CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Industrial Revolution - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"94dc2536-91b3-442b-8a29-71b9fc8b52b9","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Industrial_Revolution","wgTitle":"Industrial Revolution","wgCurRevisionId":1256871585,"wgRevisionId":1256871585,"wgArticleId":14914,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1: long volume value","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from February 2023","Articles with permanently dead external links","Webarchive template wayback links","Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB","Pages using cite ODNB with id parameter","Articles with dead external links from September 2024","CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown","Articles with short description", "Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages","Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism","Use dmy dates from October 2022","Articles containing French-language text","Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013","All articles containing potentially dated statements","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017","All self-contradictory articles","Self-contradictory articles from May 2020","Articles containing Latin-language text","Articles needing additional references from September 2019","All articles needing additional references","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Industrial Revolution","18th century in technology","19th century in technology","Age of Revolution","History of technology","Industrial history","Late modern Europe","Modern history of the United Kingdom","Revolutions by type","Stages of history"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage": "en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Industrial_Revolution","wgRelevantArticleId":14914,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["sysop"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":300000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q2269", "wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc", "skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Powerloom_weaving_in_1835.jpg/1200px-Powerloom_weaving_in_1835.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="775"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Powerloom_weaving_in_1835.jpg/800px-Powerloom_weaving_in_1835.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="517"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Powerloom_weaving_in_1835.jpg/640px-Powerloom_weaving_in_1835.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="413"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Industrial Revolution - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Industrial_Revolution rootpage-Industrial_Revolution skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Industrial+Revolution" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Industrial+Revolution" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Industrial+Revolution" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Industrial+Revolution" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Etymology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Requirements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Requirements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Requirements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Requirements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Important_technological_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Important_technological_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Important technological developments </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Important_technological_developments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Important technological developments subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Important_technological_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Textile_manufacture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Textile_manufacture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Textile manufacture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Textile_manufacture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-British_textile_industry_statistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_textile_industry_statistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 British textile industry statistics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_textile_industry_statistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wool" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wool"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Wool </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wool-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Silk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Silk </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cotton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cotton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.4 Cotton </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cotton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_and_textiles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_and_textiles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.5 Trade and textiles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_and_textiles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre-mechanized_European_textile_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-mechanized_European_textile_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.6 Pre-mechanized European textile production </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-mechanized_European_textile_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invention_of_textile_machinery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invention_of_textile_machinery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.7 Invention of textile machinery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invention_of_textile_machinery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iron_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Iron industry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-British_iron_production_statistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_iron_production_statistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 British iron production statistics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_iron_production_statistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iron_process_innovations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_process_innovations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Iron process innovations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron_process_innovations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Steam_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Steam_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Steam power </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Steam_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Machine_tools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Machine_tools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Machine tools </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Machine_tools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemicals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemicals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Chemicals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemicals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concrete" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concrete"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Concrete </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concrete-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gas_lighting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gas_lighting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Gas lighting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gas_lighting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glass_making" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glass_making"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Glass making </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glass_making-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paper_machine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paper_machine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Paper machine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paper_machine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10 Agriculture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.11 Mining </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transportation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.12 Transportation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transportation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canals_and_improved_waterways" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canals_and_improved_waterways"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.12.1 Canals and improved waterways </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canals_and_improved_waterways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.12.2 Roads </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Railways" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Railways"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.12.3 Railways </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Railways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Social effects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Social_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Social effects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Social_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Factory_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factory_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Factory system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Factory_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standards_of_living" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standards_of_living"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Standards of living </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standards_of_living-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Food_and_nutrition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_and_nutrition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Food and nutrition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_and_nutrition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Housing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Housing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_and_sanitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_and_sanitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3 Water and sanitation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_and_sanitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Literacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clothing_and_consumer_goods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clothing_and_consumer_goods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Clothing and consumer goods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clothing_and_consumer_goods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_increase" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_increase"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Population increase </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population_increase-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urbanization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urbanization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Urbanization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urbanization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_on_women_and_family_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_women_and_family_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Effect on women and family life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_women_and_family_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labour_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labour_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Labour conditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labour_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_structure_and_working_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_structure_and_working_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8.1 Social structure and working conditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_structure_and_working_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Factories_and_urbanisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factories_and_urbanisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8.2 Factories and urbanisation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Factories_and_urbanisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Child_labour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Child_labour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8.3 Child labour </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Child_labour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organisation_of_labour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organisation_of_labour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8.4 Organisation of labour </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organisation_of_labour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Luddites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Luddites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8.5 Luddites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Luddites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shift_in_production's_centre_of_gravity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shift_in_production's_centre_of_gravity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8.6 Shift in production's centre of gravity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shift_in_production's_centre_of_gravity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cotton_and_the_expansion_of_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cotton_and_the_expansion_of_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8.7 Cotton and the expansion of slavery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cotton_and_the_expansion_of_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_on_environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9 Effect on environment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrialisation_beyond_Great_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrialisation_beyond_Great_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Industrialisation beyond Great Britain </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Industrialisation_beyond_Great_Britain-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Industrialisation beyond Great Britain subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Industrialisation_beyond_Great_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Austria-Hungary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austria-Hungary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Austria-Hungary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austria-Hungary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belgium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belgium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Belgium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belgium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 France </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.4 Germany </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sweden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sweden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.5 Sweden </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sweden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Japan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Industrial_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Industrial_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Second Industrial Revolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Industrial_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Industrialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Industrialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 New Industrialism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Industrialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Causes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Causes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Causes_in_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes_in_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Causes in Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes_in_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes_in_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes_in_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Causes in Britain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes_in_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transfer_of_knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transfer_of_knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Transfer of knowledge </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transfer_of_knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Protestant_work_ethic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protestant_work_ethic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3.1 Protestant work ethic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protestant_work_ethic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Criticisms </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Criticisms subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Individualism_humanism_and_harsh_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individualism_humanism_and_harsh_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Individualism humanism and harsh conditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Individualism_humanism_and_harsh_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primitivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primitivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Primitivism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primitivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pollution_and_ecological_collapse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollution_and_ecological_collapse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Pollution and ecological collapse </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pollution_and_ecological_collapse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Anthropocene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Anthropocene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.1 The Anthropocene </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Anthropocene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opposition_from_Romanticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opposition_from_Romanticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Opposition from Romanticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opposition_from_Romanticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Footnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Historiography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Industrial Revolution</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 140 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-140" aria-hidden="true" > 140 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A8volusi_industri" title="Rèvolusi industri – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Rèvolusi industri" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8D" title="Индустриал револуциэ – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Индустриал револуциэ" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industri%C3%ABle_Revolusie" title="Industriële Revolusie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Industriële Revolusie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrielle_Revolution" title="Industrielle Revolution – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Industrielle Revolution" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%8A%A2%E1%8A%95%E1%8B%B1%E1%88%B5%E1%89%B5%E1%88%AA_%E1%8A%A0%E1%89%A5%E1%8B%AE%E1%89%B5" title="የኢንዱስትሪ አብዮት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የኢንዱስትሪ አብዮት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الثورة الصناعية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الثورة الصناعية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_industrial" title="Revolución industrial – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Revolución industrial" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%B1" title="শিল্প বিপ্লৱ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="শিল্প বিপ্লৱ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_industrial" title="Revolución industrial – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Revolución industrial" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mba%27aporeko_%C3%91epu%27%C3%A3" title="Mba'aporeko Ñepu'ã – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Mba'aporeko Ñepu'ã" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C9%99naye_inqilab%C4%B1" title="Sənaye inqilabı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sənaye inqilabı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B9_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="صنایع اینقیلابی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="صنایع اینقیلابی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AC" title="শিল্প বিপ্লব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="শিল্প বিপ্লব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kang-gia%CC%8Dp_Kek-b%C4%93ng" title="Kang-gia̍p Kek-bēng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kang-gia̍p Kek-bēng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D3%99%D0%BD%D3%99%D2%93%D3%99%D1%82_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D2%A1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8B" title="Сәнәғәт инҡилабы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Сәнәғәт инҡилабы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Індустрыяльная рэвалюцыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Індустрыяльная рэвалюцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Індустрыяльная рэвалюцыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Індустрыяльная рэвалюцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Индустриална революция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Индустриална революция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrijska_revolucija" title="Industrijska revolucija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Industrijska revolucija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispac%27h_Greantel" title="Dispac'h Greantel – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Dispac'h Greantel" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B6%D0%B0%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%B4%D0%B1%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Ажаүйлэдбэриин хубисхал – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Ажаүйлэдбэриин хубисхал" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3_Industrial" title="Revolució Industrial – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Revolució Industrial" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C5%AFmyslov%C3%A1_revoluce" title="Průmyslová revoluce – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Průmyslová revoluce" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_Chwyldro_Diwydiannol" title="Y Chwyldro Diwydiannol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Y Chwyldro Diwydiannol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_industrielle_revolution" title="Den industrielle revolution – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Den industrielle revolution" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrielle_Revolution" title="Industrielle Revolution – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Industrielle Revolution" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B6%C3%B6stuslik_p%C3%B6%C3%B6re" title="Tööstuslik pööre – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tööstuslik pööre" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Βιομηχανική επανάσταση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βιομηχανική επανάσταση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_Industrial" title="Revolución Industrial – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Revolución Industrial" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industria_revolucio" title="Industria revolucio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Industria revolucio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_Endustrial" title="Revolución Endustrial – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Revolución Endustrial" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industria_Iraultza" title="Industria Iraultza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Industria Iraultza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%B9%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="انقلاب صنعتی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انقلاب صنعتی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Industrial Revolution" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Ddna%C3%B0arkollveltingin" title="Ídnaðarkollveltingin – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Ídnaðarkollveltingin" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volution_industrielle" title="Révolution industrielle – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Révolution industrielle" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yndustri%C3%ABle_Revol%C3%BAsje" title="Yndustriële Revolúsje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Yndustriële Revolúsje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivoluzion_industri%C3%A2l" title="Rivoluzion industriâl – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Rivoluzion industriâl" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_R%C3%A9abhl%C3%B3id_Thionscla%C3%ADoch" title="An Réabhlóid Thionsclaíoch – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Réabhlóid Thionsclaíoch" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tionndadh_Gn%C3%AComhachais" title="Tionndadh Gnìomhachais – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Tionndadh Gnìomhachais" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_Industrial" title="Revolución Industrial – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Revolución Industrial" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%A5%E6%A5%AD%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="工業革命 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="工業革命" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%94%E0%AA%A6%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%97%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%95_%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%BF" title="ઔદ્યોગિક ક્રાંતિ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ઔદ્યોગિક ક્રાંતિ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%B0%EC%97%85_%ED%98%81%EB%AA%85" title="산업 혁명 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="산업 혁명" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Industrial Revolution" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%83%D5%B8%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Արդյունաբերական հեղափոխություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արդյունաբերական հեղափոխություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%94%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="औद्योगिक क्रांति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="औद्योगिक क्रांति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrijska_revolucija" title="Industrijska revolucija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Industrijska revolucija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industriala_Revoluciono" title="Industriala Revoluciono – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Industriala Revoluciono" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_a_Rebolusion" title="Industrial a Rebolusion – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Industrial a Rebolusion" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusi_Industri" title="Revolusi Industri – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Revolusi Industri" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolution_Industrial" title="Revolution Industrial – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Revolution Industrial" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/INguqulo_Yezimboni" title="INguqulo Yezimboni – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="INguqulo Yezimboni" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B0nbyltingin" title="Iðnbyltingin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Iðnbyltingin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivoluzione_industriale" title="Rivoluzione industriale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rivoluzione industriale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%9B%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A2%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%AA" title="המהפכה התעשייתית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המהפכה התעשייתית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volusi_indhustri" title="Révolusi indhustri – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Révolusi indhustri" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kp%C9%9Bl%C9%A9_l%C9%9B%C9%9Bz%CA%8A%CA%8A_t%CA%8Ama_s%C9%94s%C9%94na_(R%C3%A9volution_industrielle)" title="Kpɛlɩ lɛɛzʊʊ tʊma sɔsɔna (Révolution industrielle) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Kpɛlɩ lɛɛzʊʊ tʊma sɔsɔna (Révolution industrielle)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE_%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF" title="ಕೈಗಾರಿಕಾ ಕ್ರಾಂತಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕೈಗಾರಿಕಾ ಕ್ರಾಂತಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Индустриял революция – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Индустриял революция" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ინდუსტრიული რევოლუცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ინდუსტრიული რევოლუცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D3%99%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BF_%D1%82%D3%A9%D2%A3%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%81%D1%96" title="Өнеркәсіп төңкерісі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Өнеркәсіп төңкерісі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hweldro_Dhiwysyansek" title="Hweldro Dhiwysyansek – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Hweldro Dhiwysyansek" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapinduzi_ya_Viwandani" title="Mapinduzi ya Viwandani – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mapinduzi ya Viwandani" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volousyon_endistri%C3%A8l" title="Révolousyon endistrièl – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Révolousyon endistrièl" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eore%C5%9Fa_p%C3%AE%C5%9Fesaziy%C3%AA" title="Şoreşa pîşesaziyê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Şoreşa pîşesaziyê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D0%BD%D3%A9%D1%80_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%82%D3%A9%D2%A3%D0%BA%D3%A9%D1%80%D2%AF%D1%88%D2%AF" title="Өнөр жай төңкөрүшү – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Өнөр жай төңкөрүшү" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%95%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B8%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AB%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B3" title="ການປະຕິວັດອຸດສາຫະກຳ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ການປະຕິວັດອຸດສາຫະກຳ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversio_industrialis" title="Conversio industrialis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Conversio industrialis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%ABpniecisk%C4%81_revol%C5%ABcija" title="Rūpnieciskā revolūcija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Rūpnieciskā revolūcija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pramon%C4%97s_perversmas" title="Pramonės perversmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pramonės perversmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolui_Industrial" title="Revolui Industrial – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Revolui Industrial" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipari_forradalom" title="Ipari forradalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ipari forradalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Индустриска револуција – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Индустриска револуција" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82" title="വ്യവസായവിപ്ലവം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വ്യവസായവിപ്ലവം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivoluzzjoni_Industrijali" title="Rivoluzzjoni Industrijali – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Rivoluzzjoni Industrijali" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%94%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80" title="औद्योगिक क्रांती – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="औद्योगिक क्रांती" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الثوره الصناعيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الثوره الصناعيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusi_Perindustrian" title="Revolusi Perindustrian – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Revolusi Perindustrian" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusi_Industri" title="Revolusi Industri – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Revolusi Industri" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebolu%C3%A7on_Andustrial" title="Reboluçon Andustrial – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Reboluçon Andustrial" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B6_%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Аж үйлдвэрийн хувьсгал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Аж үйлдвэрийн хувьсгал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BE%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8" title="စက်မှုတော်လှန်ရေး – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="စက်မှုတော်လှန်ရေး" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industri%C3%ABle_revolutie" title="Industriële revolutie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Industriële revolutie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industriele_revoluty" title="Industriele revoluty – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Industriele revoluty" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%94%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="औद्योगिक क्रान्ति – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="औद्योगिक क्रान्ति" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%94%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="औद्योगिक क्रान्ति – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="औद्योगिक क्रान्ति" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%A3%E6%A5%AD%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="産業革命 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="産業革命" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Индустрин революци – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Индустрин революци" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_industrielle_revolusjon" title="Den industrielle revolusjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den industrielle revolusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_industrielle_revolusjonen" title="Den industrielle revolusjonen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Den industrielle revolusjonen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucion_industriala" title="Revolucion industriala – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Revolucion industriala" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanoat_to%CA%BBntarishi" title="Sanoat toʻntarishi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Sanoat toʻntarishi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AC" title="ਸਨਅਤੀ ਇਨਕਲਾਬ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਨਅਤੀ ਇਨਕਲਾਬ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%B9%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="صنعتی انقلاب – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="صنعتی انقلاب" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolushon_Industrial" title="Revolushon Industrial – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Revolushon Industrial" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%A7%D9%88%DA%9A%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86" title="رغاويز اوښتون – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="رغاويز اوښتون" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoschrial_Revaluushan" title="Indoschrial Revaluushan – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Indoschrial Revaluushan" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%8A%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%8D%E2%80%8B%E1%9E%A7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%A0%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%98" title="បដិវត្តន៍ឧស្សាហកម្ម – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="បដិវត្តន៍ឧស្សាហកម្ម" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrielle_Revolutschoon" title="Industrielle Revolutschoon – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Industrielle Revolutschoon" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rewolucja_przemys%C5%82owa" title="Rewolucja przemysłowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rewolucja przemysłowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Industrial" title="Revolução Industrial – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Revolução Industrial" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93ndiris_revolyutsiyas%C4%B1" title="Óndiris revolyutsiyası – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Óndiris revolyutsiyası" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanay%C4%B1_inqil%C3%A2b%C4%B1" title="Sanayı inqilâbı – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Sanayı inqilâbı" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C8%9Bia_industrial%C4%83" title="Revoluția industrială – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Revoluția industrială" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Промыслова револуція – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Промыслова револуція" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%88%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Промышленная революция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Промышленная революция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivolutzione_industriale" title="Rivolutzione industriale – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Rivolutzione industriale" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucioni_Industrial" title="Revolucioni Industrial – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Revolucioni Industrial" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivuluzzioni_nnustriali" title="Rivuluzzioni nnustriali – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Rivuluzzioni nnustriali" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BA" title="කාර්මික විප්ලවය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="කාර්මික විප්ලවය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Industrial Revolution" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priemyseln%C3%A1_revol%C3%BAcia" title="Priemyselná revolúcia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Priemyselná revolúcia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrijska_revolucija" title="Industrijska revolucija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Industrijska revolucija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%86%DA%95%D8%B4%DB%8C_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%95%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%95" title="شۆڕشی پیشەسازانە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شۆڕشی پیشەسازانە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Индустријска револуција – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Индустријска револуција" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrijska_revolucija" title="Industrijska revolucija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Industrijska revolucija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teollinen_vallankumous" title="Teollinen vallankumous – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Teollinen vallankumous" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industriella_revolutionen" title="Industriella revolutionen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Industriella revolutionen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebolusyong_Industriyal" title="Rebolusyong Industriyal – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Rebolusyong Industriyal" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF" title="தொழிற்புரட்சி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தொழிற்புரட்சி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A4n%C3%A4%C4%9Fi_inq%C4%B1ylab" title="Sänäği inqıylab – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Sänäği inqıylab" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%82" title="పారిశ్రామిక విప్లవం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పారిశ్రామిక విప్లవం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1" title="การปฏิวัติอุตสาหกรรม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การปฏิวัติอุตสาหกรรม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanayi_Devrimi" title="Sanayi Devrimi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sanayi Devrimi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Промислова революція – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Промислова революція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%B9%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="صنعتی انقلاب – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="صنعتی انقلاب" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunghyez_gwzming" title="Gunghyez gwzming – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Gunghyez gwzming" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrialine_revol%C3%BCcii" title="Industrialine revolücii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Industrialine revolücii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1ch_m%E1%BA%A1ng_C%C3%B4ng_nghi%E1%BB%87p" title="Cách mạng Công nghiệp – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cách mạng Công nghiệp" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BC%C3%BCst%C3%BCsp%C3%B6%C3%B6req" title="Tüüstüspööreq – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Tüüstüspööreq" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%A5%E6%A5%AD%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="工業革命 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="工業革命" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebolusyon_Industriyal" title="Rebolusyon Industriyal – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Rebolusyon Industriyal" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E6%AC%A1%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="第一次工业革命 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="第一次工业革命" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nkutsulo_wa_Vumaki" title="Nkutsulo wa Vumaki – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Nkutsulo wa Vumaki" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%A2_%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A2" title="אינדוסטריעלע רעוואלוציע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אינדוסטריעלע רעוואלוציע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%A5%E6%A5%AD%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="工業革命 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="工業革命" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nq%C4%B1lab%C3%AA_senayiye" title="İnqılabê senayiye – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="İnqılabê senayiye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pramuon%C4%97s_perversmos" title="Pramuonės perversmos – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Pramuonės perversmos" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E6%AC%A1%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="第一次工业革命 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="第一次工业革命" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2269#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Industrial_Revolution" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution">Read</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Industrial_Revolution&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Industrial_Revolution&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Industrial_Revolution&action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Industrial_Revolution&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Industrial_Revolution" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Industrial_Revolution" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Industrial_Revolution&oldid=1256871585" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Industrial_Revolution&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Industrial_Revolution&id=1256871585&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FIndustrial_Revolution">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FIndustrial_Revolution">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Industrial_Revolution&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Industrial_Revolution&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2269" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected due to vandalism"><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1760–1840 period of rapid technological change</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more general overview, see <a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ededed;">Industrial Revolution</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; font-weight: bold;">c. <a href="/wiki/1760" title="1760">1760</a> – c. <a href="/wiki/1840" title="1840">1840</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Powerloom_weaving_in_1835.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Powerloom_weaving_in_1835.jpg/220px-Powerloom_weaving_in_1835.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Powerloom_weaving_in_1835.jpg/330px-Powerloom_weaving_in_1835.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Powerloom_weaving_in_1835.jpg/440px-Powerloom_weaving_in_1835.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3215" data-file-height="2077" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">A <a href="/wiki/Roberts_Loom" title="Roberts Loom">Roberts loom</a> in a weaving shed in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a> in 1835</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Key events</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Textile_manufacture_during_the_British_Industrial_Revolution" title="Textile manufacture during the British Industrial Revolution">Mechanised textile production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</a> construction</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">Steam engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factory_system" title="Factory system">Factory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron production">Iron production</a> increase</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below">Chronology <table style="background:var(--background-color-neutral, #eaecf0); color: inherit; border-top: 1px solid #aaa;" width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <td width="50%" style="text-align:left;"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/10px-Arrleft.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/15px-Arrleft.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/20px-Arrleft.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="133" /> <a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization" title="Proto-industrialization">Proto-industrialisation</a></td> <td width="50%" style="text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a> <img alt="class-skin-invert-image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/10px-Arrright.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/15px-Arrright.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/20px-Arrright.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="133" /></td> </tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By technological eras</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt>Premodern / <a href="/wiki/Pre-industrial_society" title="Pre-industrial society">Pre-industrial</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_technology" title="Prehistoric technology">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">lithic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Copper Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_technology" title="Ancient technology">Ancient</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Modern</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization" title="Proto-industrialization">Proto-industrialization</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standardization" title="Standardization">Standardization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_Age" title="Machine Age">Machine Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Age" title="Atomic Age">Atomic Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_Age" title="Jet Age">Jet Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Age" title="Space Age">Space Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">Third Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_transformation" title="Digital transformation">Digital transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">Fourth Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagination_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Imagination age">Imagination Age</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Future</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_society" title="Post-industrial society">Post-industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">Emerging technologies</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By historical regions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Ancient Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Ancient China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Hellenistic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance Europe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By type of technology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">History of agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware" class="mw-redirect" title="History of computer hardware">History of computer hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering#History" title="Electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_manufacturing" class="mw-redirect" title="History of manufacturing">History of manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history" title="Maritime history">History of maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">History of materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_measurement" title="History of measurement">History of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_machine" title="Simple machine">History of simple machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology#History" title="Nuclear technology">History of nuclear technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport" title="History of transport">History of transport</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Technology timelines</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Timeline of historic inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">Technological revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Technology_timelines" title="Category:Technology timelines">Complete list by category</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology">Article indices</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_technology" title="Outline of technology">Outline of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Outline of prehistoric technology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_technology_sidebar" title="Template:History of technology sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_technology_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of technology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_technology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of technology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Industrial Revolution, sometimes divided into the First Industrial Revolution and <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a>, was a period of global transition of the human <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economy</a> towards more widespread, efficient and stable manufacturing processes that succeeded the <a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">Agricultural Revolution</a>. Beginning in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, the Industrial Revolution spread to <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continental Europe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, from around 1760 to about 1820–1840.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> This transition included going from <a href="/wiki/Craft_production" title="Craft production">hand production methods</a> to <a href="/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">machines</a>; new <a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">chemical manufacturing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">iron production</a> processes; the increasing use of <a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">water power</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam power</a>; the development of <a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tools</a>; and the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Mechanisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanisation">mechanised</a> <a href="/wiki/Factory_system" title="Factory system">factory system</a>. Output greatly increased, and the result was an unprecedented rise in population and the rate of <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Textile_industry" title="Textile industry">textile industry</a> was the first to use modern production methods,<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a>: 40  and <a href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile">textiles</a> became the dominant industry in terms of employment, value of output, and <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a> invested. Many of the <a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">technological</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_industrial_architecture" title="British industrial architecture">architectural innovations</a> were of British origin.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> By the mid-18th century, Britain was the world's leading commercial nation,<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> controlling a global trading empire with <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_British_Empire" title="Territorial evolution of the British Empire">colonies</a> in North America and the Caribbean. Britain had major military and political hegemony on the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>; particularly with the <a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization" title="Proto-industrialization">proto-industrialised</a> <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Subah" title="Bengal Subah">Mughal Bengal</a>, through the activities of the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tong-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-esposito-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-rayB-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-David_Landes_1999-9">[9]</a> The development of trade and the rise of business were among the major causes of the Industrial Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a>: 15  Developments in <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> also facilitated the revolution, such as courts ruling in favour of <a href="/wiki/Property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Property rights">property rights</a>. An entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution helped drive <a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">industrialisation</a> in Britain, which after 1800, was emulated in Belgium, the United States, and France.<a href="#cite_note-Kiely-10">[10]</a> The Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in history, comparable only to humanity's <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">adoption of agriculture</a> with respect to material advancement.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The Industrial Revolution influenced in some way almost every aspect of daily life. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists have said the most important effect of the Industrial Revolution was that the <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</a> for the general population in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to improve meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Lectures_on_Economic_Growth-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Feinstein2014-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-SzreterMooney2014-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product#GDP_per_capita" title="Gross domestic product">GDP per capita</a> was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist</a> economy,<a href="#cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution-15">[15]</a> while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a> in capitalist economies.<a href="#cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution_''Past_and_Future''-16">[16]</a> Economic historians agree that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a> since the <a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">domestication</a> of animals and plants.<a href="#cite_note-ReviewOfCambridge-17">[17]</a> The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and <a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">social changes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-revolution-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-google1-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rehabilitating_the_Industrial_Revolution-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-lorenzen-21">[21]</a> According to Cambridge historian Leigh Shaw-Taylor, Britain was already industrialising in the 17th century, and "Our database shows that a groundswell of enterprise and productivity transformed the economy in the 17th century, laying the foundations for the world's first industrial economy. Britain was already a nation of makers by the year 1700" and "the history of Britain needs to be rewritten".<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawm" title="Eric Hobsbawm">Eric Hobsbawm</a> held that the Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s,<a href="#cite_note-revolution-18">[18]</a> while <a href="/wiki/T._S._Ashton" title="T. S. Ashton">T. S. Ashton</a> held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830.<a href="#cite_note-google1-19">[19]</a> Rapid adoption of mechanized textiles spinning occurred in Britain in the 1780s,<a href="#cite_note-auto-24">[24]</a> and high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurred after 1800. Mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a> An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the Industrial Revolution's early innovations, such as mechanised spinning and weaving, slowed as their markets matured; and despite the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships, and <a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">hot blast</a> iron <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a>. New technologies such as the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">electrical telegraph</a>, widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraphy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Electrical telegraphy in the United Kingdom">in the United Kingdom</a> and the United States, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of economic growth. Rapid economic growth began to reoccur after 1870, springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a>. These included new <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">steel-making processes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assembly_line" title="Assembly line">assembly lines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">electrical grid</a> systems, the large-scale manufacture of machine tools, and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam-powered factories.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Roe1916-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hunter_1985-27">[27]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> The earliest recorded use of the term "Industrial Revolution" was in July 1799 by French envoy <a href="/wiki/Louis-Guillaume_Otto" title="Louis-Guillaume Otto">Louis-Guillaume Otto</a>, announcing that France had entered the race to industrialise.<a href="#cite_note-The_industrial_revolution_in_national_context:_Europe_and_the_USA-28">[28]</a> In his 1976 book <a href="/wiki/Keywords:_A_Vocabulary_of_Culture_and_Society" title="Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society">Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Raymond Williams</a> states in the entry for "Industry": "The idea of a new social order based on major industrial change was clear in <a href="/wiki/Robert_Southey" title="Robert Southey">Southey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a>, between 1811 and 1818, and was implicit as early as <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a> in the early 1790s and <a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">Wordsworth</a> at the turn of the [19th] century." The term Industrial Revolution applied to technological change was becoming more common by the late 1830s, as in <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me-Adolphe_Blanqui" title="Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui">Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui</a>'s description in 1837 of la révolution industrielle.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Condition_of_the_Working_Class_in_England" title="The Condition of the Working Class in England">The Condition of the Working Class in England</a> in 1844 spoke of "an industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society". Although Engels wrote his book in the 1840s, it was not translated into English until the late 19th century, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Toynbee_(historian,_born_1852)" title="Arnold Toynbee (historian, born 1852)">Arnold Toynbee</a>, whose 1881 lectures gave a detailed account of the term.<a href="#cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution13-30">[30]</a> Economic historians and authors such as Mendels, <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Pomeranz" title="Kenneth Pomeranz">Pomeranz</a>, and Kridte argue that <a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization" title="Proto-industrialization">proto-industrialisation</a> in parts of Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> created the social and economic conditions that led to the Industrial Revolution, thus causing the <a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ogilvie_2008-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-33">[33]</a> Some historians, such as <a href="/wiki/John_Clapham_(economic_historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Clapham (economic historian)">John Clapham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Crafts" title="Nicholas Crafts">Nicholas Crafts</a>, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and that the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Requirements">Requirements</h2></div> Six factors facilitated industrialisation: high levels of agricultural productivity, such as that reflected in the <a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</a>, to provide excess manpower and food; a pool of managerial and entrepreneurial skills; available ports, rivers, canals, and roads to cheaply move raw materials and outputs; natural resources such as coal, iron, and waterfalls; political stability and a legal system that supported business; and financial capital available to invest. Once industrialisation began in Great Britain, new factors can be added: the eagerness of British entrepreneurs to export industrial expertise and the willingness to import the process. Britain met the criteria and industrialized starting in the 18th century, and then it exported the process to western Europe (especially Belgium, France, and the German states) in the early 19th century. The United States copied the British model in the early 19th century, and Japan copied the Western European models in the late 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Important_technological_developments">Important technological developments</h2></div> The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations,<a href="#cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution_–_Innovations-37">[37]</a> beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s, the following gains had been made in important technologies: <ul><li>Textiles – <a href="/wiki/Cotton-spinning_machinery" title="Cotton-spinning machinery">mechanised cotton spinning</a> powered by water, and later steam, increased the output of a worker by a factor of around 500. The <a href="/wiki/Power_loom" title="Power loom">power loom</a> increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a> increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50.<a href="#cite_note-Roe1916-26">[26]</a> Large gains in productivity also occurred in <a href="/wiki/Spinning_(textiles)" title="Spinning (textiles)">spinning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">weaving</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wool" title="Wool">wool</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linen" title="Linen">linen</a>, but they were not as great as in <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a></li> <li>Steam power – the efficiency of <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engines</a> increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel. The adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a>: 82  The high-pressure engine had a high <a href="/wiki/Power-to-weight_ratio" title="Power-to-weight ratio">power-to-weight ratio</a>, making it suitable for transportation.<a href="#cite_note-Hunter_1985-27">[27]</a> Steam power underwent a rapid expansion after 1800.</li> <li>Iron making – the substitution of <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a> for <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> greatly lowered the fuel cost of <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a> production.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a>: 89–93  Using coke also allowed larger <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</a>,<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> resulting in <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a>. The steam engine began being used to power blast air (indirectly by pumping water to a <a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water wheel</a>) in the 1750s, enabling a large increase in iron production by overcoming the limitation of water power.<a href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-41">[41]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a> blowing cylinder was first used in 1760. It was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher blast furnace temperatures. The <a href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">puddling process</a> produced a structural grade iron at a lower cost than the <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">finery forge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969_91-42">[42]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Rolling_(metalworking)" title="Rolling (metalworking)">rolling mill</a> was fifteen times faster than hammering wrought iron. Developed in 1828, <a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">hot blast</a> greatly increased fuel efficiency in iron production in the following decades.</li> <li>Invention of machine tools – the first <a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tools</a> invented were the <a href="/wiki/Screw-cutting_lathe" title="Screw-cutting lathe">screw-cutting lathe</a>, the cylinder <a href="/wiki/Boring_(manufacturing)" title="Boring (manufacturing)">boring</a> machine, and the <a href="/wiki/Milling_(machining)" title="Milling (machining)">milling machine</a>. Machine tools made the economical manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">precision metal parts</a> possible, although it took several decades to develop effective techniques for making interchangeable parts.<a href="#cite_note-Hounshell-1984-43">[43]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Textile_manufacture">Textile manufacture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Textile_manufacture_during_the_British_Industrial_Revolution" title="Textile manufacture during the British Industrial Revolution">Textile manufacture during the British Industrial Revolution</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="British_textile_industry_statistics">British textile industry statistics</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hand-loom_weaving.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Hand-loom_weaving.jpg/220px-Hand-loom_weaving.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Hand-loom_weaving.jpg/330px-Hand-loom_weaving.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Hand-loom_weaving.jpg/440px-Hand-loom_weaving.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Weaving with handlooms from <a href="/wiki/William_Hogarth" title="William Hogarth">William Hogarth</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Industry_and_Idleness" title="Industry and Idleness">Industry and Idleness</a> in 1747</figcaption></figure> In 1750, Britain imported 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton, most of which was spun and woven by the cottage industry in <a href="/wiki/Lancashire" title="Lancashire">Lancashire</a>. The work was done by hand in workers' homes or occasionally in master weavers' shops. Wages in Lancashire were about six times those in India in 1770 when overall productivity in Britain was about three times higher than in India.<a href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-44">[44]</a> In 1787, raw cotton consumption was 22 million pounds, most of which was cleaned, carded, and spun on machines.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a>: 41–42  The British textile industry used 52 million pounds of cotton in 1800, which increased to 588 million pounds in 1850.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> The share of value added by the cotton textile industry in Britain was 2.6% in 1760, 17% in 1801, and 22.4% in 1831. Value added by the British woollen industry was 14.1% in 1801. Cotton factories in Britain numbered approximately 900 in 1797. In 1760, approximately one-third of cotton cloth manufactured in Britain was exported, rising to two-thirds by 1800. In 1781, cotton spun amounted to 5.1 million pounds, which increased to 56 million pounds by 1800. In 1800, less than 0.1% of world cotton cloth was produced on machinery invented in Britain. In 1788, there were 50,000 spindles in Britain, rising to 7 million over the next 30 years.<a href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wool">Wool</h4></div> The earliest European attempts at mechanised spinning were with wool; however, wool spinning proved more difficult to mechanise than cotton. Productivity improvement in wool spinning during the Industrial Revolution was significant but far less than that of cotton.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-David_Landes_1999-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Silk">Silk</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silkmill1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Silkmill1.jpg/220px-Silkmill1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Silkmill1.jpg/330px-Silkmill1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Silkmill1.jpg/440px-Silkmill1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Lombe" title="John Lombe">John Lombe</a>'s silk mill site today in <a href="/wiki/Derby" title="Derby">Derby</a>, rebuilt as <a href="/wiki/Derby_Silk_Mill" title="Derby Silk Mill">Derby Silk Mill</a></figcaption></figure> Arguably the first highly mechanised factory was <a href="/wiki/John_Lombe" title="John Lombe">John Lombe</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Derby_Silk_Mill" title="Derby Silk Mill">water-powered silk mill</a> at <a href="/wiki/Derby" title="Derby">Derby</a>, operational by 1721. Lombe learned silk thread manufacturing by taking a job in Italy and acting as an industrial spy; however, because the Italian silk industry guarded its secrets closely, the state of the industry at that time is unknown. Although Lombe's factory was technically successful, the supply of raw silk from Italy was cut off to eliminate competition. In order to promote manufacturing, the Crown paid for models of Lombe's machinery which were exhibited in the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cotton">Cotton</h4></div> Parts of India, China, Central America, South America, and the Middle East have a long history of hand manufacturing cotton textiles, which became a major industry sometime after 1000 AD. In tropical and subtropical regions where it was grown, most was grown by small farmers alongside their food crops and was spun and woven in households, largely for domestic consumption. In the 15th century, China began to require households to pay part of their taxes in cotton cloth. By the 17th century, almost all Chinese wore cotton clothing. Almost everywhere cotton cloth could be used as a <a href="/wiki/Medium_of_exchange" title="Medium of exchange">medium of exchange</a>. In India, a significant amount of cotton textiles were manufactured for distant markets, often produced by professional weavers. Some merchants also owned small weaving workshops. India produced a variety of cotton cloth, some of exceptionally fine quality.<a href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-44">[44]</a> Cotton was a difficult <a href="/wiki/Raw_material" title="Raw material">raw material</a> for Europe to obtain before it was grown on <a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">colonial plantations</a> in the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-44">[44]</a> The early Spanish explorers found <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> growing unknown species of excellent quality cotton: sea island cotton (<a href="/wiki/Gossypium_barbadense" title="Gossypium barbadense">Gossypium barbadense</a>) and upland green seeded cotton <a href="/wiki/Gossypium_hirsutum" title="Gossypium hirsutum">Gossypium hirsutum</a>. Sea island cotton grew in tropical areas and on <a href="/wiki/Barrier_island" title="Barrier island">barrier islands</a> of Georgia and South Carolina but did poorly inland. Sea island cotton began being exported from Barbados in the 1650s. Upland green seeded cotton grew well on inland areas of the southern U.S. but was not economical because of the difficulty of removing seed, a problem solved by the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Roe1916-26">[26]</a>: 157  A strain of cotton seed brought from Mexico to <a href="/wiki/Natchez,_Mississippi" title="Natchez, Mississippi">Natchez, Mississippi</a>, in 1806 became the parent genetic material for over 90% of world cotton production today; it produced bolls that were three to four times faster to pick.<a href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trade_and_textiles">Trade and textiles</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colonisation_1754.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Colonisation_1754.png/220px-Colonisation_1754.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Colonisation_1754.png/330px-Colonisation_1754.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Colonisation_1754.png/440px-Colonisation_1754.png 2x" data-file-width="1799" data-file-height="789" /></a><figcaption>European colonial empires at the start of the Industrial Revolution, superimposed upon modern political boundaries</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a> was followed by a period of <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a> beginning around the 16th century. Following the discovery of a <a href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">trade route</a> to India around southern Africa by the Portuguese, the British founded the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a>, along with smaller companies of different nationalities which established trading posts and employed agents to engage in trade throughout the Indian Ocean region.<a href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-44">[44]</a> One of the largest segments of this trade was in cotton textiles, which were purchased in India and sold in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Indonesia" title="List of islands of Indonesia">Indonesian archipelago</a> where spices were purchased for sale to Southeast Asia and Europe. By the mid-1760s, cloth was over three-quarters of the East India Company's exports. Indian textiles were in demand in the North Atlantic region of Europe where previously only wool and linen were available; however, the number of cotton goods consumed in Western Europe was minor until the early 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pre-mechanized_European_textile_production">Pre-mechanized European textile production</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Landauer_I_014_v.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Landauer_I_014_v.jpg/220px-Landauer_I_014_v.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Landauer_I_014_v.jpg/330px-Landauer_I_014_v.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Landauer_I_014_v.jpg/440px-Landauer_I_014_v.jpg 2x" data-file-width="680" data-file-height="966" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">weaver</a> in <a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCrnberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Nürnberg">Nürnberg</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1524</figcaption></figure> By 1600, <a href="/wiki/Flemish_people" title="Flemish people">Flemish</a> refugees began weaving cotton cloth in English towns where cottage spinning and weaving of wool and linen was well established. They were left alone by the <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guilds</a> who did not consider cotton a threat. Earlier European attempts at cotton spinning and weaving were in 12th-century Italy and 15th-century southern Germany, but these industries eventually ended when the supply of cotton was cut off. The <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a> in Spain grew, spun, and wove cotton beginning around the 10th century.<a href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-44">[44]</a> British cloth could not compete with Indian cloth because India's labour cost was approximately one-fifth to one-sixth that of Britain's.<a href="#cite_note-auto-24">[24]</a> In 1700 and 1721, the British government passed <a href="/wiki/Calico_Acts" title="Calico Acts">Calico Acts</a> to <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protect</a> the domestic woollen and linen industries from the increasing amounts of cotton fabric imported from India.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ayers1989-48">[48]</a> The demand for heavier fabric was met by a domestic industry based around Lancashire that produced <a href="/wiki/Fustian" title="Fustian">fustian</a>, a cloth with flax <a href="/wiki/Warp_and_weft" title="Warp and weft">warp</a> and cotton <a href="/wiki/Warp_and_weft" title="Warp and weft">weft</a>. Flax was used for the warp because wheel-spun cotton did not have sufficient strength, but the resulting blend was not as soft as 100% cotton and was more difficult to sew.<a href="#cite_note-Ayers1989-48">[48]</a> On the eve of the Industrial Revolution, spinning and weaving were done in households, for domestic consumption, and as a cottage industry under the <a href="/wiki/Putting-out_system" title="Putting-out system">putting-out system</a>. Occasionally, the work was done in the workshop of a master weaver. Under the putting-out system, home-based workers produced under contract to merchant sellers, who often supplied the raw materials. In the off-season, the women, typically farmers' wives, did the spinning and the men did the weaving. Using the <a href="/wiki/Spinning_wheel" title="Spinning wheel">spinning wheel</a>, it took anywhere from four to eight spinners to supply one handloom weaver.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ayers1989-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-49">[49]</a>: 823  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Invention_of_textile_machinery">Invention of textile machinery</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinning_jenny.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Spinning_jenny.jpg/220px-Spinning_jenny.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Spinning_jenny.jpg/330px-Spinning_jenny.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Spinning_jenny.jpg/440px-Spinning_jenny.jpg 2x" data-file-width="705" data-file-height="582" /></a><figcaption>A model of the <a href="/wiki/Spinning_jenny" title="Spinning jenny">spinning jenny</a> in a museum in <a href="/wiki/Wuppertal" title="Wuppertal">Wuppertal</a>. Invented by <a href="/wiki/James_Hargreaves" title="James Hargreaves">James Hargreaves</a> in 1764, the spinning jenny was one of the innovations that started the revolution.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mule-jenny.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mule-jenny.jpg/220px-Mule-jenny.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mule-jenny.jpg/330px-Mule-jenny.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mule-jenny.jpg/440px-Mule-jenny.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption>The only surviving example of a spinning mule built by the inventor Samuel Crompton, the mule produced high-quality thread with minimal labour, now on display at <a href="/wiki/Bolton_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolton Museum">Bolton Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Manchester" title="Greater Manchester">Greater Manchester</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marshall%27s_flax-mill,_Holbeck,_Leeds_-_interior_-_c.1800.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Marshall%27s_flax-mill%2C_Holbeck%2C_Leeds_-_interior_-_c.1800.jpg/220px-Marshall%27s_flax-mill%2C_Holbeck%2C_Leeds_-_interior_-_c.1800.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Marshall%27s_flax-mill%2C_Holbeck%2C_Leeds_-_interior_-_c.1800.jpg/330px-Marshall%27s_flax-mill%2C_Holbeck%2C_Leeds_-_interior_-_c.1800.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Marshall%27s_flax-mill%2C_Holbeck%2C_Leeds_-_interior_-_c.1800.jpg/440px-Marshall%27s_flax-mill%2C_Holbeck%2C_Leeds_-_interior_-_c.1800.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1254" data-file-height="957" /></a><figcaption>The interior of Marshall's <a href="/wiki/Temple_Works" title="Temple Works">Temple Works</a> in <a href="/wiki/Leeds" title="Leeds">Leeds</a>, West Yorkshire</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Flying_shuttle" title="Flying shuttle">flying shuttle</a>, patented in 1733 by <a href="/wiki/John_Kay_(flying_shuttle)" title="John Kay (flying shuttle)">John Kay</a>—with a number of subsequent improvements including an important one in 1747—doubled the output of a weaver, worsening the imbalance between spinning and weaving. It became widely used around Lancashire after 1760 when John's son, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Kay_(inventor)" title="Robert Kay (inventor)">Robert</a>, invented the dropbox, which facilitated changing thread colors.<a href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-49">[49]</a>: 821–822  <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Paul" title="Lewis Paul">Lewis Paul</a> patented the roller <a href="/wiki/Spinning_frame" title="Spinning frame">spinning frame</a> and the flyer-and-<a href="/wiki/Bobbin" title="Bobbin">bobbin</a> system for drawing wool to a more even thickness. The technology was developed with the help of John Wyatt of <a href="/wiki/Birmingham" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</a>. Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their rolling machine powered by a donkey. In 1743, a factory opened in <a href="/wiki/Northampton" title="Northampton">Northampton</a> with 50 spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt's machines. This operated until about 1764. A similar mill was built by <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bourn" title="Daniel Bourn">Daniel Bourn</a> in <a href="/wiki/Leominster" title="Leominster">Leominster</a>, but this burnt down. Both Lewis Paul and Daniel Bourn patented <a href="/wiki/Carding" title="Carding">carding</a> machines in 1748. Based on two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds, it was later used in the first <a href="/wiki/Cotton_mill" title="Cotton mill">cotton spinning mill</a>. In 1764, in the village of Stanhill, Lancashire, <a href="/wiki/James_Hargreaves" title="James Hargreaves">James Hargreaves</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Spinning_jenny" title="Spinning jenny">spinning jenny</a>, which he patented in 1770. It was the first practical spinning frame with multiple spindles.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The jenny worked in a similar manner to the spinning wheel, by first clamping down on the fibres, then by drawing them out, followed by twisting.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> It was a simple, wooden framed machine that only cost about £6 for a 40-spindle model in 1792<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> and was used mainly by home spinners. The jenny produced a lightly twisted yarn only suitable for weft, not warp.<a href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-49">[49]</a>: 825–827  The spinning frame or water frame was developed by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Arkwright" title="Richard Arkwright">Richard Arkwright</a> who, along with two partners, patented it in 1769. The design was partly based on a spinning machine built by Kay, who was hired by Arkwright.<a href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-49">[49]</a>: 827–830  For each spindle the water frame used a series of four pairs of rollers, each operating at a successively higher rotating speed, to draw out the fibre which was then twisted by the spindle. The roller spacing was slightly longer than the fibre length. Too close a spacing caused the fibres to break while too distant a spacing caused uneven thread. The top rollers were leather-covered and loading on the rollers was applied by a weight. The weights kept the twist from backing up before the rollers. The bottom rollers were wood and metal, with fluting along the length. The water frame was able to produce a hard, medium-count thread suitable for warp, finally allowing 100% cotton cloth to be made in Britain. Arkwright and his partners used water power at a factory in <a href="/wiki/Cromford" title="Cromford">Cromford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Derbyshire" title="Derbyshire">Derbyshire</a> in 1771, giving the invention its name. <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Crompton" title="Samuel Crompton">Samuel Crompton</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Spinning_mule" title="Spinning mule">spinning mule</a> in 1779, so called because it is a hybrid of Arkwright's <a href="/wiki/Water_Frame" class="mw-redirect" title="Water Frame">water frame</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Hargreaves" title="James Hargreaves">James Hargreaves</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Spinning_jenny" title="Spinning jenny">spinning jenny</a> in the same way that a <a href="/wiki/Mule" title="Mule">mule</a> is the product of crossbreeding a <a href="/wiki/Mare" title="Mare">female horse</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Donkey" title="Donkey">male donkey</a>. Crompton's mule was able to produce finer thread than hand spinning and at a lower cost. Mule-spun thread was of suitable strength to be used as a warp and finally allowed Britain to produce highly competitive yarn in large quantities.<a href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-49">[49]</a>: 832  Realising that the expiration of the Arkwright patent would greatly increase the supply of spun cotton and lead to a shortage of weavers, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Cartwright" title="Edmund Cartwright">Edmund Cartwright</a> developed a vertical <a href="/wiki/Power_loom" title="Power loom">power loom</a> which he patented in 1785. In 1776, he patented a two-man operated loom.<a href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-49">[49]</a>: 834  Cartwright's loom design had several flaws, the most serious being thread breakage. Samuel Horrocks patented a fairly successful loom in 1813. Horock's loom was improved by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Roberts_(engineer)" title="Richard Roberts (engineer)">Richard Roberts</a> in 1822, and these were produced in large numbers by Roberts, Hill & Co. Roberts was additionally a maker of high-quality machine tools and a pioneer in the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The demand for cotton presented an opportunity to <a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">planters</a> in the Southern United States, who thought upland cotton would be a profitable crop if a better way could be found to remove the seed. <a href="/wiki/Eli_Whitney" title="Eli Whitney">Eli Whitney</a> responded to the challenge by inventing the inexpensive <a href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a>. A man using a cotton gin could remove seed from as much upland cotton in one day as would previously have taken two months to process, working at the rate of one pound of cotton per day.<a href="#cite_note-Roe1916-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> These advances were capitalised on by <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Entrepreneur">entrepreneurs</a>, of whom the best known is Arkwright. He is credited with a list of inventions, but these were actually developed by such people as Kay and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Highs" title="Thomas Highs">Thomas Highs</a>; Arkwright nurtured the inventors, patented the ideas, financed the initiatives, and protected the machines. He created the cotton mill which brought the production processes together in a factory, and he developed the use of power—first horsepower and then water power—which made cotton manufacture a mechanised industry. Other inventors increased the efficiency of the individual steps of spinning (carding, twisting and spinning, and rolling) so that the supply of <a href="/wiki/Yarn" title="Yarn">yarn</a> increased greatly. Steam power was then applied to drive textile machinery. <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> acquired the nickname <a href="/wiki/Cottonopolis" title="Cottonopolis">Cottonopolis</a> during the early 19th century owing to its sprawl of textile factories.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Although mechanisation dramatically decreased the cost of cotton cloth, by the mid-19th century machine-woven cloth still could not equal the quality of hand-woven Indian cloth, in part because of the fineness of thread made possible by the type of cotton used in India, which allowed high thread counts. However, the high productivity of British textile manufacturing allowed coarser grades of British cloth to undersell hand-spun and woven fabric in low-wage India, eventually destroying the Indian industry.<a href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iron_industry">Iron industry</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reverberatory_furnace_diagram.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Reverberatory_furnace_diagram.png/220px-Reverberatory_furnace_diagram.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Reverberatory_furnace_diagram.png/330px-Reverberatory_furnace_diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Reverberatory_furnace_diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="351" data-file-height="224" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">reverberatory furnace</a> could produce <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a> using mined coal; the burning <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> is separated from the iron to prevent constituents of the coal, such as sulfur and silica, from becoming impurities in the iron. Iron production increased due to the ability to use mined coal directly.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ironbridge_6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ironbridge_6.jpg/220px-Ironbridge_6.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ironbridge_6.jpg/330px-Ironbridge_6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ironbridge_6.jpg/440px-Ironbridge_6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2216" data-file-height="1648" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Iron_Bridge" title="The Iron Bridge">The Iron Bridge</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shropshire" title="Shropshire">Shropshire</a>, England, the world's first bridge constructed of iron, opened in 1781.<a href="#cite_note-Iron_bridge-56">[56]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="British_iron_production_statistics">British iron production statistics</h4></div> Bar iron was the commodity form of iron used as the raw material for making hardware goods such as nails, wire, hinges, horseshoes, wagon tires, chains, etc., as well as structural shapes. A small amount of bar iron was converted into steel. Cast iron was used for pots, stoves, and other items where its brittleness was tolerable. Most cast iron was refined and converted to bar iron, with substantial losses. Bar iron was made by the <a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">bloomery</a> process, which was the predominant iron smelting process until the late 18th century. In the UK in 1720, there were 20,500 tons of cast iron produced with charcoal and 400 tons with coke. In 1750 <a href="/wiki/Charcoal_iron" title="Charcoal iron">charcoal iron</a> production was 24,500 and coke iron was 2,500 tons. In 1788, the production of charcoal cast iron was 14,000 tons while coke iron production was 54,000 tons. In 1806, charcoal cast iron production was 7,800 tons and coke cast iron was 250,000 tons.<a href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-41">[41]</a>: 125  In 1750, the UK imported 31,200 tons of bar iron and either refined from cast iron or directly produced 18,800 tons of bar iron using charcoal and 100 tons using coke. In 1796, the UK was making 125,000 tons of bar iron with coke and 6,400 tons with charcoal; imports were 38,000 tons and exports were 24,600 tons. In 1806 the UK did not import bar iron but exported 31,500 tons.<a href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-41">[41]</a>: 125  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iron_process_innovations">Iron process innovations</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png/220px-Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png/330px-Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png/440px-Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png 2x" data-file-width="578" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption>Horizontal (lower) and vertical (upper) cross-sections of a single <a href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">puddling</a> furnace</figcaption></figure> A major change in the iron industries during the Industrial Revolution was the replacement of wood and other bio-fuels with <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>; for a given amount of heat, <a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">mining coal</a> required much less labour than cutting wood and converting it to <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a>,<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> and coal was much more abundant than wood, supplies of which were becoming scarce before the enormous increase in iron production that took place in the late 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-41">[41]</a>: 122  In 1709, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_I" title="Abraham Darby I">Abraham Darby</a> made progress using coke to fuel his blast furnaces at <a href="/wiki/Coalbrookdale" title="Coalbrookdale">Coalbrookdale</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> However, the coke pig iron he made was not suitable for making wrought iron and was used mostly for the production of cast iron goods, such as pots and kettles. He had the advantage over his rivals in that his pots, cast by his patented process, were thinner and cheaper than theirs. In 1750, <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a> had generally replaced charcoal in the smelting of copper and lead and was in widespread use in glass production. In the smelting and refining of iron, coal and coke produced inferior iron to that made with charcoal because of the coal's sulfur content. Low sulfur coals were known, but they still contained harmful amounts. Conversion of coal to coke only slightly reduces the sulfur content.<a href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-41">[41]</a>: 122–125  A minority of coals are coking. Another factor limiting the iron industry before the Industrial Revolution was the scarcity of water power to power blast bellows. This limitation was overcome by the steam engine.<a href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-41">[41]</a> Use of coal in iron smelting started somewhat before the Industrial Revolution, based on innovations by <a href="/wiki/Clement_Clerke" title="Clement Clerke">Clement Clerke</a> and others from 1678, using coal <a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">reverberatory furnaces</a> known as cupolas. These were operated by the flames playing on the ore and charcoal or coke mixture, <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reducing</a> the <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxide</a> to metal. This has the advantage that impurities (such as sulphur ash) in the coal do not migrate into the metal. This technology was applied to lead from 1678 and to copper from 1687. It was also applied to iron foundry work in the 1690s, but in this case the reverberatory furnace was known as an air furnace. (The <a href="/wiki/Cupola_furnace" title="Cupola furnace">foundry cupola</a> is a different, and later, innovation.)<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Coke pig iron was hardly used to produce wrought iron until 1755–56, when Darby's son <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_II" title="Abraham Darby II">Abraham Darby II</a> built furnaces at <a href="/wiki/Horsehay" title="Horsehay">Horsehay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ketley" title="Ketley">Ketley</a> where low sulfur coal was available (and not far from Coalbrookdale). These furnaces were equipped with water-powered bellows, the water being pumped by <a href="/wiki/Newcomen_atmospheric_engine" title="Newcomen atmospheric engine">Newcomen steam engines</a>. The Newcomen engines were not attached directly to the blowing cylinders because the engines alone could not produce a steady air blast. <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_III" title="Abraham Darby III">Abraham Darby III</a> installed similar steam-pumped, water-powered blowing cylinders at the Dale Company when he took control in 1768. The Dale Company used several Newcomen engines to drain its mines and made parts for engines which it sold throughout the country.<a href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-41">[41]</a>: 123–125  Steam engines made the use of higher-pressure and volume blast practical; however, the leather used in bellows was expensive to replace. In 1757, ironmaster <a href="/wiki/John_Wilkinson_(industrialist)" title="John Wilkinson (industrialist)">John Wilkinson</a> patented a hydraulic powered <a href="/wiki/Blowing_engine" title="Blowing engine">blowing engine</a> for blast furnaces.<a href="#cite_note-Temple_1986-60">[60]</a> The blowing cylinder for blast furnaces was introduced in 1760 and the first blowing cylinder made of cast iron is believed to be the one used at Carrington in 1768 that was designed by <a href="/wiki/John_Smeaton" title="John Smeaton">John Smeaton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-41">[41]</a>: 124, 135  Cast iron cylinders for use with a piston were difficult to manufacture; the cylinders had to be free of holes and had to be machined smooth and straight to remove any warping. <a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a> had great difficulty trying to have a cylinder made for his first steam engine. In 1774 Wilkinson invented a precision boring machine for boring cylinders. After Wilkinson bored the first successful cylinder for a <a href="/wiki/Boulton_and_Watt" title="Boulton and Watt">Boulton and Watt</a> steam engine in 1776, he was given an exclusive contract for providing cylinders.<a href="#cite_note-Roe1916-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> After Watt developed a rotary steam engine in 1782, they were widely applied to blowing, hammering, rolling and slitting.<a href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-41">[41]</a>: 124  The solutions to the sulfur problem were the addition of sufficient limestone to the furnace to force sulfur into the <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a> as well as the use of low sulfur coal. The use of lime or limestone required higher furnace temperatures to form a free-flowing slag. The increased furnace temperature made possible by improved blowing also increased the capacity of blast furnaces and allowed for increased furnace height.<a href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-41">[41]</a>: 123–125  In addition to lower cost and greater availability, coke had other important advantages over charcoal in that it was harder and made the column of materials (iron ore, fuel, slag) flowing down the blast furnace more porous and did not crush in the much taller furnaces of the late 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto3-63">[63]</a> As cast iron became cheaper and widely available, it began being a structural material for bridges and buildings. A famous early example is the <a href="/wiki/The_Iron_Bridge" title="The Iron Bridge">Iron Bridge</a> built in 1778 with cast iron produced by Abraham Darby III.<a href="#cite_note-Iron_bridge-56">[56]</a> However, most cast iron was converted to wrought iron. Conversion of cast iron had long been done in a <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">finery forge</a>. An improved refining process known as <a href="/wiki/Potting_and_stamping" title="Potting and stamping">potting and stamping</a> was developed, but this was superseded by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cort" title="Henry Cort">Henry Cort</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">puddling</a> process. Cort developed two significant iron manufacturing processes: <a href="/wiki/Rolling_(metalworking)" title="Rolling (metalworking)">rolling</a> in 1783 and puddling in 1784.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a>: 91  Puddling produced a structural grade iron at a relatively low cost. Puddling was a means of decarburizing molten pig iron by slow oxidation in a reverberatory furnace by manually stirring it with a long rod. The decarburized iron, having a higher melting point than cast iron, was raked into globs by the puddler. When the glob was large enough, the puddler would remove it. Puddling was backbreaking and extremely hot work. Few puddlers lived to be 40.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a>: 218  Because puddling was done in a reverberatory furnace, coal or coke could be used as fuel. The puddling process continued to be used until the late 19th century when iron was being displaced by mild steel. Because puddling required human skill in sensing the iron globs, it was never successfully mechanised. Rolling was an important part of the puddling process because the grooved rollers expelled most of the molten slag and consolidated the mass of hot wrought iron. Rolling was 15 times faster at this than a <a href="/wiki/Trip_hammer" title="Trip hammer">trip hammer</a>. A different use of rolling, which was done at lower temperatures than that for expelling slag, was in the production of iron sheets, and later structural shapes such as beams, angles, and rails. The puddling process was improved in 1818 by Baldwyn Rogers, who replaced some of the sand lining on the reverberatory furnace bottom with <a href="/wiki/Iron_oxide" title="Iron oxide">iron oxide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> In 1838 <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hall_(metallurgist)" title="Joseph Hall (metallurgist)">John Hall</a> patented the use of roasted tap cinder (<a href="/wiki/Fayalite" title="Fayalite">iron silicate</a>) for the furnace bottom, greatly reducing the loss of iron through increased slag caused by a sand lined bottom. The tap cinder also tied up some phosphorus, but this was not understood at the time.<a href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-41">[41]</a>: 166  Hall's process also used iron scale or <a href="/wiki/Rust" title="Rust">rust</a> which reacted with carbon in the molten iron. Hall's process, called wet puddling, reduced losses of iron with the slag from almost 50% to around 8%.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a>: 93  Puddling became widely used after 1800. Up to that time, British iron manufacturers had used considerable amounts of iron imported from Sweden and Russia to supplement domestic supplies. Because of the increased British production, imports began to decline in 1785, and by the 1790s Britain eliminated imports and became a net exporter of bar iron. <a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">Hot blast</a>, patented by the Scottish inventor <a href="/wiki/James_Beaumont_Neilson" title="James Beaumont Neilson">James Beaumont Neilson</a> in 1828, was the most important development of the 19th century for saving energy in making pig iron. By using preheated combustion air, the amount of fuel to make a unit of pig iron was reduced at first by between one-third using coke or two-thirds using coal;<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> the efficiency gains continued as the technology improved.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Hot blast also raised the operating temperature of furnaces, increasing their capacity. Using less coal or coke meant introducing fewer impurities into the pig iron. This meant that lower quality coal could be used in areas where <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_coal" title="Metallurgical coal">coking coal</a> was unavailable or too expensive;<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> however, by the end of the 19th century transportation costs fell considerably. Shortly before the Industrial Revolution, an improvement was made in the production of <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>, which was an expensive commodity and used only where iron would not do, such as for cutting edge tools and for springs. <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Huntsman" title="Benjamin Huntsman">Benjamin Huntsman</a> developed his <a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">crucible steel</a> technique in the 1740s. The raw material for this was blister steel, made by the <a href="/wiki/Cementation_process" title="Cementation process">cementation process</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> The supply of cheaper iron and steel aided a number of industries, such as those making nails, hinges, wire, and other hardware items. The development of machine tools allowed better working of iron, causing it to be increasingly used in the rapidly growing machinery and engine industries.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Steam_power">Steam power</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Steam_power_during_the_Industrial_Revolution" title="Steam power during the Industrial Revolution">Steam power during the Industrial Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/220px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/330px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/440px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine" title="Watt steam engine">Watt steam engine</a>, invented by <a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a>, who transformed the <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Reciprocating_motion" title="Reciprocating motion">reciprocating motion</a> that was used for pumping to a <a href="/wiki/Rotation" title="Rotation">rotating motion</a> suited to industrial applications; Watt and others significantly improved the efficiency of the steam engine.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Newcomens_Dampfmaschine_aus_Meyers_1890.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Newcomens_Dampfmaschine_aus_Meyers_1890.png/220px-Newcomens_Dampfmaschine_aus_Meyers_1890.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Newcomens_Dampfmaschine_aus_Meyers_1890.png/330px-Newcomens_Dampfmaschine_aus_Meyers_1890.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Newcomens_Dampfmaschine_aus_Meyers_1890.png 2x" data-file-width="378" data-file-height="461" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Newcomen_steam_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Newcomen steam engine">Newcomen's steam-powered atmospheric engine</a> was the first practical piston steam engine; subsequent steam engines were to power the Industrial Revolution.</figcaption></figure> The development of the <a href="/wiki/Stationary_steam_engine" title="Stationary steam engine">stationary steam engine</a> was an important element of the Industrial Revolution; however, during the early period of the Industrial Revolution, most industrial power was supplied by water and wind. In Britain, by 1800 an estimated 10,000 horsepower was being supplied by steam. By 1815 steam power had grown to 210,000 hp.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> The first commercially successful industrial use of steam power was patented by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Savery" title="Thomas Savery">Thomas Savery</a> in 1698. He constructed in London a low-lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump that generated about one <a href="/wiki/Horsepower" title="Horsepower">horsepower</a> (hp) and was used in numerous waterworks and in a few mines (hence its "brand name", The Miner's Friend). Savery's pump was economical in small horsepower ranges but was prone to boiler explosions in larger sizes. Savery pumps continued to be produced until the late 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> The first successful piston steam engine was introduced by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Newcomen" title="Thomas Newcomen">Thomas Newcomen</a> before 1712. Newcomen engines were installed for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine on the surface; these were large machines, requiring a significant amount of capital to build, and produced upwards of 3.5 kW (5 hp). They were also used to power municipal water supply pumps. They were extremely inefficient by modern standards, but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads, they opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-72">[72]</a> Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the 19th century. By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread to Hungary in 1722, and then to Germany, Austria, and Sweden. A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were abroad. In the 1770s the engineer <a href="/wiki/John_Smeaton" title="John Smeaton">John Smeaton</a> built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements. A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-72">[72]</a> A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by <a href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">Scotsman</a> <a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a>. With financial support from his business partner <a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">Englishman</a> <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Boulton" title="Matthew Boulton">Matthew Boulton</a>, he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting <a href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine" title="Watt steam engine">his steam engine</a>, which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably the closing off of the upper part of the cylinder thereby making the low-pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere; use of a steam jacket; and the celebrated separate steam condenser chamber. The separate condenser did away with the cooling water that had been injected directly into the cylinder which cooled the cylinder and wasted steam. Likewise, the steam jacket kept steam from condensing in the cylinder, also improving efficiency. These improvements increased engine efficiency so that Boulton and Watt's engines used only 20–25% as much coal per horsepower-hour as Newcomen's. Boulton and Watt opened the <a href="/wiki/Soho_Foundry" title="Soho Foundry">Soho Foundry</a> for the manufacture of such engines in 1795. In 1783, the Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a <a href="/wiki/Single-_and_double-acting_cylinders" title="Single- and double-acting cylinders">double-acting</a> rotative type, which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill. Both of Watt's basic engine types were commercially very successful, and by 1800 the firm <a href="/wiki/Boulton_and_Watt" title="Boulton and Watt">Boulton & Watt</a> had constructed 496 engines, with 164 driving reciprocating pumps, 24 serving blast furnaces, and 308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines generated from 3.5 to 7.5 kW (5 to 10 hp). Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the <a href="/wiki/Beam_engine" title="Beam engine">beam engine</a>, built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns of self-contained rotative engines (readily removable but not on wheels) were developed, such as the <a href="/wiki/Table_engine" title="Table engine">table engine</a>. Around the start of the 19th century, at which time the Boulton and Watt patent expired, the Cornish engineer <a href="/wiki/Richard_Trevithick" title="Richard Trevithick">Richard Trevithick</a> and the American <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Evans" title="Oliver Evans">Oliver Evans</a> began to construct higher-pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere. High pressure yielded an engine and boiler compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail <a href="/wiki/Locomotive" title="Locomotive">locomotives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steamboat" title="Steamboat">steamboats</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Small industrial power requirements continued to be provided by animal and human muscle until widespread <a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">electrification</a> in the early 20th century. These included <a href="/wiki/Crank_(mechanism)" title="Crank (mechanism)">crank</a>-powered, <a href="/wiki/Treadle" title="Treadle">treadle</a>-powered and horse-powered workshop, and light industrial machinery.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Machine_tools">Machine tools</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png/220px-Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png/330px-Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png/440px-Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png 2x" data-file-width="523" data-file-height="749" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_Maudslay" title="Henry Maudslay">Maudslay</a>'s early <a href="/wiki/Screw-cutting_lathe" title="Screw-cutting lathe">screw-cutting lathes</a>, developed in the late 1790s</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Middletown_milling_machine_1818--001.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Middletown_milling_machine_1818--001.png/220px-Middletown_milling_machine_1818--001.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="62" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Middletown_milling_machine_1818--001.png/330px-Middletown_milling_machine_1818--001.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Middletown_milling_machine_1818--001.png/440px-Middletown_milling_machine_1818--001.png 2x" data-file-width="690" data-file-height="195" /></a><figcaption>The Middletown <a href="/wiki/Milling_(machining)" title="Milling (machining)">milling machine</a>, developed around 1818 by Robert Johnson and Simeon North</figcaption></figure> Pre-industrial machinery was built by various craftsmen—<a href="/wiki/Millwright" title="Millwright">millwrights</a> built <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">watermills</a> and <a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">windmills</a>; carpenters made wooden framing; and smiths and turners made metal parts. Wooden components had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints tended to rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal parts and frames became more common. Other important uses of metal parts were in firearms and threaded <a href="/wiki/Fastener" title="Fastener">fasteners</a>, such as machine screws, bolts, and nuts. There was also the need for precision in making parts. Precision would allow better working machinery, <a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeability of parts</a>, and standardization of threaded fasteners. The demand for metal parts led to the development of several <a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tools</a>. They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch-produce small mechanisms. Before the advent of machine tools, metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws, and chisels. Consequently, the use of metal machine parts was kept to a minimum. Hand methods of production were laborious and costly, and precision was difficult to achieve.<a href="#cite_note-Hounshell-1984-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Roe1916-26">[26]</a> The first large precision machine tool was the cylinder <a href="/wiki/Boring_(manufacturing)" title="Boring (manufacturing)">boring machine</a> invented by John Wilkinson in 1774. It was designed to bore the large cylinders on early steam engines. Wilkinson's machine was the first to use the principle of line-boring, where the tool is supported on both ends, unlike earlier designs used for boring cannon that relied on a less stable <a href="/wiki/Cantilever" title="Cantilever">cantilevered</a> boring bar.<a href="#cite_note-Roe1916-26">[26]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Planer_(metalworking)" title="Planer (metalworking)">planing machine</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Milling_(machining)" title="Milling (machining)">milling machine</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Shaper" title="Shaper">shaping machine</a> were developed in the early decades of the 19th century. Although the milling machine was invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until somewhat later in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-Hounshell-1984-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Roe1916-26">[26]</a> <a href="/wiki/James_Fox_(engineer)" title="James Fox (engineer)">James Fox</a> of <a href="/wiki/Derby" title="Derby">Derby</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Murray" title="Matthew Murray">Matthew Murray</a> of <a href="/wiki/Leeds" title="Leeds">Leeds</a> were manufacturers of machine tools who found success in exporting from England and are also notable for having developed the planer around the same time as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Roberts_(engineer)" title="Richard Roberts (engineer)">Richard Roberts</a> of <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a>. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Maudslay" title="Henry Maudslay">Henry Maudslay</a>, who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century, was a mechanic with superior ability who had been employed at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Arsenal" title="Royal Arsenal">Royal Arsenal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Woolwich" title="Woolwich">Woolwich</a>. He worked as an apprentice at the Royal Arsenal under <a href="/wiki/Jan_Verbruggen" title="Jan Verbruggen">Jan Verbruggen</a>. In 1774 Verbruggen had installed a <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_boring_machine" title="Horizontal boring machine">horizontal boring machine</a> which was the first industrial size lathe in the UK. Maudslay was hired away by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bramah" title="Joseph Bramah">Joseph Bramah</a> for the production of high-security metal locks that required precision craftsmanship. Bramah patented a lathe that had similarities to the slide rest lathe.<a href="#cite_note-Roe1916-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-49">[49]</a>: 392–395  Maudslay perfected the slide rest lathe, which could cut machine screws of different thread pitches by using changeable gears between the spindle and the lead screw. Before its invention, screws could not be cut to any precision using various earlier lathe designs, some of which copied from a template.<a href="#cite_note-Roe1916-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-49">[49]</a>: 392–395  The slide rest lathe was called one of history's most important inventions. Although it was not entirely Maudslay's idea, he was the first person to build a functional lathe using a combination of known innovations of the lead screw, slide rest, and change gears.<a href="#cite_note-Roe1916-26">[26]</a>: 31, 36  Maudslay left Bramah's employment and set up his own shop. He was engaged to build the machinery for making ships' pulley blocks for the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Portsmouth_Block_Mills" title="Portsmouth Block Mills">Portsmouth Block Mills</a>. These machines were all-metal and were the first machines for mass production and making components with a degree of interchangeability. The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and in his workshops, he trained a generation of men to build on his work, such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Roberts_(engineer)" title="Richard Roberts (engineer)">Richard Roberts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Clement" title="Joseph Clement">Joseph Clement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Whitworth" title="Joseph Whitworth">Joseph Whitworth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Roe1916-26">[26]</a> The techniques to make mass-produced metal parts of sufficient precision to be interchangeable is largely attributed to a program of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">U.S. Department of War</a> which perfected <a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeable parts</a> for firearms in the early 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-Hounshell-1984-43">[43]</a> In the half-century following the invention of the fundamental machine tools, the machine industry became the largest industrial sector of the U.S. economy, by value added.<a href="#cite_note-faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemicals">Chemicals</h3></div> The large-scale production of chemicals was an important development during the Industrial Revolution. The first of these was the production of <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulphuric acid</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Lead_chamber_process" title="Lead chamber process">lead chamber process</a> invented by the Englishman <a href="/wiki/John_Roebuck" title="John Roebuck">John Roebuck</a> (James Watt's first partner) in 1746. He was able to greatly increase the scale of the manufacture by replacing the relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used with larger, less expensive chambers made of <a href="/wiki/Rivet" title="Rivet">riveted</a> sheets of lead. Instead of making a small amount each time, he was able to make around 50 kilograms (100 pounds) in each of the chambers, at least a tenfold increase. The production of an <a href="/wiki/Alkali" title="Alkali">alkali</a> on a large scale became an important goal as well, and <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Leblanc" title="Nicolas Leblanc">Nicolas Leblanc</a> succeeded in 1791 in introducing a method for the production of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_carbonate" title="Sodium carbonate">sodium carbonate</a> (soda ash). The <a href="/wiki/Leblanc_process" title="Leblanc process">Leblanc process</a> was a reaction of <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> with <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> to give <a href="/wiki/Sodium_sulfate" title="Sodium sulfate">sodium sulfate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a>. The sodium sulfate was heated with <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> and coal to give a mixture of sodium carbonate and <a href="/wiki/Calcium_sulfide" title="Calcium sulfide">calcium sulfide</a>. Adding water separated the soluble sodium carbonate from the calcium sulfide. The process produced a large amount of pollution (the hydrochloric acid was initially vented to the atmosphere, and calcium sulfide was a <a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">waste</a> product). Nonetheless, this synthetic soda ash proved economical compared to that produced from burning specific plants (<a href="/wiki/Barilla" title="Barilla">barilla</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">kelp</a>), which were the previously dominant sources of soda ash,<a href="#cite_note-Clow52-76">[76]</a> and also to <a href="/wiki/Potash" title="Potash">potash</a> (<a href="/wiki/Potassium_carbonate" title="Potassium carbonate">potassium carbonate</a>) produced from hardwood ashes. These two chemicals were very important because they enabled the introduction of a host of other inventions, replacing many small-scale operations with more cost-effective and controllable processes. Sodium carbonate had many uses in the glass, textile, soap, and paper industries. Early uses for sulfuric acid included <a href="/wiki/Pickling_(metal)" title="Pickling (metal)">pickling</a> (removing rust from) iron and steel, and for <a href="/wiki/Textile_bleaching" title="Textile bleaching">bleaching cloth</a>. The development of bleaching powder (<a href="/wiki/Calcium_hypochlorite" title="Calcium hypochlorite">calcium hypochlorite</a>) by Scottish chemist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Tennant" title="Charles Tennant">Charles Tennant</a> in about 1800, based on the discoveries of French chemist <a href="/wiki/Claude_Louis_Berthollet" title="Claude Louis Berthollet">Claude Louis Berthollet</a>, revolutionised the bleaching processes in the textile industry by dramatically reducing the time required (from months to days) for the traditional process then in use, which required repeated exposure to the sun in bleach fields after soaking the textiles with alkali or sour milk. Tennant's <a href="/wiki/St_Rollox_Chemical_Works" title="St Rollox Chemical Works">factory at St Rollox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a>, became the largest chemical plant in the world. After 1860 the focus on chemical innovation was in <a href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">dyestuffs</a>, and Germany took world leadership, building a strong chemical industry.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Aspiring chemists flocked to German universities in the 1860–1914 era to learn the latest techniques. British scientists by contrast, lacked research universities and did not train advanced students; instead, the practice was to hire German-trained chemists.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concrete">Concrete</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thamestunnel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Thamestunnel.jpg/220px-Thamestunnel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Thamestunnel.jpg/330px-Thamestunnel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Thamestunnel.jpg/440px-Thamestunnel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="441" data-file-height="318" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Thames_Tunnel" title="Thames Tunnel">Thames Tunnel</a>, which opened in 1843; concrete was used in the world's first underwater tunnel.</figcaption></figure> In 1824 <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Aspdin" title="Joseph Aspdin">Joseph Aspdin</a>, a British <a href="/wiki/Bricklayer" title="Bricklayer">bricklayer</a> turned builder, patented a chemical process for making <a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">portland cement</a> which was an important advance in the building trades. This process involves <a href="/wiki/Sintering" title="Sintering">sintering</a> a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> to about 1,400 °C (2,552 °F), then <a href="/wiki/Grinding_(abrasive_cutting)" title="Grinding (abrasive cutting)">grinding</a> it into a fine powder which is then mixed with water, sand and <a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">gravel</a> to produce <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>. Portland cement concrete was used by the English engineer <a href="/wiki/Marc_Isambard_Brunel" title="Marc Isambard Brunel">Marc Isambard Brunel</a> several years later when constructing the <a href="/wiki/Thames_Tunnel" title="Thames Tunnel">Thames Tunnel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-memphis-79">[79]</a> Concrete was used on a large scale in the construction of the <a href="/wiki/London_sewer_system" title="London sewer system">London sewer system</a> a generation later. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gas_lighting">Gas lighting</h3></div> Though others made a similar innovation elsewhere, the large-scale introduction of <a href="/wiki/Gas_lighting" title="Gas lighting">gas lighting</a> was the work of <a href="/wiki/William_Murdoch" title="William Murdoch">William Murdoch</a>, an employee of Boulton & Watt. The process consisted of the large-scale gasification of coal in furnaces, the purification of the gas (removal of sulphur, ammonia, and heavy hydrocarbons), and its storage and distribution. The first gas lighting utilities were established in London between 1812 and 1820. They soon became one of the major consumers of coal in the UK. Gas lighting affected social and industrial organisation because it allowed factories and stores to remain open longer than with tallow candles or <a href="/wiki/Oil_lamp" title="Oil lamp">oil lamps</a>. Its introduction allowed nightlife to flourish in cities and towns as interiors and streets could be lighted on a larger scale than before.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glass_making">Glass making</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Palace_interior.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Crystal_Palace_interior.jpg/220px-Crystal_Palace_interior.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Crystal_Palace_interior.jpg/330px-Crystal_Palace_interior.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Crystal_Palace_interior.jpg/440px-Crystal_Palace_interior.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1611" data-file-height="1095" /></a><figcaption>The Crystal Palace housed the <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Exhibition" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Exhibition">Great Exhibition</a> of 1851</figcaption></figure> Glass was made in ancient Greece and Rome.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> A new method of <a href="/wiki/Glass_production" title="Glass production">glass production</a>, known as the <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_blown_sheet_glass" title="Cylinder blown sheet glass">cylinder process</a>, was developed in Europe during the early 19th century. In 1832 this process was used by the <a href="/wiki/Chance_Brothers" title="Chance Brothers">Chance Brothers</a> to create <a href="/wiki/Plate_glass" title="Plate glass">sheet glass</a>. They became the leading producers of window and plate glass. This advancement allowed for larger panes of glass to be created without interruption, thus freeing up the space planning in interiors as well as the fenestration of buildings. <a href="/wiki/The_Crystal_Palace" title="The Crystal Palace">The Crystal Palace</a> is the supreme example of the use of sheet glass in a new and innovative structure.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paper_machine">Paper machine</h3></div> A machine for making a continuous sheet of paper on a loop of wire fabric was patented in 1798 by <a href="/wiki/Louis-Nicolas_Robert" title="Louis-Nicolas Robert">Louis-Nicolas Robert</a> in France. The <a href="/wiki/Paper_machine" title="Paper machine">paper machine</a> is known as a Fourdrinier after the financiers, brothers Sealy and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Fourdrinier" title="Henry Fourdrinier">Henry Fourdrinier</a>, who were <a href="/wiki/Stationery" title="Stationery">stationers</a> in London. Although greatly improved and with many variations, the Fourdrinier machine is the predominant means of paper production today. The method of <a href="/wiki/Continuous_production" title="Continuous production">continuous production</a> demonstrated by the paper machine influenced the development of continuous rolling of iron and later steel and other continuous production processes.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</a> is considered one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution because improved <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_productivity" title="Agricultural productivity">agricultural productivity</a> freed up workers to work in other sectors of the economy.<a href="#cite_note-Overton_1996-84">[84]</a> In contrast, per-capita food supply in Europe was stagnant or declining and did not improve in some parts of Europe until the late 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-Pomeranz_2000-85">[85]</a> The English lawyer <a href="/wiki/Jethro_Tull_(agriculturist)" title="Jethro Tull (agriculturist)">Jethro Tull</a> invented an improved <a href="/wiki/Seed_drill" title="Seed drill">seed drill</a> in 1701. It was a mechanical seeder that distributed seeds evenly across a plot of land and planted them at the correct depth. This was important because the <a href="/wiki/Crop_yield" title="Crop yield">yield</a> of seeds harvested to seeds planted at that time was around four or five. Tull's seed drill was very expensive and not very reliable and therefore did not have much of an effect. Good quality seed drills were not produced until the mid 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-Temple_1986-60">[60]</a>: 26  Joseph Foljambe's Rotherham <a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">plough</a> of 1730 was the first commercially successful iron plough.<a href="#cite_note-Overton_1996-84">[84]</a>: 122 <a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-Temple_1986-60">[60]</a>: 18, 21 <a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Threshing_machine" title="Threshing machine">threshing machine</a>, invented by the Scottish engineer <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Meikle" title="Andrew Meikle">Andrew Meikle</a> in 1784, displaced hand <a href="/wiki/Threshing" title="Threshing">threshing</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Flail" title="Flail">flail</a>, a laborious job that took about one-quarter of agricultural labour.<a href="#cite_note-Clark2007-88">[88]</a>: 286  Lower labor requirements subsequently result in lowered wages and numbers of farm labourers, who faced near starvation, leading to the 1830 agricultural rebellion of the <a href="/wiki/Swing_Riots" title="Swing Riots">Swing Riots</a>. Machine tools and metalworking techniques developed during the Industrial Revolution eventually resulted in precision manufacturing techniques in the late 19th century for mass-producing agricultural equipment, such as reapers, binders, and combine harvesters.<a href="#cite_note-Hounshell-1984-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mining">Mining</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/History_of_coal_mining" title="History of coal mining">Coal mining</a> in Britain, particularly in <a href="/wiki/South_Wales" title="South Wales">South Wales</a>, started early. Before the steam engine, <a href="/wiki/Open-pit_mining" title="Open-pit mining">pits</a> were often shallow <a href="/wiki/Bell_pit" title="Bell pit">bell pits</a> following a seam of coal along the surface, which were abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was favourable the coal was mined by means of an <a href="/wiki/Adit" title="Adit">adit</a> or <a href="/wiki/Drift_mining" title="Drift mining">drift mine</a> driven into the side of a hill. <a href="/wiki/Shaft_sinking" title="Shaft sinking">Shaft mining</a> was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft or to a <a href="/wiki/Sough" title="Sough">sough</a> (a tunnel driven into a hill to drain a mine). In either case, the water had to be discharged into a stream or ditch at a level where it could flow away by gravity.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-89">[89]</a> The introduction of the steam pump by Thomas Savery in 1698 and the Newcomen steam engine in 1712 greatly facilitated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made deeper, enabling more coal to be extracted. These were developments that had begun before the Industrial Revolution, but the adoption of John Smeaton's improvements to the Newcomen engine followed by James Watt's more efficient steam engines from the 1770s reduced the fuel costs of engines, making mines more profitable. The <a href="/wiki/Cornish_engine" title="Cornish engine">Cornish engine</a>, developed in the 1810s, was much more efficient than the Watt steam engine.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-89">[89]</a> Coal mining was very dangerous owing to the presence of <a href="/wiki/Firedamp" title="Firedamp">firedamp</a> in many coal seams. Some degree of safety was provided by the <a href="/wiki/Safety_lamp" title="Safety lamp">safety lamp</a> which was invented in 1816 by Sir <a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a> and independently by <a href="/wiki/George_Stephenson" title="George Stephenson">George Stephenson</a>. However, the lamps proved a false dawn because they became unsafe very quickly and provided a weak light. Firedamp explosions continued, often setting off <a href="/wiki/Coal_dust" title="Coal dust">coal dust</a> explosions, so casualties grew during the entire 19th century. Conditions of work were very poor, with a high casualty rate from rock falls. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transportation">Transportation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transport_during_the_British_Industrial_Revolution" title="Transport during the British Industrial Revolution">Transport during the British Industrial Revolution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Productivity_improving_technologies_(economic_history)#Infrastructures" class="mw-redirect" title="Productivity improving technologies (economic history)">Productivity improving technologies (economic history) § Infrastructures</a></div> At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastal vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. <a href="/wiki/Wagonway" title="Wagonway">Wagonways</a> were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, but <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a> had not yet been widely constructed. Animals supplied all of the motive power on land, with sails providing the motive power on the sea. The first horse railways were introduced toward the end of the 18th century, with <a href="/wiki/Steam_locomotive" title="Steam locomotive">steam locomotives</a> being introduced in the early decades of the 19th century. Improving sailing technologies boosted average sailing speed by 50% between 1750 and 1830.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> The Industrial Revolution improved Britain's transport infrastructure with a turnpike road network, a canal and waterway network, and a railway network. Raw materials and finished products could be moved more quickly and cheaply than before. Improved transportation also allowed new ideas to spread quickly. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canals_and_improved_waterways">Canals and improved waterways</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_canal_system" title="History of the British canal system">History of the British canal system</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barton-on-Irwell_11.05.02R.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Barton-on-Irwell_11.05.02R.jpg/220px-Barton-on-Irwell_11.05.02R.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Barton-on-Irwell_11.05.02R.jpg/330px-Barton-on-Irwell_11.05.02R.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Barton-on-Irwell_11.05.02R.jpg/440px-Barton-on-Irwell_11.05.02R.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1504" data-file-height="2016" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal" title="Bridgewater Canal">Bridgewater Canal</a>, which proved very commercially successful, crossed the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Ship_Canal" title="Manchester Ship Canal">Manchester Ship Canal</a>, one of the last canals to be built.</figcaption></figure> Before and during the Industrial Revolution navigation on several British rivers was improved by removing obstructions, straightening curves, widening and deepening, and building navigation <a href="/wiki/Lock_(water_navigation)" title="Lock (water navigation)">locks</a>. Britain had over 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi) of navigable rivers and streams by 1750.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a>: 46  Canals and waterways allowed <a href="/wiki/Bulk_cargo" title="Bulk cargo">bulk materials</a> to be economically transported long distances inland. This was because a horse could pull a barge with a load dozens of times larger than the load that could be drawn in a cart.<a href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grübler-91">[91]</a> Canals began to be built in the UK in the late 18th century to link the major manufacturing centres across the country. Known for its huge commercial success, the <a href="/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal" title="Bridgewater Canal">Bridgewater Canal</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_West_England" title="North West England">North West England</a>, which opened in 1761 and was mostly funded by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Egerton,_3rd_Duke_of_Bridgewater" title="Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater">The 3rd Duke of Bridgewater</a>. From <a href="/wiki/Worsley" title="Worsley">Worsley</a> to the rapidly growing town of <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> its construction cost £168,000 (£22,589,130 as of 2013<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Industrial_Revolution&action=edit">[update]</a>),<a href="#cite_note-inflation-UK-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> but its advantages over land and river transport meant that within a year of its opening in 1761, the price of coal in Manchester fell by about half.<a href="#cite_note-Bridgewatercollieries-94">[94]</a> This success helped inspire a period of intense canal building, known as <a href="/wiki/Canal_Mania" title="Canal Mania">Canal Mania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Canals were hastily built with the aim of replicating the commercial success of the Bridgewater Canal, the most notable being the <a href="/wiki/Leeds_and_Liverpool_Canal" title="Leeds and Liverpool Canal">Leeds and Liverpool Canal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Thames_and_Severn_Canal" title="Thames and Severn Canal">Thames and Severn Canal</a> which opened in 1774 and 1789 respectively. By the 1820s a national network was in existence. Canal construction served as a model for the organisation and methods later used to construct the railways. They were eventually largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s on. The last major canal to be built in the United Kingdom was the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Ship_Canal" title="Manchester Ship Canal">Manchester Ship Canal</a>, which upon opening in 1894 was the largest <a href="/wiki/Ship_canal" title="Ship canal">ship canal</a> in the world,<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> and opened Manchester as a <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Manchester" title="Port of Manchester">port</a>. However, it never achieved the commercial success its sponsors had hoped for and signalled canals as a dying mode of transport in an age dominated by railways, which were quicker and often cheaper. Britain's canal network, together with its surviving mill buildings, is one of the most enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roads">Roads</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rakeman_%E2%80%93_First_American_Macadam_Road.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Rakeman_%E2%80%93_First_American_Macadam_Road.jpg/220px-Rakeman_%E2%80%93_First_American_Macadam_Road.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Rakeman_%E2%80%93_First_American_Macadam_Road.jpg/330px-Rakeman_%E2%80%93_First_American_Macadam_Road.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Rakeman_%E2%80%93_First_American_Macadam_Road.jpg/440px-Rakeman_%E2%80%93_First_American_Macadam_Road.jpg 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="429" /></a><figcaption>Construction of the first macadam road in the United States in 1823. In the foreground, workers are breaking stones "so as not to exceed 6 ounces in weight or to pass a two-inch ring".<a href="#cite_note-rakemanPainting-98">[98]</a></figcaption></figure> France was known for having an excellent system of roads at the time of the Industrial Revolution; however, most of the roads on the European continent and in the UK were in bad condition and dangerously rutted.<a href="#cite_note-Grübler-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hunter_1985-27">[27]</a> Much of the original British road system was poorly maintained by thousands of local parishes, but from the 1720s (and occasionally earlier) <a href="/wiki/Turnpike_trust" title="Turnpike trust">turnpike trusts</a> were set up to charge tolls and maintain some roads. Increasing numbers of main roads were turnpiked from the 1750s to the extent that almost every main road in England and Wales was the responsibility of a turnpike trust. New engineered roads were built by <a href="/wiki/John_Metcalf_(civil_engineer)" title="John Metcalf (civil engineer)">John Metcalf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Telford" title="Thomas Telford">Thomas Telford</a> and most notably <a href="/wiki/John_Loudon_McAdam" title="John Loudon McAdam">John McAdam</a>, with the first '<a href="/wiki/Macadam" title="Macadam">macadam</a>' stretch of road being Marsh Road at <a href="/wiki/Ashton_Gate,_Bristol" title="Ashton Gate, Bristol">Ashton Gate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</a> in 1816.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> The first macadam road in the U.S. was the "Boonsborough Turnpike Road" between <a href="/wiki/Hagerstown,_Maryland" title="Hagerstown, Maryland">Hagerstown</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boonsboro,_Maryland" title="Boonsboro, Maryland">Boonsboro, Maryland</a> in 1823.<a href="#cite_note-rakemanPainting-98">[98]</a> The major turnpikes radiated from London and were the means by which the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Mail" title="Royal Mail">Royal Mail</a> was able to reach the rest of the country. Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means of slow, broad-wheeled carts hauled by teams of horses. Lighter goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of <a href="/wiki/Packhorse" title="Packhorse">packhorse</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stagecoach" title="Stagecoach">Stagecoaches</a> carried the rich, and the less wealthy could pay to ride on <a href="/wiki/Un-sprung_cart" class="mw-redirect" title="Un-sprung cart">carriers carts</a>. Productivity of road transport increased greatly during the Industrial Revolution, and the cost of travel fell dramatically. Between 1690 and 1840 productivity almost tripled for long-distance carrying and increased four-fold in stage coaching.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Railways">Railways</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Great_Britain" title="History of rail transport in Great Britain">History of rail transport in Great Britain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Opening_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Opening_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway.jpg/220px-Opening_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Opening_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway.jpg/330px-Opening_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Opening_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway.jpg/440px-Opening_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway.jpg 2x" data-file-width="741" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>A portrait depicting the <a href="/wiki/Opening_of_the_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway" title="Opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway">opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway</a> in 1830, the first inter-city railway in the world and which spawned <a href="/wiki/Railway_Mania" title="Railway Mania">Railway Mania</a> due to its success</figcaption></figure> Railways were made practical by the widespread introduction of inexpensive puddled iron after 1800, the rolling mill for making rails, and the development of the high-pressure steam engine also around 1800. Reducing friction was one of the major reasons for the success of railroads compared to wagons. This was demonstrated on an iron plate-covered wooden tramway in 1805 at Croydon, England. <blockquote>A good horse on an ordinary turnpike road can draw two thousand pounds, or one ton. A party of gentlemen were invited to witness the experiment, that the superiority of the new road might be established by ocular demonstration. Twelve wagons were loaded with stones, till each wagon weighed three tons, and the wagons were fastened together. A horse was then attached, which drew the wagons with ease, six miles [10 km] in two hours, having stopped four times, in order to show he had the power of starting, as well as drawing his great load.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></blockquote> Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century and were often associated with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal. These were all horse-drawn or relied on gravity, with a stationary steam engine to haul the wagons back to the top of the incline. The first applications of the steam locomotive were on wagon or plate ways (as they were then often called from the cast-iron plates used). Horse-drawn public railways begin in the early 19th century when improvements to pig and wrought iron production were lowering costs. Steam locomotives began being built after the introduction of high-pressure steam engines after the expiration of the Boulton and Watt patent in 1800. High-pressure engines exhausted used steam to the atmosphere, doing away with the condenser and cooling water. They were also much lighter weight and smaller in size for a given horsepower than the stationary condensing engines. A few of these early locomotives were used in mines. Steam-hauled public railways began with the <a href="/wiki/Stockton_and_Darlington_Railway" title="Stockton and Darlington Railway">Stockton and Darlington Railway</a> in 1825.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> The rapid introduction of railways followed the 1829 <a href="/wiki/Rainhill_trials" title="Rainhill trials">Rainhill trials</a>, which demonstrated <a href="/wiki/Robert_Stephenson" title="Robert Stephenson">Robert Stephenson</a>'s successful locomotive design and the 1828 development of <a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">hot blast</a>, which dramatically reduced the fuel consumption of making iron and increased the capacity of the blast furnace. On 15 September 1830, the <a href="/wiki/Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway" title="Liverpool and Manchester Railway">Liverpool and Manchester Railway</a>, the first inter-city railway in the world, was <a href="/wiki/Opening_of_the_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway" title="Opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway">opened</a> and was attended by Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley,_1st_Duke_of_Wellington" title="Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington">Arthur Wellesley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The railway was engineered by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Locke" title="Joseph Locke">Joseph Locke</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Stephenson" title="George Stephenson">George Stephenson</a>, linked the rapidly expanding industrial town of Manchester with the port town of Liverpool. The opening was marred by problems caused by the primitive nature of the technology being employed; however, problems were gradually solved, and the railway became highly successful, transporting passengers and freight. The success of the inter-city railway, particularly in the transport of freight and commodities, led to <a href="/wiki/Railway_Mania" title="Railway Mania">Railway Mania</a>. Construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution. After many of the workers had completed the railways, they did not return to their rural lifestyles but instead remained in the cities, providing additional workers for the factories. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_effects">Social effects</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Life_in_Great_Britain_during_the_Industrial_Revolution" title="Life in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution">Life in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution</a></div> On a structural level the Industrial Revolution asked society the so-called <a href="/wiki/Social_question" title="Social question">social question</a>, demanding new ideas for managing large groups of individuals. Visible poverty on one hand and growing population and materialistic wealth on the other caused tensions between the very rich and the poorest people within society.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> These tensions were sometimes violently released<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> and led to philosophical ideas such as <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Factory_system">Factory system</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Factory_system" title="Factory system">Factory system</a></div> Prior to the Industrial Revolution, most of the workforce was employed in agriculture, either as self-employed farmers as landowners or tenants or as <a href="/wiki/Landlessness" title="Landlessness">landless</a> agricultural labourers. It was common for families in various parts of the world to spin yarn, weave cloth and make their own clothing. Households also spun and wove for market production. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, India, China, and regions of Iraq and elsewhere in Asia and the Middle East produced most of the world's cotton cloth while Europeans produced wool and linen goods. In <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> in the 16th century, the <a href="/wiki/Putting-out_system" title="Putting-out system">putting-out system</a> was practised, by which farmers and townspeople produced goods for a market in their homes, often described as cottage industry. Typical putting-out system goods included spinning and weaving. Merchant capitalists typically provided the raw materials, paid workers <a href="/wiki/Piece_work" title="Piece work">by the piece</a>, and were responsible for the sale of the goods. Embezzlement of supplies by workers and poor quality were common problems. The logistical effort in procuring and distributing raw materials and picking up finished goods were also limitations of the putting-out system.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a>: 57–59  Some early spinning and weaving machinery, such as a 40 spindle jenny for about six pounds in 1792, was affordable for cottagers.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a>: 59  Later machinery such as spinning frames, spinning mules and power looms were expensive (especially if water-powered), giving rise to capitalist ownership of factories. The majority of textile factory workers during the Industrial Revolution were unmarried women and children, including many orphans. They typically worked for 12 to 14 hours per day with only Sundays off. It was common for women to take factory jobs seasonally during slack periods of farm work. Lack of adequate transportation, long hours, and poor pay made it difficult to recruit and maintain workers.<a href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-44">[44]</a> The change in the social relationship of the factory worker compared to farmers and cottagers was viewed unfavourably by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>; however, he recognized the increase in productivity made possible by technology.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standards_of_living">Standards of living</h3></div> Some economists, such as <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Robert Lucas Jr.</a>, say that the real effect of the Industrial Revolution was that "for the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth ... Nothing remotely like this economic behaviour is mentioned by the classical economists, even as a theoretical possibility."<a href="#cite_note-Lectures_on_Economic_Growth-12">[12]</a> Others argue that while the growth of the economy's overall productive powers was unprecedented during the Industrial Revolution, <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">living standards</a> for the majority of the population did not grow meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries and that in many ways workers' living standards declined under early capitalism: some studies have estimated that real wages in Britain only increased 15% between the 1780s and 1850s and that <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a> in Britain did not begin to dramatically increase until the 1870s.<a href="#cite_note-Feinstein2014-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-SzreterMooney2014-14">[14]</a> The average height of the population declined during the Industrial Revolution, implying that their nutritional status was also decreasing.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5% in 1730–1749 to 31.8% in 1810–1829.<a href="#cite_note-Buer-109">[109]</a> The effects on living conditions have been controversial and were hotly debated by economic and social historians from the 1950s to the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-Woodward81-110">[110]</a> Over the course of the period from 1813 to 1913, there was a significant increase in worker wages.<a href="#cite_note-Trends_in_Real_Wages_in_Britain,_1750–1913-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-hartwell-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Food_and_nutrition">Food and nutrition</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</a></div> Chronic hunger and malnutrition were the norms for the majority of the population of the world including Britain and France until the late 19th century. Until about 1750, malnutrition limited life expectancy in France to about 35 years and about 40 years in Britain. The United States population of the time was adequately fed, much taller on average, and had a life expectancy of 45–50 years, although U.S. life expectancy declined by a few years by the mid 19th century. Food consumption per capita also declined during an episode known as the <a href="/wiki/Antebellum_Puzzle" title="Antebellum Puzzle">Antebellum Puzzle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Escape_from_Hunger_and_Premature_Death,_1700-2100-113">[113]</a> Food supply in Great Britain was adversely affected by the <a href="/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">Corn Laws</a> (1815–1846) which imposed tariffs on imported grain. The laws were enacted to keep prices high in order to benefit domestic producers. The Corn Laws were repealed in the early years of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Irish Famine</a>. The initial technologies of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanized textiles, iron and coal, did little, if anything, to lower <a href="/wiki/Food_prices" title="Food prices">food prices</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pomeranz_2000-85">[85]</a> In Britain and the Netherlands, food supply increased before the Industrial Revolution with better agricultural practices; however, population grew as well.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Clark2007-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Housing">Housing</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dore_London.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Dore_London.jpg/220px-Dore_London.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Dore_London.jpg/330px-Dore_London.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Dore_London.jpg/440px-Dore_London.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>Housing in London <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1870s by <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9" title="Gustave Doré">Gustave Doré</a></figcaption></figure> The rapid population growth in the 19th century included the new industrial and manufacturing cities, as well as service centers such as <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a> and London.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> The critical factor was financing, which was handled by building societies that dealt directly with large contracting firms.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure. P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> People moved in so rapidly there was not enough capital to build adequate housing for everyone, so low-income newcomers squeezed into increasingly overcrowded <a href="/wiki/Slum" title="Slum">slums</a>. <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">Clean water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a>, and public health facilities were inadequate; the death rate was high, especially infant mortality, and <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> among young adults. <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">Cholera</a> from polluted water and <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">typhoid</a> were endemic. Unlike rural areas, there were no famines such as the one that devastated Ireland in the 1840s.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> A large exposé literature grew up condemning the unhealthy conditions. By far the most famous publication was by one of the founders of the socialist movement, <a href="/wiki/The_Condition_of_the_Working_Class_in_England" title="The Condition of the Working Class in England">The Condition of the Working Class in England</a> in 1844 <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> describes backstreet sections of Manchester and other mill towns, where people lived in crude shanties and shacks, some not completely enclosed, some with dirt floors. These <a href="/wiki/Shanty_town" title="Shanty town">shanty towns</a> had narrow walkways between irregularly shaped lots and dwellings. There were no sanitary facilities. The population density was extremely high.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> However, not everyone lived in such poor conditions. The Industrial Revolution also created a middle class of businessmen, clerks, foremen, and engineers who lived in much better conditions. Conditions improved over the course of the 19th century with new public health acts regulating things such as sewage, hygiene, and home construction. In the introduction of his 1892 edition, Engels notes that most of the conditions he wrote about in 1844 had been greatly improved. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Act_1875" title="Public Health Act 1875">Public Health Act 1875</a> (<a href="/wiki/38_%26_39_Vict." class="mw-redirect" title="38 & 39 Vict.">38 & 39 Vict.</a> c. 55) led to the more sanitary <a href="/wiki/Byelaw_terraced_house" title="Byelaw terraced house">byelaw terraced house</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Water_and_sanitation">Water and sanitation</h4></div> Pre-industrial water supply relied on gravity systems, and pumping of water was done by water wheels. Pipes were typically made of wood. Steam-powered pumps and iron pipes allowed the widespread piping of water to horse watering troughs and households.<a href="#cite_note-Hunter_1985-27">[27]</a> Engels' book describes how untreated sewage created awful odours and turned the rivers green in industrial cities. In 1854 <a href="/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow">John Snow</a> traced a cholera outbreak in <a href="/wiki/Soho" title="Soho">Soho</a> in London to fecal contamination of a public water well by a home <a href="/wiki/Cesspit" title="Cesspit">cesspit</a>. Snow's findings that cholera could be spread by contaminated water took some years to be accepted, but his work led to fundamental changes in the design of public water and waste systems. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literacy">Literacy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">Literacy</a></div> In the 18th century, there were relatively high levels of literacy among farmers in England and Scotland. This permitted the recruitment of literate craftsmen, skilled workers, foremen, and managers who supervised the emerging textile factories and coal mines. Much of the labour was unskilled, and especially in textile mills children as young as eight proved useful in handling chores and adding to the family income. Indeed, children were taken out of school to work alongside their parents in the factories. However, by the mid-19th century, unskilled labor forces were common in Western Europe, and British industry moved upscale, needing many more engineers and skilled workers who could handle technical instructions and handle complex situations. Literacy was essential to be hired.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> A senior government official told Parliament in 1870: <dl><dd>Upon the speedy provision of elementary education depends are industrial prosperity. It is of no use trying to give technical teaching to our citizens without elementary education; uneducated labourers—and many of our labourers are utterly uneducated—are, for the most part, unskilled labourers, and if we leave our work–folk any longer unskilled, notwithstanding their strong sinews and determined energy, they will become overmatched in the competition of the world.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></dd></dl> The invention of the paper machine and the application of steam power to the industrial processes of <a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printing</a> supported a massive expansion of newspaper and pamphlet publishing, which contributed to rising literacy and demands for mass political participation.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clothing_and_consumer_goods">Clothing and consumer goods</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BLW_Tea_and_coffee_service,_Staffordshire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/BLW_Tea_and_coffee_service%2C_Staffordshire.jpg/220px-BLW_Tea_and_coffee_service%2C_Staffordshire.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/BLW_Tea_and_coffee_service%2C_Staffordshire.jpg/330px-BLW_Tea_and_coffee_service%2C_Staffordshire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/BLW_Tea_and_coffee_service%2C_Staffordshire.jpg/440px-BLW_Tea_and_coffee_service%2C_Staffordshire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3906" data-file-height="2580" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wedgwood" title="Wedgwood">Wedgwood</a> tea and coffee service</figcaption></figure> Consumers benefited from falling prices for clothing and household articles such as cast iron cooking utensils, and in the following decades, stoves for cooking and space heating. Coffee, tea, sugar, tobacco, and chocolate became affordable to many in Europe. The <a href="/wiki/Consumer_revolution" title="Consumer revolution">consumer revolution</a> in England from the early 17th century to the mid-18th century had seen a marked increase in the consumption and variety of luxury goods and products by individuals from different economic and social backgrounds.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> With improvements in transport and manufacturing technology, opportunities for buying and selling became faster and more efficient than previous. The expanding textile trade in the north of England meant the three-piece suit became affordable to the masses.<a href="#cite_note-Consumerism-129">[129]</a> Founded by potter and retail entrepreneur <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Wedgwood" title="Josiah Wedgwood">Josiah Wedgwood</a> in 1759, <a href="/wiki/Wedgwood" title="Wedgwood">Wedgwood</a> fine china and porcelain <a href="/wiki/Tableware" title="Tableware">tableware</a> was starting to become a common feature on dining tables.<a href="#cite_note-Black-130">[130]</a> Rising prosperity and social mobility in the 18th century increased the number of people with disposable income for consumption, and the marketing of goods (of which Wedgwood was a pioneer) for individuals, as opposed to items for the household, started to appear, and the new status of goods as status symbols related to changes in fashion and desired for aesthetic appeal.<a href="#cite_note-Black-130">[130]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">With the rapid growth of towns and cities, shopping became an important part of everyday life. Window shopping and the purchase of goods became a cultural activity in its own right, and many exclusive shops were opened in elegant urban districts: in the Strand and Piccadilly in London, for example, and in spa towns such as Bath and Harrogate. Prosperity and expansion in manufacturing industries such as pottery and metalware increased consumer choice dramatically. Where once labourers ate from metal platters with wooden implements, ordinary workers now dined on Wedgwood porcelain. Consumers came to demand an array of new household goods and furnishings: metal knives and forks, for example, as well as rugs, carpets, mirrors, cooking ranges, pots, pans, watches, clocks, and a dizzying array of furniture. The age of <a href="/wiki/Mass_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass consumption">mass consumption</a> had arrived.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>"<a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian Britain</a>, The rise of consumerism", Matthew White, <a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Consumerism-129">[129]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Winchester_High_Street_Mudie_1853.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Winchester_High_Street_Mudie_1853.jpg/220px-Winchester_High_Street_Mudie_1853.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Winchester_High_Street_Mudie_1853.jpg/330px-Winchester_High_Street_Mudie_1853.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Winchester_High_Street_Mudie_1853.jpg/440px-Winchester_High_Street_Mudie_1853.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a>'s High Street in 1853; the number of <a href="/wiki/High_Street" title="High Street">High Streets</a>, the primary street for retail in Britain in towns and cities rapidly grew in the 18th century.</figcaption></figure> New businesses in various industries appeared in towns and cities throughout Britain. Confectionery was one such industry that saw rapid expansion. According to food historian <a href="/wiki/Polly_Russell" title="Polly Russell">Polly Russell</a>: "chocolate and <a href="/wiki/Biscuit#Confectionery_biscuits" title="Biscuit">biscuits</a> became products for the masses, thanks to the Industrial Revolution and the consumers it created. By the mid-19th century, sweet biscuits were an affordable indulgence and business was booming. Manufacturers such as <a href="/wiki/Huntley_%26_Palmers" title="Huntley & Palmers">Huntley & Palmers</a> in Reading, <a href="/wiki/Carr%27s" title="Carr's">Carr's</a> of Carlisle and <a href="/wiki/McVitie%27s" title="McVitie's">McVitie's</a> in Edinburgh transformed from small family-run businesses into state-of-the-art operations".<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> In 1847 <a href="/wiki/J._S._Fry_%26_Sons" title="J. S. Fry & Sons">Fry's</a> of Bristol produced the first <a href="/wiki/Chocolate_bar" title="Chocolate bar">chocolate bar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Their competitor <a href="/wiki/Cadbury" title="Cadbury">Cadbury</a> of Birmingham was the first to commercialize the association between confectionery and romance when they produced a heart-shaped box of chocolates for <a href="/wiki/Valentine%27s_Day" title="Valentine's Day">Valentine's Day</a> in 1868.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Department_store" title="Department store">department store</a> became a common feature in major <a href="/wiki/High_Street" title="High Street">High Streets</a> across Britain; one of the first was opened in 1796 by <a href="/wiki/Harding,_Howell_%26_Co." title="Harding, Howell & Co.">Harding, Howell & Co.</a> on <a href="/wiki/Pall_Mall,_London" title="Pall Mall, London">Pall Mall</a> in London.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> In the 1860s, <a href="/wiki/Fish_and_chip" class="mw-redirect" title="Fish and chip">fish and chip</a> shops emerged across the country in order to satisfy the needs of the growing industrial population.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> In addition to goods being sold in the growing number of stores, <a href="/wiki/Hawker_(trade)" title="Hawker (trade)">street sellers</a> were common in an increasingly <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanized</a> country. Matthew White: "Crowds swarmed in every <a href="/wiki/Thoroughfare" title="Thoroughfare">thoroughfare</a>. Scores of street sellers 'cried' merchandise from place to place, advertising the wealth of goods and services on offer. Milkmaids, orange sellers, fishwives and piemen, for example, all walked the streets offering their various wares for sale, while knife grinders and the menders of broken chairs and furniture could be found on street corners".<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> An early <a href="/wiki/Soft_drink" title="Soft drink">soft drinks</a> company, <a href="/wiki/R._White%27s_Lemonade" class="mw-redirect" title="R. White's Lemonade">R. White's Lemonade</a>, began in 1845 by selling drinks in London in a wheelbarrow.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Increased literacy rates, industrialisation, and the invention of the railway created a new market for cheap popular literature for the masses and the ability for it to be circulated on a large scale. <a href="/wiki/Penny_dreadful" title="Penny dreadful">Penny dreadfuls</a> were created in the 1830s to meet this demand.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> The Guardian described penny dreadfuls as "Britain's first taste of mass-produced popular culture for the young", and "the Victorian equivalent of video games".<a href="#cite_note-Guardian-139">[139]</a> By the 1860s and 1870s more than one million boys' periodicals were sold per week.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian-139">[139]</a> Labelled an "authorpreneur" by <a href="/wiki/The_Paris_Review" title="The Paris Review">The Paris Review</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a> used innovations from the revolution to sell his books, such as the new printing presses, enhanced advertising revenues, and the expansion of railroads.<a href="#cite_note-Paris_Review-140">[140]</a> His first novel, <a href="/wiki/The_Pickwick_Papers" title="The Pickwick Papers">The Pickwick Papers</a> (1836), became a publishing phenomenon with its unprecedented success sparking numerous spin-offs and merchandise ranging from Pickwick cigars, playing cards, china figurines, <a href="/wiki/Sam_Weller_(character)" title="Sam Weller (character)">Sam Weller</a> puzzles, Weller boot polish and joke books.<a href="#cite_note-Paris_Review-140">[140]</a> Nicholas Dames in <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a> writes, "Literature" is not a big enough category for Pickwick. It defined its own, a new one that we have learned to call "entertainment".<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> In 1861, Welsh entrepreneur <a href="/wiki/Pryce_Pryce-Jones" title="Pryce Pryce-Jones">Pryce Pryce-Jones</a> formed the first <a href="/wiki/Mail_order" title="Mail order">mail order</a> business, an idea which would change the nature of <a href="/wiki/Retail" title="Retail">retail</a>.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Selling Welsh <a href="/wiki/Flannel" title="Flannel">flannel</a>, he created <a href="/wiki/Mail_order" title="Mail order">mail order</a> catalogues, with customers able to order by mail for the first time—this following the <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Penny_Post" title="Uniform Penny Post">Uniform Penny Post</a> in 1840 and the invention of the postage stamp (<a href="/wiki/Penny_Black" title="Penny Black">Penny Black</a>) where there was a charge of one penny for carriage and delivery between any two places in the United Kingdom irrespective of distance—and the goods were delivered throughout the UK via the newly created railway system.<a href="#cite_note-Mail_order-143">[143]</a> As the railway network expanded overseas, so did his business.<a href="#cite_note-Mail_order-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population_increase">Population increase</h3></div> The Industrial Revolution was the first period in history during which there was a simultaneous increase in both population and per capita income.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hughes_(critic)" title="Robert Hughes (critic)">Robert Hughes</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Fatal_Shore" title="The Fatal Shore">The Fatal Shore</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_England" title="Demographics of England">population of England</a> and Wales, which had remained steady at six million from 1700 to 1740, rose dramatically after 1740. The population of England had more than doubled from 8.3 million in 1801 to 16.8 million in 1850 and, by 1901, had nearly doubled again to 30.5 million.<a href="#cite_note-statistics-145">[145]</a> Improved conditions led to the population of Britain increasing from 10 million to 30 million in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-independent-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-bbc-147">[147]</a> Europe's population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-148">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urbanization">Urbanization</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Griffiths%27_Guide_to_the_iron_trade_of_Great_Britain_an_elaborate_review_of_the_iron_(and)_coal_trades_for_last_year,_addresses_and_names_of_all_ironmasters,_with_a_list_of_blast_furnaces,_iron_(14761790294).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Griffiths%27_Guide_to_the_iron_trade_of_Great_Britain_an_elaborate_review_of_the_iron_%28and%29_coal_trades_for_last_year%2C_addresses_and_names_of_all_ironmasters%2C_with_a_list_of_blast_furnaces%2C_iron_%2814761790294%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Griffiths%27_Guide_to_the_iron_trade_of_Great_Britain_an_elaborate_review_of_the_iron_%28and%29_coal_trades_for_last_year%2C_addresses_and_names_of_all_ironmasters%2C_with_a_list_of_blast_furnaces%2C_iron_%2814761790294%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Griffiths%27_Guide_to_the_iron_trade_of_Great_Britain_an_elaborate_review_of_the_iron_%28and%29_coal_trades_for_last_year%2C_addresses_and_names_of_all_ironmasters%2C_with_a_list_of_blast_furnaces%2C_iron_%2814761790294%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2880" data-file-height="1774" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Black_Country" title="Black Country">Black Country</a> west of <a href="/wiki/Birmingham" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</a>, England</figcaption></figure> The growth of the modern industry since the late 18th century led to massive <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanisation</a> and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In 1800, only 3% of the world's population lived in cities,<a href="#cite_note-prb-149">[149]</a> compared to nearly 50% by the beginning of the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-prb6-150">[150]</a> <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> had a population of 10,000 in 1717, but by 1911 it had burgeoned to 2.3 million.<a href="#cite_note-britannica7-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_women_and_family_life">Effect on women and family life</h3></div> Women's historians have debated the effect of the Industrial Revolution and capitalism generally on the status of women.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Taking a pessimistic side, <a href="/wiki/Alice_Clark_(historian)" title="Alice Clark (historian)">Alice Clark</a> argues that when capitalism arrived in 17th-century England, it lowered the status of women as they lost much of their economic importance. Clark argues that in 16th-century England, women were engaged in many aspects of industry and agriculture. The home was a central unit of production, and women played a vital role in running farms and in some trades and landed estates. Their useful economic roles gave them a sort of equality with their husbands. However, Clark argues, as capitalism expanded in the 17th century, there was more division of labour with the husband taking paid labour jobs outside the home, and the wife was reduced to unpaid household work. Middle- and upper-class women were confined to an idle domestic existence, supervising servants; lower-class women were forced to take poorly paid jobs. Capitalism, therefore, had a negative effect on powerful women.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> In a more positive interpretation, <a href="/wiki/Ivy_Pinchbeck" title="Ivy Pinchbeck">Ivy Pinchbeck</a> argues that capitalism created the conditions for women's emancipation.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Tilly and Scott have emphasised the continuity in the status of women, finding three stages in English history. In the pre-industrial era, production was mostly for home use, and women produced much of the needs of the households. The second stage was the "family wage economy" of early industrialisation; the entire family depended on the collective wages of its members, including husband, wife, and older children. The third or modern stage is the "family consumer economy", in which the family is the site of consumption, and women are employed in large numbers in retail and clerical jobs to support rising standards of consumption.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Ideas of thrift and hard work characterised middle-class families as the Industrial Revolution swept Europe. These values were displayed in <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Smiles" title="Samuel Smiles">Samuel Smiles</a>' book <a href="/wiki/Self-Help_(book)" title="Self-Help (book)">Self-Help</a>, in which he states that the misery of the poorer classes was "voluntary and self-imposed—the results of idleness, thriftlessness, intemperance, and misconduct."<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labour_conditions">Labour conditions</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_structure_and_working_conditions">Social structure and working conditions</h4></div> In terms of social structure, the Industrial Revolution witnessed the triumph of a <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a> of industrialists and businessmen over a landed class of nobility and gentry. Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in mills and factories, but these were often under strict working conditions with long hours of labour dominated by a pace set by machines. As late as 1900, most industrial workers in the United States worked a 10-hour day (12 hours in the steel industry), yet earned 20–40% less than the minimum deemed necessary for a decent life;<a href="#cite_note-countrystudies-158">[158]</a> however, most workers in textiles, which was by far the leading industry in terms of employment, were women and children.<a href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-44">[44]</a> For workers of the labouring classes, industrial life "was a stony desert, which they had to make habitable by their own efforts."<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> Harsh working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place. <a href="/wiki/Pre-industrial_society" title="Pre-industrial society">Pre-industrial society</a> was very static and often cruel—<a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">child labour</a>, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were just as prevalent before the Industrial Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-industrial4-160">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Factories_and_urbanisation">Factories and urbanisation</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wyld,_William_-_Manchester_from_Kersal_Moor,_with_rustic_figures_and_goats_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Wyld%2C_William_-_Manchester_from_Kersal_Moor%2C_with_rustic_figures_and_goats_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Wyld%2C_William_-_Manchester_from_Kersal_Moor%2C_with_rustic_figures_and_goats_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Wyld%2C_William_-_Manchester_from_Kersal_Moor%2C_with_rustic_figures_and_goats_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Wyld%2C_William_-_Manchester_from_Kersal_Moor%2C_with_rustic_figures_and_goats_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Wyld%2C_William_-_Manchester_from_Kersal_Moor%2C_with_rustic_figures_and_goats_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Wyld%2C_William_-_Manchester_from_Kersal_Moor%2C_with_rustic_figures_and_goats_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6133" data-file-height="3931" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cottonopolis" title="Cottonopolis">Cottonopolis</a>, an 1852 portrait of <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a>'s factory chimneys</figcaption></figure> Industrialisation led to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Factory" title="Factory">factory</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Factory_system" title="Factory system">factory system</a> contributed to the growth of urban areas as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of work in the factories. Nowhere was this better illustrated than the mills and associated industries of Manchester, nicknamed "<a href="/wiki/Cottonopolis" title="Cottonopolis">Cottonopolis</a>", and the world's first industrial city.<a href="#cite_note-Industrial_city-161">[161]</a> Manchester experienced a six-times increase in its population between 1771 and 1831. Bradford grew by 50% every ten years between 1811 and 1851, and by 1851 only 50% of the population of Bradford were actually born there.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> In addition, between 1815 and 1939, 20% of Europe's population left home, pushed by poverty, a rapidly growing population, and the displacement of peasant farming and artisan manufacturing. They were pulled abroad by the enormous demand for labour overseas, the ready availability of land, and cheap transportation. Still, many did not find a satisfactory life in their new homes, leading 7 million of them to return to Europe.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> This mass migration had large demographic effects: in 1800, less than 1% of the world population consisted of overseas Europeans and their descendants; by 1930, they represented 11%.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> The Americas felt the brunt of this huge emigration, largely concentrated in the United States. For much of the 19th century, production was done in small mills which were typically <a href="/wiki/List_of_watermills_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of watermills in the United Kingdom">water-powered</a> and built to serve local needs. Later, each factory would have its own steam engine and a chimney to give an efficient draft through its boiler. In other industries, the transition to factory production was not so divisive. Some industrialists tried to improve factory and living conditions for their workers. One of the earliest such reformers was <a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Robert Owen</a>, known for his pioneering efforts in improving conditions for workers at the <a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen#Philanthropy_in_New_Lanark_(1800)" title="Robert Owen">New Lanark mills</a> and often regarded as one of the key thinkers of the <a href="/wiki/Utopian_socialism" title="Utopian socialism">early socialist movement</a>. By 1746 an integrated <a href="/wiki/Brass_mill" title="Brass mill">brass mill</a> was working at <a href="/wiki/Warmley" title="Warmley">Warmley</a> near <a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</a>. Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on site. <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Wedgwood" title="Josiah Wedgwood">Josiah Wedgwood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Boulton" title="Matthew Boulton">Matthew Boulton</a> (whose <a href="/wiki/Soho_Manufactory" title="Soho Manufactory">Soho Manufactory</a> was completed in 1766) were other prominent early industrialists who employed the factory system. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Child_labour">Child labour</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Child_labour#The_Industrial_Revolution" title="Child labour">Child labour § The Industrial Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:Coaltub.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Coaltub.png" decoding="async" width="282" height="171" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="171" /></a><figcaption>A young "drawer" pulling a coal tub along a mine gallery.<a href="#cite_note-From_Coal_Mine_Upwards:_or_Seventy_Years_of_an_Eventful_Life-165">[165]</a> In Britain, laws passed in 1842 and 1844 improved mine working conditions.</figcaption></figure> The Industrial Revolution led to a population increase, but the chances of surviving childhood did not improve throughout the Industrial Revolution, although infant mortality rates were reduced markedly.<a href="#cite_note-Buer-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-Demographic_Transition_and_Industrial_Revolution:_A_Macroeconomic_Investigation-166">[166]</a> There was still limited opportunity for education, and children were expected to work. Employers could pay a child less than an adult even though their productivity was comparable; there was no need for strength to operate an industrial machine, and since the industrial system was new, there were no experienced adult labourers. This made child labour the labour of choice for manufacturing in the early phases of the Industrial Revolution between the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children.<a href="#cite_note-galbithink-167">[167]</a> Child labour existed before the Industrial Revolution, but with the increase in population and education it became more visible. Many children were forced to work in relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their elders,<a href="#cite_note-victorianweb-168">[168]</a> 10–20% of an adult male's wage.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> Reports were written detailing some of the abuses, particularly in the coal mines<a href="#cite_note-Testimony_Gathered_by_Ashley's_Mines_Commission-170">[170]</a> and textile factories,<a href="#cite_note-The_Life_of_the_Industrial_Worker_in_Nineteenth-Century_England-171">[171]</a> and these helped to popularise the children's plight. The public outcry, especially among the upper and middle classes, helped stir change in the young workers' welfare. Politicians and the government tried to limit child labour by law, but factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to buy food to avoid starvation, and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In 1833 and 1844, the first general laws against child labour, the <a href="/wiki/Factory_Acts" title="Factory Acts">Factory Acts</a>, were passed in Britain: children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night, and the workday of youth under age 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law; however, their scarcity made enforcement difficult.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden. Although laws such as these decreased the number of child labourers, child labour remained significantly present in Europe and the United States until the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-archives-173">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Organisation_of_labour">Organisation of labour</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Trade_union#History" title="Trade union">Trade union § History</a></div> The Industrial Revolution concentrated labour into mills, factories, and mines, thus facilitating the organisation of combinations or <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</a> to help advance the interests of working people. The power of a union could demand better terms by withdrawing all labour and causing a consequent cessation of production. Employers had to decide between giving in to the union demands at a cost to themselves or suffering the cost of the lost production. Skilled workers were difficult to replace, and these were the first groups to successfully advance their conditions through this kind of bargaining. The main method the unions used to effect change was <a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">strike action</a>. Many strikes were painful events for both sides, the unions and the management. In Britain, the <a href="/wiki/Combination_Act_1799" title="Combination Act 1799">Combination Act 1799</a> forbade workers to form any kind of trade union until its repeal in 1824. Even after this, unions were still severely restricted. One British newspaper in 1834 described unions as "the most dangerous institutions that were ever permitted to take root, under shelter of law, in any country..."<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> In 1832, the <a href="/wiki/Reform_Act_1832" title="Reform Act 1832">Reform Act</a> extended the vote in Britain but did not grant <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">universal suffrage</a>. That year six men from <a href="/wiki/Tolpuddle" title="Tolpuddle">Tolpuddle</a> in Dorset founded the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers to protest against the gradual lowering of wages in the 1830s. They refused to work for less than ten shillings per week, although by this time wages had been reduced to seven shillings per week and were due to be further reduced to six. In 1834 James Frampton, a local landowner, wrote to Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Viscount_Melbourne" title="Viscount Melbourne">Lord Melbourne</a> to complain about the union, invoking an obscure law from 1797 prohibiting people from swearing oaths to each other, which the members of the Friendly Society had done. Six men were arrested, found guilty, and <a href="/wiki/Convicts_in_Australia" title="Convicts in Australia">transported to Australia</a>. They became known as the <a href="/wiki/Tolpuddle_Martyrs" title="Tolpuddle Martyrs">Tolpuddle Martyrs</a>. In the 1830s and 1840s, the <a href="/wiki/Chartism" title="Chartism">chartist</a> movement was the first large-scale organised working-class political movement that campaigned for political equality and social justice. Its Charter of reforms received over three million signatures but was rejected by Parliament without consideration. Working people also formed <a href="/wiki/Friendly_society" title="Friendly society">friendly societies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">cooperative</a> societies as mutual support groups against times of economic hardship. Enlightened industrialists, such as Robert Owen supported these organisations to improve the conditions of the working class. Unions slowly overcame the legal restrictions on the right to strike. In 1842, a <a href="/wiki/General_strike" title="General strike">general strike</a> involving cotton workers and colliers was organised through the chartist movement which stopped production across Great Britain.<a href="#cite_note-archive5-175">[175]</a> Eventually, effective political organisation for working people was achieved through the trades unions who, after the extensions of the franchise in 1867 and 1885, began to support socialist political parties that later merged to become the British <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour Party</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Luddites">Luddites</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Luddite" title="Luddite">Luddite</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Luddite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Luddite.jpg/170px-Luddite.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Luddite.jpg/255px-Luddite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Luddite.jpg/340px-Luddite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3021" data-file-height="3988" /></a><figcaption>Engraving of Ned Ludd, Leader of the Luddites, 1812</figcaption></figure> The rapid industrialisation of the English economy cost many craft workers their jobs. The movement started first with <a href="/wiki/Lace" title="Lace">lace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hosiery" title="Hosiery">hosiery</a> workers near Nottingham and spread to other areas of the textile industry. Many weavers also found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which only required relatively limited (and unskilled) labour to produce more cloth than a single weaver. Many such unemployed workers, weavers, and others turned their animosity towards the machines that had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery. These attackers became known as Luddites, supposedly followers of <a href="/wiki/Ned_Ludd" title="Ned Ludd">Ned Ludd</a>, a folklore figure.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> The first attacks of the Luddite movement began in 1811. The Luddites rapidly gained popularity, and the British government took drastic measures using the militia or army to protect industry. Those rioters who were caught were tried and hanged, or <a href="/wiki/Penal_transportation" title="Penal transportation">transported</a> for life.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> Unrest continued in other sectors as they industrialised, such as with agricultural labourers in the 1830s when large parts of southern Britain were affected by the <a href="/wiki/Captain_Swing" title="Captain Swing">Captain Swing</a> disturbances. Threshing machines were a particular target, and <a href="/wiki/Hay" title="Hay">hayrick</a> burning was a popular activity. However, the riots led to the first formation of trade unions and further pressure for reform. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shift_in_production's_centre_of_gravity">Shift in production's centre of gravity</h4></div> The traditional centres of hand textile production such as India, parts of the Middle East, and later China could not withstand the competition from machine-made textiles, which over a period of decades destroyed the hand-made textile industries and left millions of people without work, many of whom starved.<a href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-44">[44]</a> The Industrial Revolution generated an enormous and unprecedented economic division in the world, as measured by the share of manufacturing output. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Share of total world manufacturing output (percentage)<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>1750 </th> <th>1800 </th> <th>1860 </th> <th>1880 </th> <th>1900 </th></tr> <tr> <td>Europe </td> <td>23.2 </td> <td>28.1 </td> <td>53.2 </td> <td>61.3 </td> <td>62.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>United States </td> <td>0.1 </td> <td>0.8 </td> <td>7.2 </td> <td>14.7 </td> <td>23.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Japan </td> <td>3.8 </td> <td>3.5 </td> <td>2.6 </td> <td>2.4 </td> <td>2.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rest of the world </td> <td>73.0 </td> <td>67.7 </td> <td>36.6 </td> <td>20.9 </td> <td>11.0 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cotton_and_the_expansion_of_slavery">Cotton and the expansion of slavery</h4></div> Cheap cotton textiles increased the demand for raw cotton; previously, it had primarily been consumed in subtropical regions where it was grown, with little raw cotton available for export. Consequently, prices of raw cotton rose. British production grew from 2 million pounds in 1700 to 5 million pounds in 1781 to 56 million in 1800.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> The invention of the cotton gin by American Eli Whitney in 1792 was the decisive event. It allowed green-seeded cotton to become profitable, leading to the widespread growth of the large slave <a href="/wiki/Plantation" title="Plantation">plantation</a> in the United States, Brazil, and the West Indies. In 1791 American cotton production was about 2 million pounds, soaring to 35 million by 1800, half of which was exported. America's <a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">cotton plantations</a> were highly efficient and profitable and were able to keep up with demand.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> The U.S. Civil War created a "cotton famine" that led to increased production in other areas of the world, including <a href="/wiki/Colonisation_of_Africa" title="Colonisation of Africa">European colonies in Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_environment">Effect on environment</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:StRolloxChemical_1831.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/StRolloxChemical_1831.jpg/220px-StRolloxChemical_1831.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/StRolloxChemical_1831.jpg/330px-StRolloxChemical_1831.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/StRolloxChemical_1831.jpg/440px-StRolloxChemical_1831.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="653" /></a><figcaption>Levels of air pollution rose during the Industrial Revolution, sparking the first modern environmental laws to be passed in the mid-19th century.</figcaption></figure> The origins of the <a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement" title="Environmental movement">environmental movement</a> lay in the response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in <a href="/wiki/History_of_coal_mining" title="History of coal mining">coal consumption</a> gave rise to an unprecedented level of <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a> in industrial centres; after 1900 the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of <a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">untreated human waste</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Donora-182">[182]</a> The first large-scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain's <a href="/wiki/Alkali_Act_1863" title="Alkali Act 1863">Alkali Acts</a>, passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution (gaseous <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a>) given off by the Leblanc process used to produce soda ash. An alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this pollution. The responsibilities of the inspectorate were gradually expanded, culminating in the Alkali Order 1958 which placed all major heavy industries that emitted smoke, grit, dust, and fumes under supervision. The manufactured gas industry began in British cities in 1812–1820. The technique used produced highly toxic effluent that was dumped into sewers and rivers. The gas companies were repeatedly sued in nuisance lawsuits. They usually lost and modified the worst practices. The City of London repeatedly indicted gas companies in the 1820s for polluting the Thames and poisoning its fish. Finally, Parliament wrote company charters to regulate toxicity.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> The industry reached the U.S. around 1850 causing pollution and lawsuits.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> In industrial cities local experts and reformers, especially after 1890, took the lead in identifying environmental degradation and pollution, and initiating grass-roots movements to demand and achieve reforms.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> Typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution. The <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Protection_UK" title="Environmental Protection UK">Coal Smoke Abatement Society</a> was formed in Britain in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">non-governmental organisations</a>. It was founded by artist <a href="/wiki/William_Blake_Richmond" title="William Blake Richmond">William Blake Richmond</a>, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, the <a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Act_1875" title="Public Health Act 1875">Public Health Act 1875</a> required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke. It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke. The provisions of this law were extended in 1926 with the Smoke Abatement Act to include other emissions, such as soot, ash, and gritty particles, and to empower local authorities to impose their own regulations.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Industrialisation_beyond_Great_Britain">Industrialisation beyond Great Britain</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3></div> The Industrial Revolution in continental Europe came later than in Great Britain. It started in Belgium and France, then spread to the German states by the middle of the 19th century. In many industries, this involved the application of technology developed in Britain in new places. Typically, the technology was purchased from Britain or British engineers and entrepreneurs moved abroad in search of new opportunities. By 1809, part of the <a href="/wiki/Ruhr" title="Ruhr">Ruhr Valley</a> in Westphalia was called 'Miniature England' because of its similarities to the industrial areas of Britain. Most European governments provided state funding to the new industries. In some cases (such as <a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron and steel industry">iron</a>), the different availability of resources locally meant that only some aspects of the British technology were adopted.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Austria-Hungary" title="Economy of Austria-Hungary">Economy of Austria-Hungary</a></div> The Habsburg realms which became <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> in 1867 included 23 million inhabitants in 1800, growing to 36 million by 1870. Nationally, the per capita rate of industrial growth averaged about 3% between 1818 and 1870. However, there were strong regional differences. The railway system was built in the 1850–1873 period. Before they arrived transportation was very slow and expensive. In the Alpine and Bohemian (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a>) regions, proto-industrialisation began by 1750 and became the center of the first phases of the Industrial Revolution after 1800. The textile industry was the main factor, utilising mechanisation, steam engines, and the factory system. In the <a href="/wiki/Czech_lands" title="Czech lands">Czech lands</a>, the "first mechanical loom followed in <a href="/wiki/Varnsdorf" title="Varnsdorf">Varnsdorf</a> in 1801",<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> with the first steam engines appearing in <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moravia" title="Moravia">Moravia</a> just a few years later. The textile production flourished particularly in <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brno" title="Brno">Brno</a> (German: Brünn), which was considered the 'Moravian Manchester'.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Czech_lands" title="Czech lands">Czech lands</a>, especially Bohemia, became the centre of industrialisation due to its natural and human resources. The iron industry had developed in the Alpine regions after 1750, with smaller centers in Bohemia and Moravia. Hungary—the eastern half of the Dual Monarchy, was heavily rural with little industry before 1870.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> In 1791, <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a> organised the first <a href="/wiki/World%27s_Fair" class="mw-redirect" title="World's Fair">World's Fair</a>/<a href="/wiki/List_of_world%27s_fairs" title="List of world's fairs">List of world's fairs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a>). The first industrial exhibition was on the occasion of the coronation of <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor">Leopold II</a> as a king of Bohemia, which took place in <a href="/wiki/Clementinum" title="Clementinum">Clementinum</a>, and therefore celebrated the considerable sophistication of manufacturing methods in the <a href="/wiki/Czech_lands" title="Czech lands">Czech lands</a> during that time period.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> Technological change accelerated industrialisation and urbanisation. The GNP per capita grew roughly 1.76% per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favourably to that of other European nations such as Britain (1%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%).<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> However, in a comparison with Germany and Britain: the Austro-Hungarian economy as a whole still lagged considerably, as sustained modernisation had begun much later.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Belgium">Belgium</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Belgium#Industrial_Revolution" title="History of Belgium">History of Belgium § Industrial Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Wallonia#Industry" title="History of Wallonia">History of Wallonia § Industry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sillon_industriel" title="Sillon industriel">Sillon industriel</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_coul%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_Ougr%C3%A9e.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/La_coul%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_Ougr%C3%A9e.jpg/220px-La_coul%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_Ougr%C3%A9e.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/La_coul%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_Ougr%C3%A9e.jpg/330px-La_coul%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_Ougr%C3%A9e.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/La_coul%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_Ougr%C3%A9e.jpg/440px-La_coul%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_Ougr%C3%A9e.jpg 2x" data-file-width="945" data-file-height="696" /></a><figcaption>Painting of steel production in <a href="/wiki/Ougr%C3%A9e" title="Ougrée">Ougrée</a>, Belgium, by <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Meunier" title="Constantin Meunier">Constantin Meunier</a> (1885)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Belgium" title="History of Belgium">Belgium</a> was the second country in which the Industrial Revolution took place and the first in continental Europe: <a href="/wiki/Wallonia" title="Wallonia">Wallonia</a> (French-speaking southern Belgium) took the lead. Starting in the middle of the 1820s, and especially after Belgium became an independent nation in 1830, numerous works comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around <a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge" title="Liège">Liège</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charleroi" title="Charleroi">Charleroi</a>. The leader was <a href="/wiki/John_Cockerill_(industrialist)" title="John Cockerill (industrialist)">John Cockerill</a>, a transplanted Englishman . His factories at <a href="/wiki/Seraing" title="Seraing">Seraing</a> integrated all stages of production, from engineering to the supply of raw materials, as early as 1825.<a href="#cite_note-publishing-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> Wallonia exemplified the radical evolution of industrial expansion. Thanks to coal (the French word "houille" was coined in Wallonia),<a href="#cite_note-language-198">[198]</a> the region geared up to become the 2nd industrial power in the world after Britain. But it is also pointed out by many researchers, with its <a href="/wiki/Sillon_industriel" title="Sillon industriel">Sillon industriel</a>, "Especially in the <a href="/wiki/Haine" title="Haine">Haine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sambre" title="Sambre">Sambre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meuse" title="Meuse">Meuse</a> valleys, between the <a href="/wiki/Borinage" title="Borinage">Borinage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge" title="Liège">Liège</a>...there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making...".<a href="#cite_note-ugent-199">[199]</a> Philippe Raxhon wrote about the period after 1830: "It was not propaganda but a reality the Walloon regions were becoming the second industrial power all over the world after Britain."<a href="#cite_note-philippe-200">[200]</a> "The sole industrial centre outside the collieries and blast furnaces of Walloon was the old cloth-making town of <a href="/wiki/Ghent" title="Ghent">Ghent</a>."<a href="#cite_note-erih-201">[201]</a> Professor Michel De Coster stated: "The historians and the economists say that Belgium was the second industrial power of the world, in proportion to its population and its territory [...] But this rank is the one of Wallonia where the coal-mines, the blast furnaces, the iron and zinc factories, the wool industry, the glass industry, the weapons industry... were concentrated."<a href="#cite_note-linguistiques-202">[202]</a> Many of the 19th-century coal mines in Wallonia are now protected as <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Sites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> Wallonia was also the birthplace of a strong socialist party and strong trade unions in a particular sociological landscape. At the left, the Sillon industriel, which runs from <a href="/wiki/Mons,_Belgium" title="Mons, Belgium">Mons</a> in the west, to <a href="/wiki/Verviers" title="Verviers">Verviers</a> in the east (except part of North Flanders, in another period of the industrial revolution, after 1920). Even if Belgium is the second industrial country after Britain, the effect of the industrial revolution there was very different. In 'Breaking stereotypes', Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devious say: <blockquote>The Industrial Revolution changed a mainly rural society into an urban one, but with a strong contrast between northern and southern Belgium. During the Middle Ages and the early modern period, Flanders was characterised by the presence of large urban centres [...] at the beginning of the nineteenth century this region (Flanders), with an urbanisation degree of more than 30 percent, remained one of the most urbanised in the world. By comparison, this proportion reached only 17 percent in Wallonia, barely 10 percent in most West European countries, 16 percent in France, and 25 percent in Britain. Nineteenth-century industrialisation did not affect the traditional urban infrastructure, except in Ghent... Also, in Wallonia, the traditional urban network was largely unaffected by the industrialisation process, even though the proportion of city-dwellers rose from 17 to 45 percent between 1831 and 1910. Especially in the <a href="/wiki/Haine" title="Haine">Haine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sambre" title="Sambre">Sambre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meuse" title="Meuse">Meuse</a> valleys, between the <a href="/wiki/Borinage" title="Borinage">Borinage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge" title="Liège">Liège</a>, where there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making, urbanisation was fast. During these eighty years, the number of municipalities with more than 5,000 inhabitants increased from only 21 to more than one hundred, concentrating nearly half of the Walloon population in this region. Nevertheless, industrialisation remained quite traditional in the sense that it did not lead to the growth of modern and large urban centres, but to a conurbation of industrial villages and towns developed around a coal mine or a factory. Communication routes between these small centres only became populated later and created a much less dense urban morphology than, for instance, the area around Liège where the old town was there to direct migratory flows.<a href="#cite_note-stereotypes-204">[204]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="France">France</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">Economic history of France</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Interior_of_exhibition_building,_Exposition_Universal,_Paris,_France.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Interior_of_exhibition_building%2C_Exposition_Universal%2C_Paris%2C_France.jpg/220px-Interior_of_exhibition_building%2C_Exposition_Universal%2C_Paris%2C_France.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Interior_of_exhibition_building%2C_Exposition_Universal%2C_Paris%2C_France.jpg/330px-Interior_of_exhibition_building%2C_Exposition_Universal%2C_Paris%2C_France.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Interior_of_exhibition_building%2C_Exposition_Universal%2C_Paris%2C_France.jpg/440px-Interior_of_exhibition_building%2C_Exposition_Universal%2C_Paris%2C_France.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3324" data-file-height="2496" /></a><figcaption>Interior view of the Gallery of Machines at the <a href="/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_(1889)" title="Exposition Universelle (1889)">1889 Paris Exposition</a></figcaption></figure> The Industrial Revolution in France followed a particular course as it did not correspond to the main model followed by other countries. Notably, most <a href="/wiki/French_historians" class="mw-redirect" title="French historians">French historians</a> argue France did not go through a clear take-off.<a href="#cite_note-marczewski-205">[205]</a> Instead, France's economic growth and industrialisation process was slow and steady through the 18th and 19th centuries. However, some stages were identified by Maurice Lévy-Leboyer: <ul><li>French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars (1789–1815),</li> <li>industrialisation, along with Britain (1815–1860),</li> <li>economic slowdown (1860–1905),</li> <li>renewal of the growth after 1905.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Germany">Germany</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Germany" title="Economic history of Germany">Economic history of Germany</a></div> Based on its leadership in chemical research in the universities and industrial laboratories, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, which was unified in 1871, became dominant in the world's chemical industry in the late 19th century. At first the production of dyes based on <a href="/wiki/Aniline" title="Aniline">aniline</a> was critical.<a href="#cite_note-Haber-206">[206]</a> Germany's political disunity—with three dozen states—and a pervasive conservatism made it difficult to build railways in the 1830s. However, by the 1840s, trunk lines linked the major cities; each German state was responsible for the lines within its own borders. Lacking a technological base at first, the Germans imported their engineering and hardware from Britain, but quickly learned the skills needed to operate and expand the railways. In many cities, the new railway shops were the centres of technological awareness and training, so that by 1850, Germany was self-sufficient in meeting the demands of railroad construction, and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry. Observers found that even as late as 1890, their engineering was inferior to Britain's. However, German unification in 1871 stimulated consolidation, nationalisation into state-owned companies, and further rapid growth. Unlike the situation in France, the goal was the support of industrialisation, and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr and other industrial districts and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen. By 1880, Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight, and pulled ahead of France.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sweden">Sweden</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Sweden" title="Economic history of Sweden">Economic history of Sweden</a></div> During the period 1790–1815, Sweden experienced two parallel economic movements: an agricultural revolution with larger agricultural estates, new crops, and farming tools and commercialisation of farming, and a proto industrialisation, with small industries being established in the countryside and with workers switching between agricultural work in summer and industrial production in winter. This led to economic growth benefiting large sections of the population and leading up to a consumption revolution starting in the 1820s. Between 1815 and 1850, the protoindustries developed into more specialised and larger industries. This period witnessed increasing regional specialisation with mining in <a href="/wiki/Bergslagen" title="Bergslagen">Bergslagen</a>, textile mills in Sjuhäradsbygden, and forestry in <a href="/wiki/Norrland" title="Norrland">Norrland</a>. Several important institutional changes took place in this period, such as free and mandatory schooling introduced in 1842 (as the first country in the world), the abolition of the national monopoly on trade in handicrafts in 1846, and a stock company law in 1848.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> From 1850 to 1890, Sweden experienced its "first" Industrial Revolution with a veritable explosion in export, dominated by crops, wood, and steel. Sweden abolished most tariffs and other barriers to free trade in the 1850s and joined the gold standard in 1873. Large infrastructural investments were made during this period, mainly in the expanding railroad network, which was financed in part by the government and in part by private enterprises.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> From 1890 to 1930, new industries developed with their focus on the domestic market: mechanical engineering, power utilities, <a href="/wiki/Papermaking" title="Papermaking">papermaking</a> and textile. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Japan" title="Economic history of Japan">Economic history of Japan</a></div> The Industrial Revolution began about 1870 as <a href="/wiki/Meiji_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiji period">Meiji period</a> leaders decided to catch up with the West. The government built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform program to prepare the country for further development. It inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_government_advisors_in_Meiji_Japan" title="Foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan">Foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan</a>). In 1871, a group of Japanese politicians known as the <a href="/wiki/Iwakura_Mission" title="Iwakura Mission">Iwakura Mission</a> toured Europe and the United States to learn Western ways. The result was a deliberate state-led industrialisation policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up. The <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Japan" title="Bank of Japan">Bank of Japan</a>, founded in 1882,<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> used taxes to fund model steel and textile factories. Education was expanded and Japanese students were sent to study in the West. Modern industry first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which was based in home workshops in rural areas.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_the_United_States" title="Industrial Revolution in the United States">Industrial Revolution in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/American_system_of_manufacturing" title="American system of manufacturing">American system of manufacturing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">Interchangeable parts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economic history of the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technological and industrial history of the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SlaterMill.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/SlaterMill.JPG/220px-SlaterMill.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/SlaterMill.JPG/330px-SlaterMill.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/SlaterMill.JPG/440px-SlaterMill.JPG 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="610" /></a><figcaption>Slater's Mill in <a href="/wiki/Pawtucket,_Rhode_Island" title="Pawtucket, Rhode Island">Pawtucket, Rhode Island</a></figcaption></figure> During the late 18th and early 19th centuries when the UK and parts of Western Europe began to industrialise, the US was primarily an agricultural and natural resource producing and processing economy.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> The building of roads and canals, the introduction of steamboats and the building of railroads were important for handling agricultural and natural resource products in the large and sparsely populated country of the period.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> Important American technological contributions during the period of the Industrial Revolution were the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a> and the development of a system for making <a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeable parts</a>, which was aided by the development of the <a href="/wiki/Milling_(machining)" title="Milling (machining)">milling machine</a> in the United States. The development of machine tools and the system of interchangeable parts was the basis for the rise of the US as the world's leading industrial nation in the late 19th century. <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Evans" title="Oliver Evans">Oliver Evans</a> invented an automated flour mill in the mid-1780s that used <a href="/wiki/Process_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Process control">control mechanisms</a> and conveyors so that no labour was needed from the time grain was loaded into the elevator buckets until the flour was discharged into a wagon. This is considered to be the first modern <a href="/wiki/Bulk_material_handling" title="Bulk material handling">materials handling system</a>, an important advance in the progress toward <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hounshell-1984-43">[43]</a> The United States originally used horse-powered machinery for small-scale applications such as grain milling, but eventually switched to water power after textile factories began being built in the 1790s. As a result, industrialisation was concentrated in <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern United States</a>, which has fast-moving rivers. The newer water-powered production lines proved more economical than horse-drawn production. In the late 19th century steam-powered manufacturing overtook water-powered manufacturing, allowing the industry to spread to the Midwest. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Somers_(investor)" title="Thomas Somers (investor)">Thomas Somers</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cabot_Brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabot Brothers">Cabot Brothers</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Beverly_Cotton_Manufactory" title="Beverly Cotton Manufactory">Beverly Cotton Manufactory</a> in 1787, the first cotton mill in America, the largest cotton mill of its era,<a href="#cite_note-manufacturers-215">[215]</a> and a significant milestone in the research and development of cotton mills in the future. This mill was designed to use horsepower, but the operators quickly learned that the horse-drawn platform was economically unstable, and had economic losses for years. Despite the losses, the Manufactory served as a playground of innovation, both in turning a large amount of cotton, but also developing the water-powered milling structure used in Slater's Mill.<a href="#cite_note-publication-216">[216]</a> In 1793, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Slater" title="Samuel Slater">Samuel Slater</a> (1768–1835) founded the <a href="/wiki/Slater_Mill" title="Slater Mill">Slater Mill</a> at <a href="/wiki/Pawtucket,_Rhode_Island" title="Pawtucket, Rhode Island">Pawtucket, Rhode Island</a>. He had learned of the new textile technologies as a boy apprentice in <a href="/wiki/Derbyshire" title="Derbyshire">Derbyshire</a>, England, and defied laws against the emigration of skilled workers by leaving for New York in 1789, hoping to make money with his knowledge. After founding Slater's Mill, he went on to own 13 textile mills.<a href="#cite_note-britannica8-217">[217]</a> <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Day_(manufacturer)" title="Daniel Day (manufacturer)">Daniel Day</a> established a wool carding mill in the <a href="/wiki/Blackstone_Valley" title="Blackstone Valley">Blackstone Valley</a> at <a href="/wiki/Uxbridge,_Massachusetts" title="Uxbridge, Massachusetts">Uxbridge, Massachusetts</a> in 1809, the third woollen mill established in the US (The first was in <a href="/wiki/Hartford,_Connecticut" title="Hartford, Connecticut">Hartford, Connecticut</a>, and the second at <a href="/wiki/Watertown,_Massachusetts" title="Watertown, Massachusetts">Watertown, Massachusetts</a>.). The <a href="/wiki/John_Chafee" title="John Chafee">John H. Chafee</a> <a href="/wiki/Blackstone_Valley" title="Blackstone Valley">Blackstone River Valley National Heritage Corridor</a> retraces the history of "America's Hardest-Working River', the Blackstone. The <a href="/wiki/Blackstone_River" title="Blackstone River">Blackstone River</a> and its tributaries, which cover more than 70 kilometres (45 mi) from <a href="/wiki/Worcester,_Massachusetts" title="Worcester, Massachusetts">Worcester, Massachusetts</a> to <a href="/wiki/Providence,_Rhode_Island" title="Providence, Rhode Island">Providence, Rhode Island</a>, was the birthplace of America's Industrial Revolution. At its peak over 1,100 mills operated in this valley, including Slater's Mill, and with it the earliest beginnings of America's industrial and technological development. <a href="/wiki/Francis_Cabot_Lowell_(businessman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Cabot Lowell (businessman)">Merchant Francis Cabot Lowell</a> from <a href="/wiki/Newburyport,_Massachusetts" title="Newburyport, Massachusetts">Newburyport, Massachusetts</a>, memorised the design of textile machines on his tour of British factories in 1810. Realising that the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a> had ruined his import business but that demand for domestic finished cloth was emerging in America, on his return to the United States, he set up the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Manufacturing_Company" title="Boston Manufacturing Company">Boston Manufacturing Company</a>. Lowell and his partners built America's second cotton-to-cloth textile mill at <a href="/wiki/Waltham,_Massachusetts" title="Waltham, Massachusetts">Waltham, Massachusetts</a>, second to the <a href="/wiki/Beverly_Cotton_Manufactory" title="Beverly Cotton Manufactory">Beverly Cotton Manufactory</a>. After his death in 1817, his associates built America's first planned factory town, which they named after him. This enterprise was capitalised in a <a href="/wiki/Initial_public_offering" title="Initial public offering">public stock offering</a>, one of the first uses of it in the United States. <a href="/wiki/Lowell,_Massachusetts" title="Lowell, Massachusetts">Lowell, Massachusetts</a>, using <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>nine kilometres (5+1⁄2 miles) of canals and 7,500 kilowatts (10,000 horsepower) delivered by the <a href="/wiki/Merrimack_River" title="Merrimack River">Merrimack River</a>, is considered by some as a major contributor to the success of the American Industrial Revolution. The short-lived utopia-like <a href="/wiki/Waltham-Lowell_system" title="Waltham-Lowell system">Waltham-Lowell system</a> was formed, as a direct response to the poor working conditions in Britain. However, by 1850, especially following the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine of Ireland</a>, the system had been replaced by poor immigrant labour. A major U.S. contribution to industrialisation was the development of techniques to make <a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeable parts</a> from metal. Precision metal machining techniques were developed by the U.S. Department of War to make interchangeable parts for small firearms. The development work took place at the Federal Arsenals at Springfield Armory and Harpers Ferry Armory. Techniques for precision machining using machine tools included using fixtures to hold the parts in the proper position, jigs to guide the cutting tools and precision blocks and gauges to measure the accuracy. The <a href="/wiki/Milling_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Milling machine">milling machine</a>, a fundamental machine tool, is believed to have been invented by <a href="/wiki/Eli_Whitney" title="Eli Whitney">Eli Whitney</a>, who was a government contractor who built firearms as part of this program. Another important invention was the Blanchard lathe, invented by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Blanchard_(inventor)" title="Thomas Blanchard (inventor)">Thomas Blanchard</a>. The Blanchard lathe, or pattern tracing lathe, was actually a shaper that could produce copies of wooden gun stocks. The use of machinery and the techniques for producing standardised and interchangeable parts became known as the <a href="/wiki/American_system_of_manufacturing" title="American system of manufacturing">American system of manufacturing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hounshell-1984-43">[43]</a> Precision manufacturing techniques made it possible to build machines that mechanised the shoe industry<a href="#cite_note-Thomson_1989-218">[218]</a> and the watch industry. The industrialisation of the watch industry started in 1854 also in Waltham, Massachusetts, at the <a href="/wiki/Waltham_Watch_Company" title="Waltham Watch Company">Waltham Watch Company</a>, with the development of machine tools, gauges and assembling methods adapted to the micro precision required for watches. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_Industrial_Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hartmann_Maschinenhalle_1868_(01).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Hartmann_Maschinenhalle_1868_%2801%29.jpg/220px-Hartmann_Maschinenhalle_1868_%2801%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Hartmann_Maschinenhalle_1868_%2801%29.jpg/330px-Hartmann_Maschinenhalle_1868_%2801%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Hartmann_Maschinenhalle_1868_%2801%29.jpg/440px-Hartmann_Maschinenhalle_1868_%2801%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2119" data-file-height="1363" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A4chsische_Maschinenfabrik" title="Sächsische Maschinenfabrik">Sächsische Maschinenfabrik</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chemnitz" title="Chemnitz">Chemnitz</a>, Germany in 1868</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">Steel</a> is often cited as the first of several new areas for industrial mass-production, which are said to characterise a "Second Industrial Revolution", beginning around 1850, although a method for mass manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> was not invented until the 1860s, when <a href="/wiki/Henry_Bessemer" title="Henry Bessemer">Sir Henry Bessemer</a> invented a new furnace which could convert molten <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a> into steel in large quantities. However, it only became widely available in the 1870s after the process was modified to produce more uniform quality.<a href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Men,_Machines_and_Modern_Times-219">[219]</a> Bessemer steel was being displaced by the <a href="/wiki/Open_hearth_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Open hearth furnace">open hearth furnace</a> near the end of the 19th century. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bessemer_5180.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bessemer_5180.JPG/220px-Bessemer_5180.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bessemer_5180.JPG/330px-Bessemer_5180.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bessemer_5180.JPG/440px-Bessemer_5180.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Sir <a href="/wiki/Henry_Bessemer" title="Henry Bessemer">Henry Bessemer</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_converter" class="mw-redirect" title="Bessemer converter">Bessemer converter</a>, the most important technique for making <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> from the 1850s to the 1950s, located in <a href="/wiki/Sheffield" title="Sheffield">Sheffield</a></figcaption></figure> This Second Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include chemicals, mainly the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">chemical industries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> (refining and distribution), and, in the 20th century, the <a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry" title="Automotive industry">automotive industry</a>, and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Britain to the United States and Germany. The increasing availability of economical petroleum products also reduced the importance of coal and further widened the potential for industrialisation. A new revolution began with electricity and <a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">electrification</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_power_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical power industry">electrical industries</a>. The introduction of <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">hydroelectric power</a> generation in the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a> enabled the rapid industrialisation of coal-deprived northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s. By the 1890s, industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations with burgeoning global interests, as companies like <a href="/wiki/U.S._Steel" title="U.S. Steel">U.S. Steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil" title="Standard Oil">Standard Oil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bayer" title="Bayer">Bayer AG</a> joined the railroad and ship companies on the world's <a href="/wiki/Stock_market" title="Stock market">stock markets</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="New_Industrialism">New Industrialism</h2></div> The New Industrialist movement advocates for increasing domestic manufacturing while reducing emphasis on a financial-based economy that relies on real estate and trading speculative assets. New Industrialism has been described as "<a href="/wiki/Supply-side_progressivism" title="Supply-side progressivism">supply-side progressivism</a>" or embracing the idea of "Building More Stuff".<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> New Industrialism developed after the <a href="/wiki/China_shock" title="China shock">China Shock</a> that resulted in lost manufacturing jobs in the U.S. after China joined the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> in 2001. The movement strengthened after the reduction of manufacturing jobs during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a> and when the U.S. was not able to manufacture enough tests or facemasks during the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:03-221">[221]</a> New Industrialism calls for building enough housing to satisfy demand in order to reduce the profit in <a href="/wiki/Land_speculation" class="mw-redirect" title="Land speculation">land speculation</a>, to invest in <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a>, and to develop advanced technology to manufacture <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">green energy</a> for the world.<a href="#cite_note-:03-221">[221]</a> New Industrialists believe that the United States is not building enough productive capital and should invest more into economic growth.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Historic_world_GDP_per_capita.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Historic_world_GDP_per_capita.svg/220px-Historic_world_GDP_per_capita.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Historic_world_GDP_per_capita.svg/330px-Historic_world_GDP_per_capita.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Historic_world_GDP_per_capita.svg/440px-Historic_world_GDP_per_capita.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Regional <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> per capita changed very little for most of human history before the Industrial Revolution.</figcaption></figure> The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complicated and remain a topic for debate. Geographic factors include Britain's vast mineral resources. In addition to metal ores, Britain had the highest quality <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> reserves known at the time, as well as abundant water power, highly productive agriculture, and numerous seaports and navigable waterways.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-63">[63]</a> Some historians believe the Industrial Revolution was an outgrowth of social and institutional changes brought by the end of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</a> after the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> in the 17th century, although feudalism began to break down after the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> of the mid 14th century, followed by other epidemics, until the population reached a low in the 14th century. This created labour shortages and led to falling food prices and a peak in real wages around 1500, after which population growth began reducing wages. After 1540, increasing precious metals supply from the Americas caused coinage debasement (inflation), which caused land rents (often long-term leases that transferred to heirs on death) to fall in real terms.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">Enclosure</a> movement and the <a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</a> made food production more efficient and less labour-intensive, forcing the farmers who could no longer be self-sufficient in agriculture into <a href="/wiki/Cottage_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cottage industry">cottage industry</a>, for example <a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">weaving</a>, and in the longer term into the cities and the newly developed <a href="/wiki/Factory" title="Factory">factories</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Origins_of_the_Industrial_Revolution_in_England-224">[224]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonial expansion</a> of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international trade, creation of <a href="/wiki/Financial_market" title="Financial market">financial markets</a> and accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a> are also cited as factors, as is the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">scientific revolution</a> of the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-msn-225">[225]</a> A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made people able to accumulate more human capital during their youth, thereby encouraging economic development.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> Until the 1980s, it was universally believed by academic historians that technological innovation was the heart of the Industrial Revolution and the key enabling technology was the invention and improvement of the steam engine.<a href="#cite_note-industrial10-227">[227]</a> Marketing professor Ronald Fullerton suggested that innovative marketing techniques, business practices, and competition also influenced changes in the manufacturing industry.<a href="#cite_note-association-228">[228]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Mumford" title="Lewis Mumford">Lewis Mumford</a> has proposed that the Industrial Revolution had its origins in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>, much earlier than most estimates.<a href="#cite_note-Technics_&_Civilization-229">[229]</a> He explains that the model for standardised <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> and that "the archetypal model for the industrial era was the clock". He also cites the <a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">monastic</a> emphasis on order and time-keeping, as well as the fact that <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> cities had at their centre a church with bell ringing at regular intervals as being necessary precursors to a greater synchronisation necessary for later, more physical, manifestations such as the steam engine. The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important driver of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. In other nations, such as France, markets were split up by local regions, which often imposed tolls and <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariffs</a> on goods traded among them.<a href="#cite_note-google11-230">[230]</a> Internal tariffs were abolished by <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII of England</a>, they survived in Russia until 1753, 1789 in France and 1839 in Spain. Governments' grant of limited <a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopolies</a> to inventors under a developing <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> system (the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Monopolies" title="Statute of Monopolies">Statute of Monopolies</a> in 1623) is considered an influential factor. The effects of patents, both good and ill, on the development of industrialisation are clearly illustrated in the history of the <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a>, the key enabling technology. In return for publicly revealing the workings of an invention the patent system rewarded inventors such as <a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a> by allowing them to monopolise the production of the first steam engines, thereby rewarding inventors and increasing the pace of technological development. However, monopolies bring with them their own inefficiencies which may counterbalance, or even overbalance, the beneficial effects of publicising ingenuity and rewarding inventors.<a href="#cite_note-industrialisation-231">[231]</a> Watt's monopoly prevented other inventors, such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Trevithick" title="Richard Trevithick">Richard Trevithick</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Murdoch" title="William Murdoch">William Murdoch</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Hornblower" title="Jonathan Hornblower">Jonathan Hornblower</a>, whom Boulton and Watt sued, from introducing improved steam engines, thereby retarding the spread of <a href="/wiki/Steam_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam power">steam power</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dklevine-232">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-mott-smith-233">[233]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causes_in_Europe">Causes in Europe</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Microcosm_of_London_Plate_017_-_The_Coal_Exchange_(tone).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_017_-_The_Coal_Exchange_%28tone%29.jpg/220px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_017_-_The_Coal_Exchange_%28tone%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_017_-_The_Coal_Exchange_%28tone%29.jpg/330px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_017_-_The_Coal_Exchange_%28tone%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_017_-_The_Coal_Exchange_%28tone%29.jpg/440px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_017_-_The_Coal_Exchange_%28tone%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1794" data-file-height="1276" /></a><figcaption>Interior of the <a href="/wiki/Coal_Exchange_(London)" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal Exchange (London)">London Coal Exchange</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1808. European 17th-century colonial expansion, international trade, and creation of financial markets produced a new legal and financial environment, one which supported and enabled 18th-century industrial growth.</figcaption></figure> One question of active interest to historians is why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Europe and not in other parts of the world in the 18th century, particularly China, <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">India</a>, and the Middle East (which pioneered in shipbuilding, textile production, water mills, and much more in the period between 750 and 1100<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a>), or at other times like in <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a><a href="#cite_note-j-bradford-delong-235">[235]</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-historyguide-236">[236]</a> A recent account argued that Europeans have been characterized for thousands of years by a freedom-loving culture originating from the aristocratic societies of early Indo-European invaders.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> Many historians, however, have challenged this explanation as being not only Eurocentric, but also ignoring historical context. In fact, before the Industrial Revolution, "there existed something of a global economic parity between the most advanced regions in the world economy."<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> These historians have suggested a number of other factors, including education, technological changes<a href="#cite_note-google12-239">[239]</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> in Europe), "modern" government, "modern" work attitudes, ecology, and culture.<a href="#cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution_–_Causes-240">[240]</a> <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> was the world's most technologically advanced country for many centuries; however, China stagnated economically and technologically and was surpassed by Western Europe before the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>, by which time China banned imports and denied entry to foreigners. China was also a totalitarian society. It also taxed transported goods heavily.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> Modern estimates of per capita income in Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly 1,500 dollars in <a href="/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity" title="Purchasing power parity">purchasing power parity</a> (and Britain had a <a href="/wiki/Per_capita_income" title="Per capita income">per capita income</a> of nearly 2,000 dollars<a href="#cite_note-iisg-243">[243]</a>) whereas China, by comparison, had only 450 dollars. India was essentially feudal, politically fragmented and not as economically advanced as Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> Historians such as <a href="/wiki/David_Landes" title="David Landes">David Landes</a> and sociologists <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Stark" title="Rodney Stark">Rodney Stark</a> credit the different belief systems in Asia and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stark_2005-246">[246]</a> The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian" title="Judeo-Christian">Judaeo-Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> thought. Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Feizi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a>), <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Lao Tzu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha</a> (<a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>), resulting in very different worldviews.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> Other factors include the considerable distance of China's coal deposits, though large, from its cities as well as the then unnavigable <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> that connects these deposits to the sea.<a href="#cite_note-professor-248">[248]</a> In contrast to China, India was split up into many competing kingdoms after the decline of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>, with the major ones in its aftermath including the <a href="/wiki/Maratha" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha">Marathas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sikh" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikh">Sikhs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Subah" title="Bengal Subah">Bengal Subah</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Kingdom of Mysore</a>. In addition, the economy was highly dependent on two sectors—agriculture of subsistence and cotton, and there appears to have been little technical innovation. It is believed that the vast amounts of wealth were largely stored away in palace treasuries by monarchs prior to the British take over.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Economic historian <a href="/wiki/Joel_Mokyr" title="Joel Mokyr">Joel Mokyr</a> argued that <a href="/wiki/Political_fragmentation" title="Political fragmentation">political fragmentation</a>, the presence of a large number of European states, made it possible for heterodox ideas to thrive, as entrepreneurs, innovators, ideologues and heretics could easily flee to a neighboring state in the event that the one state would try to suppress their ideas and activities. This is what set Europe apart from the technologically advanced, large unitary empires such as China and India[<a href="#Causes_in_Europe">contradictory</a>] by providing "an insurance against economic and technological stagnation".<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> China had both a printing press and movable type, and India had similar levels of scientific and technological achievement as Europe in 1700, yet the Industrial Revolution would occur in Europe, not China or India. In Europe, political fragmentation was coupled with an "integrated market for ideas" where Europe's intellectuals used the lingua franca of Latin, had a shared intellectual basis in Europe's classical heritage and the pan-European institution of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Letters" title="Republic of Letters">Republic of Letters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> Political institutions<a href="#cite_note-w248-251">[251]</a> could contribute to the relation between <a href="/wiki/Democracy_and_economic_growth" title="Democracy and economic growth">democratization and economic growth</a> during Great Divergence.<a href="#cite_note-t824-252">[252]</a> In addition, Europe's monarchs desperately needed revenue, pushing them into alliances with their merchant classes. Small groups of merchants were granted monopolies and tax-collecting responsibilities in exchange for payments to the state. Located in a region "at the hub of the largest and most varied network of exchange in history",<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> Europe advanced as the leader of the Industrial Revolution. In the Americas, Europeans found a windfall of silver, timber, fish, and maize, leading historian Peter Stearns to conclude that "Europe's Industrial Revolution stemmed in great part from Europe's ability to draw disproportionately on world resources."<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> Modern capitalism originated in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian city-states</a> around the end of the first millennium. The city-states were prosperous cities that were independent from feudal lords. They were largely republics whose governments were typically composed of merchants, manufacturers, members of guilds, bankers and financiers. The Italian city-states built a network of branch banks in leading western European cities and introduced <a href="/wiki/Double-entry_bookkeeping_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Double-entry bookkeeping system">double entry bookkeeping</a>. Italian commerce was supported by schools that taught numeracy in financial calculations through <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a> schools.<a href="#cite_note-Stark_2005-246">[246]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causes_in_Britain">Causes in Britain</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Graph_rel_share_world_manuf_1750_1900_02.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Graph_rel_share_world_manuf_1750_1900_02.png/220px-Graph_rel_share_world_manuf_1750_1900_02.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Graph_rel_share_world_manuf_1750_1900_02.png/330px-Graph_rel_share_world_manuf_1750_1900_02.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Graph_rel_share_world_manuf_1750_1900_02.png/440px-Graph_rel_share_world_manuf_1750_1900_02.png 2x" data-file-width="527" data-file-height="299" /></a><figcaption>As the Industrial Revolution developed, British manufacturing output surged ahead of other economies</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Bell_Scott_-_Iron_and_Coal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/William_Bell_Scott_-_Iron_and_Coal.jpg/220px-William_Bell_Scott_-_Iron_and_Coal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/William_Bell_Scott_-_Iron_and_Coal.jpg/330px-William_Bell_Scott_-_Iron_and_Coal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/William_Bell_Scott_-_Iron_and_Coal.jpg/440px-William_Bell_Scott_-_Iron_and_Coal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1779" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Iron and Coal, a mid-19th century portrait by <a href="/wiki/William_Bell_Scott" title="William Bell Scott">William Bell Scott</a></figcaption></figure> Great Britain provided the legal and cultural foundations that enabled entrepreneurs to pioneer the Industrial Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> Key factors fostering this environment were: <ul><li>The period of peace and stability which followed the unification of England and Scotland<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a></li> <li>There were no internal trade barriers, including between England and Scotland, or feudal tolls and tariffs, making Britain the "largest coherent market in Europe"<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a>: 46 </li> <li>The rule of law (enforcing property rights and respecting the sanctity of contracts)<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a></li> <li>A straightforward legal system that allowed the formation of joint-stock companies (corporations)<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a></li> <li>Free market (capitalism)<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a></li> <li>Geographical and natural resource advantages of Great Britain were the fact that it had extensive coastlines and many navigable rivers in an age where water was the easiest means of transportation and Britain had the highest quality coal in Europe. Britain also had a large number of sites for water power.<a href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">[2]</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:24%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> "An unprecedented explosion of new ideas, and new technological inventions, transformed our use of energy, creating an increasingly industrial and urbanised country. Roads, railways and canals were built. Great cities appeared. Scores of factories and mills sprang up. Our landscape would never be the same again. It was a revolution that transformed not only the country, but the world itself." </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">– British historian <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Black_(historian)" title="Jeremy Black (historian)">Jeremy Black</a> on the BBC's Why the Industrial Revolution Happened Here.<a href="#cite_note-Black-130">[130]</a></cite> </div> There were two main values that drove the Industrial Revolution in Britain. These values were self-interest and an <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">entrepreneurial</a> spirit. Because of these interests, many industrial advances were made that resulted in a huge increase in personal wealth and a <a href="/wiki/Consumer" title="Consumer">consumer</a> revolution.<a href="#cite_note-Black-130">[130]</a> These advancements also greatly benefitted British society as a whole. Countries around the world started to recognise the changes and advancements in Britain and use them as an example to begin their own Industrial Revolutions.<a href="#cite_note-Kiely-10">[10]</a> A debate sparked by Trinidadian politician and historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_Williams" title="Eric Williams">Eric Williams</a> in his work <a href="/wiki/Capitalism_and_Slavery" title="Capitalism and Slavery">Capitalism and Slavery</a> (1944) concerned the role of <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> in financing the Industrial Revolution. Williams argued that European capital amassed from slavery was vital in the early years of the revolution, contending that the rise of industrial capitalism was the driving force behind <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">abolitionism</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Humanitarianism" title="Humanitarianism">humanitarian</a> motivations. These arguments led to significant <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiographical</a> debates among historians, with American historian <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Drescher" title="Seymour Drescher">Seymour Drescher</a> critiquing Williams' arguments in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Econocide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Econocide (page does not exist)">Econocide</a> (1977).<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> Instead, the greater <a href="/wiki/Liberalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalisation">liberalisation</a> of trade from a large merchant base may have allowed Britain to produce and use emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies, particularly China and Russia. Britain emerged from the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> as the only European nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse, and having the only merchant fleet of any useful size (European merchant fleets were destroyed during the war by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a><a href="#cite_note-manufacturing-257">[a]</a>). Britain's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of manufactured goods. The conflict resulted in most British warfare being conducted overseas, reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest that affected much of Europe. This was further aided by Britain's geographical position—an island separated from the rest of mainland Europe. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thornhillvanda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Thornhillvanda.jpg/220px-Thornhillvanda.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Thornhillvanda.jpg/330px-Thornhillvanda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Thornhillvanda.jpg/440px-Thornhillvanda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="648" /></a><figcaption>William and Mary Presenting the Cap of Liberty to Europe a 1716 illustration by <a href="/wiki/James_Thornhill" title="James Thornhill">James Thornhill</a>, depicting <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_England" title="William III of England">William III</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mary_II_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary II of England">Mary II</a>, who had taken the throne after the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> and signed the <a href="/wiki/English_Bill_of_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="English Bill of Rights">English Bill of Rights</a> of 1689. William tramples on arbitrary power and hands the red cap of liberty to Europe where, unlike Britain, <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a> stayed the normal form of power execution. Below William is the French king <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a>.<a href="#cite_note-258">[257]</a></figcaption></figure> Another theory is that Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its small geographical size. <a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">Enclosure</a> of common land and the related agricultural revolution made a supply of this labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_England" title="Northern England">North of England</a>, the <a href="/wiki/English_Midlands" class="mw-redirect" title="English Midlands">English Midlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Wales" title="South Wales">South Wales</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Lowlands" title="Scottish Lowlands">Scottish Lowlands</a>. Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and water power resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry. Also, the damp, mild weather conditions of the North West of England provided ideal conditions for the spinning of cotton, providing a natural starting point for the birth of the textiles industry. The stable political situation in Britain from around 1689 following the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a>, and British society's greater receptiveness to change (compared with other European countries) can also be said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution. Peasant resistance to industrialisation was largely eliminated by the Enclosure movement, and the landed upper classes developed commercial interests that made them pioneers in removing obstacles to the growth of capitalism.<a href="#cite_note-dictatorship-259">[258]</a> (This point is also made in <a href="/wiki/Hilaire_Belloc" title="Hilaire Belloc">Hilaire Belloc</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Servile_State" title="The Servile State">The Servile State</a>.) The French philosopher <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> wrote about capitalism and religious tolerance in his book on English society, <a href="/wiki/Letters_on_the_English" title="Letters on the English">Letters on the English</a> (1733), noting why England at that time was more prosperous in comparison to the country's less religiously tolerant European neighbours. "Take a view of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Exchange,_London" title="Royal Exchange, London">Royal Exchange in London</a>, a place more venerable than many courts of justice, where the representatives of all nations meet for the benefit of mankind. There the Jew, the Mahometan [Muslim], and the Christian transact together, as though they all professed the same religion, and give the name of infidel to none but bankrupts. There the Presbyterian confides in the Anabaptist, and the Churchman depends on the Quaker's word. If one religion only were allowed in England, the Government would very possibly become arbitrary; if there were but two, the people would cut one another's throats; but as there are such a multitude, they all live happy and in peace."<a href="#cite_note-260">[259]</a> Britain's population grew 280% from 1550 to 1820, while the rest of Western Europe grew 50–80%. Seventy percent of European urbanisation happened in Britain from 1750 to 1800. By 1800, only the Netherlands was more urbanised than Britain. This was only possible because coal, coke, imported cotton, brick and slate had replaced wood, charcoal, flax, peat and thatch. The latter compete with land grown to feed people while mined materials do not. Yet more land would be freed when chemical fertilisers replaced manure and horse's work was mechanised. A workhorse needs 1.2 to 2.0 ha (3 to 5 acres) for fodder while even early steam engines produced four times more mechanical energy. In 1700, five-sixths of the coal mined worldwide was in Britain, while the Netherlands had none; so despite having Europe's best transport, lowest taxes, and most urbanised, well-paid, and literate population, it failed to industrialise. In the 18th century, it was the only European country whose cities and population shrank. Without coal, Britain would have run out of suitable river sites for mills by the 1830s.<a href="#cite_note-continuity-261">[260]</a> Based on science and experimentation from the continent, the steam engine was developed specifically for pumping water out of mines, many of which in Britain had been mined to below the water table. Although extremely inefficient they were economical because they used unsaleable coal.<a href="#cite_note-262">[261]</a> Iron rails were developed to transport coal, which was a major economic sector in Britain. Economic historian <a href="/wiki/Robert_C._Allen" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert C. Allen">Robert Allen</a> has argued that high wages, cheap capital and very cheap energy in Britain made it the ideal place for the industrial revolution to occur.<a href="#cite_note-:0-263">[262]</a> These factors made it vastly more profitable to invest in research and development, and to put technology to use in Britain than other societies.<a href="#cite_note-:0-263">[262]</a> However, two 2018 studies in <a href="/wiki/The_Economic_History_Review" title="The Economic History Review">The Economic History Review</a> showed that wages were not particularly high in the British <a href="/wiki/Spinning_wheel" title="Spinning wheel">spinning</a> sector or the construction sector, casting doubt on Allen's explanation.<a href="#cite_note-264">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[264]</a> A 2022 study in the Journal of Political Economy by Morgan Kelly, <a href="/wiki/Joel_Mokyr" title="Joel Mokyr">Joel Mokyr</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cormac_%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da" title="Cormac Ó Gráda">Cormac O Grada</a> found that industrialization happened in areas with low wages and high mechanical skills, whereas literacy, banks and proximity to coal had little explanatory power.<a href="#cite_note-266">[265]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transfer_of_knowledge">Transfer of knowledge</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Industrial_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Industrial Revolution">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2019) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wright_of_Derby,_The_Orrery.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Wright_of_Derby%2C_The_Orrery.jpg/220px-Wright_of_Derby%2C_The_Orrery.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Wright_of_Derby%2C_The_Orrery.jpg/330px-Wright_of_Derby%2C_The_Orrery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Wright_of_Derby%2C_The_Orrery.jpg/440px-Wright_of_Derby%2C_The_Orrery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6527" data-file-height="4581" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/A_Philosopher_Lecturing_on_the_Orrery" title="A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery">A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery</a> a <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1766 illustration by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Wright_of_Derby" title="Joseph Wright of Derby">Joseph Wright of Derby</a> depicting informal philosophical societies spreading scientific advances</figcaption></figure> Knowledge of innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were trained in the technique might move to another employer or might be poached. A common method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could. During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all European countries and America engaged in study-touring; some nations, like Sweden and France, even trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy. In other countries, notably Britain and America, this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers eager to improve their own methods. Study tours were common then, as now, as was the keeping of travel diaries. Records made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods. Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical societies, like the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_Society_of_Birmingham" title="Lunar Society of Birmingham">Lunar Society of Birmingham</a>, in which members met to discuss natural philosophy and often its application to manufacturing. The Lunar Society flourished from 1765 to 1809, and it has been said of them, "They were, if you like, the revolutionary committee of that most far reaching of all the eighteenth-century revolutions, the Industrial Revolution".<a href="#cite_note-archive-267">[266]</a> Other such societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions. For example, the London-based <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Arts" title="Royal Society of Arts">Royal Society of Arts</a> published an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as papers about them in its annual Transactions. There were publications describing technology. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia" title="Encyclopedia">Encyclopaedias</a> such as <a href="/wiki/John_Harris_(writer)" title="John Harris (writer)">Harris</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Lexicon_Technicum" title="Lexicon Technicum">Lexicon Technicum</a> (1704) and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Rees" title="Abraham Rees">Abraham Rees</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Cyclopaedia,_or_an_Universal_Dictionary_of_Arts_and_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclopaedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences">Cyclopaedia</a> (1802–1819) contain much of value. Cyclopaedia contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution, very well illustrated by fine engravings. Foreign printed sources such as the <a href="/wiki/Descriptions_des_Arts_et_M%C3%A9tiers" title="Descriptions des Arts et Métiers">Descriptions des Arts et Métiers</a> and Diderot's <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a> explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates. Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century, and many regularly included notice of the latest patents. Foreign periodicals, such as the Annales des Mines, published accounts of travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Protestant_work_ethic">Protestant work ethic</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></div> Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Entrepreneur">entrepreneurial</a> class which believed in progress, technology and hard work.<a href="#cite_note-Capital_and_Innovation:_How_Britain_Became_the_First_Industrial_Nation-268">[267]</a> The existence of this class is often linked to the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>) and the particular status of the <a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> and the dissenting Protestant sects, such as the <a href="/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friends" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious Society of Friends">Quakers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterians</a> that had flourished with the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>. Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law, which followed establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Britain in the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688, and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the <a href="/wiki/Government_debt" title="Government debt">national debt</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a>, contributed to the capacity for, and interest in, private financial investment in industrial ventures.<a href="#cite_note-269">[268]</a> <a href="/wiki/English_Dissenters" title="English Dissenters">Dissenters</a> found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices, as well as education at England's <a href="/wiki/Oxbridge" title="Oxbridge">only two universities</a> at the time (although dissenters were still free to study at Scotland's <a href="/wiki/Ancient_universities_of_Scotland" title="Ancient universities of Scotland">four universities</a>). When the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the official <a href="/wiki/Anglican_Communion" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Church</a> became mandatory due to the <a href="/wiki/Test_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Test Act">Test Act</a>, they thereupon became active in banking, manufacturing and education. The <a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarians</a>, in particular, were very involved in education, by running Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge and schools such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences – areas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies. Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with the nature of the national economies involved. While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government, they were considered fellow Protestants, to a limited extent, by many in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a>, such as traditional financiers or other businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital, the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the scientific revolution of the 17th century. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2></div> The industrial revolution has been criticised for causing <a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">ecological collapse</a>, mental illness, pollution and detrimental social systems.<a href="#cite_note-270">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[270]</a> It has also been criticised for valuing <a href="/wiki/Profit_motive" title="Profit motive">profits</a> and corporate growth over life and <a href="/wiki/Wellbeing" class="mw-redirect" title="Wellbeing">wellbeing</a>. Multiple movements have arisen which reject aspects of the industrial revolution, such as the <a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a> or <a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">primitivists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-272">[271]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Individualism_humanism_and_harsh_conditions">Individualism humanism and harsh conditions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></div> Humanists and individualists criticise the Industrial revolution for mistreating women and children and turning men into work machines that lacked <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-273">[272]</a> Critics of the Industrial revolution promoted a more interventionist state and formed new organisations to promote human rights.<a href="#cite_note-274">[273]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primitivism">Primitivism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pre-industrial_society" title="Pre-industrial society">Pre-industrial society</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">Anarcho-primitivism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Primitivism" title="Primitivism">Primitivism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_vida_tranquila_(25922837736).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/La_vida_tranquila_%2825922837736%29.jpg/220px-La_vida_tranquila_%2825922837736%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/La_vida_tranquila_%2825922837736%29.jpg/330px-La_vida_tranquila_%2825922837736%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/La_vida_tranquila_%2825922837736%29.jpg/440px-La_vida_tranquila_%2825922837736%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5640" data-file-height="3750" /></a><figcaption>A primitive lifestyle living outside the Industrial Revolution</figcaption></figure> Primitivism argues that the Industrial Revolution have created an un-natural frame of society and the world in which humans need to adapt to an un-natural urban landscape in which humans are perpetual cogs without personal autonomy.<a href="#cite_note-275">[274]</a> Certain primitivists argue for a return to <a href="/wiki/Pre-industrial_society" title="Pre-industrial society">pre-industrial society</a>,<a href="#cite_note-276">[275]</a> while others argue that technology such as <a href="/wiki/Modern_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern medicine">modern medicine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Intensive_farming" title="Intensive farming">agriculture</a><a href="#cite_note-277">[276]</a> are all positive for humanity assuming they are controlled by and serve humanity and have no effect on the natural environment. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pollution_and_ecological_collapse">Pollution and ecological collapse</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></div> The Industrial Revolution has been criticised for leading to immense ecological and habitat destruction. It has led to immense decrease in the <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> of life on Earth. The Industrial revolution has been said to be inherently unsustainable and will lead to eventual <a href="/wiki/Societal_collapse" title="Societal collapse">collapse of society</a>, mass hunger, starvation, and <a href="/wiki/Scarcity" title="Scarcity">resource scarcity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-278">[277]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Anthropocene">The Anthropocene</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a> is a proposed <a href="/wiki/Epoch" title="Epoch">epoch</a> or mass extinction coming from humanity (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anthropo-" class="extiw" title="wikt:anthropo-">anthropo-</a> is the Greek root for <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humanity</a>). Since the start of the Industrial revolution humanity has permanently changed the Earth, such as immense decrease in biodiversity, and <a href="/wiki/Mass_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass extinction">mass extinction</a> caused by the Industrial revolution. The effects include permanent changes to the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> and soil, <a href="/wiki/Forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Forests">forests</a>, the mass destruction of the Industrial revolution has led to catastrophic impacts on the Earth. Most organisms are unable to adapt leading to <a href="/wiki/Mass_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass extinction">mass extinction</a> with the remaining undergoing <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_rescue" title="Evolutionary rescue">evolutionary rescue</a>, as a result of the Industrial revolution. Permanent changes in the distribution of organisms from human influence will become identifiable in the <a href="/wiki/Geologic_record" title="Geologic record">geologic record</a>. Researchers have documented the movement of many species into regions formerly too cold for them, often at rates faster than initially expected.<a href="#cite_note-279">[278]</a> This has occurred in part as a result of changing climate, but also in response to farming and fishing, and to the accidental introduction of non-native species to new areas through global travel.<a href="#cite_note-Science2016-280">[279]</a> The ecosystem of the entire <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> may have changed during the last 2000 years as a result of nutrient and silica input from eroding deforested lands along the <a href="/wiki/Danube_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Danube River">Danube River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-281">[280]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opposition_from_Romanticism">Opposition from Romanticism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></div> During the Industrial Revolution, an intellectual and artistic hostility towards the new industrialisation developed, associated with the Romantic movement. Romanticism revered the traditionalism of rural life and recoiled against the upheavals caused by industrialisation, urbanisation and the wretchedness of the working classes.<a href="#cite_note-282">[281]</a> Its major exponents in English included the artist and poet <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a> and poets <a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">John Keats</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Gordon_Byron,_6th_Baron_Byron" class="mw-redirect" title="George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron">Lord Byron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">Percy Bysshe Shelley</a>. The movement stressed the importance of "nature" in art and language, in contrast to "monstrous" machines and factories; the "Dark satanic mills" of Blake's poem "<a href="/wiki/And_did_those_feet_in_ancient_time" title="And did those feet in ancient time">And did those feet in ancient time</a>".<a href="#cite_note-283">[282]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">Mary Shelley</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Frankenstein" title="Frankenstein">Frankenstein</a> reflected concerns that scientific progress might be two-edged. French Romanticism likewise was highly critical of industry.<a href="#cite_note-284">[283]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/28px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/42px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/56px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business_and_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Business and economics">Business and economics portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Noun-technology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Noun-technology.svg/29px-Noun-technology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Noun-technology.svg/43px-Noun-technology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Noun-technology.svg/57px-Noun-technology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="90" data-file-height="88" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology">Technology portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/28px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/42px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/56px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization" title="Proto-industrialization">Proto-industrialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_mode_of_production_(Marxist_theory)" title="Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)">Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialization_of_China" title="Industrialization of China">Industrialization of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic history of the United Kingdom">Economic history of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">Fourth Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalism" title="History of capitalism">History of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Age" title="Industrial Age">Industrial Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_society" title="Industrial society">Industrial society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_handicap_of_a_head_start" title="Law of the handicap of a head start">Law of the handicap of a head start</a> – Dialectics of progress</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_Age" title="Machine Age">Machine Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">Steam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_manufacture_during_the_British_Industrial_Revolution" title="Textile manufacture during the British Industrial Revolution">Textile manufacture during the British Industrial Revolution</a>, a good description of the early industrial revolution</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-manufacturing-257"><a href="#cite_ref-manufacturing_257-0">^</a> The Royal Navy itself may have contributed to Britain's industrial growth. Among the first complex industrial manufacturing processes to arise in Britain were those that produced material for British warships. For instance, the average warship of the period used roughly 1000 pulley fittings. With a fleet as large as the Royal Navy, and with these fittings needing to be replaced every four to five years, this created a great demand which encouraged industrial expansion. The industrial manufacture of rope can also be seen as a similar factor. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.erih.net/how-it-started/industrial-history-of-european-countries">"Industrial History of European Countries"</a>. European Route of Industrial Heritage. Council of Europe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210623201807/https://www.erih.net/how-it-started/industrial-history-of-european-countries">Archived</a> from the original on 23 June 2021. Retrieved 2 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=European+Route+of+Industrial+Heritage&rft.atitle=Industrial+History+of+European+Countries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.erih.net%2Fhow-it-started%2Findustrial-history-of-european-countries&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_2-24">y</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandes1969" class="citation book cs1">Landes, David S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4"><bdi>978-0-521-09418-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09418-4&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHornRosenbandSmith2010" class="citation book cs1">Horn, Jeff; Rosenband, Leonard; Smith, Merritt (2010). Reconceptualizing the Industrial Revolution. Cambridge MA, London: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51562-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51562-7"><bdi>978-0-262-51562-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconceptualizing+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.place=Cambridge+MA%2C+London&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-262-51562-7&rft.aulast=Horn&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft.au=Rosenband%2C+Leonard&rft.au=Smith%2C+Merritt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> E. Anthony Wrigley, "Reconsidering the Industrial Revolution: England and Wales". Journal of Interdisciplinary History 49.01 (2018): 9–42. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReisman1998" class="citation book cs1">Reisman, George (1998). Capitalism: A complete understanding of the nature and value of human economic life. Jameson Books. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-915463-73-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-915463-73-2"><bdi>978-0-915463-73-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Capitalism%3A+A+complete+understanding+of+the+nature+and+value+of+human+economic+life&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Jameson+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-915463-73-2&rft.aulast=Reisman&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tong-6"><a href="#cite_ref-tong_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTong2016" class="citation book cs1">Tong, Junie T. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_UQGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA151">Finance and Society in 21st Century China: Chinese Culture Versus Western Markets</a>. CRC Press. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-13522-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-13522-7"><bdi>978-1-317-13522-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finance+and+Society+in+21st+Century+China%3A+Chinese+Culture+Versus+Western+Markets&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-13522-7&rft.aulast=Tong&rft.aufirst=Junie+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_UQGDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-esposito-7"><a href="#cite_ref-esposito_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/John_L._Esposito" class="mw-redirect" title="John L. Esposito">Esposito, John L.</a>, ed. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZcohRpc4OsC&pg=PT190">The Islamic World: Past and Present</a>. Vol. 1: Abba – Hist. Oxford University Press. p. 174. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516520-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516520-3"><bdi>978-0-19-516520-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230116111739/https://books.google.com/books?id=KZcohRpc4OsC&pg=PT190">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 30 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Islamic+World%3A+Past+and+Present&rft.pages=174&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-516520-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKZcohRpc4OsC%26pg%3DPT190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rayB-8"><a href="#cite_ref-rayB_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay2011" class="citation book cs1">Ray, Indrajit (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7">Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757–1857)</a>. Routledge. pp. 7–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-82552-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-82552-1"><bdi>978-1-136-82552-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230116111751/https://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 30 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bengal+Industries+and+the+British+Industrial+Revolution+%281757%E2%80%931857%29&rft.pages=7-10&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-136-82552-1&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=Indrajit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCHOrAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-David_Landes_1999-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-David_Landes_1999_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_Landes_1999_9-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandes1999" class="citation book cs1">Landes, David (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wealthpovertyofn00land_0">The Wealth and Poverty of Nations</a>. W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31888-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31888-3"><bdi>978-0-393-31888-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wealth+and+Poverty+of+Nations&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-393-31888-3&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwealthpovertyofn00land_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kiely-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kiely_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kiely_10-1">b</a> Kiely, Ray (November 2011). "Industrialization and Development: A Comparative Analysis". UGL Press Limited: 25–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorthThomas1977" class="citation journal cs1">North, Douglass C.; Thomas, Robert Paul (May 1977). "The First Economic Revolution". The Economic History Review. 30 (2): 229–230. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2595144">10.2307/2595144</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0117">0013-0117</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2595144">2595144</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=The+First+Economic+Revolution&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=229-230&rft.date=1977-05&rft.issn=0013-0117&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2595144%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2595144&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=Douglass+C.&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Robert+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lectures_on_Economic_Growth-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lectures_on_Economic_Growth_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lectures_on_Economic_Growth_12-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucas2002" class="citation book cs1">Lucas, Robert E. Jr. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lecturesoneconom00luca">Lectures on Economic Growth</a>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lecturesoneconom00luca/page/109">109–110</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01601-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01601-9"><bdi>978-0-674-01601-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+Economic+Growth&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=109-110&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01601-9&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flecturesoneconom00luca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Feinstein2014-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Feinstein2014_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Feinstein2014_13-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeinstein1998" class="citation journal cs1">Feinstein, Charles (September 1998). "Pessimism Perpetuated: Real Wages and the Standard of Living in Britain during and after the Industrial Revolution". Journal of Economic History. 58 (3): 625–658. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0022050700021100">10.1017/s0022050700021100</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54816980">54816980</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Pessimism+Perpetuated%3A+Real+Wages+and+the+Standard+of+Living+in+Britain+during+and+after+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=625-658&rft.date=1998-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0022050700021100&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54816980%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Feinstein&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SzreterMooney2014-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SzreterMooney2014_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SzreterMooney2014_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzreter_&_MooneyMooney1998" class="citation journal cs1">Szreter & Mooney; Mooney (February 1998). "Urbanization, Mortality, and the Standard of Living Debate: New Estimates of the Expectation of Life at Birth in Nineteenth-Century British Cities". The Economic History Review. 51 (1): 104. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-0289.00084">10.1111/1468-0289.00084</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10.1111%2F1468-0289.00084">10.1111/1468-0289.00084</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=Urbanization%2C+Mortality%2C+and+the+Standard+of+Living+Debate%3A+New+Estimates+of+the+Expectation+of+Life+at+Birth+in+Nineteenth-Century+British+Cities&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=104&rft.date=1998-02&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10.1111%2F1468-0289.00084&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1468-0289.00084&rft.au=Szreter+%26+Mooney&rft.au=Mooney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution-15"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Lucas_Jr.2003" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Lucas,_Jr&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Lucas, Jr (page does not exist)">Robert Lucas Jr.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071127032512/http://minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm">"The Industrial Revolution"</a>. Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm">the original</a> on 27 November 2007. Retrieved 14 November 2007. <q>it is fairly clear that up to 1800 or maybe 1750, no society had experienced sustained growth in per capita income. (Eighteenth century population growth also averaged one-third of 1 percent, the same as production growth.) That is, up to about two centuries ago, per capita <a href="/wiki/Real_income" title="Real income">incomes</a> in all societies were stagnated at around $400 to $800 per year.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution&rft.pub=Federal+Reserve+Bank+of+Minneapolis&rft.date=2003&rft.au=Robert+Lucas+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.minneapolisfed.org%2Fpubs%2Fregion%2F04-05%2Fessay.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution_''Past_and_Future''-16"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution_''Past_and_Future''_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucas2003" class="citation web cs1">Lucas, Robert (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071127032512/http://minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm">"The Industrial Revolution Past and Future"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm">the original</a> on 27 November 2007. <q>[consider] annual growth rates of 2.4 percent for the first 60 years of the 20th century, of 1 percent for the entire 19th century, of one-third of 1 percent for the 18th century</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+Past+and+Future&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.minneapolisfed.org%2Fpubs%2Fregion%2F04-05%2Fessay.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReviewOfCambridge-17"><a href="#cite_ref-ReviewOfCambridge_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCloskey2004" class="citation web cs1">McCloskey, Deidre (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://deirdremccloskey.org/articles/floud.php">"Review of The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Britain (edited by Roderick Floud and Paul Johnson), Times Higher Education Supplement, 15 January 2004"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190921102247/http://deirdremccloskey.org/articles/floud.php">Archived</a> from the original on 21 September 2019. Retrieved 15 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Review+of+The+Cambridge+Economic+History+of+Modern+Britain+%28edited+by+Roderick+Floud+and+Paul+Johnson%29%2C+Times+Higher+Education+Supplement%2C+15+January+2004&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=McCloskey&rft.aufirst=Deidre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdeirdremccloskey.org%2Farticles%2Ffloud.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-revolution-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-revolution_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-revolution_18-1">b</a> Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848, Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd., p. 27 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-349-10484-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-349-10484-0">0-349-10484-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-google1-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-google1_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-google1_19-1">b</a> Joseph E Inikori. Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England, Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-01079-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-01079-9">0-521-01079-9</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y7rhKYWhCyIC&pg=PA102">Google Books</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-Rehabilitating_the_Industrial_Revolution-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Rehabilitating_the_Industrial_Revolution_20-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerg,_MaxineHudson,_Pat1992" class="citation journal cs1">Berg, Maxine; <a href="/wiki/Pat_Hudson" title="Pat Hudson">Hudson, Pat</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/research/workingpapers/1989-1994/twerp351.pdf">"Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution"</a> (PDF). The Economic History Review. 45 (1): 24–50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2598327">10.2307/2598327</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2598327">2598327</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414141603/https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/research/workingpapers/1989-1994/twerp351.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 9 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=Rehabilitating+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=24-50&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2598327&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2598327%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Berg%2C+Maxine&rft.au=Hudson%2C+Pat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwarwick.ac.uk%2Ffac%2Fsoc%2Feconomics%2Fresearch%2Fworkingpapers%2F1989-1994%2Ftwerp351.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lorenzen-21"><a href="#cite_ref-lorenzen_21-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.julielorenzen.net/berg.html">Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061109022755/http://www.julielorenzen.net/berg.html">Archived</a> 9 November 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Julie Lorenzen, Central Michigan University. Retrieved November 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2024" class="citation news cs1">Hall, Rachel (5 April 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2024/apr/05/industrial-revolution-began-in-17th-not-18th-century-say-academics">"Industrial Revolution began in 17th not 18th century, say academics"</a>. The Guardian. Retrieved 15 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Industrial+Revolution+began+in+17th+not+18th+century%2C+say+academics&rft.date=2024-04-05&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Feducation%2F2024%2Fapr%2F05%2Findustrial-revolution-began-in-17th-not-18th-century-say-academics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2024" class="citation news cs1">Simpson, Craig (5 April 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/04/05/industrial-revolution-start-17th-century-historians-suggest/">"Industrial Revolution started in 17th century, historians suggest"</a>. The Telegraph. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0307-1235">0307-1235</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240405071731/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/04/05/industrial-revolution-start-17th-century-historians-suggest/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2024. Retrieved 5 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Industrial+Revolution+started+in+17th+century%2C+historians+suggest&rft.date=2024-04-05&rft.issn=0307-1235&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2F2024%2F04%2F05%2Findustrial-revolution-start-17th-century-historians-suggest%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGupta" class="citation web cs1">Gupta, Bishnupriya. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/papers/broadberry-gupta.pdf">"Cotton Textiles and the Great Divergence: Lancashire, India and Shifting Competitive Advantage, 1600–1850"</a> (PDF). International Institute of Social History. Department of Economics, University of Warwick. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211011065834/http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/papers/broadberry-gupta.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2021. Retrieved 5 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Institute+of+Social+History&rft.atitle=Cotton+Textiles+and+the+Great+Divergence%3A+Lancashire%2C+India+and+Shifting+Competitive+Advantage%2C+1600%E2%80%931850&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=Bishnupriya&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iisg.nl%2Fhpw%2Fpapers%2Fbroadberry-gupta.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1951" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, George Rogers (1951). The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860. M.E. Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87332-101-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87332-101-3"><bdi>978-0-87332-101-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Transportation+Revolution%2C+1815%E2%80%931860&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=1951&rft.isbn=978-0-87332-101-3&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=George+Rogers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roe1916-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_26-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_26-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_26-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_26-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_26-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_26-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_26-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_26-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_26-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_26-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_26-11">l</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoe1916" class="citation cs2">Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ">English and American Tool Builders</a>, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/16011753">16011753</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703113712/https://books.google.com/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ">archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2023, retrieved 16 October 2015</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+and+American+Tool+Builders&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1916&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F16011753&rft.aulast=Roe&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Wickham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX-EJAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988">. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (<a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/27024075">27-24075</a>); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-917914-73-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-917914-73-7">978-0-917914-73-7</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-Hunter_1985-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hunter_1985_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hunter_1985_27-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hunter_1985_27-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hunter_1985_27-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter1985" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Louis C. (1985). A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 2: Steam Power. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. p. 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Industrial+Power+in+the+United+States%2C+1730%E2%80%931930%2C+Vol.+2%3A+Steam+Power&rft.place=Charlottesville&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Virginia&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Louis+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988">"There exist everywhere roads suitable for hauling".<a href="/wiki/Robert_Fulton" title="Robert Fulton">Robert Fulton</a> on roads in France </li> <li id="cite_note-The_industrial_revolution_in_national_context:_Europe_and_the_USA-28"><a href="#cite_ref-The_industrial_revolution_in_national_context:_Europe_and_the_USA_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrouzet1996" class="citation book cs1">Crouzet, François (1996). "France". In Teich, Mikuláš; <a href="/wiki/Roy_Porter" title="Roy Porter">Porter, Roy</a> (eds.). The industrial revolution in national context: Europe and the USA. Cambridge University Press. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-40940-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-40940-7"><bdi>978-0-521-40940-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/95025377">95025377</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=France&rft.btitle=The+industrial+revolution+in+national+context%3A+Europe+and+the+USA&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F95025377&rft.isbn=978-0-521-40940-7&rft.aulast=Crouzet&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Blanqui, Jérôme-Adolphe, Histoire de l'économie politique en Europe depuis les anciens jusqu'à nos jours, 1837, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-543-94762-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-543-94762-8">978-0-543-94762-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution13-30"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution13_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson1992" class="citation book cs1">Hudson, Pat (1992). The Industrial Revolution. London: Edward Arnold. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7131-6531-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7131-6531-9"><bdi>978-0-7131-6531-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution&rft.place=London&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Edward+Arnold&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-7131-6531-9&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=Pat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ogilvie_2008-31"><a href="#cite_ref-Ogilvie_2008_31-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOgilvie2008" class="citation book cs1">Ogilvie, Sheilagh (2008). "Protoindustrialization". In Durlauf, Steven; Blume, Lawrence (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Vol. 6. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 711–714. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-22642-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-22642-5"><bdi>978-0-230-22642-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Protoindustrialization&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=711-714&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-230-22642-5&rft.aulast=Ogilvie&rft.aufirst=Sheilagh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElvin1973" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Elvin" title="Mark Elvin">Elvin, Mark</a> (1973), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/patternofchines00elvi">The Pattern of the Chinese Past</a>, Stanford University Press, pp. 7, 113–199, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0876-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0876-0"><bdi>978-0-8047-0876-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pattern+of+the+Chinese+Past&rft.pages=7%2C+113-199&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-0876-0&rft.aulast=Elvin&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpatternofchines00elvi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-33"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroadberryGuanLi2017" class="citation journal cs1">Broadberry, Stephen N.; Guan, Hanhui; Li, David D. (1 April 2017). "China, Europe and the Great Divergence: A Study in Historical National Accounting, 980–1850". CEPR Discussion Paper. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2957511">2957511</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CEPR+Discussion+Paper&rft.atitle=China%2C+Europe+and+the+Great+Divergence%3A+A+Study+in+Historical+National+Accounting%2C+980%E2%80%931850&rft.date=2017-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2957511%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Broadberry&rft.aufirst=Stephen+N.&rft.au=Guan%2C+Hanhui&rft.au=Li%2C+David+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Nicholas Crafts, "The first industrial revolution: Resolving the slow growth/rapid industrialization paradox." Journal of the European Economic Association 3.2–3 (2005): 525–534. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Christine Rider, ed. Encyclopedia of the Age of the Industrial Revolution 1700–1920, (2007) pp. xiii–xxxv. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Phyllis Deane "The Industrial Revolution in Great Britain" in Carlo M. Cipolla ed., The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Emergence of industrial societies Vol 4 part 2 (1973) pp 161–174. </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution_–_Innovations-37"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution_–_Innovations_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBondGingerichArcher-AntonsenPurcell2003" class="citation web cs1">Bond, Eric; Gingerich, Sheena; Archer-Antonsen, Oliver; Purcell, Liam; Macklem, Elizabeth (17 February 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://industrialrevolution.sea.ca/innovations.html">"The Industrial Revolution – Innovations"</a>. Industrialrevolution.sea.ca. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110906051618/http://industrialrevolution.sea.ca/innovations.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2011. Retrieved 30 January 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+%E2%80%93+Innovations&rft.pub=Industrialrevolution.sea.ca&rft.date=2003-02-17&rft.aulast=Bond&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft.au=Gingerich%2C+Sheena&rft.au=Archer-Antonsen%2C+Oliver&rft.au=Purcell%2C+Liam&rft.au=Macklem%2C+Elizabeth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Findustrialrevolution.sea.ca%2Finnovations.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyres1989">Ayres 1989</a>, p. 17 </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandes1969" class="citation book cs1">Landes, David S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p. 218. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4"><bdi>978-0-521-09418-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus&rft.pages=218&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09418-4&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosen2012" class="citation book cs1">Rosen, William (2012). The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry and Invention. University of Chicago Press. p. 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-72634-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-72634-2"><bdi>978-0-226-72634-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Most+Powerful+Idea+in+the+World%3A+A+Story+of+Steam%2C+Industry+and+Invention&rft.pages=149&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-226-72634-2&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tylecote_1992-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_41-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_41-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_41-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_41-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_41-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_41-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_41-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_41-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_41-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_41-10">k</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTylecote1992" class="citation book cs1">Tylecote, R. F. (1992). A History of Metallurgy, Second Edition. London: Maney Publishing, for the Institute of Materials. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-901462-88-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-901462-88-6"><bdi>978-0-901462-88-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Metallurgy%2C+Second+Edition&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Maney+Publishing%2C+for+the+Institute+of+Materials&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-901462-88-6&rft.aulast=Tylecote&rft.aufirst=R.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969_91-42"><a href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_91_42-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandes1969" class="citation book cs1">Landes, David S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p. 91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4"><bdi>978-0-521-09418-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09418-4&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hounshell-1984-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_43-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_43-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_43-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_43-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_43-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_43-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHounshell1984" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_A._Hounshell" title="David A. Hounshell">Hounshell, David A.</a> (1984), From the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States, Baltimore, Maryland: <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-2975-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-2975-8"><bdi>978-0-8018-2975-8</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/83016269">83016269</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1104810110">1104810110</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+the+American+System+to+Mass+Production%2C+1800%E2%80%931932%3A+The+Development+of+Manufacturing+Technology+in+the+United+States&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1104810110&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F83016269&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-2975-8&rft.aulast=Hounshell&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beckert_2014-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_44-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_44-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_44-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_44-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_44-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_44-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_44-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_44-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_44-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_44-11">l</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckert2014" class="citation book cs1">Beckert, Sven (2014). Empire of Cotton: A Global History. US: Vintage Books Division Penguin Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-71396-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-71396-5"><bdi>978-0-375-71396-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Cotton%3A+A+Global+History&rft.place=US&rft.pub=Vintage+Books+Division+Penguin+Random+House&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-375-71396-5&rft.aulast=Beckert&rft.aufirst=Sven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopkins2000" class="citation book cs1">Hopkins, Eric (2000). Industrialization and Society. London: Routledge. p. 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Industrialization+and+Society&rft.place=London&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Hopkins&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHills" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hills, Richard L. "Cotchett, Thomas". <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F75296">10.1093/ref:odnb/75296</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cotchett%2C+Thomas&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F75296&rft.aulast=Hills&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.) </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairclough" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fairclough, K. R. "Sorocold, George". <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F47971">10.1093/ref:odnb/47971</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sorocold%2C+George&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F47971&rft.aulast=Fairclough&rft.aufirst=K.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.) </li> <li id="cite_note-Ayers1989-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ayers1989_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ayers1989_48-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ayers1989_48-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyres1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Ayres_(scientist)" title="Robert Ayres (scientist)">Ayres, Robert</a> (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120301220936/http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/PUB/Documents/RR-89-001.pdf">Technological Transformations and Long Waves</a> (PDF). pp. 16–17. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/PUB/Documents/RR-89-001.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 1 March 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technological+Transformations+and+Long+Waves&rft.pages=16-17&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Ayres&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iiasa.ac.at%2FAdmin%2FPUB%2FDocuments%2FRR-89-001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McNeil1990-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_49-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_49-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_49-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_49-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_49-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_49-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_49-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_49-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_49-9">j</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcNeil1990">McNeil 1990</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> R. Ray Gehani (1998). "Management of Technology and Operations". p. 63. John Wiley and Sons, 1998 </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyres1989">Ayres 1989</a>, p. 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandes1969" class="citation book cs1">Landes, David S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4"><bdi>978-0-521-09418-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09418-4&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyres1989">Ayres 1989</a>, p. 18 </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLakwete2005" class="citation book cs1">Lakwete, Angela (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yJ4_L3QGpRMC&pg=PAPR7">Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America</a>. Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8272-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8272-2"><bdi>978-0-8018-8272-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventing+the+Cotton+Gin%3A+Machine+and+Myth+in+Antebellum+America&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-8272-2&rft.aulast=Lakwete&rft.aufirst=Angela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyJ4_L3QGpRMC%26pg%3DPAPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> G.E. Mingay (1986). "The Transformation of Britain, 1830–1939". p. 25. Routledge, 1986 </li> <li id="cite_note-Iron_bridge-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Iron_bridge_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iron_bridge_56-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/371">"Ironbridge Gorge"</a>. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. UNESCO. Retrieved 20 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNESCO+World+Heritage+Centre&rft.atitle=Ironbridge+Gorge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Flist%2F371&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon1996" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Robert B (1996). American Iron 1607–1900. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6816-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6816-0"><bdi>978-0-8018-6816-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Iron+1607%E2%80%931900&rft.place=Baltimore+and+London&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-6816-0&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Robert+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams2012" class="citation news cs1">Adams, Ryan (27 July 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.awardsdaily.com/blog/2012/07/27/danny-boyles-intro-on-olympics-programme/">"Danny Boyle's intro on Olympics programme"</a>. Awards Daily. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130206135250/http://www.awardsdaily.com/blog/2012/07/27/danny-boyles-intro-on-olympics-programme/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Danny+Boyle%27s+intro+on+Olympics+programme&rft.date=2012-07-27&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.awardsdaily.com%2Fblog%2F2012%2F07%2F27%2Fdanny-boyles-intro-on-olympics-programme%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTylecote1976" class="citation book cs1">Tylecote, R. F. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H5hTAAAAMAAJ&q=This+technology+was+applied+to+lead+from+1678+and+to+copper+from+1687.+It+was+also+applied+to+iron+foundry+work+in+the+1690s,+but+in+this+case+the+reverberatory+furnace+was+known+as+an+air+furnace.+(The+foundry+cupola+is+a+different,+and+later,+innovation.)">A History of Metallurgy</a>. Metals Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-904357-06-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-904357-06-6"><bdi>978-0-904357-06-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230404131200/https://books.google.com/books?id=H5hTAAAAMAAJ&q=This+technology+was+applied+to+lead+from+1678+and+to+copper+from+1687.+It+was+also+applied+to+iron+foundry+work+in+the+1690s,+but+in+this+case+the+reverberatory+furnace+was+known+as+an+air+furnace.+(The+foundry+cupola+is+a+different,+and+later,+innovation.)">Archived</a> from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 28 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Metallurgy&rft.pub=Metals+Society&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-904357-06-6&rft.aulast=Tylecote&rft.aufirst=R.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH5hTAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DThis%2Btechnology%2Bwas%2Bapplied%2Bto%2Blead%2Bfrom%2B1678%2Band%2Bto%2Bcopper%2Bfrom%2B1687.%2BIt%2Bwas%2Balso%2Bapplied%2Bto%2Biron%2Bfoundry%2Bwork%2Bin%2Bthe%2B1690s%2C%2Bbut%2Bin%2Bthis%2Bcase%2Bthe%2Breverberatory%2Bfurnace%2Bwas%2Bknown%2Bas%2Ban%2Bair%2Bfurnace.%2B%28The%2Bfoundry%2Bcupola%2Bis%2Ba%2Bdifferent%2C%2Band%2Blater%2C%2Binnovation.%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Temple_1986-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Temple_1986_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Temple_1986_60-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Temple_1986_60-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTempleNeedham1986" class="citation book cs1">Temple, Robert; Needham, Joseph (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geniusofchina3000temp">The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention</a>. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geniusofchina3000temp/page/65">65</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-62028-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-62028-8"><bdi>978-0-671-62028-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+of+China%3A+3000+years+of+science%2C+discovery+and+invention&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-671-62028-8&rft.aulast=Temple&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Needham%2C+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeniusofchina3000temp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> Based on the works of Joseph Needham </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Author Simon Winchester dates the start of the Industrial Revolution to 4 May 1776, the day that John Wilkinson presented James Watt with his precision-made cylinder. (19 August 2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/1808/19/fzgps.01.html">Fareed Zakaria </a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414111045/http://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/1808/19/fzgps.01.html">Archived</a> 14 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. CNN.com </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenberg1982" class="citation book cs1">Rosenberg, Nathan (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/insideblackboxte00rose/page/85">Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics</a>. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/insideblackboxte00rose/page/85">85</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27367-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27367-1"><bdi>978-0-521-27367-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inside+the+Black+Box%3A+Technology+and+Economics&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+New+York&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-521-27367-1&rft.aulast=Rosenberg&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finsideblackboxte00rose%2Fpage%2F85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto3-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_63-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandes1969" class="citation book cs1">Landes, David. S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present. Cambridge; New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4"><bdi>978-0-521-09418-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus%3A+Technological+Change+and+Industrial+Development+in+Western+Europe+from+1750+to+the+Present&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09418-4&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_tijGo0WWHMC&pg=PAPA20">Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute</a>. 1879. p. 20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journal+of+the+Iron+and+Steel+Institute&rft.pages=20&rft.date=1879&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_tijGo0WWHMC%26pg%3DPAPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandes1969" class="citation book cs1">Landes, David S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p. 92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4"><bdi>978-0-521-09418-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus&rft.pages=92&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09418-4&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyres1989">Ayres 1989</a>, p. 21 </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenberg1982" class="citation book cs1">Rosenberg, Nathan (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/insideblackboxte00rose/page/90">Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics</a>. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/insideblackboxte00rose/page/90">90</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27367-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27367-1"><bdi>978-0-521-27367-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inside+the+Black+Box%3A+Technology+and+Economics&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+New+York&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-521-27367-1&rft.aulast=Rosenberg&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finsideblackboxte00rose%2Fpage%2F90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/steel-production/">"Steel Production | History of Western Civilization II"</a>. courses.lumenlearning.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220511213833/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/steel-production/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2022. Retrieved 1 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=courses.lumenlearning.com&rft.atitle=Steel+Production+%7C+History+of+Western+Civilization+II&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcourses.lumenlearning.com%2Fsuny-hccc-worldhistory2%2Fchapter%2Fsteel-production%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/iron-making/">"Iron Making | Boundless World History"</a>. courses.lumenlearning.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413171318/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/iron-making/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 9 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=courses.lumenlearning.com&rft.atitle=Iron+Making+%7C+Boundless+World+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcourses.lumenlearning.com%2Fboundless-worldhistory%2Fchapter%2Firon-making%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandes1969" class="citation book cs1">Landes, David S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4"><bdi>978-0-521-09418-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09418-4&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2018" class="citation cs2">Allen, G. C. (10 January 2018), "Economic Development before 1860", The Industrial Development of Birmingham and the Black Country 1860–1927, Routledge, pp. 13–45, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1201%2F9781351251341-4">10.1201/9781351251341-4</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-25134-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-25134-1"><bdi>978-1-351-25134-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Industrial+Development+of+Birmingham+and+the+Black+Country+1860%E2%80%931927&rft.atitle=Economic+Development+before+1860&rft.pages=13-45&rft.date=2018-01-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1201%2F9781351251341-4&rft.isbn=978-1-351-25134-1&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=G.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto2-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_72-1">b</a> L. T. C. Rolt and J. S. Allen, The Steam Engine of Thomas Newcomen (Landmark Publishing, Ashbourne 1997). p. 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelginTurner2011" class="citation journal cs1">Selgin, George; Turner, John L. (2011). "Strong Steam, Weak Patents, or the Myth of Watt's Innovation-Blocking Monopoly, Exploded". The Journal of Law & Economics. 54 (4): 841–861. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F658495">10.1086/658495</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2186">0022-2186</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/658495">10.1086/658495</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154401778">154401778</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Law+%26+Economics&rft.atitle=Strong+Steam%2C+Weak+Patents%2C+or+the+Myth+of+Watt%27s+Innovation-Blocking+Monopoly%2C+Exploded&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=841-861&rft.date=2011&rft.issn=0022-2186&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154401778%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1086%2F658495%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F658495&rft.aulast=Selgin&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Turner%2C+John+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHunterBryant1991">Hunter & Bryant 1991</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu-75"><a href="#cite_ref-faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu_75-0">^</a> Economics 323–2: Economic History of the United States Since 1865 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/~jmokyr/Graphs-and-Tables.PDF">http://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/~jmokyr/Graphs-and-Tables.PDF</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419183804/https://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/~jmokyr/Graphs-and-Tables.PDF">Archived</a> 19 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clow52-76"><a href="#cite_ref-Clow52_76-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClowClow1952" class="citation book cs1">Clow, Archibald; Clow, Nan L. (June 1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chemicalrevoluti0000clow/page/65">Chemical Revolution</a>. Ayer Co. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chemicalrevoluti0000clow/page/65">65–90</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8369-1909-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8369-1909-7"><bdi>978-0-8369-1909-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemical+Revolution&rft.pages=65-90&rft.pub=Ayer+Co&rft.date=1952-06&rft.isbn=978-0-8369-1909-7&rft.aulast=Clow&rft.aufirst=Archibald&rft.au=Clow%2C+Nan+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchemicalrevoluti0000clow%2Fpage%2F65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Lion Hirth, State, Cartels and Growth: The German Chemical Industry (2007) p. 20 </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Johann P. Murmann, Knowledge and competitive advantage: the co-evolution of firms, technology, and national institutions (2003) pp. 53–54 </li> <li id="cite_note-memphis-79"><a href="#cite_ref-memphis_79-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ce.memphis.edu/1101/notes/concrete/concrete_properties_slides.pdf">Properties of Concrete</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225045836/http://www.ce.memphis.edu/1101/notes/concrete/concrete_properties_slides.pdf">Archived</a> 25 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Published lecture notes from University of Memphis Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 17 October 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Charles Hunt, A history of the introduction of gas lighting (W. King, 1907) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dAFCAQAAIAAJ&dq=Gas+lighting&pg=PA1">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230404131202/https://books.google.com/books?id=dAFCAQAAIAAJ&dq=Gas+lighting&pg=PA1">Archived</a> 4 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Patrick Degryse, Glass making in the Greco-Roman world: results of the ARCHGLASS project (Leuven University Press, 2014). </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Hentie Louw, "Window-glass making in Britain c. 1660–c. 1860 and its architectural impact." Construction History (1991): 47–68 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41613689">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210418185707/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41613689">Archived</a> 18 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMisa1995" class="citation book cs1">Misa, Thomas J. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nationofsteelmak00misa">A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America 1965–1925</a>. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nationofsteelmak00misa/page/243">243</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6502-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6502-2"><bdi>978-0-8018-6502-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Nation+of+Steel%3A+The+Making+of+Modern+America+1965%E2%80%931925&rft.place=Baltimore+and+London&rft.pages=243&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-6502-2&rft.aulast=Misa&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnationofsteelmak00misa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Overton_1996-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Overton_1996_84-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Overton_1996_84-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverton1996" class="citation book cs1">Overton, Mark (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521568593">Agricultural Revolution in England: The transformation if the agrarian economy 1500–1850</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56859-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56859-3"><bdi>978-0-521-56859-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Agricultural+Revolution+in+England%3A+The+transformation+if+the+agrarian+economy+1500%E2%80%931850&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56859-3&rft.aulast=Overton&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780521568593&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pomeranz_2000-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pomeranz_2000_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pomeranz_2000_85-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPomeranz2000" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Pomeranz" title="Kenneth Pomeranz">Pomeranz, Kenneth</a> (2000), The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-09010-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-09010-8"><bdi>978-0-691-09010-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Divergence%3A+China%2C+Europe%2C+and+the+Making+of+the+Modern+World+Economy&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-691-09010-8&rft.aulast=Pomeranz&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140814194740/http://www.rotherhamunofficial.co.uk/history/18th/plough.html">"The Rotherham Plow"</a>. Rotherham: The Unofficial Website. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rotherhamunofficial.co.uk/history/18th/plough.html">the original</a> on 14 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Rotherham+Plow&rft.pub=Rotherham%3A+The+Unofficial+Website&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rotherhamunofficial.co.uk%2Fhistory%2F18th%2Fplough.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924092217/http://www.rotherhamweb.co.uk/h/plough.htm">"The Rotherham Plow"</a>. Rotherham.co.uk. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rotherhamweb.co.uk/h/plough.htm">the original</a> on 24 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Rotherham+Plow&rft.pub=Rotherham.co.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rotherhamweb.co.uk%2Fh%2Fplough.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clark2007-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Clark2007_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clark2007_88-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFClark2007">Clark 2007</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_89-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_89-1">b</a> John U. Nef, Rise of the British coal industry (2v 1932). </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoren2018" class="citation news cs1">Coren, Michael J. (31 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://qz.com/1193455/the-speed-of-europes-18th-century-sailing-ships-is-revamping-historians-view-of-the-industrial-revolution/">"The speed of Europe's 18th-century sailing ships is revamping history's view of the Industrial Revolution"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Quartz_(publication)" title="Quartz (publication)">Quartz</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210501131436/https://qz.com/1193455/the-speed-of-europes-18th-century-sailing-ships-is-revamping-historians-view-of-the-industrial-revolution/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2021. Retrieved 31 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quartz&rft.atitle=The+speed+of+Europe%27s+18th-century+sailing+ships+is+revamping+history%27s+view+of+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.date=2018-01-31&rft.aulast=Coren&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fqz.com%2F1193455%2Fthe-speed-of-europes-18th-century-sailing-ships-is-revamping-historians-view-of-the-industrial-revolution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grübler-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grübler_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grübler_91-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrübler1990" class="citation book cs1">Grübler, Arnulf (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120301221205/http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/PUB/Documents/XB-90-704.pdf">The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures: Dynamics of Evolution and Technological Change in Transport</a> (PDF). Heidelberg and New York: Physica-Verlag. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/PUB/Documents/XB-90-704.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 1 March 2012. Retrieved 30 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Infrastructures%3A+Dynamics+of+Evolution+and+Technological+Change+in+Transport&rft.place=Heidelberg+and+New+York&rft.pub=Physica-Verlag&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Gr%C3%BCbler&rft.aufirst=Arnulf&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iiasa.ac.at%2FAdmin%2FPUB%2FDocuments%2FXB-90-704.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-inflation-UK-92"><a href="#cite_ref-inflation-UK_92-0">^</a> UK <a href="/wiki/Retail_Price_Index" title="Retail Price Index">Retail Price Index</a> inflation figures are based on data from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2017" class="citation web cs1">Clark, Gregory (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://measuringworth.com/datasets/ukearncpi/">"The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/MeasuringWorth" title="MeasuringWorth">MeasuringWorth</a>. Retrieved 7 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MeasuringWorth&rft.atitle=The+Annual+RPI+and+Average+Earnings+for+Britain%2C+1209+to+Present+%28New+Series%29&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmeasuringworth.com%2Fdatasets%2Fukearncpi%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTimbs1860">Timbs 1860</a>, p. 363 </li> <li id="cite_note-Bridgewatercollieries-94"><a href="#cite_ref-Bridgewatercollieries_94-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.timesonline.co.uk/tol/viewArticle.arc?toDate=1985-12-31&fromDate=1785-01-01&currentPageNumber=1&resultsPerPage=10&sortBy=default&offset=0&viewName=&addFilters=&removeFilters=&addCat=&queryKeywords=bridgewater+canal&sectionId=1040&currPgSmartSet=1&pageId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1913-12-01-08&articleId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1913-12-01-08-001&xmlpath=&pubId=17&totalResults=1638&addRefineFilters=&removeRefineFilters=&addRefineCat=&next_Page=false&prev_Page=false&date_dd_From=1&date_mm_From=01&date_yyyy_From=1785&date_dd_to_range=31&date_mm_to_range=12&date_yyyy_to_range=1985&date_dd_from_precise=1&date_mm_from_precise=01&date_yyyy_from_precise=1785&isDateSearch=false&dateSearchType=range&refineQuerykeywordText=">"Bridgewater Collieries"</a>. The Times. London. 1 December 1913. Retrieved 19 July 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Bridgewater+Collieries&rft.date=1913-12-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.timesonline.co.uk%2Ftol%2FviewArticle.arc%3FtoDate%3D1985-12-31%26fromDate%3D1785-01-01%26currentPageNumber%3D1%26resultsPerPage%3D10%26sortBy%3Ddefault%26offset%3D0%26viewName%3D%26addFilters%3D%26removeFilters%3D%26addCat%3D%26queryKeywords%3Dbridgewater%2Bcanal%26sectionId%3D1040%26currPgSmartSet%3D1%26pageId%3DARCHIVE-The_Times-1913-12-01-08%26articleId%3DARCHIVE-The_Times-1913-12-01-08-001%26xmlpath%3D%26pubId%3D17%26totalResults%3D1638%26addRefineFilters%3D%26removeRefineFilters%3D%26addRefineCat%3D%26next_Page%3Dfalse%26prev_Page%3Dfalse%26date_dd_From%3D1%26date_mm_From%3D01%26date_yyyy_From%3D1785%26date_dd_to_range%3D31%26date_mm_to_range%3D12%26date_yyyy_to_range%3D1985%26date_dd_from_precise%3D1%26date_mm_from_precise%3D01%26date_yyyy_from_precise%3D1785%26isDateSearch%3Dfalse%26dateSearchType%3Drange%26refineQuerykeywordText%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKindleberger1993">Kindleberger 1993</a>, pp. 192–193 </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/from-the-archive-blog/2011/may/17/guardian190-manchester-ship-canal-opens">"1 January 1894: Opening of the Manchester ship canal"</a>. The Guardian. 1 January 1894. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210517080559/https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/from-the-archive-blog/2011/may/17/guardian190-manchester-ship-canal-opens">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 28 July 2012. <q>Six years in the making, the world's largest navigation canal gives the city direct access to the sea</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=1+January+1894%3A+Opening+of+the+Manchester+ship+canal&rft.date=1894-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftheguardian%2Ffrom-the-archive-blog%2F2011%2Fmay%2F17%2Fguardian190-manchester-ship-canal-opens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryMagazine/DestinationsUK/The-Canals-of-Britain/">"A History of the Canals of Britain"</a>. Historic UK. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221013112947/https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryMagazine/DestinationsUK/The-Canals-of-Britain/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 13 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Historic+UK&rft.atitle=A+History+of+the+Canals+of+Britain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historic-uk.com%2FHistoryMagazine%2FDestinationsUK%2FThe-Canals-of-Britain%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rakemanPainting-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rakemanPainting_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rakemanPainting_98-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/rakeman/1823.htm">"1823 – First American Macadam Road"</a> (Painting – <a href="/wiki/Carl_Rakeman" title="Carl Rakeman">Carl Rakeman</a>) US Department of Transportation – Federal Highway Administration (Accessed 10 October 2008) </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Richard Brown (1991). "Society and Economy in Modern Britain 1700–1850" p. 136. Routledge, 1991 </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerhold1996" class="citation journal cs1">Gerhold, Dorian (August 1996). "Productivity Change in Road Transport before and after Turnpiking, 1690–1840". The Economic History Review. 49 (3): 511. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2597761">2597761</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=Productivity+Change+in+Road+Transport+before+and+after+Turnpiking%2C+1690%E2%80%931840&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=511&rft.date=1996-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2597761%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gerhold&rft.aufirst=Dorian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFling1868" class="citation book cs1">Fling, Harry M. (1868). Railroads of the United States, Their History and Statistics. <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>: John. E. Potter and Co. pp. 12, 13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Railroads+of+the+United+States%2C+Their+History+and+Statistics&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=12%2C+13&rft.pub=John.+E.+Potter+and+Co.&rft.date=1868&rft.aulast=Fling&rft.aufirst=Harry+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Jack Simmons, and Gordon Biddle, eds. The Oxford Companion to British Railway History: From 1603 to the 1990s (2nd ed. 1999). </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Herbert L. Sussman (2009). "Victorian Technology: Invention, Innovation, and the Rise of the Machine". p. 2. ABC-CLIO, 2009 </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCase2016" class="citation journal cs1">Case, Holly (November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-intellectual-history/article/abs/social-question-18201920/161912FA1234B9FE6185F59259DAB2D3">"THE "SOCIAL QUESTION," 1820–1920*"</a>. Modern Intellectual History. 13 (3): 747–775. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1479244315000037">10.1017/S1479244315000037</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1479-2443">1479-2443</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143077444">143077444</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423220522/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-intellectual-history/article/abs/social-question-18201920/161912FA1234B9FE6185F59259DAB2D3">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 23 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Intellectual+History&rft.atitle=THE+%22SOCIAL+QUESTION%2C%22+1820%E2%80%931920%2A&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=747-775&rft.date=2016-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143077444%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1479-2443&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1479244315000037&rft.aulast=Case&rft.aufirst=Holly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fmodern-intellectual-history%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fsocial-question-18201920%2F161912FA1234B9FE6185F59259DAB2D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBohstedt2013" class="citation cs2">Bohstedt, John (1 October 2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.4159/harvard.9780674733251.c3/html">"Devon's Classic Food Riots"</a>, Riots and Community Politics in England and Wales, 1790–1810, Harvard University Press, pp. 27–68, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4159%2Fharvard.9780674733251">10.4159/harvard.9780674733251</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-73325-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-73325-1"><bdi>978-0-674-73325-1</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423223043/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.4159/harvard.9780674733251.c3/html">archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023, retrieved 23 April 2023</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Devon%27s+Classic+Food+Riots&rft.btitle=Riots+and+Community+Politics+in+England+and+Wales%2C+1790%E2%80%931810&rft.pages=27-68&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2013-10-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4159%2Fharvard.9780674733251&rft.isbn=978-0-674-73325-1&rft.aulast=Bohstedt&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.4159%2Fharvard.9780674733251.c3%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuntLautzenheiser2014" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, E.K.; Lautzenheiser, Mark (2014). History of Economic Thought: A Critical Perspective. PHI Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-2599-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-2599-1"><bdi>978-0-7656-2599-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Economic+Thought%3A+A+Critical+Perspective&rft.pub=PHI+Learning&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-7656-2599-1&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=E.K.&rft.au=Lautzenheiser%2C+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKüchenhoff2012" class="citation journal cs1">Küchenhoff, Helmut (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ideas.repec.org/a/afc/cliome/v6y2012i1p45-62.html">"The Diminution of Physical Stature of the British Male Population in the 18th-Century"</a>. Cliometrica. 6 (1): 45–62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11698-011-0070-7">10.1007/s11698-011-0070-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154692462">154692462</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210425223039/https://ideas.repec.org/a/afc/cliome/v6y2012i1p45-62.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 April 2021. Retrieved 20 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cliometrica&rft.atitle=The+Diminution+of+Physical+Stature+of+the+British+Male+Population+in+the+18th-Century&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=45-62&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11698-011-0070-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154692462%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=K%C3%BCchenhoff&rft.aufirst=Helmut&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fideas.repec.org%2Fa%2Fafc%2Fcliome%2Fv6y2012i1p45-62.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnowdon2005" class="citation journal cs1">Snowdon, Brian (April–June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181026222933/https://www.worldeconomics.com/Journal/Papers/Measures%20of%20Progress%20and%20Other%20Tall%20Stories.details?ID=209">"Measures of Progress and Other Tall Stories: From Income to Anthropometrics"</a>. World Economics. 6 (2): 87–136. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldeconomics.com/Journal/Papers/Measures%20of%20Progress%20and%20Other%20Tall%20Stories.details?ID=209">the original</a> on 26 October 2018. Retrieved 20 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Economics&rft.atitle=Measures+of+Progress+and+Other+Tall+Stories%3A+From+Income+to+Anthropometrics&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=87-136&rft.date=2005-04%2F2005-06&rft.aulast=Snowdon&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldeconomics.com%2FJournal%2FPapers%2FMeasures%2520of%2520Progress%2520and%2520Other%2520Tall%2520Stories.details%3FID%3D209&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buer-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Buer_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buer_109-1">b</a> Mabel C. Buer, Health, Wealth and Population in the Early Days of the Industrial Revolution, London: George Routledge & Sons, 1926, p. 30 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-38218-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-38218-1">0-415-38218-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Woodward81-110"><a href="#cite_ref-Woodward81_110-0">^</a> Woodward, D. (1981) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130415223308/http://past.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pdf_extract/91/1/28">Wage rates and living standards in pre-industrial England</a> Past & Present 1981 91(1):28–46 </li> <li id="cite_note-Trends_in_Real_Wages_in_Britain,_1750–1913-111"><a href="#cite_ref-Trends_in_Real_Wages_in_Britain,_1750–1913_111-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrafts,_NMills1994" class="citation journal cs1">Crafts, N; Mills, Terence C. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/research/workingpapers/1989-1994/twerp371.pdf">"Trends in Real Wages in Britain, 1750–1913"</a> (PDF). Explorations in Economic History. 31 (2): 176. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fexeh.1994.1007">10.1006/exeh.1994.1007</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414140416/https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/research/workingpapers/1989-1994/twerp371.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 9 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Explorations+in+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Trends+in+Real+Wages+in+Britain%2C+1750%E2%80%931913&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=176&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fexeh.1994.1007&rft.au=Crafts%2C+N&rft.au=Mills%2C+Terence+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwarwick.ac.uk%2Ffac%2Fsoc%2Feconomics%2Fresearch%2Fworkingpapers%2F1989-1994%2Ftwerp371.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hartwell-112"><a href="#cite_ref-hartwell_112-0">^</a> R.M. Hartwell, The Rising Standard of Living in England, 1800–1850, Economic History Review, 1963, p. 398 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-18071-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-18071-0">0-631-18071-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Escape_from_Hunger_and_Premature_Death,_1700-2100-113"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Escape_from_Hunger_and_Premature_Death,_1700-2100_113-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFogel2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Fogel" title="Robert Fogel">Fogel, Robert W.</a> (2004). The Escape from Hunger and Premature Death, 1700–2100. London: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80878-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80878-1"><bdi>978-0-521-80878-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Escape+from+Hunger+and+Premature+Death%2C+1700%E2%80%932100&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-80878-1&rft.aulast=Fogel&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalthus1798" class="citation book cs1">Malthus, Thomas (1798). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esp.org/books/malthus/population/malthus.pdf">An Essay on the Principle of Population</a> (PDF). London: Electronic Scholarly Publishing Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160421101942/http://www.esp.org/books/malthus/population/malthus.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 21 April 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Essay+on+the+Principle+of+Population&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Electronic+Scholarly+Publishing+Project&rft.date=1798&rft.aulast=Malthus&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.esp.org%2Fbooks%2Fmalthus%2Fpopulation%2Fmalthus.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTemple1986" class="citation book cs1">Temple, Robert; Needham, Joseph (1986). The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention. New York: Simon and Schuster,</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+of+China%3A+3000+years+of+science%2C+discovery+and+invention&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Temple&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Needham%2C+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> based on the works of Joseph Needham. </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Gregory Clark, "Shelter from the storm: housing and the industrial revolution, 1550–1909". Journal of Economic History 62#2 (2002): 489–511. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyos1968" class="citation journal cs1">Dyos, H. J. (1968). "The Speculative Builders and Developers of Victorian London". Victorian Studies. 11: 641–690. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3825462">3825462</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Victorian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Speculative+Builders+and+Developers+of+Victorian+London&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=641-690&rft.date=1968&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3825462%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dyos&rft.aufirst=H.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Christopher Powell, The British building industry since 1800: An economic history (Taylor & Francis, 1996). </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> P. Kemp, "Housing landlordism in late nineteenth-century Britain". Environment and Planning A 14.11 (1982): 1437–1447. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyos1967" class="citation journal cs1">Dyos, H. J. (1967). "The Slums of Victorian London". Victorian Studies. 11 (1): 5–40. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3825891">3825891</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Victorian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Slums+of+Victorian+London&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=5-40&rft.date=1967&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3825891%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dyos&rft.aufirst=H.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Anthony S. Wohl, The eternal slum: housing and social policy in Victorian London (1977). </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Martin J. Daunton, House and home in the Victorian city: working-class housing, 1850–1914 (1983). </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Enid Gauldie, Cruel habitations: a history of working-class housing 1780–1918 (Allen & Unwin, 1974) </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Theodore S. Hamerow, The birth of a new Europe: State and society in the nineteenth century (University of North Carolina Press, 1989) pp. 148–174. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Robert Allan Houston, "The Development of Literacy: Northern England, 1640–1750." Economic History Review (1982) 35#2: 199–216 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2595015">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210416095148/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2595015">Archived</a> 16 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Hamerow, p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> Henry Milner, Civic literacy: How informed citizens make democracy work (University Press of New England, 2002). </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Fairchilds, Cissie. "Review: Consumption in Early Modern Europe. A Review Article". Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 35, No. 4. (October 1993), pp. 851. </li> <li id="cite_note-Consumerism-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Consumerism_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Consumerism_129-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419170409/https://www.bl.uk/georgian-britain/articles/the-rise-of-consumerism">"The rise of consumerism"</a>. British Library. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/georgian-britain/articles/the-rise-of-consumerism">the original</a> on 19 April 2021. Retrieved 29 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+rise+of+consumerism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bl.uk%2Fgeorgian-britain%2Farticles%2Fthe-rise-of-consumerism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Black-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Black_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Black_130-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Black_130-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Black_130-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01pz9d6">"Why the Industrial Revolution Happened Here"</a>. BBC. 11 January 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414111229/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01pz9d6">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 21 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Why+the+Industrial+Revolution+Happened+Here&rft.date=2017-01-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fprogrammes%2Fb01pz9d6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/content/5f890020-bba6-11e8-8274-55b72926558f">"History Cook: the rise of the chocolate biscuit"</a>. Financial Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/5f890020-bba6-11e8-8274-55b72926558f">Archived</a> from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 23 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=History+Cook%3A+the+rise+of+the+chocolate+biscuit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2F5f890020-bba6-11e8-8274-55b72926558f&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMintz2015" class="citation book cs1">Mintz, Sidney (2015). The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets. Oxford University Press. p. 157.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Sugar+and+Sweets&rft.pages=157&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Mintz&rft.aufirst=Sidney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hxAyDQAAQBAJ&q=cadbury+chocolate+boxes+1868&pg=PA90">Guinness World Records 2017</a>. Guinness World Records. 8 September 2016. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-910561-34-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-910561-34-8"><bdi>978-1-910561-34-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230324141123/https://books.google.com/books?id=hxAyDQAAQBAJ&q=cadbury+chocolate+boxes+1868&pg=PA90">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2023. Retrieved 3 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guinness+World+Records+2017&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Guinness+World+Records&rft.date=2016-09-08&rft.isbn=978-1-910561-34-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhxAyDQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dcadbury%2Bchocolate%2Bboxes%2B1868%26pg%3DPA90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/culture/bespoke/story/20150326-a-history-of-the-department-store/index.html">"A history of the department store"</a>. BBC Culture. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230811154701/https://www.bbc.com/culture/bespoke/story/20150326-a-history-of-the-department-store/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 August 2023. Retrieved 15 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+Culture&rft.atitle=A+history+of+the+department+store&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fculture%2Fbespoke%2Fstory%2F20150326-a-history-of-the-department-store%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/Fish-Chips/">"The History of Fish and Chips"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Historic_England" title="Historic England">Historic England</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230608152727/https://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/Fish-Chips/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 June 2023. Retrieved 17 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+History+of+Fish+and+Chips&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historic-uk.com%2FCultureUK%2FFish-Chips%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite" class="citation news cs1">White, Matthew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220522225623/https://www.bl.uk/georgian-britain/articles/the-rise-of-cities-in-the-18th-century">"The rise of cities in the 18th century"</a>. British Library. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/georgian-britain/articles/the-rise-of-cities-in-the-18th-century">the original</a> on 22 May 2022. Retrieved 3 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+rise+of+cities+in+the+18th+century&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bl.uk%2Fgeorgian-britain%2Farticles%2Fthe-rise-of-cities-in-the-18th-century&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKotlerArmstrong2010" class="citation book cs1">Kotler, Philip; Armstrong, Gary (2010). Principles of Marketing. Pearson Education. p. 278.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Marketing&rft.pages=278&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Kotler&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft.au=Armstrong%2C+Gary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._S._Turner" title="E. S. Turner">Turner, E. S.</a> (1975). Boys Will be Boys. Harmondsworth: Penguin. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-004116-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-004116-3"><bdi>978-0-14-004116-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Boys+Will+be+Boys&rft.place=Harmondsworth&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-14-004116-3&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=E.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guardian-139">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian_139-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian_139-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/apr/30/penny-dreadfuls-victorian-equivalent-video-games-kate-summerscale-wicked-boy">"Penny dreadfuls: the Victorian equivalent of video games"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181122215447/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/apr/30/penny-dreadfuls-victorian-equivalent-video-games-kate-summerscale-wicked-boy">Archived</a> from the original on 22 November 2018. Retrieved 12 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Penny+dreadfuls%3A+the+Victorian+equivalent+of+video+games&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fbooks%2F2016%2Fapr%2F30%2Fpenny-dreadfuls-victorian-equivalent-video-games-kate-summerscale-wicked-boy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paris_Review-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paris_Review_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paris_Review_140-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2015/04/14/the-sam-weller-bump/">"The Sam Weller Bump"</a>. The Paris Review. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210802164540/https://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2015/04/14/the-sam-weller-bump/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Paris+Review&rft.atitle=The+Sam+Weller+Bump&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theparisreview.org%2Fblog%2F2015%2F04%2F14%2Fthe-sam-weller-bump%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDames2015" class="citation news cs1">Dames, Nicholas (June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/06/was-dickens-a-thief/392072/">"Was Dickens a Thief?"</a>. The Atlantic. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817111558/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/06/was-dickens-a-thief/392072/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=Was+Dickens+a+Thief%3F&rft.date=2015-06&rft.aulast=Dames&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fmagazine%2Farchive%2F2015%2F06%2Fwas-dickens-a-thief%2F392072%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShuttleworth2020" class="citation news cs1">Shuttleworth, Peter (25 December 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-55244397">"The mail-order pioneer who started a billion-pound industry"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210127002807/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-55244397">Archived</a> from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 5 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=The+mail-order+pioneer+who+started+a+billion-pound+industry&rft.date=2020-12-25&rft.aulast=Shuttleworth&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk-wales-55244397&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mail_order-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mail_order_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mail_order_143-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/work/wales/w_mid/article_3.shtml">"Pryce-Jones: Pioneer of the Mail Order Industry"</a>. BBC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414141603/https://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/work/wales/w_mid/article_3.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 12 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Pryce-Jones%3A+Pioneer+of+the+Mail+Order+Industry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Flegacies%2Fwork%2Fwales%2Fw_mid%2Farticle_3.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson1992" class="citation book cs1">Hudson, Pat (1992). The Industrial Revolution. New York: Routledge, Chapman, and Hall, Inc. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7131-6531-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7131-6531-9"><bdi>978-0-7131-6531-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Routledge%2C+Chapman%2C+and+Hall%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-7131-6531-9&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=Pat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-statistics-145"><a href="#cite_ref-statistics_145-0">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/fertility-analysis/focus-on-people-and-migration/december-2005/focus-on-people-and-migration---focus-on-people-and-migration---chapter-1.pdf">The UK population: past, present and future – Chapter 1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924122212/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/fertility-analysis/focus-on-people-and-migration/december-2005/focus-on-people-and-migration---focus-on-people-and-migration---chapter-1.pdf">Archived</a> 24 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" (PDF). Statistics.gov.uk </li> <li id="cite_note-independent-146"><a href="#cite_ref-independent_146-0">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/a-portrait-of-britain-in-2031-395231.html">A portrait of Britain in 2031</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171209044150/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/a-portrait-of-britain-in-2031-395231.html">Archived</a> 9 December 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". The Independent. 24 October 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-bbc-147"><a href="#cite_ref-bbc_147-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/victorian_medicine_01.shtml">BBC – History – Victorian Medicine – From Fluke to Theory</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817120916/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/victorian_medicine_01.shtml">Archived</a> 17 August 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Published: 1 February 2002. </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica-148"><a href="#cite_ref-britannica_148-0">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387301/modernization/12022/Population-change">Modernization – Population Change</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090406074344/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387301/modernization/12022/Population-change">Archived</a> 6 April 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". Encyclopædia Britannica. </li> <li id="cite_note-prb-149"><a href="#cite_ref-prb_149-0">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prb.org/Educators/TeachersGuides/HumanPopulation/Urbanization.aspx">Human Population: Urbanization</a>". Population Reference Bureau. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091026040409/http://www.prb.org/Educators/TeachersGuides/HumanPopulation/Urbanization.aspx">Archived</a> 26 October 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-prb6-150"><a href="#cite_ref-prb6_150-0">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prb.org/Educators/TeachersGuides/HumanPopulation/PopulationGrowth/QuestionAnswer.aspx">Human Population: Population Growth: Question and Answer</a>". Population Reference Bureau. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091008122200/http://www.prb.org/Educators/TeachersGuides/HumanPopulation/PopulationGrowth/QuestionAnswer.aspx">Archived</a> 8 October 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica7-151"><a href="#cite_ref-britannica7_151-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/361363/Manchester">Manchester (England, United Kingdom)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150505034949/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/361363/Manchester">Archived</a> 5 May 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Eleanor Amico, ed. Reader's guide to women's studies (1998) pp. 102–104, 306–308. </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas1988" class="citation journal cs1">Thomas, Janet (1988). "Women and Capitalism: Oppression or Emancipation? A Review Article". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 30 (3): 534–549. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS001041750001536X">10.1017/S001041750001536X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/178999">178999</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145599586">145599586</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Studies+in+Society+and+History&rft.atitle=Women+and+Capitalism%3A+Oppression+or+Emancipation%3F+A+Review+Article&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=534-549&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145599586%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F178999%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS001041750001536X&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Janet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Alice Clark, Working life of women in the seventeenth century (1919). </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers in the Industrial Revolution (1930). </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> Louise Tilly and Joan Wallach Scott, Women, work, and family (1987). </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmiles1875" class="citation book cs1">Smiles, Samuel (1875). Thrift. London: John Murray. pp. 30–40.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thrift&rft.place=London&rft.pages=30-40&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1875&rft.aulast=Smiles&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-countrystudies-158"><a href="#cite_ref-countrystudies_158-0">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/united-states/history-82.htm">United States History – The Struggles of Labor</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120104214750/http://countrystudies.us/united-states/history-82.htm">Archived</a> 4 January 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies" title="Library of Congress Country Studies">Library of Congress Country Studies</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobsbawm1969" class="citation book cs1">Hobsbawm, Eric J. (1969). Industry and Empire: From 1750 to the Present Day. Vol. 3. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56584-561-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56584-561-9"><bdi>978-1-56584-561-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Industry+and+Empire%3A+From+1750+to+the+Present+Day&rft.place=Harmondsworth%2C+England&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-1-56584-561-9&rft.aulast=Hobsbawm&rft.aufirst=Eric+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-industrial4-160"><a href="#cite_ref-industrial4_160-0">^</a> R.M. Hartwell, The Industrial Revolution and Economic Growth, Methuen and Co., 1971, pp. 339–341 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-416-19500-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-416-19500-8">0-416-19500-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Industrial_city-161"><a href="#cite_ref-Industrial_city_161-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120309184810/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/energyhall/page84.asp">"Manchester – the first industrial city"</a>. Entry on Sciencemuseum website. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/energyhall/page84.asp">the original</a> on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 17 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Manchester+%E2%80%93+the+first+industrial+city&rft.pub=Entry+on+Sciencemuseum+website&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemuseum.org.uk%2Fon-line%2Fenergyhall%2Fpage84.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/britain-1700-to-1900/industrial-revolution/life-in-industrial-towns/">"Life in Industrial Towns"</a>. History Learning Site. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210503015043/https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/britain-1700-to-1900/industrial-revolution/life-in-industrial-towns/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+Learning+Site&rft.atitle=Life+in+Industrial+Towns&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historylearningsite.co.uk%2Fbritain-1700-to-1900%2Findustrial-revolution%2Flife-in-industrial-towns%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoeder2002" class="citation book cs1">Hoeder, Dirk (2002). Cultures in Contact. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. pp. 331–332.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultures+in+Contact&rft.place=Durham%2C+NC&rft.pages=331-332&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Hoeder&rft.aufirst=Dirk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuarneri2007" class="citation book cs1">Guarneri, Carl (2007). America in the World. Boston: McGraw-Hill. p. 180.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America+in+the+World&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Guarneri&rft.aufirst=Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-From_Coal_Mine_Upwards:_or_Seventy_Years_of_an_Eventful_Life-165"><a href="#cite_ref-From_Coal_Mine_Upwards:_or_Seventy_Years_of_an_Eventful_Life_165-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunn1905" class="citation book cs1">Dunn, James (1905). From Coal Mine Upwards: or Seventy Years of an Eventful Life. Wildside Press, LLC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4344-6870-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4344-6870-3"><bdi>978-1-4344-6870-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Coal+Mine+Upwards%3A+or+Seventy+Years+of+an+Eventful+Life&rft.pub=Wildside+Press%2C+LLC&rft.date=1905&rft.isbn=978-1-4344-6870-3&rft.aulast=Dunn&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Demographic_Transition_and_Industrial_Revolution:_A_Macroeconomic_Investigation-166"><a href="#cite_ref-Demographic_Transition_and_Industrial_Revolution:_A_Macroeconomic_Investigation_166-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarLeukhina2007" class="citation web cs1">Bar, Michael; Leukhina, Oksana (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071127160733/http://www.unc.edu/~oksana/Paper1.pdf">"Demographic Transition and Industrial Revolution: A Macroeconomic Investigation"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unc.edu/~oksana/Paper1.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 27 November 2007. Retrieved 5 November 2007. <q>The decrease [in mortality] beginning in the second half of the 18th century was due mainly to declining adult mortality. Sustained decline of the mortality rates for the age groups 5–10, 10–15, and 15–25 began in the mid-19th century, while that for the age group 0–5 began three decades later</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Demographic+Transition+and+Industrial+Revolution%3A+A+Macroeconomic+Investigation&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Bar&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Leukhina%2C+Oksana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unc.edu%2F~oksana%2FPaper1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988">. Although the survival rates for infants and children were static over this period, the birth rate & overall life expectancy increased. Thus the population grew, but the <a href="/wiki/Demographics" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics">average Briton was about as old</a> in 1850 as in 1750 (see figures 5 & 6, p. 28). Population size statistics from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mortality.org/">mortality.org</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110228152143/http://www.mortality.org/">Archived</a> 28 February 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> put the mean age at about 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-galbithink-167"><a href="#cite_ref-galbithink_167-0">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.galbithink.org/child.htm">Child Labour and the Division of Labour in the Early English Cotton Mills</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060109031609/http://www.galbithink.org/child.htm">Archived</a> 9 January 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". Douglas A. Galbi. Centre for History and Economics, King's College, Cambridge CB2 1ST. </li> <li id="cite_note-victorianweb-168"><a href="#cite_ref-victorianweb_168-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html">The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080313022018/http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html">Archived</a> 13 March 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Laura Del Col, West Virginia University. </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/child-labor/">"Child Labor | History of Western Civilization II"</a>. courses.lumenlearning.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231103180822/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/child-labor/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 November 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=courses.lumenlearning.com&rft.atitle=Child+Labor+%7C+History+of+Western+Civilization+II&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcourses.lumenlearning.com%2Fsuny-hccc-worldhistory2%2Fchapter%2Fchild-labor%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Testimony_Gathered_by_Ashley's_Mines_Commission-170"><a href="#cite_ref-Testimony_Gathered_by_Ashley's_Mines_Commission_170-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.victorianweb.org/history/ashley.html">"Testimony Gathered by Ashley's Mines Commission"</a>. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081219092543/http://www.victorianweb.org/history/ashley.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 December 2008. Retrieved 22 March 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Testimony+Gathered+by+Ashley%27s+Mines+Commission&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.victorianweb.org%2Fhistory%2Fashley.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Life_of_the_Industrial_Worker_in_Nineteenth-Century_England-171"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Life_of_the_Industrial_Worker_in_Nineteenth-Century_England_171-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html">"The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England"</a>. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080313022018/http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 March 2008. Retrieved 22 March 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+the+Industrial+Worker+in+Nineteenth-Century+England&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.victorianweb.org%2Fhistory%2Fworkers1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historyofosh.org.uk/brief/">"Two steps forward, one step back - History of Occupational Safety and Health"</a>. www.historyofosh.org.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231103180823/https://www.historyofosh.org.uk/brief/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 November 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.historyofosh.org.uk&rft.atitle=Two+steps+forward%2C+one+step+back+-+History+of+Occupational+Safety+and+Health&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyofosh.org.uk%2Fbrief%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-archives-173"><a href="#cite_ref-archives_173-0">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/hine-photos/">Photographs of Lewis Hine: Documentation of Child Labor</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210511020010/https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/hine-photos">Archived</a> 11 May 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvatt2009" class="citation book cs1">Evatt, Herbert (2009). The Tolpuddle Martyrs. Sydney: Sydney University Press. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-586-03832-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-586-03832-1"><bdi>978-0-586-03832-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tolpuddle+Martyrs&rft.place=Sydney&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Sydney+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-586-03832-1&rft.aulast=Evatt&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-archive5-175"><a href="#cite_ref-archive5_175-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070609204531/http://www.chartists.net/General-Strike-1842">"General Strike 1842"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chartists.net/General-Strike-1842">the original</a> on 9 June 2007. Retrieved 9 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=General+Strike+1842&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chartists.net%2FGeneral-Strike-1842&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> From chartists.net. Retrieved 13 November 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByrne2013" class="citation journal cs1">Byrne, Richard (August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thebaffler.com/salvos/a-nod-to-ned-ludd">"A Nod to Ned Ludd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Baffler" title="The Baffler">The Baffler</a>. 23 (23): 120–128. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2FBFLR_a_00183">10.1162/BFLR_a_00183</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210809111005/https://thebaffler.com/salvos/a-nod-to-ned-ludd">Archived</a> from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Baffler&rft.atitle=A+Nod+to+Ned+Ludd&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=120-128&rft.date=2013-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2FBFLR_a_00183&rft.aulast=Byrne&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthebaffler.com%2Fsalvos%2Fa-nod-to-ned-ludd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120326170835/http://www.marsdenhistory.co.uk/people/luddites.html">"Luddites in Marsden: Trials at York"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marsdenhistory.co.uk/people/luddites.html#link4">the original</a> on 26 March 2012. Retrieved 2 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Luddites+in+Marsden%3A+Trials+at+York&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marsdenhistory.co.uk%2Fpeople%2Fluddites.html%23link4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1987" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Paul (1987). The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. New York: Random House. p. 149.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Great+Powers&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=149&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> Beckert, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckert2014" class="citation book cs1">Beckert, Sven (2014). Empire of Cotton: A Global History. Vintage Books Division Penguin Random House. p. 103.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Cotton%3A+A+Global+History&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Vintage+Books+Division+Penguin+Random+House&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Beckert&rft.aufirst=Sven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> Ronald Bailey, "The other side of slavery: Black labor, cotton, and textile industrialization in Great Britain and the United States." Agricultural History 68.2 (1994): 35–50. </li> <li id="cite_note-Donora-182"><a href="#cite_ref-Donora_182-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlemingKnorr" class="citation web cs1">Fleming, James R.; Knorr, Bethany R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ametsoc.org/sloan/cleanair/">"History of the Clean Air Act"</a>. American Meteorological Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110610133251/http://www.ametsoc.org/sloan/cleanair/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 14 February 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Clean+Air+Act&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.aulast=Fleming&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rft.au=Knorr%2C+Bethany+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ametsoc.org%2Fsloan%2Fcleanair%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Leslie Tomory, "The Environmental History of the Early British Gas Industry, 1812–1830." Environmental history 17#1 (2012): 29–54. </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Joel A. Tarr, "Toxic Legacy: The Environmental Impact of the Manufactured Gas Industry in the United States." Technology and culture 55#1 (2014): 107–147. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=history">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171019143436/http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=history">Archived</a> 19 October 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> Harold L. Platt, Shock cities: the environmental transformation and reform of Manchester and Chicago (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Shock-Cities-Environmental-Transformation-Manchester/dp/0226670767/">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210315054853/https://www.amazon.com/Shock-Cities-Environmental-Transformation-Manchester/dp/0226670767/">Archived</a> 15 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> Brian William Clapp, An environmental history of Britain since the industrial revolution (Routledge, 2014). </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> Alan S. Milward and S. B. Saul, The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780–1870 (Harvard UP, 1973). </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> Alan Milward and Samuel Berrick Saul, The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe 1850–1914 (Harvard UP, 1977). </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.erih.net/how-it-started/industrial-history-of-european-countries/czech-republic">"On the Industrial History of the Czech Republic"</a>. European Route of Industrial Heritage. Council of Europe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210428125836/https://www.erih.net/how-it-started/industrial-history-of-european-countries/czech-republic">Archived</a> from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 2 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=European+Route+of+Industrial+Heritage&rft.atitle=On+the+Industrial+History+of+the+Czech+Republic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.erih.net%2Fhow-it-started%2Findustrial-history-of-european-countries%2Fczech-republic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarter1973" class="citation journal cs1">Carter, F. W. (1973). "The Industrial Development of Prague 1800–1850". The Slavonic and East European Review. 51 (123): 243–275. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4206709">4206709</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Slavonic+and+East+European+Review&rft.atitle=The+Industrial+Development+of+Prague+1800%E2%80%931850&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=123&rft.pages=243-275&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4206709%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=F.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.erih.net/how-it-started/industrial-history-of-european-countries/czech-republic">"On the Industrial History of the Czech Republic"</a>. European Route of Industrial Heritage. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210428125836/https://www.erih.net/how-it-started/industrial-history-of-european-countries/czech-republic">Archived</a> from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 2 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=European+Route+of+Industrial+Heritage&rft.atitle=On+the+Industrial+History+of+the+Czech+Republic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.erih.net%2Fhow-it-started%2Findustrial-history-of-european-countries%2Fczech-republic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> Martin Moll, "Austria-Hungary" in Christine Rider, ed., Encyclopedia of the Age of the Industrial Revolution 1700–1920 (2007) pp. 24–27. </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120316114245/http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/Slavonic/Czech_Hist8.html">"The era of enlightenment"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/Slavonic/Czech_Hist8.html">the original</a> on 16 March 2012. Retrieved 11 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+era+of+enlightenment&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arts.gla.ac.uk%2FSlavonic%2FCzech_Hist8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> David Good, The Economic Rise of the Habsburg Empire </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> Millward and Saul, The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe 1850–1914 pp. 271–331. </li> <li id="cite_note-publishing-196"><a href="#cite_ref-publishing_196-0">^</a> Chris Evans, Göran Rydén, The Industrial Revolution in Iron; The impact of British Coal Technology in Nineteenth-Century Europe Published by Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., Farnham 2005, pp. 37–38 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7546-3390-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7546-3390-X">0-7546-3390-X</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Milward and Saul, Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780–1870 pp 292–296, 437–453. </li> <li id="cite_note-language-198"><a href="#cite_ref-language_198-0">^</a> a word from <a href="/wiki/Walloon_language" title="Walloon language">Walloon</a> origin </li> <li id="cite_note-ugent-199"><a href="#cite_ref-ugent_199-0">^</a> Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devos, 'Breaking stereotypes', in M. Neven and I. Devos (editors), 'Recent work in Belgian Historical Demography', in Revue belge d'histoire contemporaine, XXXI, 2001, 3–4, pp. 347–359 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.flwi.ugent.be/btng-rbhc/pdf/BTNG-RBHC,%2031,%202001,%203-4,%20inhoud.pdf">FLWI.ugent.be</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081029174929/http://www.flwi.ugent.be/btng-rbhc/pdf/BTNG-RBHC%2C%2031%2C%202001%2C%203-4%2C%20inhoud.pdf">Archived</a> 29 October 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-philippe-200"><a href="#cite_ref-philippe_200-0">^</a> Philippe Raxhon, Le siècle des forges ou la Wallonie dans le creuset belge (1794–1914), in B. Demoulin and JL Kupper (editors), Histoire de la Wallonie, Privat, Toulouse, 2004, pp. 233–276 [246] <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7089-4779-6" title="Special:BookSources/2-7089-4779-6">2-7089-4779-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-erih-201"><a href="#cite_ref-erih_201-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130731024244/http://en.erih.net/index.php?pageId=114">"European Route of Industrial Heritage"</a>. En.erih.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.erih.net/index.php?pageId=114">the original</a> on 31 July 2013. Retrieved 19 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=European+Route+of+Industrial+Heritage&rft.pub=En.erih.net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.erih.net%2Findex.php%3FpageId%3D114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-linguistiques-202"><a href="#cite_ref-linguistiques_202-0">^</a> Michel De Coster, Les enjeux des conflits linguistiques, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2007, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-296-03394-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-296-03394-8">978-2-296-03394-8</a>, pp. 122–123 </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1344">"Major Mining Sites of Wallonia"</a>. UNESCO WOrld Heritage List. UNESCO. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120703213428/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1344">Archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2012. Retrieved 18 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNESCO+WOrld+Heritage+List&rft.atitle=Major+Mining+Sites+of+Wallonia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Flist%2F1344&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-stereotypes-204"><a href="#cite_ref-stereotypes_204-0">^</a> Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devos, Breaking stereotypes, art. cit., pp. 315–316 </li> <li id="cite_note-marczewski-205"><a href="#cite_ref-marczewski_205-0">^</a> Jean Marczewski, " Y a-t-il eu un "take-off" en France ? ", 1961, dans les Cahiers de l'ISEA </li> <li id="cite_note-Haber-206"><a href="#cite_ref-Haber_206-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHaber1958">Haber 1958</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> Allan Mitchell, Great Train Race: Railways and the Franco-German Rivalry, 1815–1914 (2000) </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchön1982" class="citation journal cs1">Schön, Lennart (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03585522.1982.10407973">"Proto-industrialisation and factories: Textiles in Sweden in the mid-nineteenth century"</a>. Scandinavian Economic History Review. 30: 57–71. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03585522.1982.10407973">10.1080/03585522.1982.10407973</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414185210/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03585522.1982.10407973">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 23 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scandinavian+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=Proto-industrialisation+and+factories%3A+Textiles+in+Sweden+in+the+mid-nineteenth+century&rft.volume=30&rft.pages=57-71&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03585522.1982.10407973&rft.aulast=Sch%C3%B6n&rft.aufirst=Lennart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1080%2F03585522.1982.10407973&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBengtssonMissiaiaOlssonSvensson2018" class="citation journal cs1">Bengtsson, Erik; Missiaia, Anna; Olsson, Mats; Svensson, Patrick (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fehr.12576">"Wealth inequality in Sweden, 1750–1900†"</a>. The Economic History Review. 71 (3): 772–794. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fehr.12576">10.1111/ehr.12576</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1468-0289">1468-0289</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154088734">154088734</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=Wealth+inequality+in+Sweden%2C+1750%E2%80%931900%E2%80%A0&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=772-794&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154088734%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1468-0289&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fehr.12576&rft.aulast=Bengtsson&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft.au=Missiaia%2C+Anna&rft.au=Olsson%2C+Mats&rft.au=Svensson%2C+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fehr.12576&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.boj.or.jp/en/about/outline/history/index.htm/">"History"</a>. Bank of Japan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210804130849/https://www.boj.or.jp/en/about/outline/history/index.htm/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bank+of+Japan&rft.atitle=History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.boj.or.jp%2Fen%2Fabout%2Foutline%2Fhistory%2Findex.htm%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> G.C. Allen, Short Economic History of Modern Japan (1972) </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtackPassell1994" class="citation book cs1">Atack, Jeremy; Passell, Peter (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neweconomicviewo00atac/page/469">A New Economic View of American History</a>. New York: W.W. Norton and Co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neweconomicviewo00atac/page/469">469</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-96315-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-96315-1"><bdi>978-0-393-96315-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+Economic+View+of+American+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=469&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+and+Co.&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-393-96315-1&rft.aulast=Atack&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft.au=Passell%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fneweconomicviewo00atac%2Fpage%2F469&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler1993" class="citation book cs1">Chandler, Alfred D. Jr. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/visiblehandmanag00chan">The Visible Hand: The Management Revolution in American Business</a>. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-94052-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-94052-9"><bdi>978-0-674-94052-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Visible+Hand%3A+The+Management+Revolution+in+American+Business&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-674-94052-9&rft.aulast=Chandler&rft.aufirst=Alfred+D.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvisiblehandmanag00chan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1969" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, George Rogers (1969). The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860. M.E. Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87332-101-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87332-101-3"><bdi>978-0-87332-101-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Transportation+Revolution%2C+1815%E2%80%931860&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-87332-101-3&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=George+Rogers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-manufacturers-215"><a href="#cite_ref-manufacturers_215-0">^</a> Bagnall, William R. The Textile Industries of the United States: Including Sketches and Notices of Cotton, Woolen, Silk, and Linen Manufacturers in the Colonial Period. Vol. I. The Riverside Press, 1893. </li> <li id="cite_note-publication-216"><a href="#cite_ref-publication_216-0">^</a> "Made in Beverly – A History of Beverly Industry", by Daniel J. Hoisington. A publication of the Beverly Historic District Commission. 1989. </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica8-217"><a href="#cite_ref-britannica8_217-0">^</a> Encyclopædia Britannica (1998): Samuel Slater </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomson_1989-218"><a href="#cite_ref-Thomson_1989_218-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson1989" class="citation book cs1">Thomson, Ross (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pathtomechanized00thom">The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States</a>. Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-1867-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-1867-1"><bdi>978-0-8078-1867-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Path+to+Mechanized+Shoe+Production+in+the+United+States&rft.place=Chapel+Hill+and+London&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-1867-1&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=Ross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpathtomechanized00thom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Men,_Machines_and_Modern_Times-219"><a href="#cite_ref-Men,_Machines_and_Modern_Times_219-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorison1966" class="citation book cs1">Morison, Elting E. (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/menmachinesmoder00mori">Men, Machines and Modern Times</a>. Cambridge, MA and London: The M.I.T Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Men%2C+Machines+and+Modern+Times&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA+and+London&rft.pub=The+M.I.T+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Morison&rft.aufirst=Elting+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmenmachinesmoder00mori&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein2021" class="citation news cs1">Klein, Ezra (19 September 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/19/opinion/supply-side-progressivism.html">"Opinion | The Economic Mistake the Left Is Finally Confronting"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220525045517/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/19/opinion/supply-side-progressivism.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 8 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Opinion+%7C+The+Economic+Mistake+the+Left+Is+Finally+Confronting&rft.date=2021-09-19&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Ezra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2021%2F09%2F19%2Fopinion%2Fsupply-side-progressivism.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:03-221">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:03_221-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_221-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2022" class="citation web cs1">Smith, Noah (3 February 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://noahpinion.substack.com/p/a-new-industrialist-roundup">"A New Industrialist roundup"</a>. Noahpinion. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220205012737/https://noahpinion.substack.com/p/a-new-industrialist-roundup">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2022. Retrieved 5 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Noahpinion&rft.atitle=A+New+Industrialist+roundup&rft.date=2022-02-03&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Noah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnoahpinion.substack.com%2Fp%2Fa-new-industrialist-roundup&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2016-02-16/the-next-big-idea-in-economic-growth">"The Next Big Idea in Economic Growth"</a>. Bloomberg.com. 16 February 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220209224051/https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2016-02-16/the-next-big-idea-in-economic-growth">Archived</a> from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 5 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bloomberg.com&rft.atitle=The+Next+Big+Idea+in+Economic+Growth&rft.date=2016-02-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fopinion%2Farticles%2F2016-02-16%2Fthe-next-big-idea-in-economic-growth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverton1996" class="citation book cs1">Overton, Mar (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521568593">Agricultural Revolution in England: The transformation if the agrarian economy 1500–1850</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56859-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56859-3"><bdi>978-0-521-56859-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Agricultural+Revolution+in+England%3A+The+transformation+if+the+agrarian+economy+1500%E2%80%931850&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56859-3&rft.aulast=Overton&rft.aufirst=Mar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780521568593&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Origins_of_the_Industrial_Revolution_in_England-224"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Origins_of_the_Industrial_Revolution_in_England_224-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKreis2006" class="citation web cs1">Kreis, Steven (11 October 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture17a.html">"The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England"</a>. Historyguide.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151102090701/http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture17a.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2015. Retrieved 30 January 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Industrial+Revolution+in+England&rft.pub=Historyguide.org&rft.date=2006-10-11&rft.aulast=Kreis&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyguide.org%2Fintellect%2Flecture17a.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-msn-225"><a href="#cite_ref-msn_225-0">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_701509067/Scientific_Revolution.html">Scientific Revolution</a>". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091028110638/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_701509067/Scientific_Revolution.html">Archived</a> 28 October 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 31 October 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaten,_Jörg2016" class="citation book cs1">Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. pp. 13–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-50718-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-50718-0"><bdi>978-1-107-50718-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Global+Economy.+From+1500+to+the+Present.&rft.pages=13-16&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-107-50718-0&rft.au=Baten%2C+J%C3%B6rg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-industrial10-227"><a href="#cite_ref-industrial10_227-0">^</a> Hudson, Pat. The Industrial Revolution, Oxford University Press US. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7131-6531-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7131-6531-6">0-7131-6531-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-association-228"><a href="#cite_ref-association_228-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFullerton1988" class="citation journal cs1">Fullerton, Ronald A. (January 1988). "How Modern Is Modern Marketing? Marketing's Evolution and the Myth of the "Production Era"". The Journal of Marketing. 52 (1): 108–125. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1251689">10.2307/1251689</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1251689">1251689</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Marketing&rft.atitle=How+Modern+Is+Modern+Marketing%3F+Marketing%27s+Evolution+and+the+Myth+of+the+%22Production+Era%22&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=108-125&rft.date=1988-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1251689&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1251689%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Fullerton&rft.aufirst=Ronald+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Technics_&_Civilization-229"><a href="#cite_ref-Technics_&_Civilization_229-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/015688254X?p=S00Q&checkSum=udoW5CVmUdy3Y45ns0wtGk7Wesh6yWx220dcukbd7VE%3D">Technics & Civilization</a>. Lewis Mumford. January 1963. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-688254-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-688254-5"><bdi>978-0-15-688254-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210307233600/https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/015688254X?p=S00Q&checkSum=udoW5CVmUdy3Y45ns0wtGk7Wesh6yWx220dcukbd7VE=">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technics+%26+Civilization&rft.pub=Lewis+Mumford&rft.date=1963-01&rft.isbn=978-0-15-688254-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fgp%2Freader%2F015688254X%3Fp%3DS00Q%26checkSum%3DudoW5CVmUdy3Y45ns0wtGk7Wesh6yWx220dcukbd7VE%253D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-google11-230"><a href="#cite_ref-google11_230-0">^</a> Deane, Phyllis. The First Industrial Revolution, Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-29609-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-29609-9">0-521-29609-9</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eMBG_soDdNoC&pg=PA131">Google Books</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230404073520/https://books.google.com/books?id=eMBG_soDdNoC&pg=PA131">Archived</a> 4 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-industrialisation-231"><a href="#cite_ref-industrialisation_231-0">^</a> Eric Schiff, Industrialisation without national patents: the Netherlands, 1869–1912; Switzerland, 1850–1907, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> Press, 1971. </li> <li id="cite_note-dklevine-232"><a href="#cite_ref-dklevine_232-0">^</a> Michele Boldrin and David K. Levine, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dklevine.com/general/intellectual/againstfinal.htm">Against Intellectual Monopoly</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110222163546/http://www.dklevine.com/general/intellectual/againstfinal.htm">Archived</a> 22 February 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dklevine.com/papers/imbookfinal01.pdf">"Chapter 1, final online version January 2, 2008"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220912035544/http://www.dklevine.com/papers/imbookfinal01.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 12 September 2022. Retrieved 15 December 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chapter+1%2C+final+online+version+January+2%2C+2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dklevine.com%2Fpapers%2Fimbookfinal01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> (55 KB), p. 15. Cambridge University Press, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87928-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87928-6">978-0-521-87928-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-mott-smith-233"><a href="#cite_ref-mott-smith_233-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMott-Smith1964" class="citation book cs1">Mott-Smith, Morton (1964) [Unabridged and revised version of the book first published by D. Appleton-Century Company in 1934 under the former title: The Story of Energy]. The Concept of Energy Simply Explained. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. pp. 13–14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-21071-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-21071-1"><bdi>978-0-486-21071-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concept+of+Energy+Simply+Explained&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=13-14&rft.pub=Dover+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=978-0-486-21071-1&rft.aulast=Mott-Smith&rft.aufirst=Morton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMokyr1990" class="citation book cs1">Mokyr, Joel (1990). The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 40–44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507477-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507477-2"><bdi>978-0-19-507477-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lever+of+Riches%3A+Technological+Creativity+and+Economic+Progress&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=40-44&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507477-2&rft.aulast=Mokyr&rft.aufirst=Joel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-j-bradford-delong-235"><a href="#cite_ref-j-bradford-delong_235-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/movable_type/archives/000891.html">Why No Industrial Revolution in Ancient Greece?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927042849/http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/movable_type/archives/000891.html">Archived</a> 27 September 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> J. Bradford DeLong, Professor of Economics, University of California at Berkeley, 20 September 2002. Retrieved January 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-historyguide-236"><a href="#cite_ref-historyguide_236-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture17a.html">The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151102090701/http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture17a.html">Archived</a> 2 November 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> |The History Guide, Steven Kreis, 11 October 2006 – Accessed January 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuchesne2011" class="citation book cs1">Duchesne, Ricardo (2011). The Uniqueness of Western Civilization. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-23276-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-23276-1"><bdi>978-90-04-23276-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Uniqueness+of+Western+Civilization&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-90-04-23276-1&rft.aulast=Duchesne&rft.aufirst=Ricardo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVries2001" class="citation journal cs1">Vries, Pier (2001). "Are Coal and Colonies Really Crucial?". Journal of World History. 2: 411.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.atitle=Are+Coal+and+Colonies+Really+Crucial%3F&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=411&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Vries&rft.aufirst=Pier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-google12-239"><a href="#cite_ref-google12_239-0">^</a> Jackson J. Spielvogel (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fwxLkRmd-4QC">Western Civilization: Since 1500</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230327060530/https://books.google.com/books?id=fwxLkRmd-4QC">Archived</a> 27 March 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. p. 607. </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution_–_Causes-240"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution_–_Causes_240-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBondGingerichArcher-AntonsenPurcell2003" class="citation web cs1">Bond, Eric; Gingerich, Sheena; Archer-Antonsen, Oliver; Purcell, Liam; Macklem, Elizabeth (17 February 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://industrialrevolution.sea.ca/causes.html">"The Industrial Revolution – Causes"</a>. Industrialrevolution.sea.ca. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100202030217/http://industrialrevolution.sea.ca/causes.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2010. Retrieved 30 January 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+%E2%80%93+Causes&rft.pub=Industrialrevolution.sea.ca&rft.date=2003-02-17&rft.aulast=Bond&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft.au=Gingerich%2C+Sheena&rft.au=Archer-Antonsen%2C+Oliver&rft.au=Purcell%2C+Liam&rft.au=Macklem%2C+Elizabeth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Findustrialrevolution.sea.ca%2Fcauses.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTemple1986" class="citation book cs1">Temple, Robert (1986). The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention. New York: Simon and Schuster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+of+China%3A+3000+years+of+science%2C+discovery+and+invention&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Temple&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988">Based on the works of Joseph Needham> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerson1990" class="citation book cs1">Merson, John (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geniusthatwaschi0000mers">The Genius That Was China: East and West in the Making of the Modern World</a>. Woodstock, NY: The Overlook Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87951-397-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87951-397-9"><bdi>978-0-87951-397-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+That+Was+China%3A+East+and+West+in+the+Making+of+the+Modern+World&rft.place=Woodstock%2C+NY&rft.pub=The+Overlook+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-87951-397-9&rft.aulast=Merson&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeniusthatwaschi0000mers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988">A companion to the PBS Series "The Genius That Was China </li> <li id="cite_note-iisg-243"><a href="#cite_ref-iisg_243-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iisg.nl/research/jvz-cobbdouglas.pdf">"Cobb-Douglas in pre-modern Europe1 – Simulating early modern growth"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230404035411/https://iisg.nl/research/jvz-cobbdouglas.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 8 May 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cobb-Douglas+in+pre-modern+Europe1+%E2%80%93+Simulating+early+modern+growth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iisg.nl%2Fresearch%2Fjvz-cobbdouglas.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> (254 KB) Jan Luiten van Zanden, International Institute of Social History/University of Utrecht. May 2005. Retrieved January 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandes1999" class="citation book cs1">Landes, David (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wealthpovertyofn00land_0">The Wealth and Poverty of Nations</a>. W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31888-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31888-3"><bdi>978-0-393-31888-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wealth+and+Poverty+of+Nations&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-393-31888-3&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwealthpovertyofn00land_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandes1969" class="citation book cs1">Landes, David S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. pp. 20–32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4"><bdi>978-0-521-09418-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus&rft.pages=20-32&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09418-4&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stark_2005-246">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stark_2005_246-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stark_2005_246-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStark2005" class="citation book cs1">Stark, Rodney (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/victoryofreasonh00star">The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism and Western Success</a>. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-7233-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-7233-7"><bdi>978-0-8129-7233-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Victory+of+Reason%3A+How+Christianity+Led+to+Freedom%2C+Capitalism+and+Western+Success&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House+Trade+Paperbacks&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8129-7233-7&rft.aulast=Stark&rft.aufirst=Rodney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvictoryofreasonh00star&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMerson1990">Merson 1990</a>, pp. 34–35 </li> <li id="cite_note-professor-248"><a href="#cite_ref-professor_248-0">^</a> How Earth Made Us: Fire by Professor <a href="/wiki/Iain_Stewart_(geologist)" title="Iain Stewart (geologist)">Iain Stewart</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1981" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Eric (1981). The European Miracle: Environments, Economies and Geopolitics in the History of Europe and Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 119.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+European+Miracle%3A+Environments%2C+Economies+and+Geopolitics+in+the+History+of+Europe+and+Asia&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMokyr2018" class="citation book cs1">Mokyr, Joel (6 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10835.html">Mokyr, J.: A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy. (eBook and Hardcover)</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18096-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18096-0"><bdi>978-0-691-18096-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170324152030/http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10835.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2017. Retrieved 9 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mokyr%2C+J.%3A+A+Culture+of+Growth%3A+The+Origins+of+the+Modern+Economy.+%28eBook+and+Hardcover%29&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2018-01-06&rft.isbn=978-0-691-18096-0&rft.aulast=Mokyr&rft.aufirst=Joel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Ftitles%2F10835.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-w248-251"><a href="#cite_ref-w248_251-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorthWeingast1989" class="citation journal cs1">North, Douglass C.; Weingast, Barry R. (1989). "Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth-Century England". The Journal of Economic History. 49 (4): 803–832. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050700009451">10.1017/S0022050700009451</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0507">0022-0507</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Constitutions+and+Commitment%3A+The+Evolution+of+Institutions+Governing+Public+Choice+in+Seventeenth-Century+England&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=803-832&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050700009451&rft.issn=0022-0507&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=Douglass+C.&rft.au=Weingast%2C+Barry+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-t824-252"><a href="#cite_ref-t824_252-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnutsenMøllerSkaaning2016" class="citation journal cs1">Knutsen, Carl Henrik; Møller, Jørgen; Skaaning, Svend-Erik (2016). "Going historical: Measuring democraticness before the age of mass democracy". International Political Science Review. 37 (5): 679–689. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0192512115618532">10.1177/0192512115618532</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10852%2F59625">10852/59625</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0192-5121">0192-5121</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Political+Science+Review&rft.atitle=Going+historical%3A+Measuring+democraticness+before+the+age+of+mass+democracy&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=679-689&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10852%2F59625&rft.issn=0192-5121&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0192512115618532&rft.aulast=Knutsen&rft.aufirst=Carl+Henrik&rft.au=M%C3%B8ller%2C+J%C3%B8rgen&rft.au=Skaaning%2C+Svend-Erik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristian2004" class="citation book cs1">Christian, David (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mapstimeintroduc00chri">Maps of Time</a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mapstimeintroduc00chri/page/n413">390</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23500-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23500-7"><bdi>978-0-520-23500-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maps+of+Time&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=390&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-520-23500-7&rft.aulast=Christian&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmapstimeintroduc00chri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStearns1998" class="citation book cs1">Stearns, Peter (1998). The Industrial Revolution in World History. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. p. 36.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+in+World+History&rft.place=Boulder%2C+Colorado&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> Julian Hoppit, "The Nation, the State, and the First Industrial Revolution," Journal of British Studies (April 2011) 50#2 pp. 307–331 </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> "Eric Williams' Economic Interpretation of British Abolitionism – Seventy Years After Capitalism and Slavery" (International Journal of Business Management and Commerce, Vol. 3 No. 4) August 2018 </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070626185300/http://www.oldroyalnavalcollege.org/data/files/english-ph-june-06-offical-new-30.pdf">"Old Naval College"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oldroyalnavalcollege.org/data/files/english-ph-june-06-offical-new-30.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 26 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Old+Naval+College&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oldroyalnavalcollege.org%2Fdata%2Ffiles%2Fenglish-ph-june-06-offical-new-30.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dictatorship-259"><a href="#cite_ref-dictatorship_259-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Barrington_Moore,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Barrington Moore, Jr.">Barrington Moore, Jr.</a>, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World, pp. 29–30, Boston, Beacon Press, 1966. </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoltaire1909–1914" class="citation web cs1">Voltaire, François Marie Arouet de. (1909–1914) [1734]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/34/2/6.html">"Letter VI – On the Presbyterians. Letters on the English"</a>. www.bartleby.com. The Harvard Classics. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210427015821/https://www.bartleby.com/34/2/6.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 22 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bartleby.com&rft.atitle=Letter+VI+%E2%80%93+On+the+Presbyterians.+Letters+on+the+English.&rft.date=1909%2F1914&rft.aulast=Voltaire&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois+Marie+Arouet+de.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bartleby.com%2F34%2F2%2F6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-continuity-261"><a href="#cite_ref-continuity_261-0">^</a> E.A. Wrigley, Continuity chance and change. </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter1985" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Louis C. (1985). A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 2: Steam Power. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Industrial+Power+in+the+United+States%2C+1730%E2%80%931930%2C+Vol.+2%3A+Steam+Power&rft.place=Charlottesville&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Virginia&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Louis+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-263">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_263-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_263-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrafts2011" class="citation journal cs1">Crafts, Nicholas (1 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/44710/1/WRAP_Carfts_10.2010_craftsindustrial.pdf">"Explaining the first Industrial Revolution: two views"</a> (PDF). European Review of Economic History. 15 (1): 153–168. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1361491610000201">10.1017/S1361491610000201</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1361-4916">1361-4916</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308065524/http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/44710/1/WRAP_Carfts_10.2010_craftsindustrial.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 9 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Review+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Explaining+the+first+Industrial+Revolution%3A+two+views&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=153-168&rft.date=2011-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1361491610000201&rft.issn=1361-4916&rft.aulast=Crafts&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwrap.warwick.ac.uk%2F44710%2F1%2FWRAP_Carfts_10.2010_craftsindustrial.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHumphriesSchneider2018" class="citation journal cs1">Humphries, Jane; Schneider, Benjamin (23 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419172959/https://www.economics.ox.ac.uk/materials/papers/14544/spinning-the-industrial-revolution-for-discussion-paper-series-final.pdf">"Spinning the industrial revolution"</a> (PDF). The Economic History Review. 72: 126–155. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fehr.12693">10.1111/ehr.12693</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0117">0013-0117</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:152650710">152650710</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economics.ox.ac.uk/materials/papers/14544/spinning-the-industrial-revolution-for-discussion-paper-series-final.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 April 2021. Retrieved 9 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=Spinning+the+industrial+revolution&rft.volume=72&rft.pages=126-155&rft.date=2018-05-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A152650710%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0013-0117&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fehr.12693&rft.aulast=Humphries&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft.au=Schneider%2C+Benjamin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.economics.ox.ac.uk%2Fmaterials%2Fpapers%2F14544%2Fspinning-the-industrial-revolution-for-discussion-paper-series-final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephenson2017" class="citation journal cs1">Stephenson, Judy Z. (13 May 2017). "'Real' wages? Contractors, workers, and pay in London building trades, 1650–1800". The Economic History Review. 71 (1): 106–132. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fehr.12491">10.1111/ehr.12491</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0117">0013-0117</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:157908061">157908061</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=%27Real%27+wages%3F+Contractors%2C+workers%2C+and+pay+in+London+building+trades%2C+1650%E2%80%931800&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=106-132&rft.date=2017-05-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A157908061%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0013-0117&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fehr.12491&rft.aulast=Stephenson&rft.aufirst=Judy+Z.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKellyMokyrGrada2022" class="citation journal cs1">Kelly, Morgan; Mokyr, Joel; Grada, Cormac O (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/720890">"The Mechanics of the Industrial Revolution"</a>. Journal of Political Economy. 131: 59–94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F720890">10.1086/720890</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10197%2F11440">10197/11440</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-3808">0022-3808</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248787980">248787980</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220517123743/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/720890">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2022. Retrieved 17 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=The+Mechanics+of+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.volume=131&rft.pages=59-94&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10197%2F11440&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248787980%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0022-3808&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F720890&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Morgan&rft.au=Mokyr%2C+Joel&rft.au=Grada%2C+Cormac+O&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2F720890&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-archive-267"><a href="#cite_ref-archive_267-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080207075746/http://jquarter.members.beeb.net/morelunar.htm">"The Lunar Society"</a>. Archived from the original on 7 February 2008. Retrieved 7 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Lunar+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjquarter.members.beeb.net%2Fmorelunar.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>) at Moreabout, the website of the Birmingham Jewellery Quarter guide, Bob Miles. </li> <li id="cite_note-Capital_and_Innovation:_How_Britain_Became_the_First_Industrial_Nation-268"><a href="#cite_ref-Capital_and_Innovation:_How_Britain_Became_the_First_Industrial_Nation_268-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoster2004" class="citation book cs1">Foster, Charles (2004). Capital and Innovation: How Britain Became the First Industrial Nation. Northwich: Arley Hall Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9518382-4-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9518382-4-2"><bdi>978-0-9518382-4-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Capital+and+Innovation%3A+How+Britain+Became+the+First+Industrial+Nation&rft.place=Northwich&rft.pub=Arley+Hall+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-9518382-4-2&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> Argues that capital accumulation and <a href="/wiki/Wealth_condensation" class="mw-redirect" title="Wealth condensation">wealth concentration</a> in an entrepreneurial culture following the <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial Revolution">commercial revolution</a> made the industrial revolution possible, for example. </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> Robert Green, ed., The Weber Thesis Controversy (D.C. Heath, 1973) </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJelinskiGraedelLaudiseMcCall1992" class="citation journal cs1">Jelinski, L. W.; Graedel, T. E.; Laudise, R. A.; McCall, D. W.; Patel, C. K. (1 February 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC48326">"Industrial ecology: concepts and approaches"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 89 (3): 793–797. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992PNAS...89..793J">1992PNAS...89..793J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.89.3.793">10.1073/pnas.89.3.793</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC48326">48326</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11607253">11607253</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Industrial+ecology%3A+concepts+and+approaches.&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=793-797&rft.date=1992-02-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC48326%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11607253&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.89.3.793&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992PNAS...89..793J&rft.aulast=Jelinski&rft.aufirst=L.+W.&rft.au=Graedel%2C+T.+E.&rft.au=Laudise%2C+R.+A.&rft.au=McCall%2C+D.+W.&rft.au=Patel%2C+C.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC48326&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbert2020" class="citation journal cs1">Albert, Michael J. (29 April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/33445/1/M.Albert%20-%20The%20Dangers%20of%20Decoupling%20%28clean%20R%26R%20version%29.pdf">"The Dangers of Decoupling: Earth System Crisis and the 'Fourth Industrial Revolution'"</a> (PDF). Global Policy. 11 (2): 245–254. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1758-5899.12791">10.1111/1758-5899.12791</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218777050">218777050</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231108041711/https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/33445/1/M.Albert%20-%20The%20Dangers%20of%20Decoupling%20%28clean%20R%26R%20version%29.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 8 November 2023. Retrieved 25 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Policy&rft.atitle=The+Dangers+of+Decoupling%3A+Earth+System+Crisis+and+the+%27Fourth+Industrial+Revolution%27&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=245-254&rft.date=2020-04-29&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1758-5899.12791&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218777050%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Albert&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.soas.ac.uk%2F33445%2F1%2FM.Albert%2520-%2520The%2520Dangers%2520of%2520Decoupling%2520%2528clean%2520R%2526R%2520version%2529.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson,_E._P.1967" class="citation journal cs1">Thompson, E. P. (1967). "Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism". Past & Present (38): 56–97. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F38.1.56">10.1093/past/38.1.56</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/649749">649749</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=Time%2C+Work-Discipline%2C+and+Industrial+Capitalism&rft.issue=38&rft.pages=56-97&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F38.1.56&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F649749%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Thompson%2C+E.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> Robert B. Bain "Children and the industrial revolution: Changes in policy." OAH Magazine of History 15.1 (2000): 48–56. </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIshay2004" class="citation journal cs1">Ishay, Micheline (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/1475483042000224897">"What are human rights? Six historical controversies"</a>. Journal of Human Rights. 3 (3): 359–371. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1475483042000224897">10.1080/1475483042000224897</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210815015021/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/1475483042000224897">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 15 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Human+Rights&rft.atitle=What+are+human+rights%3F+Six+historical+controversies&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=359-371&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F1475483042000224897&rft.aulast=Ishay&rft.aufirst=Micheline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1080%2F1475483042000224897&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChamsy_el-OjeiliDylan_Taylor2020" class="citation journal cs1">Chamsy el-Ojeili; Dylan Taylor (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fraw.org.uk/data/ap/el-Ojeili_taylor_2020.pdf">"'The Future in the Past': Anarcho-primitivism and the Critique of Civilization Today"</a> (PDF). Rethinking Marxism. 32 (2): 168–186. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08935696.2020.1727256">10.1080/08935696.2020.1727256</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219015323">219015323</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211006003121/http://www.fraw.org.uk/data/ap/el-Ojeili_taylor_2020.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 6 October 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rethinking+Marxism&rft.atitle=%27The+Future+in+the+Past%27%3A+Anarcho-primitivism+and+the+Critique+of+Civilization+Today&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=168-186&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F08935696.2020.1727256&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219015323%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Chamsy+el-Ojeili&rft.au=Dylan+Taylor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fraw.org.uk%2Fdata%2Fap%2Fel-Ojeili_taylor_2020.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2002" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Mick (2002). "The State of Nature: The Political Philosophy of Primitivism and the Culture of Contamination". Environmental Values. 11 (4): 407–425. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3197%2F096327102129341154">10.3197/096327102129341154</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30301899">30301899</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Values&rft.atitle=The+State+of+Nature%3A+The+Political+Philosophy+of+Primitivism+and+the+Culture+of+Contamination&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=407-425&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3197%2F096327102129341154&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30301899%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Mick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2007" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Mick (2007). "Wild-life: anarchy, ecology, and ethics". Environmental Politics. 16 (3): 470–487. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007EnvPo..16..470S">2007EnvPo..16..470S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09644010701251714">10.1080/09644010701251714</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144572405">144572405</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Politics&rft.atitle=Wild-life%3A+anarchy%2C+ecology%2C+and+ethics&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=470-487&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144572405%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09644010701251714&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007EnvPo..16..470S&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Mick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMawle2010" class="citation journal cs1">Mawle, Angela (1 July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fjphp.2010.12">"Climate change, human health, and unsustainable development"</a>. Journal of Public Health Policy. 31 (2): 272–277. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fjphp.2010.12">10.1057/jphp.2010.12</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20535108">20535108</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Public+Health+Policy&rft.atitle=Climate+change%2C+human+health%2C+and+unsustainable+development&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=272-277&rft.date=2010-07-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2Fjphp.2010.12&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20535108&rft.aulast=Mawle&rft.aufirst=Angela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1057%252Fjphp.2010.12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarvey2011" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fiona_Harvey" title="Fiona Harvey">Harvey, Fiona</a> (18 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/aug/18/climate-change-species-habitats">"Climate change driving species out of habitats much faster than expected"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210609104739/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/aug/18/climate-change-species-habitats">Archived</a> from the original on 9 June 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Climate+change+driving+species+out+of+habitats+much+faster+than+expected&rft.date=2011-08-18&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=Fiona&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2011%2Faug%2F18%2Fclimate-change-species-habitats&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Science2016-280"><a href="#cite_ref-Science2016_280-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaters,_C.N.2016" class="citation journal cs1">Waters, C.N.; et al. (8 January 2016). "The Anthropocene is functionally and stratigraphically distinct from the Holocene". Science. 351 (6269): aad2622. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016Sci...351.2622W">2016Sci...351.2622W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aad2622">10.1126/science.aad2622</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26744408">26744408</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206642594">206642594</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+Anthropocene+is+functionally+and+stratigraphically+distinct+from+the+Holocene&rft.volume=351&rft.issue=6269&rft.pages=aad2622&rft.date=2016-01-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aad2622&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206642594%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26744408&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016Sci...351.2622W&rft.au=Waters%2C+C.N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNuwer2012" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Nuwer" title="Rachel Nuwer">Nuwer, Rachel</a> (14 September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/09/14/from-ancient-deforestation-a-delta-is-born/">"From Ancient Deforestation, a Delta Is Born"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210501005406/https://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/09/14/from-ancient-deforestation-a-delta-is-born/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2021. Retrieved 14 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=From+Ancient+Deforestation%2C+a+Delta+Is+Born&rft.date=2012-09-14&rft.aulast=Nuwer&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgreen.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F09%2F14%2Ffrom-ancient-deforestation-a-delta-is-born%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> Michael Löwy and Robert Sayre, eds., Romanticism against the Tide of Modernity (Duke University Press, 2001). </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> ICONS – a portrait of England. Icon: Jerusalem (hymn) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/collection/jerusalem/features/and-did-those-feet">Feature: And did those feet?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091212021243/http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/collection/jerusalem/features/and-did-those-feet">Archived</a> 12 December 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Accessed 28 June 2021 </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> AJ George, The development of French romanticism: the impact of the industrial revolution on literature (1955) </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshton1948" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/T._S._Ashton" title="T. S. Ashton">Ashton, Thomas S.</a> (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170312195459/http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/237785">The Industrial Revolution (1760–1830)</a>. Oxford University Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/237785">the original</a> on 12 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+%281760%E2%80%931830%29&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1948&rft.aulast=Ashton&rft.aufirst=Thomas+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dli.ernet.in%2Fhandle%2F2015%2F237785&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArtzrouni1990" class="citation journal cs1">Artzrouni, Marc (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:19-epub-3427-7">"Mathematical Investigations of the Escape from the Malthusian Trap"</a>. Mathematical Population Studies. 2 (4): 269–287. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08898489009525313">10.1080/08898489009525313</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12283330">12283330</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mathematical+Population+Studies&rft.atitle=Mathematical+Investigations+of+the+Escape+from+the+Malthusian+Trap&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=269-287&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F08898489009525313&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12283330&rft.aulast=Artzrouni&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnbn-resolving.de%2Furn%3Anbn%3Ade%3Abvb%3A19-epub-3427-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerlanstein1992" class="citation book cs1">Berlanstein, Lenard R., ed. (1992). The Industrial Revolution and work in nineteenth-century Europe. London and New York: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+and+work+in+nineteenth-century+Europe&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernstein1998" class="citation book cs1">Bernstein, Peter L. (1998). Against the Gods: The Remarkable Story of Risk (Reprint ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Wiley_(publisher)" title="Wiley (publisher)">John Wiley & Sons</a>. pp. 135–193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-29563-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-29563-1"><bdi>978-0-471-29563-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Against+the+Gods%3A+The+Remarkable+Story+of+Risk&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=135-193&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-471-29563-1&rft.aulast=Bernstein&rft.aufirst=Peter+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChambliss1973" class="citation book cs1">Chambliss, William J. (1973). Problems of Industrial Society. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-00958-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-201-00958-3"><bdi>978-0-201-00958-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Problems+of+Industrial+Society&rft.place=Reading%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-201-00958-3&rft.aulast=Chambliss&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChernow2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ron_Chernow" title="Ron Chernow">Chernow, Ron</a> (2004). <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_(book)" title="Alexander Hamilton (book)">Alexander Hamilton</a>. New York: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-303475-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-303475-9"><bdi>978-0-14-303475-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+Hamilton&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-14-303475-9&rft.aulast=Chernow&rft.aufirst=Ron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCipolla1973" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Cipolla, Carlo M. (1973). The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Emergence of industrial societies. Vol. 4 part 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fontana+Economic+History+of+Europe%3A+The+Emergence+of+industrial+societies&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Cipolla&rft.aufirst=Carlo+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClapham1930" class="citation book cs1">Clapham, J.H. (1930). An Economic History of Modern Britain: The Early Railway Age, 1820–1850.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Economic+History+of+Modern+Britain%3A+The+Early+Railway+Age%2C+1820%E2%80%931850&rft.date=1930&rft.aulast=Clapham&rft.aufirst=J.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClapham1921" class="citation book cs1">Clapham, J.H. (1921). The Economic Development of France and Germany: 1815–1914.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economic+Development+of+France+and+Germany%3A+1815%E2%80%931914&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Clapham&rft.aufirst=J.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2007" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Gregory (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/farewelltoalmsbr00clar">A Farewell to Alms: A Brief Economic History of the World</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12135-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12135-2"><bdi>978-0-691-12135-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Farewell+to+Alms%3A+A+Brief+Economic+History+of+the+World&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-691-12135-2&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffarewelltoalmsbr00clar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrafts2005" class="citation journal cs1">Crafts, Nicholas (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bancaditalia.it/pubblicazioni/altri-atti-seminari/2005/CRAFTS_22_03_2005.pdf">"The first industrial revolution: Resolving the slow growth/rapid industrialization paradox"</a> (PDF). Journal of the European Economic Association. 3 (2–3): 525–534. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fjeea.2005.3.2-3.525">10.1162/jeea.2005.3.2-3.525</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417135121/https://www.bancaditalia.it/pubblicazioni/altri-atti-seminari/2005/CRAFTS_22_03_2005.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 11 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+European+Economic+Association&rft.atitle=The+first+industrial+revolution%3A+Resolving+the+slow+growth%2Frapid+industrialization+paradox&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=525-534&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fjeea.2005.3.2-3.525&rft.aulast=Crafts&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bancaditalia.it%2Fpubblicazioni%2Faltri-atti-seminari%2F2005%2FCRAFTS_22_03_2005.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig1953" class="citation book cs1">Craig, John (1953). The Mint: A History of the London Mint from A.D. 287 to 1948. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, England: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 239–316. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0000CIHG7">B0000CIHG7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mint%3A+A+History+of+the+London+Mint+from+A.D.+287+to+1948&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=239-316&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1953&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB0000CIHG7%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaunton1995" class="citation book cs1">Daunton, M.J. (1995). Progress and Poverty: An Economic and Social History of Britain, 1700–1850. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Progress+and+Poverty%3A+An+Economic+and+Social+History+of+Britain%2C+1700%E2%80%931850&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Daunton&rft.aufirst=M.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1997" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Glyn (1997) [1994]. A History of Money: From Ancient Times to the Present Day (Reprint ed.). Cardiff: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wales_Press" title="University of Wales Press">University of Wales Press</a>. pp. 283–353, 464–485. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-1351-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-1351-0"><bdi>978-0-7083-1351-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Money%3A+From+Ancient+Times+to+the+Present+Day&rft.place=Cardiff&rft.pages=283-353%2C+464-485&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7083-1351-0&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Glyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunham1955" class="citation book cs1">Dunham, Arthur Louis (1955). The Industrial Revolution in France, 1815–1848. New York: Exposition Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+in+France%2C+1815%E2%80%931848&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Exposition+Press&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Dunham&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGatrell,_Peter2004" class="citation journal cs1">Gatrell, Peter (2004). "Farm to factory: a reinterpretation of the Soviet industrial revolution". The Economic History Review. 57 (4): 794. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.2004.00295_21.x">10.1111/j.1468-0289.2004.00295_21.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=Farm+to+factory%3A+a+reinterpretation+of+the+Soviet+industrial+revolution&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=794&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.2004.00295_21.x&rft.au=Gatrell%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1997" class="citation book cs1">Green, Constance Mclaughlin (1997). Holyoke Massachusetts A Case History Of The Industrial Revolution In America.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Holyoke+Massachusetts+A+Case+History+Of+The+Industrial+Revolution+In+America&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Constance+Mclaughlin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffin2010" class="citation book cs1">Griffin, Emma (2010). Short History of the British Industrial Revolution. Palgrave.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Short+History+of+the+British+Industrial+Revolution&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Griffin&rft.aufirst=Emma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenspanWooldridge2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Greenspan" title="Alan Greenspan">Greenspan, Alan</a>; <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Wooldridge" title="Adrian Wooldridge">Wooldridge, Adrian</a> (2018). Capitalism in America: A History. New York: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Penguin Press">Penguin Press</a>. pp. 29–59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7352-2244-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7352-2244-1"><bdi>978-0-7352-2244-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Capitalism+in+America%3A+A+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=29-59&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-7352-2244-1&rft.aulast=Greenspan&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Wooldridge%2C+Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaber1958" class="citation book cs1">Haber, Ludwig Fritz (1958). The Chemical Industry During the Nineteenth Century: A Study of the Economic Aspect of Applied Chemistry in Europe and North America.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chemical+Industry+During+the+Nineteenth+Century%3A+A+Study+of+the+Economic+Aspect+of+Applied+Chemistry+in+Europe+and+North+America&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Haber&rft.aufirst=Ludwig+Fritz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaber1971" class="citation book cs1">Haber, Ludwig Fritz (1971). The Chemical Industry: 1900–1930: International Growth and Technological Change.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chemical+Industry%3A+1900%E2%80%931930%3A+International+Growth+and+Technological+Change&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Haber&rft.aufirst=Ludwig+Fritz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunterBryant1991" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Louis C.; Bryant, Lynwood (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofindustr00hunt">A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 3: The Transmission of Power</a>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-08198-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-08198-6"><bdi>978-0-262-08198-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Industrial+Power+in+the+United+States%2C+1730%E2%80%931930%2C+Vol.+3%3A+The+Transmission+of+Power&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-262-08198-6&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Louis+C.&rft.au=Bryant%2C+Lynwood&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofindustr00hunt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacob1997" class="citation book cs1">Jacob, Margaret C. (1997). Scientific Culture and the Making of the Industrial West. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Culture+and+the+Making+of+the+Industrial+West&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Jacob&rft.aufirst=Margaret+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKindleberger1993" class="citation book cs1">Kindleberger, Charles Poor (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PFgIE7_eYwwC">A Financial History of Western Europe</a>. Oxford University Press US. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507738-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507738-4"><bdi>978-0-19-507738-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Financial+History+of+Western+Europe&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507738-4&rft.aulast=Kindleberger&rft.aufirst=Charles+Poor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPFgIE7_eYwwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKisch1989" class="citation book cs1">Kisch, Herbert (1989). From Domestic Manufacture to Industrial Revolution The Case of the Rhineland Textile Districts. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Domestic+Manufacture+to+Industrial+Revolution+The+Case+of+the+Rhineland+Textile+Districts&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Kisch&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKmlos2000" class="citation journal cs1">Kmlos, J. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jeeh.it/articolo?urn=urn:abi:abi:RIV.JOU:2000;2.307&ev=1">"The Industrial Revolution as the Escape from the Malthusian Trap"</a>. Journal of European Economic History. 29 (2–3): 307–331. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220930201047/https://www.jeeh.it/articolo?urn=urn:abi:abi:RIV.JOU:2000;2.307&ev=1">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2022. Retrieved 29 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+European+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+as+the+Escape+from+the+Malthusian+Trap&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=307-331&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Kmlos&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jeeh.it%2Farticolo%3Furn%3Durn%3Aabi%3Aabi%3ARIV.JOU%3A2000%3B2.307%26ev%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKynaston2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Kynaston" title="David Kynaston">Kynaston, David</a> (2017). Till Time's Last Sand: A History of the Bank of England, 1694–2013. New York: <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing" title="Bloomsbury Publishing">Bloomsbury</a>. pp. 50–142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-6856-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-6856-0"><bdi>978-1-4088-6856-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Till+Time%27s+Last+Sand%3A+A+History+of+the+Bank+of+England%2C+1694%E2%80%932013&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=50-142&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4088-6856-0&rft.aulast=Kynaston&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandes1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Landes" title="David Landes">Landes, David S.</a> (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unboundprometheu0000land_m6c4">The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present</a>. Cambridge; New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4"><bdi>978-0-521-09418-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus%3A+Technological+Change+and+Industrial+Development+in+Western+Europe+from+1750+to+the+Present&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09418-4&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funboundprometheu0000land_m6c4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucas2002" class="citation journal cs1">Lucas, R.E. (2002). "The industrial revolution: Past and future". Lectures on Economic Growth, 109.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lectures+on+Economic+Growth%2C+109&rft.atitle=The+industrial+revolution%3A+Past+and+future&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=R.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaddison2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Angus_Maddison" title="Angus Maddison">Maddison, Angus</a> (2003). The World Economy: Historical Statistics. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+Economy%3A+Historical+Statistics&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Organisation+for+Economic+Co-operation+and+Development+%28OECD%29&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Maddison&rft.aufirst=Angus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMantoux1961" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Mantoux" title="Paul Mantoux">Mantoux, Paul</a> (1961) [1928]. The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century (First English translation 1928 ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+in+the+Eighteenth+Century&rft.edition=First+English+translation+1928&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Mantoux&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1876" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Frederick (1876). The History of Lloyd's and of Marine Insurance in Great Britain. London: <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan and Company</a>. pp. 161–374. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-341-78124-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-341-78124-0"><bdi>978-0-341-78124-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Lloyd%27s+and+of+Marine+Insurance+in+Great+Britain&rft.place=London&rft.pages=161-374&rft.pub=Macmillan+and+Company&rft.date=1876&rft.isbn=978-0-341-78124-0&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGraw2012" class="citation book cs1">McGraw, Thomas K. (2012). The Founders of Finance: How Hamilton, Gallatin, and Other Immigrants Forged a New Economy. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, MA</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06692-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06692-2"><bdi>978-0-674-06692-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Founders+of+Finance%3A+How+Hamilton%2C+Gallatin%2C+and+Other+Immigrants+Forged+a+New+Economy&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-674-06692-2&rft.aulast=McGraw&rft.aufirst=Thomas+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeil1990" class="citation book cs1">McNeil, Ian, ed. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780415147927">An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology</a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-14792-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-14792-7"><bdi>978-0-415-14792-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Technology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-415-14792-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780415147927&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilwardSaul1977" class="citation book cs1">Milward, Alan S.; Saul, S.B. (1977). The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850-1914.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+the+Economies+of+Continental+Europe%3A+1850-1914&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Milward&rft.aufirst=Alan+S.&rft.au=Saul%2C+S.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilwardSaul1973" class="citation book cs1">Milward, Alan S.; Saul, S.B. (1973). The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780–1870.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economic+Development+of+Continental+Europe+1780%E2%80%931870&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Milward&rft.aufirst=Alan+S.&rft.au=Saul%2C+S.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMokyr2018" class="citation book cs1">Mokyr, Joel (2018). The British industrial revolution: an economic perspective. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+British+industrial+revolution%3A+an+economic+perspective&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Mokyr&rft.aufirst=Joel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMore2002" class="citation book cs1">More, C (2002). Understanding the industrial revolution. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+the+industrial+revolution&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=More&rft.aufirst=C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollard1981" class="citation book cs1">Pollard, Sidney (1981). Peaceful Conquest: The Industrialization of Europe, 1760–1970. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peaceful+Conquest%3A+The+Industrialization+of+Europe%2C+1760%E2%80%931970&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Pollard&rft.aufirst=Sidney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRappleye2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Rappleye" title="Charles Rappleye">Rappleye, Charles</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/robertm_rap_2010_00_1148/page/1">Robert Morris: Financier of the American Revolution</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-7091-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-7091-2"><bdi>978-1-4165-7091-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robert+Morris%3A+Financier+of+the+American+Revolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4165-7091-2&rft.aulast=Rappleye&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frobertm_rap_2010_00_1148%2Fpage%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRider2007" class="citation book cs1">Rider, Christine (2007). Encyclopedia of the Age of the Industrial Revolution, 1700–1920. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Age+of+the+Industrial+Revolution%2C+1700%E2%80%931920&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Rider&rft.aufirst=Christine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoe1916" class="citation book cs1">Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/englishandameri01roegoog">English and American Tool Builders</a>. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/16011753">16011753</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+and+American+Tool+Builders&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1916&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F16011753&rft.aulast=Roe&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Wickham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenglishandameri01roegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988">. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (<a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/27024075">27-24075</a>); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-917914-73-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-917914-73-7">978-0-917914-73-7</a>).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmelser1959" class="citation book cs1">Smelser, Neil J. (1959). Social Change in the Industrial Revolution: An Application of Theory to the British Cotton Industry. U of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Change+in+the+Industrial+Revolution%3A+An+Application+of+Theory+to+the+British+Cotton+Industry&rft.pub=U+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Smelser&rft.aufirst=Neil+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaley2000" class="citation book cs1">Staley, David J. (2000). Encyclopedia of the History of Invention and Technology (3 vol 2011).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Invention+and+Technology+%283+vol+2011%29&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Staley&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStearns1998" class="citation book cs1">Stearns, Peter N. (1998). The Industrial Revolution in World History. Westview Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+in+World+History&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=Peter+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmil1994" class="citation book cs1">Smil, Vaclav (1994). Energy in World History. Westview Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Energy+in+World+History&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Smil&rft.aufirst=Vaclav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnooks2000" class="citation book cs1">Snooks, G.D. (2000). Was the Industrial Revolution Necessary?. London: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Was+the+Industrial+Revolution+Necessary%3F&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Snooks&rft.aufirst=G.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzostak1991" class="citation book cs1">Szostak, Rick (1991). The Role of Transportation in the Industrial Revolution: A Comparison of England and France. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Role+of+Transportation+in+the+Industrial+Revolution%3A+A+Comparison+of+England+and+France&rft.place=Montreal&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Szostak&rft.aufirst=Rick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimbs1860" class="citation book cs1">Timbs, John (1860). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/storiesinventor01timbgoog">Stories of Inventors and Discoverers in Science and the Useful Arts: A Book for Old and Young</a>. Harper & Brothers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stories+of+Inventors+and+Discoverers+in+Science+and+the+Useful+Arts%3A+A+Book+for+Old+and+Young&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1860&rft.aulast=Timbs&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoriesinventor01timbgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToynbee1884" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Toynbee_(historian,_born_1852)" title="Arnold Toynbee (historian, born 1852)">Toynbee, Arnold</a> (1884). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303182004/http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/toynbee/indrev">Lectures on the Industrial Revolution of the Eighteenth Century in England</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4191-2952-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4191-2952-0"><bdi>978-1-4191-2952-0</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/toynbee/indrev">the original</a> on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+the+Industrial+Revolution+of+the+Eighteenth+Century+in+England&rft.date=1884&rft.isbn=978-1-4191-2952-0&rft.aulast=Toynbee&rft.aufirst=Arnold&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsocserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca%2F~econ%2Fugcm%2F3ll3%2Ftoynbee%2Findrev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUglow2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jenny_Uglow" title="Jenny Uglow">Uglow, Jenny</a> (2002). The Lunar Men: The Friends who made the Future 1730–1810. London: Faber and Faber.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lunar+Men%3A+The+Friends+who+made+the+Future+1730%E2%80%931810&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Faber+and+Faber&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Uglow&rft.aufirst=Jenny&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUsher1920" class="citation book cs1">Usher, Abbott Payson (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anintroductiont00ushegoog">An Introduction to the Industrial History of England</a>. University of Michigan Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Industrial+History+of+England&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Usher&rft.aufirst=Abbott+Payson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanintroductiont00ushegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZmolek2013" class="citation book cs1">Zmolek, Michael Andrew (2013). Rethinking the industrial revolution: five centuries of transition from agrarian to industrial capitalism in England.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+the+industrial+revolution%3A+five+centuries+of+transition+from+agrarian+to+industrial+capitalism+in+England&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Zmolek&rft.aufirst=Michael+Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCannadine1984" class="citation book cs1">Cannadine, David (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/650727">The Present and the Past in the English Industrial Revolution 1880–1980". Past & Present, no. 103</a> (Reprint ed.). pp. 131–172. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/650727">650727</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210226150053/https://www.jstor.org/stable/650727">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Present+and+the+Past+in+the+English+Industrial+Revolution+1880%E2%80%931980%22.+Past+%26+Present%2C+no.+103&rft.pages=131-172&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F650727%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cannadine&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F650727&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrinin2022" class="citation book cs1">Grinin, Leonid (2022). The European revolutions and revolutionary waves of the 19th century: Their causes and consequences: Handbook of Revolutions in the 21st Century. Springer, Cham. pp. 281–313.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+European+revolutions+and+revolutionary+waves+of+the+19th+century%3A+Their+causes+and+consequences%3A+Handbook+of+Revolutions+in+the+21st+Century&rft.pages=281-313&rft.pub=Springer%2C+Cham&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Grinin&rft.aufirst=Leonid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawke1993" class="citation journal cs1">Hawke, Gary (1993). "Reinterpretations of the Industrial Revolution". The Industrial Revolution and British Society. Patrick O'Brien and Roland Quinault: 54–78. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511622137.004">10.1017/CBO9780511622137.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43154-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43154-5"><bdi>978-0-521-43154-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+and+British+Society&rft.atitle=Reinterpretations+of+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.pages=54-78&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511622137.004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-43154-5&rft.aulast=Hawke&rft.aufirst=Gary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCloskey,_Deirdre2004" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">McCloskey, Deirdre (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://deirdremccloskey.org/articles/floud.php">"Review of The Cambridge Economic History of Britain (edited by Roderick Floud and Paul Johnson)"</a>. Times Higher Education Supplement. 15 (January). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190921102247/http://deirdremccloskey.org/articles/floud.php">Archived</a> from the original on 21 September 2019. Retrieved 12 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Times+Higher+Education+Supplement&rft.atitle=Review+of+The+Cambridge+Economic+History+of+Britain+%28edited+by+Roderick+Floud+and+Paul+Johnson%29&rft.volume=15+%28January%29&rft.date=2004&rft.au=McCloskey%2C+Deirdre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdeirdremccloskey.org%2Farticles%2Ffloud.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKellyMokyrCormac_Ó2020" class="citation journal cs1">Kelly, Morgan; Mokyr, Joel; Cormac Ó, Gráda (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://researchrepository.ucd.ie/bitstream/10197/11440/1/WP20_16.pdf">"The mechanics of the Industrial Revolution"</a> (PDF). Journal of Political Economy. 131 (1). Patrick O'Brien and Roland Quinault. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221219222759/https://researchrepository.ucd.ie/bitstream/10197/11440/1/WP20_16.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 19 December 2022. Retrieved 19 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=The+mechanics+of+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.volume=131&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Morgan&rft.au=Mokyr%2C+Joel&rft.au=Cormac+%C3%93%2C+Gr%C3%A1da&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearchrepository.ucd.ie%2Fbitstream%2F10197%2F11440%2F1%2FWP20_16.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMore2000" class="citation book cs1">More, Charles (2000). Understanding the Industrial Revolution. London: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=More&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWrigley2018" class="citation journal cs1">Wrigley, E. Anthony (2018). "Reconsidering the Industrial Revolution: England and Wales". Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 49: 9–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fjinh_a_01230">10.1162/jinh_a_01230</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+History&rft.atitle=Reconsidering+the+Industrial+Revolution%3A+England+and+Wales&rft.volume=49&rft.pages=9-42&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fjinh_a_01230&rft.aulast=Wrigley&rft.aufirst=E.+Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Industrial_revolution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Industrial revolution">Industrial revolution</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Industrial_Revolution" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/40px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/60px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/80px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/How_things_work_college_course/Industrial_Revolution_quiz" class="extiw" title="v:How things work college course/Industrial Revolution quiz">Wikiversity quiz on this Industrial Revolution article</a></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/modsbook14.asp">Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Industrial Revolution</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171325/https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/modsbook14.asp">Archived</a> 20 September 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/scottishhistory/enlightenment/features_enlightenment_industry.shtml">BBC History Home Page: Industrial Revolution</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191225210145/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/scottishhistory/enlightenment/features_enlightenment_industry.shtml">Archived</a> 25 December 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/">National Museum of Science and Industry website: machines and personalities</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091012185400/http://www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/">Archived</a> 12 October 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.galbithink.org/fw.htm">Factory Workers in the Industrial Revolution</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090815095907/http://www.galbithink.org/fw.htm">Archived</a> 15 August 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/270">"The Day the World Took Off" Six-part video series from the University of Cambridge tracing the question "Why did the Industrial Revolution begin when and where it did."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220920170937/https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/270">Archived</a> 20 September 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Industrial_and_technological_revolution" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Industrial_Revolution" title="Template:Industrial Revolution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Industrial_Revolution" title="Template talk:Industrial Revolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Industrial_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Industrial Revolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Industrial_and_technological_revolution" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Industrial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">technological</a> revolution</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization" title="Proto-industrialization">Proto</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution#Potential_future_technological_revolutions" title="Technological revolution">Potential future</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">Coal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">Coke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_(manufacturing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Industry (manufacturing)">Industry/Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Invention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">Machinery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">Steam power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile">Textiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Water power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workforce" title="Workforce">Workforce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economies_of_agglomeration" title="Economies of agglomeration">Economies of agglomeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economies_of_density" title="Economies of density">Economies of density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">Economies of scale</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/100px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/150px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/200px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="760" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People/ groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Arkwright" title="Richard Arkwright">Richard Arkwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Boulsover" title="Thomas Boulsover">Thomas Boulsover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Boulton" title="Matthew Boulton">Matthew Boulton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Brindley" title="James Brindley">James Brindley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isambard_Kingdom_Brunel" title="Isambard Kingdom Brunel">Isambard Kingdom Brunel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Cartwright" title="Edmund Cartwright">Edmund Cartwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Cort_(Template)" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Cort (Template)">Henry Cort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranege_brothers" title="Cranege brothers">Thomas and George Cranege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Crompton" title="Samuel Crompton">Samuel Crompton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_I" title="Abraham Darby I">Abraham Darby I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_II" title="Abraham Darby II">Abraham Darby II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_III" title="Abraham Darby III">Abraham Darby III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Egerton,_3rd_Duke_of_Bridgewater" title="Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater">Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Fairbairn" title="William Fairbairn">William Fairbairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hargreaves" title="James Hargreaves">James Hargreaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawks_family" title="Hawks family">Hawks family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Highs" title="Thomas Highs">Thomas Highs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eaton_Hodgkinson" title="Eaton Hodgkinson">Eaton Hodgkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Huntsman" title="Benjamin Huntsman">Benjamin Huntsman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Jacquard" title="Joseph Marie Jacquard">Joseph Marie Jacquard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kay_(flying_shuttle)" title="John Kay (flying shuttle)">John Kay (flying shuttle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kay_(spinning_frame)" title="John Kay (spinning frame)">John Kay (spinning frame)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Cabot_Lowell_(businessman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Cabot Lowell (businessman)">Francis Cabot Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar Society">Lunar Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Newcomen" title="Thomas Newcomen">Thomas Newcomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Robert Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Paul" title="Lewis Paul">Lewis Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Radcliffe" title="William Radcliffe">William Radcliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Roberts_(engineer)" title="Richard Roberts (engineer)">Richard Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Savery" title="Thomas Savery">Thomas Savery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Slater" title="Samuel Slater">Samuel Slater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Smeaton" title="John Smeaton">John Smeaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Stephenson" title="George Stephenson">George Stephenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Stephenson" title="Robert Stephenson">Robert Stephenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Telford" title="Thomas Telford">Thomas Telford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Trevithick" title="Richard Trevithick">Richard Trevithick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkinson_(industrialist)" title="John Wilkinson (industrialist)">John Wilkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wyatt_(inventor)" title="John Wyatt (inventor)">John Wyatt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbeydale_Industrial_Hamlet" title="Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet">Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allentown,_Pennsylvania" title="Allentown, Pennsylvania">Allentown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethlehem,_Pennsylvania" title="Bethlehem, Pennsylvania">Bethlehem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal" title="Bridgewater Canal">Bridgewater Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broseley" title="Broseley">Broseley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coalbrookdale" title="Coalbrookdale">Coalbrookdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cromford" title="Cromford">Cromford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derwent_Valley_Mills" title="Derwent Valley Mills">Derwent Valley Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ironbridge" title="Ironbridge">Ironbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Lanark" title="New Lanark">New Lanark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portsmouth_Block_Mills" title="Portsmouth Block Mills">Portsmouth Block Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry_Bank_Mill" title="Quarry Bank Mill">Quarry Bank Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soho_Foundry" title="Soho Foundry">Soho Foundry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockton_and_Darlington_Railway" title="Stockton and Darlington Railway">Stockton and Darlington Railway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Invention/ technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">Blast furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_mill" title="Cotton mill">Cotton mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factory" title="Factory">Factory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_shuttle" title="Flying shuttle">Flying shuttle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newcomen_steam_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Newcomen steam engine">Newcomen steam engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_loom" title="Power loom">Power loom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">Railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">Reverberatory furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheffield_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheffield plate">Sheffield plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinning_frame" title="Spinning frame">Spinning frame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinning_jenny" title="Spinning jenny">Spinning jenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">Steam engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephenson%27s_Rocket" title="Stephenson's Rocket">Stephenson's Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_frame" title="Water frame">Water frame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine" title="Watt steam engine">Watt steam engine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social impact</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">Bourgeoisie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_cooperative_movement" title="History of the cooperative movement">History of the cooperative Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cottage_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cottage industry">Cottage industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factory_Acts" title="Factory Acts">Factory Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_unrest" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial unrest">Industrial unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luddite" title="Luddite">Luddite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">Proletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rochdale_Pioneers" class="mw-redirect" title="Rochdale Pioneers">Rochdale Pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">Industrial warfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reference</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_canal_system" title="History of the British canal system">History of the British canal system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_archaeology" title="Industrial archaeology">Industrial archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Kingdom-related_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United Kingdom-related topics">List of United Kingdom-related topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_clothing_and_textiles_technology" title="Timeline of clothing and textiles technology">Timeline of clothing and textiles technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Timeline of invention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_materials_technology" title="Timeline of materials technology">Timeline of materials technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_steam_power" title="Timeline of steam power">Timeline of steam power</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Industrial_Revolution" title="Category:Industrial Revolution">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Industrial_revolution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Industrial revolution">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_technology" title="Template:History of technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_technology" title="Template talk:History of technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>History of technology cultures</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_technology" title="Inca technology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Ancient Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>History of technology domains</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering#History" title="Electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">History of materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_measurement" title="History of measurement">History of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology#History_and_scientific_background" title="Nuclear technology">History of nuclear technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport" title="History of transport">History of transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Template:Economy of the United Kingdom"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Template talk:Economy of the United Kingdom"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Economy of the United Kingdom"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economy of the United Kingdom">Economy of the United Kingdom</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Companies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_co-operative_movement" title="British co-operative movement">Co-operatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Employee-owned_companies_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Employee-owned companies of the United Kingdom">Employee-owned companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FTSE_100_Index" title="FTSE 100 Index">FTSE 100 Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FTSE_250_Index" title="FTSE 250 Index">FTSE 250 Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FTSE_Fledgling_Index" title="FTSE Fledgling Index">FTSE Fledgling Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FTSE_SmallCap_Index" title="FTSE SmallCap Index">FTSE SmallCap Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Government-owned_companies_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Government-owned companies of the United Kingdom">Government-owned companies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Currency, governance, regulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_of_the_Bank_of_England" title="Governor of the Bank of England">Governor of the Bank of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_Policy_Committee_(United_Kingdom)" title="Monetary Policy Committee (United Kingdom)">Monetary Policy Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budget_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Budget of the United Kingdom">Budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_company_law" title="United Kingdom company law">Company law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_and_Markets_Authority" title="Competition and Markets Authority">Competition and Markets Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_for_Business_and_Trade" title="Department for Business and Trade">Department for Business and Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_Conduct_Authority" title="Financial Conduct Authority">Financial Conduct Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilt-edged_securities" title="Gilt-edged securities">Gilts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HM_Revenue_%26_Customs" class="mw-redirect" title="HM Revenue & Customs">HM Revenue & Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HM_Treasury" title="HM Treasury">HM Treasury</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer" title="Chancellor of the Exchequer">Chancellor of the Exchequer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_Management_Office_(United_Kingdom)" title="Debt Management Office (United Kingdom)">Debt Management Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_for_Budget_Responsibility" title="Office for Budget Responsibility">Office for Budget Responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">Pound sterling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_pound_sterling" title="Banknotes of the pound sterling">Banknotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coins_of_the_pound_sterling" title="Coins of the pound sterling">Coinage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Taxation in the United Kingdom">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK_Statistics_Authority" title="UK Statistics Authority">UK Statistics Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK_Trade_%26_Investment" title="UK Trade & Investment">UK Trade & Investment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic history of the United Kingdom">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee">Chronological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Navigation_Acts" title="Navigation Acts">1659–1849 Navigation Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_Revolution" title="Financial Revolution">Financial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1796%E2%80%9397" class="mw-redirect" title="Panic of 1796–97">Panic of 1796–97</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">1815–46 Corn Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism 1830s–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution 1860s–1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Depression" title="Long Depression">1873–79 Long Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_United_Kingdom_general_strike" title="1926 United Kingdom general strike">1926 general strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Great Depression in the United Kingdom">1929–39 Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">1948–52 Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-Day_Week" title="Three-Day Week">1974 Three-Day Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_of_Discontent" title="Winter of Discontent">1979 Winter of Discontent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_(financial_markets)" title="Big Bang (financial markets)">1986 Big Bang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Wednesday" title="Black Wednesday">1992 Black Wednesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Europe#United_Kingdom" title="Great Recession in Europe">Late-2000s recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_United_Kingdom_bank_rescue_package" title="2008 United Kingdom bank rescue package">2008 bank rescue package</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_United_Kingdom_bank_rescue_package" title="2009 United Kingdom bank rescue package">2009 bank rescue package</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brexit" title="Brexit">2020 Withdrawal from the European Union</a> (<a href="/wiki/Growth_deal" title="Growth deal">Growth deal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom%27s_financial_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of the United Kingdom's financial response to the COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom">Impact</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%93present_United_Kingdom_cost-of-living_crisis" title="2021–present United Kingdom cost-of-living crisis">Cost-of-living crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee">Recurrent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic geography of the United Kingdom">Economic geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Free trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_standard" title="Gold standard">Gold standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of recessions in the United Kingdom">Recessions and recoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_champions" title="National champions">National champions policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization#United_Kingdom" title="Nationalization">Nationalisation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Nations, regions, cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_England" title="Economy of England">England</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Gateway_(North_West_England)" title="Atlantic Gateway (North West England)">Atlantic Gateway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Birmingham" title="Economy of Birmingham">Birmingham</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_City_Plan" title="Big City Plan">Big City Plan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Bristol" title="Economy of Bristol">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Cornwall" title="Economy of Cornwall">Cornwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_London_Borough_of_Croydon" title="Economy of the London Borough of Croydon">Croydon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Devon" title="Economy of Devon">Devon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Dorset" title="Economy of Dorset">Dorset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_plans_for_Milton_Keynes" title="Expansion plans for Milton Keynes">Expansion plans for Milton Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_England" title="Fishing industry in England">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Leeds" title="Economy of Leeds">Leeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ceremonial_counties_in_England_by_GDP" title="List of ceremonial counties in England by GDP">List of counties by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ceremonial_counties_in_England_by_gross_value_added" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ceremonial counties in England by gross value added">List of counties by GVA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Liverpool" title="Economy of Liverpool">Liverpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_London" title="Economy of London">London</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_London_Tech_City" title="East London Tech City">East London Tech City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Plan" title="London Plan">London Plan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M4_corridor" title="M4 corridor">M4 corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M11_Corridor" class="mw-redirect" title="M11 Corridor">M11 Corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Manchester" title="Economy of Manchester">Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Reading,_Berkshire" title="Economy of Reading, Berkshire">Reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Sheffield" title="Economy of Sheffield">Sheffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_Fen" title="Silicon Fen">Silicon Fen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Somerset" title="Economy of Somerset">Somerset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thames_Gateway" title="Thames Gateway">Thames Gateway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_England" title="Tourism in England">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_England" title="Transport in England">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Wiltshire" title="Economy of Wiltshire">Wiltshire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Economy of Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Belfast" title="Economy of Belfast">Belfast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Ireland" title="Transport in Ireland">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Scotland" title="Economy of Scotland">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Aberdeen" title="Economy of Aberdeen">Aberdeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Scotland" title="Agriculture in Scotland">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Edinburgh" title="Economy of Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_Scotland" title="Industrial Revolution in Scotland">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Scotland" title="Fishing industry in Scotland">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Scotland" title="Economic history of Scotland">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oil_and_gas_industry_in_Scotland" title="Category:Oil and gas industry in Scotland">Oil and gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Scotland" title="Renewable energy in Scotland">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_Glen" title="Silicon Glen">Silicon Glen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Scotland" title="Tourism in Scotland">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Scotland" title="Transport in Scotland">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotch_whisky" title="Scotch whisky">Whisky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Wales" title="Economy of Wales">Wales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Wales" title="Agriculture in Wales">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Cardiff" title="Economy of Cardiff">Cardiff</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cardiff_Bay" title="Cardiff Bay">Cardiff Bay</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Wales" title="Fishing industry in Wales">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Wales" title="Economic history of Wales">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_Wales" title="Industrial Revolution in Wales">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Wales" title="Renewable energy in Wales">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Swansea" title="Economy of Swansea">Swansea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Wales" title="Tourism in Wales">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Wales" title="Transport in Wales">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">People and labour</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_billionaires" title="Category:British billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_businesspeople" title="Category:British businesspeople">Businesspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Demographics of the United Kingdom">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Income in the United Kingdom">Income</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Poverty in the United Kingdom">Poverty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_labour_law" title="United Kingdom labour law">Labour law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_employment_equality_law" title="United Kingdom employment equality law">Equal opportunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Minimum_Wage_Act_1998" title="National Minimum Wage Act 1998">Minimum wage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_Time_Directive_2003" title="Working Time Directive 2003">Working Time Directive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pensions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Pensions in the United Kingdom">Pensions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Trade unions in the United Kingdom">Trades unions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trades_Union_Congress" title="Trades Union Congress">Trades Union Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Unemployment in the United Kingdom">Unemployment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Sectors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><a href="/wiki/List_of_renewable_resources_produced_and_traded_by_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of renewable resources produced and traded by the United Kingdom">Resource and production</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Energy in the United Kingdom">Energy</a>/<a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Renewable energy in the United Kingdom">Renewable energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiesel_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiesel in the United Kingdom">Biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Coal mining in the United Kingdom">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Geothermal power in the United Kingdom">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom">Fracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hydroelectricity in the United Kingdom">Hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom#Ocean_power" title="Renewable energy in the United Kingdom">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_oil" title="North Sea oil">North Sea oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Solar power in the United Kingdom">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Wind power in the United Kingdom">Wind</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_cuisine" title="British cuisine">Food</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Agriculture in the United Kingdom">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cider#United_Kingdom" title="Cider">Cider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_from_the_United_Kingdom" title="Wine from the United Kingdom">Wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Beer in the United Kingdom">Beer</a></li></ul></li> <li>Fishing <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_England" title="Fishing industry in England">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Scotland" title="Fishing industry in Scotland">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Wales" title="Fishing industry in Wales">Welsh</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Materials <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Forestry in the United Kingdom">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Mining in the United Kingdom">Mining</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><a href="/wiki/Financial_services_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Financial services in the United Kingdom">Financial services</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Exchange" title="Baltic Exchange">Baltic Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Banking in the United Kingdom">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of banks in the United Kingdom">List of banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_building_societies#United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="List of building societies">List of UK building societies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canary_Wharf" title="Canary Wharf">Canary Wharf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_of_London" title="City of London">The City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euronext#Euronext.liffe" title="Euronext">Euronext.liffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Financial_Services_District" title="International Financial Services District">Glasgow International Financial Services District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Insurance in the United Kingdom">Insurance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd%27s_of_London" title="Lloyd's of London">Lloyd's of London</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LCH_(clearing_house)" title="LCH (clearing house)">LCH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libor" title="Libor">London Interbank Offered Rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Metal_Exchange" title="London Metal Exchange">London Metal Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Platinum_and_Palladium_Market" title="London Platinum and Palladium Market">London Platinum and Palladium Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Stock_Exchange" title="London Stock Exchange">London Stock Exchange</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_Investment_Market" title="Alternative Investment Market">Alternative Investment Market</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Education in the United Kingdom">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_students_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="International students in the United Kingdom">International students</a></li></ul></li> <li>Entertainment & <a href="/wiki/Media_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of the United Kingdom">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cinema of the United Kingdom">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Gambling in the United Kingdom">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_the_United_Kingdom_by_circulation" title="List of newspapers in the United Kingdom by circulation">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Radio in the United Kingdom">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Television in the United Kingdom">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Theatre of the United Kingdom">Theatre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Health care in the United Kingdom">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_services_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Legal services in the United Kingdom">Legal services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Manufacturing in the United Kingdom">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_industry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom">Aerospace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Automotive industry in the United Kingdom">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Pharmaceutical industry in the United Kingdom">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of exports of the United Kingdom">Exports</a></li></ul></li> <li>Property <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Architecture of the United Kingdom">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Construction industry of the United Kingdom">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affordability_of_housing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Affordability of housing in the United Kingdom">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Real estate in the United Kingdom">Real estate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Science and technology in the United Kingdom">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Internet in the United Kingdom">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Telecommunications in the United Kingdom">Telecommunications</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supermarket_chains_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of supermarket chains in the United Kingdom">Supermarkets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Tourism in the United Kingdom">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Transport in the United Kingdom">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Air transport in the United Kingdom">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure_of_the_rail_industry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Structure of the rail industry in the United Kingdom">Rail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inter-city_rail_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Inter-city rail in the United Kingdom">Inter-city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_rail_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="High-speed rail in the United Kingdom">High-speed</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Trade and business organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Business_organisations_based_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Business organisations based in the United Kingdom">Business organisations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Bankers%27_Association" title="British Bankers' Association">British Bankers' Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Chambers_of_Commerce" title="British Chambers of Commerce">British Chambers of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_British_Industry" title="Confederation of British Industry">Confederation of British Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-operatives_UK" title="Co-operatives UK">Co-operatives UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Small_Businesses" title="Federation of Small Businesses">Federation of Small Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Trade_associations_based_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Trade associations based in the United Kingdom">Industry trade groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Directors" title="Institute of Directors">Institute of Directors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Make_UK" title="Make UK">Make UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK_Payments_Administration" title="UK Payments Administration">UK Payments Administration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Economy of the United Kingdom">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Economy of the United Kingdom">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Capitalism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Capitalism" title="Template:Capitalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Capitalism" title="Template talk:Capitalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Capitalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Capitalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Capitalism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Aspects and <a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">perspectives</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy_of_production" title="Anarchy of production">Anarchy of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">Business cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centralisation" title="Centralisation">Centralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deregulation" title="Deregulation">Deregulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_bubble" title="Economic bubble">Economic bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Economic planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">Entrepreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopreneurship" title="Ecopreneurship">Ecopreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">Financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_Revolution" title="Financial Revolution">Financial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalist_theory" title="History of capitalist theory">History of capitalist theory</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Invention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy#Capitalism" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">Market failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchantilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Merchantilism">Merchantilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multinational_corporation" title="Multinational corporation">Multinational corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligopoly" title="Oligopoly">Oligopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">Profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">Wage labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">Wealth</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_model" title="Anglo-Saxon model">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_capitalism" title="Authoritarian capitalism">Authoritarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_capitalism" title="Corporate capitalism">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_market#General_principles" title="Free market">Free-market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_capitalism" title="Humanistic capitalism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Laissez-faire capitalism">Laissez-faire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Market capitalism">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed capitalism">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_monopoly_capitalism" title="State monopoly capitalism">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="National capitalism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-capitalism" title="Neo-capitalism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neoliberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nordic capitalism">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raw_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Raw capitalism">Raw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulated_market" title="Regulated market">Regulated market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capitalism" title="Regulatory capitalism">Regulatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine capitalism">Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social capitalism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_capitalism" title="State capitalism">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-sponsored_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="State-sponsored capitalism">State-sponsored</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_capitalism" title="Welfare capitalism">Welfare</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_capitalism" title="Culture of capitalism">Cultural aspects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Friday_(shopping)" title="Black Friday (shopping)">Black Friday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">Consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">Decentralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_mobility" title="Economic mobility">Economic mobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li>Mainstream</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_foundation" title="Private foundation">Private foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law#In_relation_to_economics" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Economic inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_market_flexibility" title="Labour market flexibility">Labour market flexibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_supply" title="Labour supply">Labour supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity" title="Prosperity">Prosperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicate" title="Syndicate">Syndicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_venture_capital" title="Social venture capital">Social venture capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_capitalism" title="Criticism of capitalism">Criticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">Anti-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_propaganda" title="Capitalist propaganda">Capitalist propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_fundamentalism" title="Market fundamentalism">Market fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antithesis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-communism">Anarcho-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">Anarcho-primitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism" title="Anarcho-syndicalism">Anarcho-syndicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivist_anarchism" title="Collectivist anarchism">Collectivist anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communalism_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (Bookchin)">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Economic democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-socialism" title="Eco-socialism">Eco-socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-market_socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-market socialism">Free-market socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">Individualist anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_anarchism" title="Market anarchism">Market anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_socialism" title="Market socialism">Market socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-capitalism" title="Post-capitalism">Post-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-scarcity_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-scarcity economy">Post-scarcity economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharing_economy" title="Sharing economy">Sharing economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anarchism" title="Social anarchism">Social anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">Syndicalism</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Economic_expansions_and_recessions_in_the_United_States_and_Commonwealth_of_Nations_countries" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_%E2%80%93_Commonwealth_of_Nations_recessions" title="Template:United States – Commonwealth of Nations recessions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_%E2%80%93_Commonwealth_of_Nations_recessions" title="Template talk:United States – Commonwealth of Nations recessions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_%E2%80%93_Commonwealth_of_Nations_recessions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States – Commonwealth of Nations recessions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Economic_expansions_and_recessions_in_the_United_States_and_Commonwealth_of_Nations_countries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_expansions_in_the_United_States" title="List of economic expansions in the United States">Economic expansions</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_States" title="List of recessions in the United States">recessions in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations countries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">Aggregate demand</a>/<a href="/wiki/Aggregate_supply" title="Aggregate supply">Supply</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effective_demand" title="Effective demand">Effective demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_glut" title="General glut">General glut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AD%E2%80%93AS_model" title="AD–AS model">Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overproduction" title="Overproduction">Overproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_thrift" title="Paradox of thrift">Paradox of thrift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_rigidity" title="Nominal rigidity">Price-and-wage stickiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underconsumption" title="Underconsumption">Underconsumption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">Business cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deflation" title="Deflation">Deflation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">Inflation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_inflation" title="Chronic inflation">Chronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_dichotomy" title="Classical dichotomy">Classical dichotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinflation" title="Disinflation">Disinflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money_supply" title="Money supply">Money supply</a>/<a href="/wiki/Demand_for_money" title="Demand for money">demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrality_of_money" title="Neutrality of money">Neutrality of money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_level" title="Price level">Price level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_versus_nominal_value_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Real versus nominal value (economics)">Real and nominal values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velocity_of_money" title="Velocity of money">Velocity of money</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_expansion" title="Economic expansion">Economic expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_recovery" title="Economic recovery">Recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_stagnation" title="Economic stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_expansions_in_the_United_States" title="List of economic expansions in the United States">U.S. expansions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interest_rate" title="Interest rate">Interest rate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_interest_rate" title="Nominal interest rate">Nominal interest rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_interest_rate" title="Real interest rate">Real interest rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yield_curve" title="Yield curve">Yield curve</a>/<a href="/wiki/Inverted_yield_curve" title="Inverted yield curve">Inverted</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">Recession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_sheet_recession" title="Balance sheet recession">Balance sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_recession" title="Global recession">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_recession" title="Rolling recession">Rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_shapes" title="Recession shapes">Shapes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">Stagflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of recessions in the United Kingdom">U.K. recessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_States" title="List of recessions in the United States">U.S. recessions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_(economics)" title="Shock (economics)">Shock</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_shock" title="Demand shock">Demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_shock" title="Supply shock">Supply</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sahm_rule" title="Sahm rule">Sahm rule</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commercial_revolution" title="Commercial revolution">Commercial revolution</a> (1000–1760)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Slump_(15th_century)" title="Great Slump (15th century)">Great Slump</a> (1430–1490)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">Slump of 1706</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Frost_of_1709" title="Great Frost of 1709">Great Frost of 1709</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1st Industrial Revolution</a> (1760–1840)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">British credit crisis of 1772–1773</a> <ul><li>1772–1774; <a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773#Effects_in_London" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773#Scotland" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">American Colonies</a></li></ul></li> <li>1785–1788</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_Panic_of_1789" title="Copper Panic of 1789">Copper Panic of 1789</a>/<a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1792" title="Panic of 1792">Panic of 1792</a> (1789–1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1796%E2%80%931797" title="Panic of 1796–1797">Panic of 1796–1797</a> (1796–1799)</li> <li>1802–1804</li> <li>1807–1810</li> <li>1812</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Napoleonic_Depression" title="Post-Napoleonic Depression">Post-Napoleonic Depression</a> (1815–1821)</li> <li>1822–23</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1825" title="Panic of 1825">Panic of 1825</a> (1825–1826)</li> <li>1828–29</li> <li>1833–34</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1837" title="Panic of 1837">Panic of 1837</a> (1836–1838 and 1839–1843)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Early Victorian Britain</a>/ <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">Civil War-era United States</a> (1840–1870)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1845–46</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1847" title="Panic of 1847">Panic of 1847</a> (1847–1848)</li> <li>1853–54</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">Panic of 1857</a> (1857–1858)</li> <li>1860–61</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1866" title="Panic of 1866">Panic of 1866</a> (1865–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Friday_(1869)" title="Black Friday (1869)">Black Friday</a> (1869–1870)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">2nd Industrial Revolution</a> (1870–1914)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long_Depression" title="Long Depression">Long Depression</a>/<a href="/wiki/The_Great_Deflation" title="The Great Deflation">Great Deflation</a> <ul><li>1873–1879; <a href="/wiki/Long_Depression#United_Kingdom" title="Long Depression">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Depression#United_States" title="Long Depression">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_of_1882%E2%80%931885" title="Depression of 1882–1885">Depression of 1882–1885</a></li> <li>1887–88</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baring_crisis" title="Baring crisis">Baring crisis</a> (1890–1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893" title="Panic of 1893">Panic of 1893</a> (1893–1897)</li> <li>1899–1900</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1901" title="Panic of 1901">Panic of 1901</a> (1902–1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1907" title="Panic of 1907">Panic of 1907</a> (1907–1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1910%E2%80%9311" title="Panic of 1910–11">Panic of 1910–11</a> (1910–1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_1914" title="Financial crisis of 1914">Financial crisis of 1914</a> (1913–14)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a> (1918–1939)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_I_recession" title="Post–World War I recession">Post–World War I recession</a> (1918–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_of_1920%E2%80%931921" title="Depression of 1920–1921">Depression of 1920–1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li>1923–1924</li> <li>1926–1927</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li>1929–1939; <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Australia" title="Great Depression in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Canada" title="Great Depression in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_India" title="Great Depression in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Zealand" title="History of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_South_Africa" title="Great Depression in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Great Depression in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1937%E2%80%931938" title="Recession of 1937–1938">Recession of 1937–1938</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post–WWII expansion</a> (1945–1973)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1945</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1949" title="Recession of 1949">Recession of 1949</a> (1948–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1953" title="Recession of 1953">Recession of 1953</a> (1953–1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1958" title="Recession of 1958">Recession of 1958</a> (1957–1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1960%E2%80%931961" title="Recession of 1960–1961">Recession of 1960–1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1969%E2%80%931970" title="Recession of 1969–1970">Recession of 1969–1970</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">Great Inflation</a> (1973–1982)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1973%E2%80%931975_recession" title="1973–1975 recession">1973–1975 recession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1973%E2%80%931975_recession#United_Kingdom" title="1973–1975 recession">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973%E2%80%931975_recession#United_States" title="1973–1975 recession">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession" title="Early 1980s recession">Early 1980s recession</a> <ul><li>1980–1982; <a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession#Canada" title="Early 1980s recession">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession#United_Kingdom" title="Early 1980s recession">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession_in_the_United_States" title="Early 1980s recession in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Moderation" title="Great Moderation">Great Moderation</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Great_Regression" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Regression">Great Regression</a> (1982–2007)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1990s_United_States_boom" title="1990s United States boom">1990s United States boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession" title="Early 1990s recession">Early 1990s recession</a> <ul><li>1990–1991; <a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession_in_Australia" title="Early 1990s recession in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession#Canada" title="Early 1990s recession">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession#United_Kingdom" title="Early 1990s recession">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession_in_the_United_States" title="Early 1990s recession in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">1997 Asian financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_2000s_recession" title="Early 2000s recession">Early 2000s recession</a> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a> (2007–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a> <ul><li>2007–2009; <a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Oceania#Australia" title="Great Recession in Oceania">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Bangladesh" title="Great Recession in Asia">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_Americas#Canada" title="Great Recession in the Americas">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#India" title="Great Recession in Asia">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Malysia" title="Great Recession in Asia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Oceania#New_Zealand" title="Great Recession in Oceania">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Pakistan" title="Great Recession in Asia">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Africa" title="Great Recession in Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Sri_Lanka" title="Great Recession in Asia">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Europe#United_Kingdom" title="Great Recession in Europe">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">COVID-19 recession</a> <ul><li>2020–2022; <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Australia" title="COVID-19 recession">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Bangladsh" title="COVID-19 recession">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Belize" title="COVID-19 recession">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Botswana" title="COVID-19 recession">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Namibia" title="COVID-19 recession">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore#Economic_impact" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Zambia" title="COVID-19 recession">Zambia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Financial_bubbles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Financial_bubbles" title="Template:Financial bubbles"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Financial_bubbles" title="Template talk:Financial bubbles"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Financial_bubbles" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Financial bubbles"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Financial_bubbles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_bubble" title="Economic bubble">Financial bubbles</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Market_trend" title="Market trend">Market trend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credit_cycle" title="Credit cycle">Credit cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrational_exuberance" title="Irrational exuberance">Irrational exuberance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contagion" title="Social contagion">Social contagion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-estate_bubble" title="Real-estate bubble">Real-estate bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_market_bubble" title="Stock market bubble">Stock market bubble</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commercial_revolution" title="Commercial revolution">Commercial revolution</a> (1000–1760)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_mania" title="Tulip mania">Tulip mania</a> (1634–1637)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Company" title="Mississippi Company">Mississippi bubble</a> (1684–1720)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Sea_Company" title="South Sea Company">South Sea bubble</a> (1711–1720)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Bubble_of_1769" title="Bengal Bubble of 1769">Bengal Bubble of 1769</a> (1757–1769)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1st Industrial Revolution</a> (1760–1840)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canal_Mania" title="Canal Mania">Canal Mania</a> (c. 1790–c. 1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolina_gold_rush" title="Carolina gold rush">Carolina gold rush</a> (1802–1825)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_real_estate_bubble_of_the_1810s" title="Alabama real estate bubble of the 1810s">1810s Alabama real estate bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Gold_Rush" title="Georgia Gold Rush">Georgia Gold Rush</a> (1828–c. 1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_real_estate_bubble_of_the_1830s" title="Chicago real estate bubble of the 1830s">1830s Chicago real estate bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilean_silver_rush" title="Chilean silver rush">Chilean silver rush</a> (1830–1850)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1840–1870</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Mania" title="Railway Mania">Railway Mania</a> (c. 1840–c. 1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_gold_rush" title="California gold rush">California gold rush</a> (1848–1855)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Charlottes_Gold_Rush" title="Queen Charlottes Gold Rush">Queen Charlottes Gold Rush</a> (1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_gold_rush" title="Victorian gold rush">Victorian gold rush</a> (1851–c. 1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales_gold_rush" title="New South Wales gold rush">New South Wales gold rush</a> (1851–1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_gold_rushes" title="Australian gold rushes">Australian gold rushes</a> (1851–1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraser_Canyon_Gold_Rush" title="Fraser Canyon Gold Rush">Fraser Canyon Gold Rush</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pike%27s_Peak_gold_rush" title="Pike's Peak gold rush">Pike's Peak gold rush</a> (1858–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Creek_Gold_Rush" title="Rock Creek Gold Rush">Rock Creek Gold Rush</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_oil_rush" title="Pennsylvania oil rush">Pennsylvania oil rush</a> (1859–1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Similkameen_Gold_Rush" title="Similkameen Gold Rush">Similkameen Gold Rush</a> (1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stikine_Gold_Rush" title="Stikine Gold Rush">Stikine Gold Rush</a> (1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steamboats_of_the_Colorado_River" title="Steamboats of the Colorado River">Colorado River mining boom</a> (1861–1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otago_gold_rush" title="Otago gold rush">Otago gold rush</a> (1861–1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cariboo_Gold_Rush" title="Cariboo Gold Rush">Cariboo Gold Rush</a> (1861–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining_in_Nova_Scotia" title="Gold mining in Nova Scotia">First Nova Scotia Gold Rush</a> (1861–1874)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_gold_rush" title="West Coast gold rush">West Coast gold rush</a> (1864–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bend_Gold_Rush" title="Big Bend Gold Rush">Big Bend Gold Rush</a> (c. 1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermilion_Lake_gold_rush" title="Vermilion Lake gold rush">Vermilion Lake gold rush</a> (1865–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kildonan_Gold_Rush" title="Kildonan Gold Rush">Kildonan Gold Rush</a> (1869)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omineca_Gold_Rush" title="Omineca Gold Rush">Omineca Gold Rush</a> (1869)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">2nd Industrial Revolution</a> (1870–1914)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lapland_gold_rush" title="Lapland gold rush">1870s Lapland gold rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coromandel_Gold_Rushes" title="Coromandel Gold Rushes">Coromandel Gold Rushes</a> (c. 1870–c. 1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiar_Country" title="Cassiar Country">Cassiar Gold Rush</a> (c. 1870–c. 1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hills_gold_rush" title="Black Hills gold rush">Black Hills gold rush</a> (1874–1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_Silver_Boom" title="Colorado Silver Boom">Colorado Silver Boom</a> (1879–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Australian_gold_rushes" title="Western Australian gold rushes">Western Australian gold rushes</a> (c. 1880–c. 1900)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_gas_boom" title="Indiana gas boom">Indiana gas boom</a> (c. 1880–1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Ohio" title="Petroleum industry in Ohio">Ohio oil rush</a> (c. 1880–c. 1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuego_gold_rush" title="Tierra del Fuego gold rush">Tierra del Fuego gold rush</a> (1883–1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayoosh_Gold_Rush" title="Cayoosh Gold Rush">Cayoosh Gold Rush</a> (1884)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witwatersrand_Gold_Rush" title="Witwatersrand Gold Rush">Witwatersrand Gold Rush</a> (1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encilhamento" title="Encilhamento">Encilhamento</a> (1886–1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cripple_Creek_Gold_Rush" title="Cripple Creek Gold Rush">Cripple Creek Gold Rush</a> (c. 1890–c. 1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klondike_Gold_Rush" title="Klondike Gold Rush">Klondike Gold Rush</a> (1896–1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining_in_Nova_Scotia" title="Gold mining in Nova Scotia">Second Nova Scotia Gold Rush</a> (1896–1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kobuk_River_Stampede" title="Kobuk River Stampede">Kobuk River Stampede</a> (1897–1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Baker_gold_rush" title="Mount Baker gold rush">Mount Baker gold rush</a> (1897–c. 1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nome_Gold_Rush" title="Nome Gold Rush">Nome Gold Rush</a> (1899–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairbanks_Gold_Rush" title="Fairbanks Gold Rush">Fairbanks Gold Rush</a> (c. 1900–1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_oil_boom" title="Texas oil boom">Texas oil boom</a> (1901–1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_silver_rush" title="Cobalt silver rush">Cobalt silver rush</a> (1903–1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porcupine_Gold_Rush" title="Porcupine Gold Rush">Porcupine Gold Rush</a> (1909–1918)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a> (1918–1939)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Florida_land_boom_of_the_1920s" title="Florida land boom of the 1920s">1920s Florida land boom</a> (c. 1920–1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairbanks_Gold_Rush" title="Fairbanks Gold Rush">Fairbanks Gold Rush</a> (1918–c. 1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_oil_boom" title="Texas oil boom">Texas oil boom</a> (1918–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_silver_rush" title="Cobalt silver rush">Cobalt silver rush</a> (1918–c. 1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porcupine_Gold_Rush" title="Porcupine Gold Rush">Porcupine Gold Rush</a> (1918–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakamega_gold_rush" title="Kakamega gold rush">1930s Kakamega gold rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining_in_Nova_Scotia" title="Gold mining in Nova Scotia">Third Nova Scotia Gold Rush</a> (1932–1942)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post–WWII expansion</a> (1945–1973)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Texas_oil_boom" title="Texas oil boom">Texas oil boom</a> (1945–c. 1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porcupine_Gold_Rush" title="Porcupine Gold Rush">Porcupine Gold Rush</a> (1945–c. 1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poseidon_bubble" title="Poseidon bubble">Poseidon bubble</a> (1969–1970)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">The Great Inflation</a> (1973–1982)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1970s_commodities_boom" title="1970s commodities boom">1970s commodities boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_oil_boom" title="Mexican oil boom">Mexican oil boom</a> (1977–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_Thursday" title="Silver Thursday">Silver Thursday</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_property_bubble" title="New Zealand property bubble">New Zealand property bubble</a> (c. 1980–1982)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Moderation" title="Great Moderation">Great Moderation</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Great_Regression" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Regression">Great Regression</a> (1982–2007)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1980s_oil_glut" title="1980s oil glut">1980s oil glut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_property_bubble" title="New Zealand property bubble">New Zealand property bubble</a> (1982–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_property_bubble" title="Spanish property bubble">Spanish property bubble</a> (1985–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_asset_price_bubble" title="Japanese asset price bubble">Japanese asset price bubble</a> (1986–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dot-com_bubble" title="Dot-com bubble">Dot-com bubble</a> (1995–2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_states_housing_bubble" title="Baltic states housing bubble">Baltic states housing bubble</a> (2000–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_property_bubble" title="Irish property bubble">Irish property bubble</a> (c. 2000–2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000s_commodities_boom" title="2000s commodities boom">2000s commodities boom</a> (2000–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_property_bubble_of_2000s" title="Danish property bubble of 2000s">2000s Danish property bubble</a> (2001–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000s_United_States_housing_bubble" title="2000s United States housing bubble">United States housing bubble</a> (2002–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_property_bubble" title="Romanian property bubble">Romanian property bubble</a> (2002–2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_property_bubble" title="Polish property bubble">Polish property bubble</a> (2002–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_property_bubble" title="Canadian property bubble">Canadian property bubble</a> (2002–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_property_bubble_(2005%E2%80%932011)" title="Chinese property bubble (2005–2011)">Chinese property bubble</a> (2005–2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_housing_bubble" title="Lebanese housing bubble">Lebanese housing bubble</a> (2005–2008)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_stock_bubble_of_2007" title="Chinese stock bubble of 2007">Chinese stock bubble of 2007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_bubble_of_2007" title="Uranium bubble of 2007">Uranium bubble of 2007</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a> (2007–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2000s_commodities_boom" title="2000s commodities boom">2000s commodities boom</a> (2008–2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_housing_bubble" title="Lebanese housing bubble">Lebanese housing bubble</a> (2008–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_debt_bubble" title="Corporate debt bubble">Corporate debt bubble</a> (2008–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_property_bubble" title="Australian property bubble">Australian property bubble</a> (2010–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptocurrency_bubble" title="Cryptocurrency bubble">Cryptocurrency bubble</a> (2011–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everything_bubble" title="Everything bubble">Everything bubble</a> (2020–21)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_bubble" title="Carbon bubble">Carbon bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_bubble" title="Green bubble">Green bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media_stock_bubble" title="Social media stock bubble">Social media stock bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unicorn_bubble" title="Unicorn bubble">Unicorn bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_education_bubble_in_the_United_States" title="Higher education bubble in the United States">U.S. higher education bubble</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Financial_crises" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Financial_crises" title="Template:Financial crises"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Financial_crises" title="Template talk:Financial crises"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Financial_crises" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Financial crises"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Financial_crises" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">Financial crises</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_run" title="Bank run">Bank run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_price_shocks" title="Commodity price shocks">Commodity price shocks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credit_crunch" title="Credit crunch">Credit crunch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credit_cycle" title="Credit cycle">Credit cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Currency_crisis" title="Currency crisis">Currency crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_crisis" title="Debt crisis">Debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_crisis" title="Energy crisis">Energy crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_contagion" title="Financial contagion">Financial contagion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_contagion" title="Social contagion">Social contagion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_crash" title="Flash crash">Flash crash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation" title="Hyperinflation">Hyperinflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquidity_crisis" title="Liquidity crisis">Liquidity crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accounting_liquidity" title="Accounting liquidity">Accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_capital" title="Liquid capital">Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_liquidity" title="Funding liquidity">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_liquidity" title="Market liquidity">Market</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minsky_moment" title="Minsky moment">Minsky moment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_crisis" title="Social crisis">Social crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_market_crash" title="Stock market crash">Stock market crash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-<a href="/wiki/Commercial_revolution" title="Commercial revolution">1000</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_33" title="Financial crisis of 33">Financial crisis of 33 CE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a> (235–284 CE)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commercial_revolution" title="Commercial revolution">Commercial revolution</a> (1000–1760)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Bullion_Famine" title="Great Bullion Famine">Great Bullion Famine</a> (c. 1400–c. 1500)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Debasement" title="The Great Debasement">The Great Debasement</a> (1544–1551)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_history_of_the_Dutch_Republic" title="Financial history of the Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic stock market crashes</a> (c. 1600–1760)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kipper_und_Wipper" title="Kipper und Wipper">Kipper und Wipper</a> (1621–1623)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_mania" title="Tulip mania">Tulip mania crash</a> (1637)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Sea_Company" title="South Sea Company">South Sea bubble crash</a> (1720)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Company" title="Mississippi Company">Mississippi bubble crash</a> (1720)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1st Industrial Revolution</a> (1760–1840)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_banking_crisis_of_1763" title="Amsterdam banking crisis of 1763">Amsterdam banking crisis of 1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Bubble_of_1769" title="Bengal Bubble of 1769">Bengal bubble crash</a> (1769–1784)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">British credit crisis of 1772–1773</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_history_of_the_Dutch_Republic" title="Financial history of the Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic financial collapse</a> (c. 1780–1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_Panic_of_1789" title="Copper Panic of 1789">Copper Panic of 1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1792" title="Panic of 1792">Panic of 1792</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1796%E2%80%931797" title="Panic of 1796–1797">Panic of 1796–1797</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_state_bankruptcy_of_1813" title="Danish state bankruptcy of 1813">Danish state bankruptcy of 1813</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_price_shocks" title="Commodity price shocks">Post-Napoleonic Irish grain price and land use shocks</a> (1815–1816)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1819" title="Panic of 1819">Panic of 1819</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1825" title="Panic of 1825">Panic of 1825</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1837" title="Panic of 1837">Panic of 1837</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1840–1870</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_potato_failure" title="European potato failure">European potato failure</a> (1845–1856) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Irish Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_Potato_Famine" title="Highland Potato Famine">Highland Potato Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1847" title="Panic of 1847">Panic of 1847</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">Panic of 1857</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1866" title="Panic of 1866">Panic of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Friday_(1869)" title="Black Friday (1869)">Black Friday</a> (1869)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">2nd Industrial Revolution</a> (1870–1914)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1873" title="Panic of 1873">Panic of 1873</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Bourse_crash_of_1882" title="Paris Bourse crash of 1882">Paris Bourse crash of 1882</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1884" title="Panic of 1884">Panic of 1884</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arendal_crash" title="Arendal crash">Arendal crash</a> (1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baring_crisis" title="Baring crisis">Baring crisis</a> (1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encilhamento" title="Encilhamento">Encilhamento</a> (1890–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893" title="Panic of 1893">Panic of 1893</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_banking_crisis_of_1893" title="Australian banking crisis of 1893">Australian banking crisis of 1893</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Monday_(1894)" title="Black Monday (1894)">Black Monday</a> (1894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1896" title="Panic of 1896">Panic of 1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1901" title="Panic of 1901">Panic of 1901</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1907" title="Panic of 1907">Panic of 1907</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_rubber_stock_market_crisis" title="Shanghai rubber stock market crisis">Shanghai rubber stock market crisis</a> (1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1910%E2%80%9311" title="Panic of 1910–11">Panic of 1910–11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_1914" title="Financial crisis of 1914">Financial crisis of 1914</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a> (1918–1939)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_early_Soviet_Russia" title="Hyperinflation in early Soviet Russia">Early Soviet hyperinflation</a> (1917–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Weimar_Republic" title="Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic hyperinflation</a> (1921–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_financial_crisis" title="Shōwa financial crisis">Shōwa financial crisis</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1930" title="Panic of 1930">Panic of 1930</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_hyperinflation" title="Chinese hyperinflation">Chinese hyperinflation</a> (1937-1950)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Wartime period</a> (1939–1945)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Greece" title="Hyperinflation in Greece">Greek hyperinflation</a> (1941–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_hyperinflation" title="Chinese hyperinflation">Chinese hyperinflation</a> (1937-1950)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post–WWII expansion</a> (1945–1973)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_peng%C5%91#Hyperinflation" title="Hungarian pengő">Hungarian pengő hyperinflation</a> (1945–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Slide_of_1962" title="Kennedy Slide of 1962">Kennedy Slide of 1962</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1963%E2%80%931965_Indonesian_hyperinflation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1963–1965 Indonesian hyperinflation (page does not exist)">1963–1965 Indonesian hyperinflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_hyperinflation" title="Chinese hyperinflation">Chinese hyperinflation</a> (1937-1950)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">Great Inflation</a> (1973–1982)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1970s_energy_crisis" title="1970s energy crisis">1970s energy crisis</a> (1973–1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973%E2%80%931974_stock_market_crash" title="1973–1974 stock market crash">1973–1974 stock market crash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_banking_crisis_of_1973%E2%80%931975" title="Secondary banking crisis of 1973–1975">Secondary banking crisis of 1973–1975</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_crisis" title="Steel crisis">Steel crisis</a> (1973–1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_debt_crisis" title="Latin American debt crisis">Latin American debt crisis</a> (1975–1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_sterling_crisis" title="1976 sterling crisis">1976 British currency crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_oil_crisis" title="1979 oil crisis">1979 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Brazil" title="Hyperinflation in Brazil">Brazilian hyperinflation</a> (1980–1982)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Moderation" title="Great Moderation">Great Moderation</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Great_Regression" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Regression">Great Regression</a> (1982–2007)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Brazil" title="Hyperinflation in Brazil">Brazilian hyperinflation</a> (1982–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Souk_Al-Manakh_stock_market_crash" title="Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash">Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_1982" title="Crisis of 1982">Chilean crisis of 1982</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1983_Israel_bank_stock_crisis" title="1983 Israel bank stock crisis">1983 Israel bank stock crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Saturday_(1983)" title="Black Saturday (1983)">Black Saturday (1983)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savings_and_loan_crisis" title="Savings and loan crisis">Savings and loan crisis</a> (1986–1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameroonian_economic_crisis" title="Cameroonian economic crisis">Cameroonian economic crisis</a> (1987–2000s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Monday_(1987)" title="Black Monday (1987)">Black Monday (1987)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988%E2%80%931992_Norwegian_banking_crisis" title="1988–1992 Norwegian banking crisis">1988–1992 Norwegian banking crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_asset_price_bubble" title="Japanese asset price bubble">Japanese asset price bubble crash</a> (1990–1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_banking_crisis" title="Rhode Island banking crisis">Rhode Island banking crisis</a> (1990–1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Indian_economic_crisis" title="1991 Indian economic crisis">1991 Indian economic crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_financial_crisis_1990%E2%80%931994" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweden financial crisis 1990–1994">1990s Swedish financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990s_Finnish_banking_crisis" title="1990s Finnish banking crisis">1990s Finnish banking crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_energy_crisis_of_1990s" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian energy crisis of 1990s">1990s Armenian energy crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Period" title="Special Period">Cuban Special Period</a> (1991–2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Wednesday" title="Black Wednesday">Black Wednesday (1992 Sterling crisis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Hyperinflation in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslav hyperinflation</a> (1992–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1994_bond_market_crisis" title="1994 bond market crisis">1994 bond market crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_banking_crisis_of_1994" title="Venezuelan banking crisis of 1994">Venezuelan banking crisis of 1994</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_peso_crisis" title="Mexican peso crisis">Mexican peso crisis</a> (1994–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">1997 Asian financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_27,_1997,_mini-crash" title="October 27, 1997, mini-crash">October 1997 mini-crash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998_Russian_financial_crisis" title="1998 Russian financial crisis">1998 Russian financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998%E2%80%931999_Ecuador_economic_crisis" title="1998–1999 Ecuador economic crisis">1998–1999 Ecuador economic crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998%E2%80%932002_Argentine_great_depression" title="1998–2002 Argentine great depression">1998–2002 Argentine great depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samba_effect" title="Samba effect">Samba effect</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dot-com_bubble" title="Dot-com bubble">Dot-com bubble crash</a> (2000–2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_effects_of_the_September_11_attacks" title="Economic effects of the September 11 attacks">9/11 stock market crash</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2001_Turkish_economic_crisis" title="2001 Turkish economic crisis">2001 Turkish economic crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_American_economic_crisis_of_2002" title="South American economic crisis of 2002">South American economic crisis of 2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_market_downturn_of_2002" title="Stock market downturn of 2002">Stock market downturn of 2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002_Uruguay_banking_crisis" title="2002 Uruguay banking crisis">2002 Uruguay banking crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_Myanmar_banking_crisis" title="2003 Myanmar banking crisis">2003 Myanmar banking crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000s_energy_crisis" title="2000s energy crisis">2000s energy crisis</a> (2003–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_Argentine_energy_crisis" title="2004 Argentine energy crisis">2004 Argentine energy crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_stock_bubble_of_2007" title="Chinese stock bubble of 2007">2007 Chinese stock bubble crash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Zimbabwe" title="Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwean hyperinflation</a> (2007–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a> (2007–2009)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis" title="2007–2008 financial crisis">2007–2008 financial crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_crisis_in_September_2008" title="Global financial crisis in September 2008">September 2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_crisis_in_October_2008" title="Global financial crisis in October 2008">October 2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_crisis_in_November_2008" title="Global financial crisis in November 2008">November 2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_crisis_in_December_2008" title="Global financial crisis in December 2008">December 2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_crisis_in_2009" title="Global financial crisis in 2009">2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subprime_mortgage_crisis" title="Subprime mortgage crisis">Subprime mortgage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000s_United_States_housing_market_correction" title="2000s United States housing market correction">2000s U.S. housing market correction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_bear_market_of_2007%E2%80%932009" title="United States bear market of 2007–2009">U.S. bear market of 2007–2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Latvian_financial_crisis" title="2008 Latvian financial crisis">2008 Latvian financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932009_Belgian_financial_crisis" title="2008–2009 Belgian financial crisis">2008–2009 Belgian financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Russia" title="Great Recession in Russia">2008–2009 Russian financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932009_Ukrainian_financial_crisis" title="2008–2009 Ukrainian financial crisis">2008–2009 Ukrainian financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932011_Icelandic_financial_crisis" title="2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis">2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-2008_Irish_banking_crisis" title="Post-2008 Irish banking crisis">2008–2011 Irish banking crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932014_Spanish_financial_crisis" title="2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis">2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Monday_Crash_2009" title="Blue Monday Crash 2009">Blue Monday Crash 2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_government-debt_crisis" title="Greek government-debt crisis">Greek government-debt crisis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a> (2009–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dubai_World" title="Dubai World">2009 Dubai debt standstill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_banking_crisis_of_2009%E2%80%932010" title="Venezuelan banking crisis of 2009–2010">Venezuelan banking crisis of 2009–2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010%E2%80%932014_Portuguese_financial_crisis" title="2010–2014 Portuguese financial crisis">2010–2014 Portuguese financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_crisis_in_Venezuela" title="Energy crisis in Venezuela">Energy crisis in Venezuela</a> (2010–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria" title="Economy of Syria">Syrian economic crisis</a> (2011–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_2011_stock_markets_fall" title="August 2011 stock markets fall">August 2011 stock markets fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Bangladesh_share_market_scam" title="2011 Bangladesh share market scam">2011 Bangladesh share market scam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012%E2%80%932013_Cypriot_financial_crisis" title="2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis">2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Banking_Liquidity_Crisis_of_2013" title="Chinese Banking Liquidity Crisis of 2013">2013 Chinese banking liquidity crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013%E2%80%93present_economic_crisis_in_Venezuela" title="2013–present economic crisis in Venezuela">Venezuela economic crisis</a> (2013–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Brazilian_economic_crisis" title="2014 Brazilian economic crisis">2014–2016 Brazilian economic crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_government-debt_crisis" title="Puerto Rican government-debt crisis">Puerto Rican government-debt crisis</a> (2014–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_financial_crisis_(2014%E2%80%932016)" title="Russian financial crisis (2014–2016)">Russian financial crisis (2014–2016)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Nepal_blockade" title="2015 Nepal blockade">2015 Nepal blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015%E2%80%932016_Chinese_stock_market_turbulence" title="2015–2016 Chinese stock market turbulence">2015–2016 Chinese stock market turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015%E2%80%932016_stock_market_selloff" title="2015–2016 stock market selloff">2015–2016 stock market selloff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_effects_of_Brexit" title="Economic effects of Brexit">Brexit stock market crash</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Venezuela" title="Hyperinflation in Venezuela">Venezuelan hyperinflation</a> (2016–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Sri_Lankan_fuel_crisis" title="2017 Sri Lankan fuel crisis">2017 Sri Lankan fuel crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_banking_crisis" title="Ghana banking crisis">Ghana banking crisis</a> (2017–2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_economic_crisis_(2018%E2%80%93current)" title="Turkish economic crisis (2018–current)">Turkish economic crisis</a> (2018–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_liquidity_crisis" title="Lebanese liquidity crisis">Lebanese liquidity crisis</a> (2019–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019%E2%80%93present)" title="Sri Lankan economic crisis (2019–present)">Sri Lankan economic crisis</a> (2019–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Financial_market_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Financial market impact of the COVID-19 pandemic">Financial market impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_stock_market_crash" title="2020 stock market crash">2020 stock market crash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_2020s_recession" class="mw-redirect" title="Early 2020s recession">Recession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_property_sector_crisis_(2020%E2%80%93present)" title="Chinese property sector crisis (2020–present)">Chinese property sector crisis</a> (2020–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932023_inflation_surge" title="2021–2023 inflation surge">2021–2023 inflation surge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Economic impact of the Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_economic_crisis_(2022%E2%80%93present)" title="Pakistani economic crisis (2022–present)">Pakistani economic crisis</a> (2022–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_stock_market_decline" title="2022 stock market decline">2022 stock market decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_economic_crisis_(2022%E2%80%93present)" title="German economic crisis (2022–present)">2022–2024 German economic crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_United_States_banking_crisis" title="2023 United States banking crisis">2023 United States banking crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023%E2%80%932024_Egyptian_financial_crisis" title="2023–2024 Egyptian financial crisis">2023–2024 Egyptian financial crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banking_crises" title="List of banking crises">List of banking crises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_crises" title="List of economic crises">List of economic crises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_debt_crises" title="List of sovereign debt crises">List of sovereign debt crises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stock_market_crashes_and_bear_markets" title="List of stock market crashes and bear markets">List of stock market crashes and bear markets</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Population" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Population" title="Template:Population"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Population" title="Template talk:Population"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Population" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Population"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Population" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_world" title="Demographics of the world">Demographics of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_transition" title="Demographic transition">Demographic transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estimates_of_historical_world_population" title="Estimates of historical world population">Estimates of historical world population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">Population growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_momentum" title="Population momentum">Population momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Projections_of_population_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Projections of population growth">Projections of population growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">World population</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Population_biology" title="Population biology">Population biology</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_decline" title="Population decline">Population decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">Population density</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_density" title="Physiological density">Physiological density</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_pyramid" title="Population pyramid">Population pyramid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population ecology</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biocapacity" title="Biocapacity">Biocapacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_%3D_PAT" title="I = PAT">I = P × A × T</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaya_identity" title="Kaya identity">Kaya identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overshoot_(population)" title="Overshoot (population)">Overshoot (population)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World3" title="World3">World3 model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society and population</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Human overpopulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusian catastrophe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_population_planning" title="Human population planning">Human population planning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">One-child policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-child_policy" title="Two-child policy">Two-child policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption_(economics)" title="Overconsumption (economics)">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demography" title="Political demography">Political demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antinatalism" title="Antinatalism">Antinatalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere_addition_paradox" title="Mere addition paradox">Mere addition paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalism" title="Natalism">Natalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-identity_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-identity problem">Non-identity problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_population" title="Sustainable population">Sustainable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_population_growth" title="Zero population growth">Zero population growth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_Environment" title="Population and Environment">Population and Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_Development_Review" title="Population and Development Review">Population and Development Review</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_housing_censuses_by_country" title="Population and housing censuses by country">Population and housing censuses by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities" title="List of largest cities">Largest cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population_milestones" title="World population milestones">World population milestones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Six_Billion" title="Day of Six Billion">6 billion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Seven_Billion" title="Day of Seven Billion">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Eight_Billion" title="Day of Eight Billion">8</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_population_concern_organizations" title="List of population concern organizations">Population concern organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Events and organizations</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/7_Billion_Actions" title="7 Billion Actions">7 Billion Actions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Euthanasia" title="Church of Euthanasia">Church of Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Population_and_Development" title="International Conference on Population and Development">International Conference on Population and Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Action_International" title="Population Action International">Population Action International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Connection" title="Population Connection">Population Connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Matters" title="Population Matters">Population Matters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Population_Fund" title="United Nations Population Fund">United Nations Population Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_world_population_conferences" title="United Nations world population conferences">United Nations world population conferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement" title="Voluntary Human Extinction Movement">Voluntary Human Extinction Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Conference" title="World Population Conference">World Population Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Day" title="World Population Day">World Population Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Foundation" title="World Population Foundation">World Population Foundation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bennett%27s_law" title="Bennett's law">Bennett's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_populations" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Human populations">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Population" title="Category:Population">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2269#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2269#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2269#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4072790-7">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85065935">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11950231q">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11950231q">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00570120">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph124743&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX557573">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007548195605171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/013825">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Industrial_Revolution&oldid=1256871585">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Industrial_Revolution&oldid=1256871585</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Industrial_Revolution" title="Category:Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:18th_century_in_technology" title="Category:18th century in technology">18th century in technology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th_century_in_technology" title="Category:19th century in technology">19th century in technology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Age_of_Revolution" title="Category:Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_technology" title="Category:History of technology">History of technology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Industrial_history" title="Category:Industrial history">Industrial history</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Late_modern_Europe" title="Category:Late modern Europe">Late modern Europe</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Modern_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Modern history of the United Kingdom">Modern history of the United Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Revolutions_by_type" title="Category:Revolutions by type">Revolutions by type</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Stages_of_history" title="Category:Stages of history">Stages of history</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_February_2023" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from February 2023">Articles with dead external links from February 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_ODNB" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB">Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_cite_ODNB_with_id_parameter" title="Category:Pages using cite ODNB with id parameter">Pages using cite ODNB with id parameter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_September_2024" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from September 2024">Articles with dead external links from September 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_move-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_pages_semi-protected_against_vandalism" title="Category:Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism">Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_October_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from October 2022">Use dmy dates from October 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_French-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing French-language text">Articles containing French-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2013" title="Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013">Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements" title="Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements">All articles containing potentially dated statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_September_2017" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017">Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_self-contradictory_articles" title="Category:All self-contradictory articles">All self-contradictory articles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Self-contradictory_articles_from_May_2020" title="Category:Self-contradictory articles from May 2020">Self-contradictory articles from May 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_September_2019" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from September 2019">Articles needing additional references from September 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 12 November 2024, at 00:06 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Industrial_Revolution&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-mjpz6","wgBackendResponseTime":225,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.146","walltime":"3.652","ppvisitednodes":{"value":32739,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":798912,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":20317,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":52,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1007012,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2884.198 1 -total"," 41.97% 1210.466 2 Template:Reflist"," 18.95% 546.604 126 Template:Cite_book"," 7.98% 230.153 40 Template:Cite_web"," 7.21% 207.978 44 Template:Cite_journal"," 7.02% 202.460 35 Template:Rp"," 6.66% 192.097 35 Template:R/superscript"," 4.56% 131.434 11 Template:Harvnb"," 3.58% 103.286 1 Template:Short_description"," 3.21% 92.538 2 Template:Lang"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.737","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":25837566,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdams2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlbert2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllen2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArtzrouni1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAshton1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAtackPassell1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAyres1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarLeukhina2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaten,_Jörg2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeckert2014\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBengtssonMissiaiaOlssonSvensson2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerg,_MaxineHudson,_Pat1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerlanstein1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernstein1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBohstedt2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBondGingerichArcher-AntonsenPurcell2003\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBroadberryGuanLi2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFByrne2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCannadine1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarter1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCase2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChambliss1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChamsy_el-OjeiliDylan_Taylor2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChandler1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChernow2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristian2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCipolla1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClapham1921\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClapham1930\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClowClow1952\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoren2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrafts,_NMills1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrafts2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrafts2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCraig1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrouzet1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDames2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaunton1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuchesne2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunham1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunn1905\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDyos1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDyos1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElvin1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvatt2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFairclough\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeinstein1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlemingKnorr\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFling1868\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFogel2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoster2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFullerton1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGatrell,_Peter2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerhold1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenspanWooldridge2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrinin2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrübler1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuarneri2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGupta\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaber1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaber1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarvey2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawke1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHills\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHobsbawm1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoeder2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHopkins2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHornRosenbandSmith2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudson1992\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHumphriesSchneider2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuntLautzenheiser2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunter1985\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHunterBryant1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIshay2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacob1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJelinskiGraedelLaudiseMcCall1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKellyMokyrCormac_Ó2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKellyMokyrGrada2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKindleberger1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKisch1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlein2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKmlos2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnutsenMøllerSkaaning2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKotlerArmstrong2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKreis2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKynaston2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKüchenhoff2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLakwete2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLandes1969\"] = 9,\n [\"CITEREFLandes1999\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLucas2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLucas2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaddison2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalthus1798\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMantoux1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin1876\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMawle2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCloskey,_Deirdre2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCloskey2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGraw2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNeil1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerson1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilwardSaul1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilwardSaul1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMintz2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMisa1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMokyr1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMokyr2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMore2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMore2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorison1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMott-Smith1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorthThomas1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorthWeingast1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNuwer2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOgilvie2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOverton1996\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPollard1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPomeranz2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRappleye2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRay2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReisman1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRider2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Lucas_Jr.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoe1916\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRosen2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenberg1982\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSchön1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSelginTurner2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShuttleworth2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmelser1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmil1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmiles1875\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnooks2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnowdon2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaley2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStark2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStearns1998\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFStephenson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzostak1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzreter_\u0026amp;_MooneyMooney1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTemple1986\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFTempleNeedham1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson,_E._P.1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomson1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimbs1860\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTong2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToynbee1884\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurner1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTylecote1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTylecote1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUglow2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUsher1920\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVoltaire1909–1914\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVries2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaters,_C.N.2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWrigley2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZmolek2013\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 4,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Aspects of capitalism\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 4,\n [\"Citation\"] = 5,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite ODNB\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 126,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 44,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 18,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 39,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Contradictory inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 10,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 2,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Economy of the United Kingdom\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"Financial bubbles\"] = 1,\n [\"Financial crises\"] = 1,\n [\"For\"] = 1,\n [\"Formatnum:{{Inflation\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Google books\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 11,\n [\"History of Europe\"] = 1,\n [\"History of technology\"] = 1,\n [\"History of technology sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Hounshell1984\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 15,\n [\"Industrial Revolution\"] = 1,\n [\"Inflation\"] = 1,\n [\"Inflation-fn\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox historical era\"] = 1,\n [\"LCCN\"] = 2,\n [\"Lang\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 22,\n [\"Mdash\"] = 9,\n [\"More citations needed section\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 2,\n [\"Population\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-vandalism\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 35,\n [\"See also\"] = 5,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 2,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"United States–Commonwealth of Nations recessions\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 34,\n [\"Western culture\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","240","13.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","240","13.5"],["?","240","13.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","180","10.1"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","100","5.6"],["type","100","5.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::preprocess","80","4.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","80","4.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","60","3.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","3.4"],["[others]","400","22.5"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-knhz5","timestamp":"20241122140344","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Industrial Revolution","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_Revolution","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2269","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2269","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-08-05T21:47:47Z","dateModified":"2024-11-12T00:06:18Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/dc\/Powerloom_weaving_in_1835.jpg","headline":"transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States, in the 18th-19th centuries"}</script> </body> </html>