen of <i><a href="/wiki/Oenothera_speciosa" title="Oenothera speciosa">Oenothera speciosa</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lilium_auratum_-_pollen.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pollen of Lilium auratum showing single sulcus (monosulcate)"><img alt="Pollen of Lilium auratum showing single sulcus (monosulcate)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Lilium_auratum_-_pollen.jpg/200px-Lilium_auratum_-_pollen.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Lilium_auratum_-_pollen.jpg/300px-Lilium_auratum_-_pollen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Lilium_auratum_-_pollen.jpg/400px-Lilium_auratum_-_pollen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1228" data-file-height="960" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Pollen of <i><a href="/wiki/Lilium_auratum" title="Lilium auratum">Lilium auratum</a></i> showing single sulcus (monosulcate)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabis_voch1-4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Arabis pollen has three colpi and prominent surface structure."><img alt="Arabis pollen has three colpi and prominent surface structure." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Arabis_voch1-4.jpg/200px-Arabis_voch1-4.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Arabis_voch1-4.jpg/300px-Arabis_voch1-4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Arabis_voch1-4.jpg/400px-Arabis_voch1-4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Arabis" title="Arabis">Arabis</a></i> pollen has three colpi and prominent surface structure.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%96%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%BF%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%8B_13.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Apple pollen"><img alt="Apple pollen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D0%96%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%BF%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%8B_13.jpg/200px-%D0%96%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%BF%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%8B_13.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D0%96%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%BF%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%8B_13.jpg/300px-%D0%96%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%BF%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%8B_13.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D0%96%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%BF%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%8B_13.jpg/400px-%D0%96%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%BF%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%8B_13.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3296" data-file-height="2472" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Apple pollen</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fire_lily_pollens_on_an_insect%27s_hair.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pollen of Lilium bulbiferum on an insect's hair"><img alt="Pollen of Lilium bulbiferum on an insect's hair" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Fire_lily_pollens_on_an_insect%27s_hair.jpg/160px-Fire_lily_pollens_on_an_insect%27s_hair.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Fire_lily_pollens_on_an_insect%27s_hair.jpg/240px-Fire_lily_pollens_on_an_insect%27s_hair.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Fire_lily_pollens_on_an_insect%27s_hair.jpg/320px-Fire_lily_pollens_on_an_insect%27s_hair.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2525" data-file-height="2525" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Pollen of <i><a href="/wiki/Lilium_bulbiferum" title="Lilium bulbiferum">Lilium bulbiferum</a></i> on an insect's hair</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation">Formation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pollen is produced in the <a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">microsporangia</a> in the male cone of a conifer or other <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperm</a> or in the anthers of an <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">angiosperm</a> <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">flower</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-left"><div><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coenocytic_Tetrad.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Coenocytic_Tetrad.gif" decoding="async" width="216" height="242" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="216" data-file-height="242" /></a><figcaption>Pollen microspores of <i><a href="/wiki/Lycopersicon_esculentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopersicon esculentum">Lycopersicon esculentum</a></i> at coenocytic tetrad stage of development observed through oil immersion microscope; the chromosomes of what will become four pollen grains can be seen.</figcaption></figure></div></div> <p>In angiosperms, during flower development the anther is composed of a mass of cells that appear undifferentiated, except for a partially differentiated dermis. As the flower develops, fertile sporogenous cells, the <b>archespore</b>, form within the anther. The sporogenous cells are surrounded by layers of sterile cells that grow into the wall of the pollen sac. Some of the cells grow into nutritive cells that supply nutrition for the microspores that form by meiotic division from the sporogenous cells. The archespore cells divide by mitosis and differentiate to form <b>pollen mother cells</b> (microsporocyte, <a href="/wiki/Meiocyte" title="Meiocyte">meiocyte</a>). </p><p>In a process called <b>microsporogenesis</b>, four haploid <a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">microspores</a> are produced from each diploid pollen mother cell, after <a href="/wiki/Meiotic_division" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiotic division">meiotic division</a>. After the formation of the four microspores, which are contained by <a href="/wiki/Callose" title="Callose">callose</a> walls, the development of the pollen grain walls begins. The callose wall is broken down by an enzyme called callase and the freed pollen grains grow in size and develop their characteristic shape and form a resistant outer wall called the exine and an inner wall called the intine. The exine is what is preserved in the fossil record. </p><p>Two basic types of microsporogenesis are recognised, simultaneous and successive. In simultaneous microsporogenesis meiotic steps I and II are completed before <a href="/wiki/Cytokinesis" title="Cytokinesis">cytokinesis</a>, whereas in successive microsporogenesis cytokinesis follows. While there may be a continuum with intermediate forms, the type of microsporogenesis has systematic significance. The predominant form amongst the <a href="/wiki/Monocots" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocots">monocots</a> is successive, but there are important exceptions.<sup id="cite_ref-Furness2001_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Furness2001-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During microgametogenesis, the unicellular microspores undergo mitosis and develop into mature <a href="/wiki/Microgametophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Microgametophyte">microgametophytes</a> containing the gametes.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some flowering plants,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2017)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">germination</a> of the pollen grain may begin even before it leaves the microsporangium, with the generative cell forming the two sperm cells. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure">Structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tulip_Stamen_Tip.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Tulip_Stamen_Tip.jpg/170px-Tulip_Stamen_Tip.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Tulip_Stamen_Tip.jpg/255px-Tulip_Stamen_Tip.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Tulip_Stamen_Tip.jpg/340px-Tulip_Stamen_Tip.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1283" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Tulip <a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">anther</a> with many grains of pollen</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cactus_flower_pollen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Cactus_flower_pollen.jpg/220px-Cactus_flower_pollen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Cactus_flower_pollen.jpg/330px-Cactus_flower_pollen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Cactus_flower_pollen.jpg/440px-Cactus_flower_pollen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption>Closeup image of a cactus flower and its stamens</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jasper_-_Pollen_storm_-_20140624B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Jasper_-_Pollen_storm_-_20140624B.jpg/220px-Jasper_-_Pollen_storm_-_20140624B.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Jasper_-_Pollen_storm_-_20140624B.jpg/330px-Jasper_-_Pollen_storm_-_20140624B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Jasper_-_Pollen_storm_-_20140624B.jpg/440px-Jasper_-_Pollen_storm_-_20140624B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2664" /></a><figcaption>Pollen storm in <a href="/wiki/Jasper_National_Park" title="Jasper National Park">Jasper National Park</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Except in the case of some submerged aquatic plants, the mature pollen grain has a double wall. The vegetative and generative cells are surrounded by a thin delicate wall of unaltered <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> called the <b>endospore</b> or <b>intine</b>, and a tough resistant outer cuticularized wall composed largely of <a href="/wiki/Sporopollenin" title="Sporopollenin">sporopollenin</a> called the <b>exospore</b> or <b>exine</b>. The exine often bears spines or warts, or is variously sculptured, and the character of the markings is often of value for identifying genus, species, or even cultivar or individual. </p><p>The spines may be less than a micron in length (spinulus, plural spinuli) referred to as <b>spinulose</b> (scabrate), or longer than a micron (echina, echinae) referred to as <b>echinate</b>. Various terms also describe the sculpturing such as <b>reticulate</b>, a net like appearance consisting of elements (murus, muri) separated from each other by a lumen (plural lumina). These reticulations may also be referred to as brochi. </p><p>The pollen wall protects the sperm while the pollen grain is moving from the anther to the stigma; it protects the vital genetic material from drying out and solar radiation. The pollen grain surface is covered with waxes and proteins, which are held in place by structures called sculpture elements on the surface of the grain. The outer pollen wall, which prevents the pollen grain from shrinking and crushing the genetic material during desiccation,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> is composed of two layers. These two layers are the tectum and the foot layer, which is just above the intine. The tectum and foot layer are separated by a region called the columella, which is composed of strengthening rods. The outer wall is constructed with a resistant biopolymer called sporopollenin. </p><p>Pollen apertures are regions of the pollen wall that may involve exine thinning or a significant reduction in exine thickness.<sup id="cite_ref-Furness-2004_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Furness-2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They allow shrinking and swelling of the grain caused by changes in moisture content. The process of shrinking the grain is called harmomegathy.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elongated apertures or furrows in the pollen grain are called colpi (singular: colpus) or sulci (singular: <a href="/wiki/Sulcus_(morphology)" title="Sulcus (morphology)">sulcus</a>). Apertures that are more circular are called pores. Colpi, sulci and pores are major features in the identification of classes of pollen.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pollen may be referred to as <b>inaperturate</b> (apertures absent) or <b>aperturate</b> (apertures present). </p><p>The aperture may have a lid (<a href="/wiki/Operculum_(botany)" title="Operculum (botany)">operculum</a>), hence is described as <b>operculate</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However the term inaperturate covers a wide range of morphological types, such as functionally inaperturate (cryptoaperturate) and omniaperturate.<sup id="cite_ref-Furness2001_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Furness2001-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inaperaturate pollen grains often have thin walls, which facilitates <a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">pollen tube</a> germination at any position.<sup id="cite_ref-Furness-2004_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Furness-2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Terms such as <b>uniaperturate</b> and <b>triaperturate</b> refer to the number of apertures present (one and three respectively). Spiraperturate refers to one or more apertures being spirally shaped. </p><p>The orientation of furrows (relative to the original tetrad of microspores) classifies the pollen as <b>sulcate</b> or <b>colpate</b>. Sulcate pollen has a furrow across the middle of what was the outer face when the pollen grain was in its tetrad.<sup id="cite_ref-Spor72_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spor72-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the pollen has only a single sulcus, it is described as <b>monosulcate</b>, has two sulci, as <b>bisulcate</b>, or more, as <b>polysulcate</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Simp11_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simp11-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Singh1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singh1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colpate pollen has furrows other than across the middle of the outer faces, and similarly may be described as <b>polycolpate</b> if more than two. <b>Syncolpate</b> pollen grains have two or more colpi that are fused at the ends.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaltenriedervon_Ballmoos2003_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaltenriedervon_Ballmoos2003-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spor72_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spor72-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Eudicots" title="Eudicots">Eudicots</a> have pollen with three colpi (<b><a href="/wiki/Tricolpate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tricolpate">tricolpate</a></b>) or with shapes that are evolutionarily derived from tricolpate pollen.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The evolutionary trend in plants has been from monosulcate to polycolpate or polyporate pollen.<sup id="cite_ref-Spor72_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spor72-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperm</a> pollen grains often have air bladders, or vesicles, called <b>sacci.</b> The sacci are not actually balloons, but are sponge-like, and increase the <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a> of the pollen grain and help keep it aloft in the wind, as most gymnosperms are <a href="/wiki/Anemophily" title="Anemophily">anemophilous</a>. Pollen can be <b>monosaccate</b>, (containing one saccus) or <b>bisaccate</b> (containing two sacci). Modern <a href="/wiki/Pine" title="Pine">pine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Picea" class="mw-redirect" title="Picea">spruce</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Podocarpus" title="Podocarpus">yellowwood</a> trees all produce saccate pollen.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pollination">Pollination</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pollination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apis_mellifera_flying.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Apis_mellifera_flying.jpg/220px-Apis_mellifera_flying.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Apis_mellifera_flying.jpg/330px-Apis_mellifera_flying.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Apis_mellifera_flying.jpg/440px-Apis_mellifera_flying.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1754" data-file-height="1169" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Apis_mellifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Apis mellifera">European honey bee</a> carrying pollen in a <a href="/wiki/Pollen_basket" title="Pollen basket">pollen basket</a> back to the hive</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Episyrphus_balteatus_-_head_close-up_(aka).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Episyrphus_balteatus_-_head_close-up_%28aka%29.jpg/220px-Episyrphus_balteatus_-_head_close-up_%28aka%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Episyrphus_balteatus_-_head_close-up_%28aka%29.jpg/330px-Episyrphus_balteatus_-_head_close-up_%28aka%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Episyrphus_balteatus_-_head_close-up_%28aka%29.jpg/440px-Episyrphus_balteatus_-_head_close-up_%28aka%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Episyrphus_balteatus" title="Episyrphus balteatus">Marmalade hoverfly</a>, pollen on its face and legs, sitting on a <a href="/wiki/Cistus" title="Cistus">rockrose</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diadasia_Bee_Straddles_Cactus_Flower_Carpels_close-up.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Diadasia_Bee_Straddles_Cactus_Flower_Carpels_close-up.jpg/220px-Diadasia_Bee_Straddles_Cactus_Flower_Carpels_close-up.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Diadasia_Bee_Straddles_Cactus_Flower_Carpels_close-up.jpg/330px-Diadasia_Bee_Straddles_Cactus_Flower_Carpels_close-up.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Diadasia_Bee_Straddles_Cactus_Flower_Carpels_close-up.jpg/440px-Diadasia_Bee_Straddles_Cactus_Flower_Carpels_close-up.jpg 2x" data-file-width="666" data-file-height="834" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Diadasia" title="Diadasia">Diadasia</a></i> bee straddles flower <a href="/wiki/Carpels" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpels">carpels</a> while visiting yellow <i><a href="/wiki/Opuntia_engelmannii" title="Opuntia engelmannii">Opuntia engelmannii</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Cactus" title="Cactus">cactus</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>The transfer of pollen grains to the female reproductive structure (<i><b><a href="/wiki/Pistil" class="mw-redirect" title="Pistil">pistil</a></b></i> in angiosperms) is called <b><a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollination</a></b>. Pollen transfer is frequently portrayed as a sequential process that begins with placement on the vector, moves through travel, and ends with deposition.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This transfer can be mediated by the wind, in which case the plant is described as <b><a href="/wiki/Anemophily" title="Anemophily">anemophilous</a></b> (literally wind-loving). Anemophilous plants typically produce great quantities of very lightweight pollen grains, sometimes with air-sacs. </p><p>Non-flowering seed plants (e.g., pine trees) are characteristically anemophilous. Anemophilous flowering plants generally have inconspicuous flowers. <b><a href="/wiki/Entomophily" title="Entomophily">Entomophilous</a></b> (literally insect-loving) plants produce pollen that is relatively heavy, sticky and <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a>-rich, for dispersal by <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insect</a> <a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">pollinators</a> attracted to their flowers. Many insects and some <a href="/wiki/Mite" title="Mite">mites</a> are specialized to feed on pollen, and are called <a href="/wiki/Palynivore" title="Palynivore">palynivores</a>. </p><p>In non-flowering seed plants, pollen germinates in the pollen chamber, located beneath the <a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">micropyle</a>, underneath the integuments of the ovule. A <a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">pollen tube</a> is produced, which grows into the <a href="/wiki/Nucellus" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucellus">nucellus</a> to provide nutrients for the developing sperm cells. Sperm cells of <a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">Pinophyta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">Gnetophyta</a> are without <a href="/wiki/Flagella" class="mw-redirect" title="Flagella">flagella</a>, and are carried by the pollen tube, while those of <a href="/wiki/Cycad" title="Cycad">Cycadophyta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ginkgophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginkgophyta">Ginkgophyta</a> have many flagella. </p><p>When placed on the <a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">stigma</a> of a flowering plant, under favorable circumstances, a pollen grain puts forth a <a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">pollen tube</a>, which grows down the tissue of the style to the <a href="/wiki/Ovary_(plants)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovary (plants)">ovary</a>, and makes its way along the <a href="/wiki/Placentation#In_plants" title="Placentation">placenta</a>, guided by projections or hairs, to the micropyle of an <a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">ovule</a>. The nucleus of the tube cell has meanwhile passed into the tube, as does also the generative nucleus, which divides (if it has not already) to form two sperm cells. The sperm cells are carried to their destination in the tip of the pollen tube. Double-strand breaks in DNA that arise during pollen tube growth appear to be efficiently <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">repaired</a> in the generative cell that carries the male <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genomic information</a> to be passed on to the next plant generation.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid23550213_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23550213-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the vegetative cell that is responsible for tube elongation appears to lack this <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a> capability.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid23550213_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23550213-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_the_fossil_record">In the fossil record</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: In the fossil record"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">Palynology</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Sporopollenin" title="Sporopollenin">sporopollenin</a> outer sheath of pollen grains affords them some resistance to the rigours of the fossilisation process that destroy weaker objects; it is also produced in huge quantities. There is an extensive fossil record of pollen grains, often disassociated from their parent plant. The discipline of palynology is devoted to the study of pollen, which can be used both for <a href="/wiki/Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">biostratigraphy</a> and to gain information about the abundance and variety of plants alive — which can itself yield important information about paleoclimates. Also, pollen analysis has been widely used for reconstructing past changes in vegetation and their associated drivers.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pollen is first found in the <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> record in the late <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> period,<sup id="cite_ref-palynology_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-palynology-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but at that time it is indistinguishable from spores.<sup id="cite_ref-palynology_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-palynology-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It increases in abundance until the present day. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Allergy_to_pollen">Allergy to pollen</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Allergy to pollen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Allergy_season" class="mw-redirect" title="Allergy season">Allergy season</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output 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.multiple-issues-text>.mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-image,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-imageright,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-empty-cell,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .hide-when-compact{display:none}</style><table class="box-Multiple_issues plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible"><b>This section has multiple issues.</b> Please help <b><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Pollen" title="Special:EditPage/Pollen">improve it</a></b> or discuss these issues on the <b><a href="/wiki/Talk:Pollen" title="Talk:Pollen">talk page</a></b>. <small><i>(<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove these messages</a>)</i></small> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Pollen" title="Special:EditPage/Pollen">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: information about allergies not in the nose, e.g., skin reactions. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2013</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pine_releasing_pollen_into_the_wind_in_Tuntorp_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Pine_releasing_pollen_into_the_wind_in_Tuntorp_4.jpg/220px-Pine_releasing_pollen_into_the_wind_in_Tuntorp_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Pine_releasing_pollen_into_the_wind_in_Tuntorp_4.jpg/330px-Pine_releasing_pollen_into_the_wind_in_Tuntorp_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Pine_releasing_pollen_into_the_wind_in_Tuntorp_4.jpg/440px-Pine_releasing_pollen_into_the_wind_in_Tuntorp_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4820" data-file-height="3214" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Pinus_sylvestris" title="Pinus sylvestris">pine</a> releasing pollen into the wind</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Allergic_rhinitis" title="Allergic rhinitis">Nasal allergy</a> to pollen is called <a href="/wiki/Pollinosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollinosis">pollinosis</a>, and allergy specifically to grass pollen is called <a href="/wiki/Hay_fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Hay fever">hay fever</a>. Generally, pollens that cause allergies are those of anemophilous plants (pollen is dispersed by air currents.) Such plants produce large quantities of lightweight pollen (because wind dispersal is random and the likelihood of one pollen grain landing on another flower is small), which can be carried for great distances and are easily inhaled, bringing it into contact with the sensitive nasal passages. </p><p>Pollen allergies are common in polar and temperate climate zones, where production of pollen is seasonal. In the tropics pollen production varies less by the season, and allergic reactions less. In northern Europe, common pollens for allergies are those of <a href="/wiki/Birch" title="Birch">birch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alder" title="Alder">alder</a>, and in late summer <a href="/wiki/Artemisia_vulgaris" title="Artemisia vulgaris">wormwood</a> and different forms of <a href="/wiki/Hay" title="Hay">hay</a>. Grass pollen is also associated with <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma exacerbations</a> in some people, a phenomenon termed <a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm_asthma" title="Thunderstorm asthma">thunderstorm asthma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the US, people often mistakenly blame the conspicuous <a href="/wiki/Goldenrod" title="Goldenrod">goldenrod</a> flower for allergies. Since this plant is entomophilous (its pollen is dispersed by animals), its heavy, sticky pollen does not become independently airborne. Most late summer and fall pollen allergies are probably caused by <a href="/wiki/Ragweed" title="Ragweed">ragweed</a>, a widespread anemophilous plant.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a> was once regarded as a haven for people with pollen allergies, although several ragweed species grow in the desert. However, as suburbs grew and people began establishing <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigated lawns and gardens</a>, more irritating species of ragweed gained a foothold and Arizona lost its claim of freedom from hay fever. </p><p>Anemophilous spring blooming plants such as <a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Birch" title="Birch">birch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hickory" title="Hickory">hickory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pecan" title="Pecan">pecan</a>, and early summer <a href="/wiki/Grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Grass">grasses</a> may also induce pollen allergies. Most cultivated plants with showy flowers are entomophilous and do not cause pollen allergies. </p><p>Symptoms of pollen allergy include <a href="/wiki/Sneeze" title="Sneeze">sneezing</a>, itchy, or runny nose, <a href="/wiki/Nasal_congestion" title="Nasal congestion">nasal congestion</a>, red, itchy, and watery eyes. Substances, including pollen, that cause allergies can trigger asthma. A study found a 54% increased chance of <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> attacks when exposed to pollen.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The number of people in the United States affected by hay fever is between 20 and 40 million, including around 6.1 million children<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and such allergy has proven to be the most frequent <a href="/wiki/Allergic_response" title="Allergic response">allergic response</a> in the nation. Hay fever affects about 20% of Canadians and the prevalence is increasing.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are certain evidential suggestions pointing out hay fever and similar allergies to be of <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Hereditary disease">hereditary origin</a>. Individuals who suffer from <a href="/wiki/Eczema" class="mw-redirect" title="Eczema">eczema</a> or are <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthmatic</a> tend to be more susceptible to developing long-term hay fever.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since 1990, pollen seasons have gotten longer and more pollen-filled, and climate change is responsible, according to a new study.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The researchers attributed roughly half of the lengthening pollen seasons and 8% of the trend in pollen concentrations to climate changes driven by human activity.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, decades of rising temperatures cause pollen to appear earlier and in greater amounts, exacerbated by the introduction of new species such as ragweed.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most efficient way to handle a pollen allergy is by preventing contact with the material. Individuals carrying the ailment may at first believe that they have a simple summer cold, but hay fever becomes more evident when the apparent cold does not disappear. The confirmation of hay fever can be obtained after examination by a <a href="/wiki/General_practitioner" title="General practitioner">general physician</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treatment">Treatment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Allergic_rhinitis#treatment" title="Allergic rhinitis">Allergic rhinitis § treatment</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Antihistamines" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihistamines">Antihistamines</a> are effective at treating mild cases of pollinosis; this type of non-prescribed drugs includes <a href="/wiki/Loratadine" title="Loratadine">loratadine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cetirizine" title="Cetirizine">cetirizine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chlorpheniramine" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorpheniramine">chlorpheniramine</a>. They do not prevent the discharge of <a href="/wiki/Histamine" title="Histamine">histamine</a>, but it has been proven that they do prevent a part of the chain reaction activated by this <a href="/wiki/Biogenic_amine" title="Biogenic amine">biogenic amine</a>, which considerably lowers hay fever symptoms. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Decongestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Decongestants">Decongestants</a> can be administered in different ways such as tablets and <a href="/wiki/Nasal_spray" title="Nasal spray">nasal sprays</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Allergen_immunotherapy" title="Allergen immunotherapy">Allergy immunotherapy</a> (AIT) treatment involves administering doses of allergens to accustom the body to pollen, thereby inducing specific long-term tolerance.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Allergy immunotherapy can be administered orally (as sublingual tablets or sublingual drops), or by injections under the skin (subcutaneous). Discovered by Leonard Noon and John Freeman in 1911, allergy immunotherapy represents the only causative treatment for respiratory allergies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nutrition">Nutrition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Nutrition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most major classes of <a href="/wiki/Predatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Predatory">predatory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parasitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic">parasitic</a> <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a> contain species that eat pollen, despite the common perception that <a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">bees</a> are the primary pollen-consuming arthropod group. Many <a href="/wiki/Hymenoptera" title="Hymenoptera">Hymenoptera</a> other than bees consume pollen as adults, though only a small number feed on pollen as <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larvae</a> (including some <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ant</a> larvae). <a href="/wiki/Spider" title="Spider">Spiders</a> are normally considered <a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">carnivores</a> but pollen is an important source of food for several species, particularly for <a href="/wiki/Spider" title="Spider">spiderlings</a>, which catch pollen on their <a href="/wiki/Spider_web" title="Spider web">webs</a>. It is not clear how spiderlings manage to eat pollen however, since their mouths are not large enough to consume pollen grains.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Some <a href="/wiki/Acari" class="mw-redirect" title="Acari">predatory mites</a> also feed on pollen, with some species being able to subsist solely on pollen, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Euseius_tularensis" title="Euseius tularensis">Euseius tularensis</a></i>, which feeds on the pollen of dozens of plant species. Members of some beetle families such as <a href="/wiki/Mordellidae" title="Mordellidae">Mordellidae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Melyridae" title="Melyridae">Melyridae</a> feed almost exclusively on pollen as adults, while various lineages within larger families such as <a href="/wiki/Curculionidae" title="Curculionidae">Curculionidae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chrysomelidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysomelidae">Chrysomelidae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerambycidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerambycidae">Cerambycidae</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scarabaeidae" title="Scarabaeidae">Scarabaeidae</a> are pollen specialists even though most members of their families are not (e.g., only 36 of 40,000 species of <a href="/wiki/Carabidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Carabidae">ground beetles</a>, which are typically predatory, have been shown to eat pollen—but this is thought to be a severe underestimate as the feeding habits are only known for 1,000 species). Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Ladybird" class="mw-redirect" title="Ladybird">Ladybird</a> beetles mainly eat insects, but many species also eat pollen, as either part or all of their diet. <a href="/wiki/Hemiptera" title="Hemiptera">Hemiptera</a> are mostly <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a> or <a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">omnivores</a> but pollen feeding is known (and has only been well studied in the <a href="/wiki/Anthocoridae" title="Anthocoridae">Anthocoridae</a>). Many adult flies, especially <a href="/wiki/Syrphidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrphidae">Syrphidae</a>, feed on pollen, and three UK syrphid species feed strictly on pollen (syrphids, like all <a href="/wiki/Fly" title="Fly">flies</a>, cannot eat pollen directly due to the structure of their mouthparts, but can consume pollen contents that are dissolved in a fluid).<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some species of fungus, including <i><a href="/wiki/Fomes_fomentarius" title="Fomes fomentarius">Fomes fomentarius</a></i>, are able to break down grains of pollen as a secondary nutrition source that is particularly high in nitrogen.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pollen may be valuable diet supplement for <a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">detritivores</a>, providing them with nutrients needed for growth, development and maturation.<sup id="cite_ref-Filipiak-2016_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Filipiak-2016-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was suggested that obtaining nutrients from pollen, deposited on the forest floor during periods of pollen rains, allows fungi to decompose nutritionally scarce litter.<sup id="cite_ref-Filipiak-2016_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Filipiak-2016-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some species of <i><a href="/wiki/Heliconius" title="Heliconius">Heliconius</a></i> butterflies consume pollen as adults, which appears to be a valuable nutrient source, and these species are more distasteful to predators than the non-pollen consuming species.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">bats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Butterfly" title="Butterfly">butterflies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hummingbird" title="Hummingbird">hummingbirds</a> are not pollen eaters <i>per se</i>, their consumption of <a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">nectar</a> in flowers is an important aspect of the <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollination</a> process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_humans">In humans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: In humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bee_pollen" title="Bee pollen">Bee pollen</a> for human consumption is marketed as a <a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a> ingredient and as a <a href="/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">dietary supplement</a>. The largest constituent is <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a>, with protein content ranging from 7 to 35 percent depending on the plant species collected by bees.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">Honey</a> produced by bees from natural sources contains pollen derived <a href="/wiki/P-coumaric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="P-coumaric acid">p-coumaric acid</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Berenbaum_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berenbaum-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidant</a> and natural <a href="/wiki/Bactericide" title="Bactericide">bactericide</a> that is also present in a wide variety of plants and plant-derived food products.<sup id="cite_ref-Xaixiang_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xaixiang-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/U.S._Food_and_Drug_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Food and Drug Administration">U.S. Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) has not found any harmful effects of bee pollen consumption, except for the usual allergies. However, FDA does not allow bee pollen marketers in the United States to make health claims about their produce, as no scientific basis for these has ever been proven. Furthermore, there are possible dangers not only from allergic reactions but also from contaminants such as pesticides<sup id="cite_ref-Tosi-2018_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tosi-2018-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and from fungi and bacteria growth related to poor storage procedures. A manufacturers's claim that pollen collecting helps the bee colonies is also controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pine pollen (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">송화가루</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language romanization"><i lang="ko-Latn">Songhwa Garu</i></span>) is traditionally consumed in Korea as an ingredient in sweets and beverages.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a> of precolonial New Zealand would gather pollen of <i><a href="/wiki/Typha_orientalis" title="Typha orientalis">Typha orientalis</a></i> to make a special bread called <i>pungapunga</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parasites">Parasites</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Parasites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The growing industries in pollen harvesting for human and bee consumption rely on harvesting pollen baskets from honey bees as they return to their hives using a <i>pollen trap</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When this pollen has been tested for parasites, it has been found that a multitude of viruses and eukaryotic parasites are present in the pollen.<sup id="cite_ref-Graystock2013_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graystock2013-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Singh2010_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singh2010-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is currently unclear if the parasites are introduced by the bee that collected the pollen or if it is from the flower.<sup id="cite_ref-Singh2010_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singh2010-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ParaBloom_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ParaBloom-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though this is not likely to pose a risk to humans, it is a major issue for the bumblebee rearing industry that relies on thousands of tonnes of honey bee collected pollen per year.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several sterilization methods have been employed, though no method has been 100% effective at sterilisation without reducing the nutritional value of the pollen <sup id="cite_ref-steralization_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-steralization-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forensic_palynology">Forensic palynology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Forensic palynology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Forensic_palynology" title="Forensic palynology">Forensic palynology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RedbudPollen.TIF" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/RedbudPollen.TIF/lossy-page1-220px-RedbudPollen.TIF.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/RedbudPollen.TIF/lossy-page1-330px-RedbudPollen.TIF.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/RedbudPollen.TIF/lossy-page1-440px-RedbudPollen.TIF.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">SEM micrograph</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cercis" title="Cercis">redbud</a> pollen. Scanning electron microscopes are major instruments in palynology.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Forensic_biology" title="Forensic biology">forensic biology</a>, pollen can tell a lot about where a person or object has been, because regions of the world, or even more particular locations such a certain set of bushes, will have a distinctive collection of pollen species.<sup id="cite_ref-bryant_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bryant-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pollen evidence can also reveal the season in which a particular object picked up the pollen.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pollen has been used to trace activity at mass graves in <a href="/wiki/Bosnia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosnia">Bosnia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> catch a burglar who brushed against a <i><a href="/wiki/Hypericum" title="Hypericum">Hypericum</a></i> bush during a crime,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has even been proposed as an additive for bullets to enable tracking them.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spiritual_purposes">Spiritual purposes<span id="Spiritual_use_anchor" class="anchor"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Spiritual purposes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some <a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American religions</a>, pollen was used in <a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">prayers</a> and rituals to symbolize life and renewal by <a href="/wiki/Sanctifying" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctifying">sanctifying</a> objects, dancing grounds, trails, and <a href="/wiki/Sandpainting" title="Sandpainting">sandpaintings</a>. It may also be sprinkled over heads or in mouths. Many <a href="/wiki/Navajo" title="Navajo">Navajo</a> people believed the body became <a href="/wiki/Holy" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy">holy</a> when it traveled over a trail sprinkled with pollen.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pollen_grain_staining">Pollen grain staining</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Pollen grain staining"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For agricultural research purposes, assessing the viability of pollen grains can be necessary and illuminating. A very common, efficient method to do so is known as Alexander's stain. This differential stain consists of <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malachite_green" title="Malachite green">malachite green</a>, <a href="/wiki/Distilled_water" title="Distilled water">distilled water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glycerol" title="Glycerol">glycerol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenol" title="Phenol">phenol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chloral_hydrate" title="Chloral hydrate">chloral hydrate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acid_fuchsin" title="Acid fuchsin">acid fuchsin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orange_G" title="Orange G">orange G</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Glacial_acetic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial acetic acid">glacial acetic acid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (A less-toxic variation omits the phenol and chloral hydrate<sup id="cite_ref-PetersonSlovinChen2010_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PetersonSlovinChen2010-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.) In angiosperms and gymnosperms non-aborted pollen grain will appear red or pink, and aborted pollen grains will appear blue or slightly green. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Pollen_Database" title="European Pollen Database">European Pollen Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of sex">Evolution of sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honeybee_starvation" class="mw-redirect" title="Honeybee starvation">Honeybee starvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_calendar" title="Pollen calendar">Pollen calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_count" title="Pollen count">Pollen count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_DNA_barcoding" title="Pollen DNA barcoding">Pollen DNA barcoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_source" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollen source">Pollen source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyphenol_antioxidant" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphenol antioxidant">Polyphenol antioxidant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bee_pollen" title="Bee pollen">Bee pollen</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webmd.com/allergies/best-worst-plants">"Best and Worst Flowers for People With Allergies"</a>. <i>WebMD.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-10-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WebMD.com&rft.atitle=Best+and+Worst+Flowers+for+People+With+Allergies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webmd.com%2Fallergies%2Fbest-worst-plants&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB1911-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pollination"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Pollination">"Pollination" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">2–</span>5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pollination&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tosi-2018-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tosi-2018_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tosi-2018_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTosiCostaVescoQuaglia2018" class="citation journal cs1">Tosi, S.; Costa, C.; Vesco, U.; Quaglia, G.; Guido, G. (2018). "A survey of honey bee-collected pollen reveals widespread contamination by agricultural pesticides". <i>The Science of the Total Environment</i>. <b>615</b>: <span class="nowrap">208–</span>218. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2017.09.226">10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.226</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28968582">28968582</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19956612">19956612</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Science+of+the+Total+Environment&rft.atitle=A+survey+of+honey+bee-collected+pollen+reveals+widespread+contamination+by+agricultural+pesticides&rft.volume=615&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E208-%3C%2Fspan%3E218&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19956612%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28968582&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2017.09.226&rft.aulast=Tosi&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Costa%2C+C.&rft.au=Vesco%2C+U.&rft.au=Quaglia%2C+G.&rft.au=Guido%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-facts_and_practice_for_a_level-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-facts_and_practice_for_a_level_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnstone2001" class="citation book cs1">Johnstone, Adam (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biologyfactsprac0000john/page/95"><i>Biology: facts & practice for A level</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biologyfactsprac0000john/page/95">95</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-914766-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-914766-3"><bdi>978-0-19-914766-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology%3A+facts+%26+practice+for+A+level&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-914766-3&rft.aulast=Johnstone&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbiologyfactsprac0000john%2Fpage%2F95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sporomex-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sporomex_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sporomex_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sporomex.co.uk/technology/51-pollenspores">"Spores and Pollens"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spores+and+Pollens&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sporomex.co.uk%2Ftechnology%2F51-pollenspores&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPleasantsHellmichDivelySears2001" class="citation journal cs1">Pleasants, J. M.; Hellmich, R. L.; Dively, G. P.; Sears, M. K.; Stanley-Horn, D. E.; Mattila, H. R.; Foster, J. E.; Clark, P.; Jones, G. D. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC59743">"Corn pollen deposition on milkweeds in and near cornfields"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>98</b> (21): <span class="nowrap">11919–</span>24. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001PNAS...9811919P">2001PNAS...9811919P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.211287498">10.1073/pnas.211287498</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC59743">59743</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11559840">11559840</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Corn+pollen+deposition+on+milkweeds+in+and+near+cornfields&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11919-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC59743%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11559840&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.211287498&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001PNAS...9811919P&rft.aulast=Pleasants&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rft.au=Hellmich%2C+R.+L.&rft.au=Dively%2C+G.+P.&rft.au=Sears%2C+M.+K.&rft.au=Stanley-Horn%2C+D.+E.&rft.au=Mattila%2C+H.+R.&rft.au=Foster%2C+J.+E.&rft.au=Clark%2C+P.&rft.au=Jones%2C+G.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC59743&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndradeGuerraDebut2014" class="citation journal cs1">Andrade, Kleber; Guerra, Sara; Debut, Alexis (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4086983">"Fullerene-Based Symmetry in Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Pollen"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>9</b> (7): e102123. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PLoSO...9j2123A">2014PLoSO...9j2123A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0102123">10.1371/journal.pone.0102123</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4086983">4086983</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25003375">25003375</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Fullerene-Based+Symmetry+in+Hibiscus+rosa-sinensis+Pollen&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=e102123&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4086983%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25003375&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0102123&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PLoSO...9j2123A&rft.aulast=Andrade&rft.aufirst=Kleber&rft.au=Guerra%2C+Sara&rft.au=Debut%2C+Alexis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4086983&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span> See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg25934510-500-time-for-your-close-up-vivid-images-of-nature-loom-larger-than-life/">this picture</a> by Igor Siwanowicz of a <a href="/wiki/Morning_glory" title="Morning glory">morning glory</a> pollen grain.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Furness2001-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Furness2001_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Furness2001_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFurnessRudall2001" class="citation journal cs1">Furness, Carol A.; <a href="/wiki/Paula_Rudall" title="Paula Rudall">Rudall, Paula J.</a> (January 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00173130152591840">"Pollen and anther characters in monocot systematics"</a>. <i>Grana</i>. <b>40</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2): <span class="nowrap">17–</span>25. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Grana..40...17F">2001Grana..40...17F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00173130152591840">10.1080/00173130152591840</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Grana&rft.atitle=Pollen+and+anther+characters+in+monocot+systematics&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.date=2001-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00173130152591840&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001Grana..40...17F&rft.aulast=Furness&rft.aufirst=Carol+A.&rft.au=Rudall%2C+Paula+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F00173130152591840&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006193005/http://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/biology/people/twell/lab/pollenis/development/">"Pollen Development — University of Leicester"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/biology/people/twell/lab/pollenis/development">the original</a> on 2014-10-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-12-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pollen+Development+%E2%80%94+University+of+Leicester&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.le.ac.uk%2Fdepartments%2Fbiology%2Fpeople%2Ftwell%2Flab%2Fpollenis%2Fdevelopment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Furness-2004-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Furness-2004_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Furness-2004_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFurnessRudall2004" class="citation journal cs1">Furness, Carol A.; Rudall, Paula J. (2004-03-01). 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"Differential Staining of Aborted and Nonaborted Pollen". <i>Stain Technology</i>. <b>44</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">117–</span>122. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F10520296909063335">10.3109/10520296909063335</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4181665">4181665</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stain+Technology&rft.atitle=Differential+Staining+of+Aborted+and+Nonaborted+Pollen&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E117-%3C%2Fspan%3E122&rft.date=1969-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3109%2F10520296909063335&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4181665&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=M.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PetersonSlovinChen2010-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PetersonSlovinChen2010_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetersonSlovinChen2010" class="citation journal cs1">Peterson, Ross; Slovin, Janet P.; Chen, Changbin (23 July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4081%2Fpb.2010.e13">"A Simplified Method for Differential Staining of Aborted and Non-Aborted Pollen Grains"</a>. <i>International Journal of Plant Biology</i>. <b>1</b> (2): e13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4081%2Fpb.2010.e13">10.4081/pb.2010.e13</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2037-0164">2037-0164</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Plant+Biology&rft.atitle=A+Simplified+Method+for+Differential+Staining+of+Aborted+and+Non-Aborted+Pollen+Grains&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e13&rft.date=2010-07-23&rft.eissn=2037-0164&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4081%2Fpb.2010.e13&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Ross&rft.au=Slovin%2C+Janet+P.&rft.au=Chen%2C+Changbin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4081%252Fpb.2010.e13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2011" class="citation book cs1">Simpson, Michael G. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ia2eIPVksMMC"><i>Plant Systematics</i></a>. Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-051404-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-051404-8"><bdi>978-0-08-051404-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 February</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+Systematics&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-08-051404-8&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Michael+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIa2eIPVksMMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2004" class="citation book cs1">Singh, Gurcharan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=In_Lv8iMt24C"><i>Plant Systematics: An Integrated Approach</i></a>. Science Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57808-351-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57808-351-0"><bdi>978-1-57808-351-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+Systematics%3A+An+Integrated+Approach&rft.pub=Science+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-57808-351-0&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Gurcharan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIn_Lv8iMt24C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFurnessRudall1999" class="citation journal cs1">Furness, Carol A.; <a href="/wiki/Paula_Rudall" title="Paula Rudall">Rudall, Paula J.</a> (1999). "Inaperturate Pollen in Monocotyledons". <i>International Journal of Plant Sciences</i>. <b>160</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">395–</span>414. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F314129">10.1086/314129</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/314129">314129</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:83903452">83903452</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Plant+Sciences&rft.atitle=Inaperturate+Pollen+in+Monocotyledons&rft.volume=160&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E395-%3C%2Fspan%3E414&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A83903452%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F314129%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F314129&rft.aulast=Furness&rft.aufirst=Carol+A.&rft.au=Rudall%2C+Paula+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.fit.edu/media/site-specific/researchfitedu/applied-biogeography/documents/protocols/Quick-Reference-Glossary-with-Illustrations.pdf">"Pollen Grain Surface Pattern Terminology"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Quick Reference Glossary with Illustrations</i>. <a href="/wiki/Florida_Institute_of_Technology" title="Florida Institute of Technology">Florida Institute of Technology</a>: Center for Applied Biogeography. October 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190811164518/https://research.fit.edu/media/site-specific/researchfitedu/applied-biogeography/documents/protocols/Quick-Reference-Glossary-with-Illustrations.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2019-08-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Quick+Reference+Glossary+with+Illustrations&rft.atitle=Pollen+Grain+Surface+Pattern+Terminology&rft.date=2014-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearch.fit.edu%2Fmedia%2Fsite-specific%2Fresearchfitedu%2Fapplied-biogeography%2Fdocuments%2Fprotocols%2FQuick-Reference-Glossary-with-Illustrations.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSociety_for_the_Promotion_of_Palynological_Research_in_Austria2021" class="citation web cs1">Society for the Promotion of Palynological Research in Austria (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.paldat.org/terminology/tools">"Illustrated Pollen Terms"</a>. <i>PalDat - Palynological Database</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Vienna" title="University of Vienna">University of Vienna</a>. Division of Structural and Functional Botany<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PalDat+-+Palynological+Database&rft.atitle=Illustrated+Pollen+Terms&rft.date=2021&rft.au=Society+for+the+Promotion+of+Palynological+Research+in+Austria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.paldat.org%2Fterminology%2Ftools&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis1999" class="citation web cs1">Davis, Owen (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051222142511/http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/polkey.html#keyauthor=Owen">"Palynology — Pollen"</a>. University of Arizona. Department of Geosciences. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/polkey.html#keyauthor=Owen">the original</a> on 2005-12-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-02-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Palynology+%E2%80%94+Pollen&rft.pub=University+of+Arizona.+Department+of+Geosciences&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Owen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geo.arizona.edu%2Fpalynology%2Fpolkey.html%23keyauthor%3DOwen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaltenriedervon_Ballmoos2003" class="citation web cs1">Kaltenrieder, Petra; von Ballmoos, Peter (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.botany.unibe.ch/paleo/pollen_e/apertures.htm">"Types of Apertures in microspores"</a>. <i>Introduction to pollen analysis</i>. Institute of Plant Sciences, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bern" title="University of Bern">University of Bern</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Introduction+to+pollen+analysis&rft.atitle=Types+of+Apertures+in+microspores&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Kaltenrieder&rft.aufirst=Petra&rft.au=von+Ballmoos%2C+Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.botany.unibe.ch%2Fpaleo%2Fpollen_e%2Fapertures.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollen" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollen&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Pollen" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Pollen">Pollen</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/40px-Scholia_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/60px-Scholia_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/80px-Scholia_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="104" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:Scholia" class="extiw" title="d:Wikidata:Scholia">Scholia</a> has a <i>topic</i> profile for <i><b><a href="https://iw.toolforge.org/scholia/topic/Q79932" class="extiw" title="toolforge:scholia/topic/Q79932">Pollen</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050527035527/http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/polident.html">Pollen and Spore Identification Literature</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110811072853/http://albertlleal.com/en/reports/category/10-pollen-micrographs.html">Pollen micrographs at SEM and confocal microscope</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721173444/http://www.gmo-safety.eu/science-live/128.maize-outcrossing-flight-pollen-cloud.html">The flight of a pollen cloud</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paldat.org/">PalDat (database comprising palynological data from a variety of plant families)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pollen.tstebler.ch/MediaWiki/"><i>Pollen-Wiki - A digital Pollen-Atlas</i></a>, retrieved 9 February 2018.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xZcrktbNjcc">YouTube video of pollen clouds from Juncus gerardii plants</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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#C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_botany" title="Outline of botany">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_botany" title="Branches of botany">Subdisciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_intelligence" title="Plant intelligence">Plant intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of 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mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-rhz2w","wgBackendResponseTime":151,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.046","walltime":"1.300","ppvisitednodes":{"value":6166,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":216823,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":10459,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":14,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":280693,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1070.951 1 -total"," 40.77% 436.580 1 Template:Reflist"," 20.42% 218.687 35 Template:Cite_journal"," 11.03% 118.167 15 Template:Cite_web"," 9.38% 100.508 1 Template:Korean"," 8.81% 94.381 1 Template:Lang"," 8.27% 88.619 1 Template:Botany"," 6.11% 65.466 1 Template:Short_description"," 5.71% 61.195 1 Template:Commons_category"," 5.50% 58.946 1 Template:Sister_project"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.698","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":17315971,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAlexander1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndereggAbatzoglouAndereggBielory2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndradeGuerraDebut2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaldacciMaioCerraiSarno2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBostonMa_02115_+1495‑10002021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryant,_Vaughn_M.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCardosoGilbert2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisholm1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD._Mildenhall2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis,_Owen\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErbasJazayeriLambertKatelaris2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFilipiak2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranco-GaviriaCaballero-RodríguezCorrea-MetrioPérez2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFurnessRudall1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFurnessRudall2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFurnessRudall2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFurnessRudall2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraystockBlaneMcFrederickGoulson2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraystockGoulsonHughes2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraystockJonesPammingerParkinson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraystockYatesEvisonDarvill2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHiranoTakagiHoshinoAbe2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHirshfelder2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnstone2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJudd,_Walter_S.Olmstead,_Richard_G.2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaltenriedervon_Ballmoos2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKatiforiAlbenCerdaNelson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLouWangRaoSun2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLundgren2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaoSchulerBerenbaum2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMinnaarAndersonde_JagerKarron2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoingeonBatardFadelFrati2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeillSturny2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOder\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetersonSlovinChen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPleasantsHellmichDivelySears2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalcedo2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanford\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwarze,_Francis_W._M._R.Engels,_JuliaMattheck,_Claus2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSierra-HerediaNorthBrookDaly2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2004\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSinghLevittRajotteHolmes2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkoner2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSociety_for_the_Promotion_of_Palynological_Research_in_Austria2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSporne,_Kenneth_R.1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStackhouse,_Robert2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTosiCostaVescoQuaglia2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTraverse,_Alfred1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTraverse2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangMengGuo2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolf,_Lauren_K.2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood,_Peter2004\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Botany\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation 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