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class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Consumer perceptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consumer_perceptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infrastructure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infrastructure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Infrastructure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infrastructure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Responsibility_for_water_supply_and_sanitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Responsibility_for_water_supply_and_sanitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Responsibility for water supply and sanitation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Responsibility_for_water_supply_and_sanitation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet 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id="toc-Decentralized_international_cooperation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efficiency_(water_losses)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efficiency_(water_losses)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Efficiency (water losses)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efficiency_(water_losses)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-French_private_water_companies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_private_water_companies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>French private water companies</span> 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.ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Lead_too_short plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-lead_too_short" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img 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of all important aspects of the article.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country" title="Category:Water supply and sanitation by country">Category:Water supply and sanitation by country</a></div> <table style="width: 25em; font-size: 90%; text-align: left;" class="infobox"> <tbody><tr> <th style="text-align:center; background:red;" colspan="2"><big>France: Water and Sanitation</big> </th></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Europe.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The flag of Europe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/100px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/150px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/200px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="540" /></a></span> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_France.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/100px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/150px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/200px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </p> </th></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:center; background:lightblue;" colspan="3">Data </th></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;">Access to piped water supply </th> <td valign="top">99.5% (2003)<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2003_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2003-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;">Sanitation coverage (narrow definition) </th> <td valign="top">82% (2004)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;">Continuity of supply (%) </th> <td valign="top">100% </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;">Average urban water use (liter/capita/day) </th> <td valign="top">165 (2004)<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or 262 (2003)<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;">Average urban domestic water and sewer bill </th> <td valign="top">Euro 31/month<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;">Share of household metering </th> <td valign="top">high </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Non-revenue_water" title="Non-revenue water">Non-revenue water</a> </th> <td valign="top">19%<sup id="cite_ref-BIPE_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BIPE-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;">Share of collected wastewater treated </th> <td valign="top">Not available </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;">Annual investment in water supply and sanitation </th> <td valign="top">86 Euro/capita<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;">Share of self-financing by utilities </th> <td valign="top">Close to 100% </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;">Share of tax-financing </th> <td valign="top">Low, in rural areas </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;">Share of external financing </th> <td valign="top">0% </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:center; background:lightblue;" colspan="3">Institutions </th></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;">Decentralization to municipalities </th> <td valign="top">Yes </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;">National water and sanitation company </th> <td valign="top">None </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;">Water and sanitation regulator </th> <td valign="top">No </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;">Responsibility for policy setting </th> <td valign="top"> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;">Sector law </th> <td valign="top">None </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;">Number of service providers </th> <td valign="top">About 13,500 (water) and about 15,000 (sanitation)<sup id="cite_ref-ecologie.gouv.fr_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ecologie.gouv.fr-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Water supply and sanitation in France</b> is universal and of good quality. Salient features of the sector compared to other developed countries are the high degree of private sector participation using concession and lease contracts (<i>gestion déléguée</i>) and the existence of basin agencies that levy fees on utilities in order to finance environmental investments. Water losses in France (26%) are high compared to England (19%) and Germany (7%).<sup id="cite_ref-bgw.de_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bgw.de-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Access">Access</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Access"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Access to improved water supply and to adequate sanitation in France is universal. However, not every household has access to water from the network or disposes its wastewater through sewers. </p><p>Concerning water supply, according to a survey undertaken by the Ministry of Agriculture in 1995, 370,000 permanent inhabitants in rural areas (0.5% of the total population) did not have access to piped water supply. They are supplied by 30,000 water points, most of them wells. The government plans to increase the access rate to 100%, improve water quality by establishing protection areas around wells and springs, and to increase the reliability of water supply by increasing production, storage and interconnection of existing networks.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2003_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2003-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Concerning sanitation, while most of the population is served by sewers, according to one source about 18.3 million people (18%) out of 65 are served by on-site sanitation systems such as <a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">septic tanks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The above-mentioned inventory by the Ministry of Agriculture notes that out of 40m inhabitants of rural areas – 25m permanent and 15m seasonal inhabitants – 21m are connected to a sewer system, 10.6m should be connected and 9.6m cannot be connected. The total of those not connected to sewers (20.2 million) is higher because it includes seasonal inhabitants. The government intends to increase the coverage to the sewer networks in rural areas, in particular in ecologically vulnerable zones.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water_use">Water use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Water use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Badewanne_(fcm).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Badewanne_%28fcm%29.jpg/130px-Badewanne_%28fcm%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Badewanne_%28fcm%29.jpg/195px-Badewanne_%28fcm%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Badewanne_%28fcm%29.jpg/260px-Badewanne_%28fcm%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1221" data-file-height="2510" /></a><figcaption>Baths and showers account for 39% of residential water use in France</figcaption></figure> <p>According to the Centre d'Information sur l'Eau (CIEAU) residential water use in France is for the following uses:<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>39% for baths and showers</li> <li>20% for toilets</li> <li>12% for washing clothes</li> <li>10% for washing dishes</li> <li>6% for food preparation</li> <li>6% for other residential uses</li> <li>6% for outdoor uses (lawn watering and washing cars)</li> <li>1% for drinking</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water_sources">Water sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Water sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roquefavour_Aqueduct_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Roquefavour_Aqueduct_3.jpg/220px-Roquefavour_Aqueduct_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Roquefavour_Aqueduct_3.jpg/330px-Roquefavour_Aqueduct_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Roquefavour_Aqueduct_3.jpg/440px-Roquefavour_Aqueduct_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5400" data-file-height="3600" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Canal_de_Marseille" title="Canal de Marseille">Canal de Marseille</a>, shown here entering a tunnel near <a href="/wiki/Roquefavour_Aqueduct" title="Roquefavour Aqueduct">Roquefavour Aqueduct</a>, supplies two-thirds of the drinking water of <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Durance" title="Durance">Durance</a> River</figcaption></figure> <p>Total domestic water use in France is about 6 billion cubic metres or only about 3 percent of total runoff (191 billion cubic metres). 62 percent of drinking water supply is from groundwater and 28 percent from surface water.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Service_quality">Service quality</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Service quality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Service quality is generally good with continuous water supply. In early 2008 private operators published for the first time consolidated performance indicators on service quality. It showed that 99.7% of samples complied with bacteriological standards for drinking water quality, but only 82.3% of samples complied with standards for the discharge of treated wastewater. The share of unplanned water service interruptions was less than 3%. The indicators do not include statistics on sewer overflows. A decree of May 2007 requires public service providers to provide the same information on service quality to the public that has been provided by private service providers, beginning in 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-sictiam28_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sictiam28-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a 2008 survey by the water information centre C.I.Eau 81% of respondents think that tap water is safe to drink.<sup id="cite_ref-Barometer_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barometer-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As in other EU countries, water quality monitoring is carried out at two levels, first by the service provider on a permanent basis, and second by the authorities on a sample basis. </p><p>The lack of wastewater treatment in some cities and towns discharging wastewater into sensitive areas is another matter of concern. In January 2008 the European Commission sent France a final warning alerting it that it will be taken to the <a href="/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice" title="European Court of Justice">European Court of Justice</a> (ECJ) for the second time and possibly face fines unless it quickly brings its waste water treatment up to EU standards. France is not complying with the 1991 EU directive on urban waste water treatment. The deadline for treating all wastewater covered by the directive was 31 December 2000. In 2004 the European Court of Justice (ECJ) condemned France for failing to designate eleven areas as sensitive and for inadequate treatment facilities in a number of settlements which discharge their waste waters into these areas. The ECJ also found that 121 settlements breached the directive by discharging their waste waters into previously designated sensitive areas. In 2006 France designated the eleven areas as sensitive. However, 140 settlements – including the city of Paris – continue to discharge into these sensitive areas. With regard to the 121 settlements discharging into the previously designated sensitive areas France proceeded to rearrange them into 164 settlements, resulting in some settlements no longer meeting the threshold level of 10,000 residents at which the directive applies. The Commission considers such rearranging of settlements to avoid compliance with the directive unacceptable.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November 2009 it referred the matter to the ECJ.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consumer_perceptions">Consumer perceptions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Consumer perceptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2001 report to the French Parliament by one of its members, Yves Tavernier from the Socialist Party, concluded the following: </p><p>"The French feel that the rapid and poorly distributed increase in the price of water leads to new social inequities. They find it hard to accept that the <a href="/wiki/Water_tariff" title="Water tariff">water tariff</a> weighs essentially on urban users and that, in apartment buildings, it is included in the rent. They do not understand that agricultural production is exempt from the <a href="/wiki/Polluter-pays_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Polluter-pays principle">Polluter-pays principle</a> and that it continues to deteriorate the quality of groundwater with impunity. They wonder about the lack of transparency that prevails in the provision of public water supply. Finally, they find it very hard to understand their water bills."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A representative survey of consumers carried out in December 2007 showed that most consumers believe prices are too high. However, it also showed that they overestimate the price of water (Euro 4.80/m3 instead of the actual average price of Euro 3.02/m3). About 55% of the French population believe that treated wastewater is directly being reused as drinking water, which is not the case. The survey also shows that 84% of French consumers trust that the quality of their tap water is good. 67% declare that they drink water from the tap at least once a week. Those who are dissatisfied about tap water quality complain mainly about high levels of <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Infrastructure">Infrastructure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Infrastructure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paris-Egouts-p1010721.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Paris-Egouts-p1010721.jpg/200px-Paris-Egouts-p1010721.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Paris-Egouts-p1010721.jpg/300px-Paris-Egouts-p1010721.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Paris-Egouts-p1010721.jpg/400px-Paris-Egouts-p1010721.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Sewers in Paris</figcaption></figure> <p>In 2008 there were 15,250 water treatment plants and 17,300 wastewater treatment plants in France.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wastewater treatment plants produced about one million tons of sludge, half of which is being used in agriculture. The water and sewer network is about 800,000 km long.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Responsibility_for_water_supply_and_sanitation">Responsibility for water supply and sanitation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Responsibility for water supply and sanitation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Water supply, sewerage and wastewater treatment is a municipal responsibility in France. Many municipalities, in particular the smaller ones, have created municipal associations in order to benefit from <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a>. Municipalities and municipal associations often contract out water supply and/or sanitation services to the private sector through long-term lease contracts (<i>affermage</i>). </p><p>Six water agencies plan the management of water resources, collect fees for the abstraction of water from rivers and <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a> as well as for the discharge of wastewater to the environment, and use the proceeds to subsidize investments in water supply and sanitation. </p><p>At the national level, no single Ministry is in charge of the sector and a variety of Ministries and other entities have attributions concerning specific aspects of the sector. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Policy_and_regulation">Policy and regulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Policy and regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:France_departements_regions_narrow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/France_departements_regions_narrow.jpg/200px-France_departements_regions_narrow.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/France_departements_regions_narrow.jpg/300px-France_departements_regions_narrow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/France_departements_regions_narrow.jpg/400px-France_departements_regions_narrow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p><b>National level</b> The legal framework for water resources management, water supply and sanitation consists of three main laws: The <i>Loi sur l'eau</i> (Water Law) of 3 January 1992, the Loi n°95-101 relative au renforcement de la protection de l'environnement (Strengthening of Environmental Protection Law) of 2 February 1995 (« Loi Barnier »), and the <i>Loi sur l’eau et les milieux aquatiques</i> (Water and Aquatic Environment Law) of 30 December 2006. The latter transposes the EU <a href="/wiki/Water_Framework_Directive" title="Water Framework Directive">Water Framework Directive</a> into French law. </p><p>At the level of the national government, several Ministries have a role in determining policies for water supply and sanitation: The Ministry of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and Territorial Planning (Meeddat), the Ministry of Health (in charge of monitoring drinking water quality), the Ministry of Interior (in charge of supervising local government) and the Ministry of Economy and Finance (which supervises the Water Agencies together with the Ministry of Ecology). </p><p>Environmental regulation is the responsibility of the Ministry of Ecology. Wastewater discharge standards, drinking water quality standards and the framework for water resources management are defined by the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> through various directives (see <a href="/wiki/EU_water_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="EU water policy">EU water policy</a>). The country's six water agencies (Agences de l'Eau, formerly Agences de Bassins) play an important role to bring together stakeholders at the basin level in a "Water Parliament", in levying water abstraction fees and wastewater discharge fees, and in financing infrastructure with the revenues from these fees. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cour_des_comptes_Paris_entr%C3%A9e.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Cour_des_comptes_Paris_entr%C3%A9e.JPG/200px-Cour_des_comptes_Paris_entr%C3%A9e.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Cour_des_comptes_Paris_entr%C3%A9e.JPG/300px-Cour_des_comptes_Paris_entr%C3%A9e.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Cour_des_comptes_Paris_entr%C3%A9e.JPG/400px-Cour_des_comptes_Paris_entr%C3%A9e.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Cour_des_Comptes" class="mw-redirect" title="Cour des Comptes">Cour des Comptes</a> in Paris monitors water and sewer tariffs and utility expenditures</figcaption></figure> <p>A National Office for Water and the Aquatic Environment (Onema) was created in 2007 under the Ministry of Ecology with the objectives of developing the knowledge of and information about water resources and their uses; enforcing legislation related to water; and to assist local and regional governments in planning the use of water resources.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Onema has a good presence on the ground through nine interregional offices and departmental offices. Its functions are related to water resources and not to water supply and sanitation. </p><p>Unlike in a few other countries (such as <a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United Kingdom">England and Wales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Portugal" title="Water supply and sanitation in Portugal">Portugal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Chile" title="Water supply and sanitation in Chile">Chile</a>) there is no national regulatory agency in France that would approve tariffs and set and control service standards. There are also no regulatory agencies at the level of the <a href="/wiki/Regions_of_France" title="Regions of France">Regions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Departments_of_France" title="Departments of France">Departments</a>, unlike in <a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">US states</a>. The economic regulation of private service provision is undertaken purely by contract through the municipality. </p><p>However, the <i>Cour des Comptes</i> (National Audit Entity) plays a role in monitoring water and sewer tariffs as well as expenditures by utilities. </p><p><b>Local level</b> At the local level, in municipalities with more than 10,000 inhabitants Consultative Commissions for Local Public Services assist municipalities in regulating service providers. The Commissions were created through the 1992 water law. After the commissions initially met with little success, they were strengthened through another law in 2002. Their purpose now is to provide better information on public services through the review of annual reports by the service providers and to be consulted on key decisions such as the delegation of service provision to the private sector or the creation of a municipal enterprise. The consultative commissions are usually chaired by the <a href="/wiki/Mayor_(France)" title="Mayor (France)">mayor</a> and their members are members of the <a href="/wiki/City_council_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="City council (France)">municipal council</a> or are nominated by the municipal council.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a 2003 report by the <i>Cour des Comptes</i> only few Consultative Committees have been created and, where they have been created, they have sometimes never met.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Service_provision">Service provision</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Service provision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maire_(France).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Maire_%28France%29.jpg/200px-Maire_%28France%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Maire_%28France%29.jpg/300px-Maire_%28France%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Maire_%28France%29.jpg/400px-Maire_%28France%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="826" data-file-height="1261" /></a><figcaption>Municipalities (mairies) are in charge of water supply and sanitation services in France, either directly or through municipal associations</figcaption></figure> <p>There are about 16,700 "organizing entities" (municipalities and municipal associations) in the French sanitation sector and 12,400 in the water sector.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the 36,700 municipalities in France, at least 23,000 are part of 2,000 intermunicipal utilities with the specific purpose to provide <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">water supply</a> and – in some cases – <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> services. <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> services (understood as sewerage and wastewater treatment in this context) are sometimes provided by the same entity that provides water services, but in some cases they are provided directly by the municipality while an intermunicipal utility is in charge of water supply. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Communes_in_France#Intercommunality" class="mw-redirect" title="Communes in France">Communes_in_France § Intercommunality</a></div> <p><b>Municipal associations</b> Municipal associations (<i>établissements publics de coopération intercommunale</i>, EPCI) play a key role in water and sanitation service provision in France. The first ones were created during the 19th century. Today municipal associations together include 91.7% of French municipalities (33,636) and 86.7% of the French population. </p><p>Not all municipal associations provide water and/or sanitation services. Some of them provide only urban transport or solid waste management, while others serve multiple purposes. The most common and oldest form of associations are the <i>syndicats intercommunaux</i>, of which there were 18,504 in January 2008. They do not have powers to levy taxes. 14,885 <i>syndicats intercommunaux</i> serve a single purpose (SIVU), which in the case of some of them is water supply and/or sanitation. The remainder serve multiple purposes (SIVOM). </p><p>Subsequent laws created new types of municipal associations that sometimes compete and overlap with the <i>syndicats intercommunaux</i>. In particular the <i>Loi Chevènement</i> of 1999, named after the Ministry of Interior at the time, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Chev%C3%A8nement" title="Jean-Pierre Chevènement">Jean-Pierre Chevènement</a>, created or reorganized four other forms of municipal associations: </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Pierre_Chevenement_p1190790.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Jean-Pierre_Chevenement_p1190790.jpg/200px-Jean-Pierre_Chevenement_p1190790.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Jean-Pierre_Chevenement_p1190790.jpg/300px-Jean-Pierre_Chevenement_p1190790.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Jean-Pierre_Chevenement_p1190790.jpg/400px-Jean-Pierre_Chevenement_p1190790.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Chev%C3%A8nement" title="Jean-Pierre Chevènement">Jean-Pierre Chevènement</a> passed a law to promote and strengthen municipal associations in 1999 while he was Minister of the Interior</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Urban communities (<i><a href="/wiki/Communaut%C3%A9_urbaine" title="Communauté urbaine">communauté urbaine</a></i>) with at least 500,000 inhabitants each, created in 1966. There were 14 in January 2008 with a total of 6.2 million inhabitants: <a href="/wiki/Alen%C3%A7on" title="Alençon">Alençon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arras" title="Arras">Arras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bordeaux" title="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brest,_France" title="Brest, France">Brest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cherbourg" title="Cherbourg">Cherbourg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dunkerque" class="mw-redirect" title="Dunkerque">Dunkerque</a>, le Creusot-Montceau, <a href="/wiki/Le_Mans" title="Le Mans">Le Mans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lille" title="Lille">Lille</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nancy,_France" title="Nancy, France">Nancy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nantes" title="Nantes">Nantes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a></li> <li>Communities of agglomerations (<i><a href="/wiki/Communaut%C3%A9_d%27agglom%C3%A9ration" class="mw-redirect" title="Communauté d'agglomération">communauté d'agglomération</a></i>) with at least 50,000 inhabitants, created in 1999 merging two previously existing forms of associations. There were 171 communities of agglomerations in January 2008 with a total of 21.9m inhabitants</li> <li>Communities of municipalities (<i><a href="/wiki/Communaut%C3%A9_de_communes" title="Communauté de communes">communauté de communes</a></i>), created in 1992 and existing predominantly in rural areas, of which there were 2,393 in January 2008</li> <li>5 <i>syndicats d'agglomération nouvelle</i> with 0.3m inhabitants, created in 1960 and now gradually disappearing.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Unlike the <i>syndicats intercommunaux</i> these four latter types of municipal associations can levy taxes. They also receive subsidies from the national government as an incentive to create the associations, with higher subsidies for the most integrated form of association (urban communities) and lower subsidies for the less integrated forms (community of communities). The <i>syndicats intercommunaux</i>, which do not receive subsidies from the national government and are now somewhat declining in numbers, often count communities of agglomerations and communities of municipalities as their members. The resulting duplication has been criticized as wasteful by the "<i>Black Book of Intercommunality</i>" in 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2005 report by the Cour des Comptes also stated that the quality of the municipal associations is "not fully satisfactory".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Example:SEDIF</b> An example of a single-purpose intermunicipal association for water supply is the <i>Syndicat des Eaux d'Ile-de-France</i> (<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndicat_des_eaux_d%27%C3%8Ele-de-France" class="extiw" title="fr:Syndicat des eaux d'Île-de-France">SEDIF</a>), which regroups 144 municipalities in the metropolitan area of Paris except for the city of Paris itself. Leaving private service providers apart, it is the largest utility in France, serving more than 4 million users. While SEDIF owns its infrastructure, it has contracted out service provision to the private enterprise <i>Veolia Eau</i>. Some municipalities within SEDIF's service area have chosen to provide water services themselves through communities of municipalities or metropolitan communities.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Private_sector_participation">Private sector participation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Private sector participation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Water_privatization_in_France" title="Water privatization in France">Water privatization in France</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Water_privatization" title="Water privatization">Water privatization</a> in France goes back to the mid-19th century when cities signed concessions with private water companies for the supply of drinking water. Today, according to the Ministry of Environment 75% of water and 50% of sanitation services in France are provided by the private sector, primarily by two firms, Veolia and Suez.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1993 the <i>Loi Sapin</i> strengthened competition in the sector by limiting the duration of contracts to 20 years, among others. In 2010 the lease contracts for Paris with Suez and Veolia expired and the water system returned to public management (<a href="/wiki/Remunicipalization" title="Remunicipalization">remunicipalization</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Measures_to_strengthen_competition_and_to_fight_corruption">Measures to strengthen competition and to fight corruption</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Measures to strengthen competition and to fight corruption"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Socialist_rally_Zenith_2007_05_29_n16.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Socialist_rally_Zenith_2007_05_29_n16.jpg/150px-Socialist_rally_Zenith_2007_05_29_n16.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Socialist_rally_Zenith_2007_05_29_n16.jpg/225px-Socialist_rally_Zenith_2007_05_29_n16.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Socialist_rally_Zenith_2007_05_29_n16.jpg/300px-Socialist_rally_Zenith_2007_05_29_n16.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2424" /></a><figcaption>The Socialist politician <a href="/wiki/Michel_Sapin" title="Michel Sapin">Michel Sapin</a> initiated a law to prevent corruption, approved in 1993, that was in part triggered by corruption in the water sector</figcaption></figure> <p>Since the early 1990s a number of measures have been undertaken to strengthen competition, to fight corruption and to improve transparency in the French water and sanitation sector. </p><p><b>Loi Sapin</b> In January 1993 the French Parliament approved the Sapin Law (<i>Loi Sapin</i>) concerning the prevention of corruption and on the "transparency of economic life and public procedures".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It received its name from <a href="/wiki/Michel_Sapin" title="Michel Sapin">Michel Sapin</a>, the Socialist Minister of Economy and Finance at the time. A study by the Water Directorate of the Ministry of Environment, carried out by the consultancy TNS Sofres in 2006, showed the following impact of the law in the water and sanitation sector: </p> <ul><li>the average price paid to private operators declined by 9%</li> <li>the average duration of contracts (gestion déléguée) has been reduced to 11 years</li> <li>the average number of bids by private operators for a given contract has increased from 2.6 to 4.5</li></ul> <p>However, it also noted that the decline in payments to private operators has not been passed on to consumers, because it is partially or fully compensated by increases in local taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Other measures</b> In 2001 the Association of French Mayors has developed a standard contract for water supply and sanitation services that aims at strengthening the position of municipalities vis-à-vis private operators. </p><p>In 2002 the Association of French Mayors, the Assembly of French Departments, the Association of French Regions and the <i>Institut de la Gestion Déléguée</i> (IGD)<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> signed a "Charter of Local Public Services". In the charter these entities commit themselves, among others, to the free choice of management models and the reversibility of these choices; objective comparisons between management models; to ensure transparency of costs and to equitably share gains in performance; and to strengthen local democracy and independent evaluations. In order to facilitate objective comparisons through benchmarking, performance indicators should be developed and an Observatory of Local Public Services should be created to monitor the indicators.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2004 IGD issued a draft document containing 10 proposed performance indicators for water supply and sanitation.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Six years later, the observatory has not been created. However, private water companies have collected and published for the first time indicators about their performance in 2008. A decree of May 2007 requires public service providers to provide the same information on service quality to the public that has been provided by private service providers, beginning in 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-sictiam28_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sictiam28-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Financial_aspects">Financial aspects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Financial aspects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tariffs">Tariffs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Tariffs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Water and sanitation tariffs in France vary substantially from one service provider to the other. The six French public water agencies regularly publish the results of water tariff surveys (<i>Observatoires de Prix</i>) that they carry out among service providers in the respective areas they cover comparting tariff levels. </p><p>According to a 2003 study by the French Supreme Audit Agency (<i>Cour des Comptes</i>), the complexity of water tariffs makes them difficult to understand for users despite efforts to improve the presentation of water bills. The agency also states that flat-rate tariffs that are not linked to consumption levels still persist, although the 1992 water law aimed at linking water tariffs to consumption.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>International comparison of tariff level</b> According to a study by NUS consulting, in 2007 the average residential water and sanitation tariff for the five largest cities in France was €2.92 per cubic meter for a consumption of 120 cubic meters per connection and year. This was lower than the average of 11 EU countries in the same year, which was €3.25 per cubic meter.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the same study tariffs were highest in Denmark (€5.63/m3) and Germany (€5.09/m3). </p><p>However, for commercial tariffs the picture is somewhat different. According to another study by NUS consulting the average water tariff (without sanitation) in France for a consumption of 10,000 cubic meters pere year was the equivalent of US$1.58, the 5th most expensive out of the 14 countries considered in the study. In the 14 mainly <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> countries tariffs excluding <a href="/wiki/VAT" class="mw-redirect" title="VAT">VAT</a> varied between US$0.66 per cubic meter in the United States and the equivalent of US$2.25 per cubic meter in Denmark.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a study commissioned by the German <a href="/wiki/Water_industry" title="Water industry">water industry</a> association BGW in 2006, the picture is again somewhat different. This study does not compare tariffs per cubic meter, but average water bills. The average annual <i>per capita</i> water bill was 85 Euro in France, the same as in Germany (85 Euro), higher than in Italy (59 Euro) and lower than in England and Wales (95 Euro). </p><p><b>Comparison of annual water and sanitation bills <i>per capita</i> in four EU countries</b> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <td>Water tariff </td> <td>Sewer tariff </td> <td>Total </td></tr> <tr> <td>Germany </td> <td>85 Euro </td> <td>111 Euro </td> <td>196 Euro </td></tr> <tr> <td>England and Wales </td> <td>95 Euro </td> <td>93 Euro </td> <td>188 Euro </td></tr> <tr> <td>France </td> <td>85 Euro </td> <td>90 Euro </td> <td>175 Euro </td></tr> <tr> <td>Italy </td> <td>59 Euro </td> <td>40 Euro </td> <td>99 Euro </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Source: Metropolitan Consulting Group: VEWA – Vergleich europaeischer Wasser- und Abwasserpreise, 2006, p. 7 of the executive summary<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Equalized costs net of subsidies and taking into account differences in service quality show a different picture: England and Wales have the highest tariffs, followed by France and Germany. Tariffs in Italy remain the lowest, even taking subsidies and differences in service quality into account.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Comparison of annual water and sanitation bills <i>per capita</i> in four EU countries taking into account subsidies and differences in service quality</b> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <td>Water tariff </td> <td>Sewer tariff </td> <td>Total </td></tr> <tr> <td>Germany </td> <td>84 Euro </td> <td>119 Euro </td> <td>203 Euro </td></tr> <tr> <td>England and Wales </td> <td>106 Euro </td> <td>138 Euro </td> <td>244 Euro </td></tr> <tr> <td>France </td> <td>106 Euro </td> <td>122 Euro </td> <td>228 Euro </td></tr> <tr> <td>Italy </td> <td>74 Euro </td> <td>85 Euro </td> <td>159 Euro </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Costs_and_affordability">Costs and affordability</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Costs and affordability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the year 2005 </p> <ul><li>46% of water and sanitation tariffs were linked to water treatment and distribution;</li> <li>37% were linked to wastewater collection and treatment;</li> <li>17% corresponded to fees and taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Fees are destined to the six water agencies at the basin level mentioned above. Taxes include a water consumption tax and <a href="/wiki/VAT" class="mw-redirect" title="VAT">VAT</a>. </p><p>According to a study by the consulting firm BIPE drawing on national statistics the share of household expenditures devoted to water and sewer bills was 0.8% and the average annual water and sewer bill was 374 Euro <i>per household</i> in 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Investment">Investment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Investment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Investments in water supply and sanitation were estimated at 5.6 billion Euro in 2007. <sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2003 the Association of French Departments estimated that the renewal of the water supply distribution infrastructure alone would require investments of 53 billion Euro from 2004 to 2015 to replace 535,000 km of pipes (about 65% of the entire network). This corresponds to an average of 4.4 billion Euro per year or 80 Euro/capita/year.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Financing">Financing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Financing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Investments are financed from a variety of sources. In 2006 investments were financed by municipalities (58%), <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agence_de_l%27eau" class="extiw" title="fr:Agence de l'eau">Water Agencies</a> (18%), private water companies (13%) and subsidies from the <i>Départements</i> and regions (11%).<sup id="cite_ref-FPEE_2008_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FPEE_2008-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The contribution by municipalities is fully financed from tariff revenues collected for water and sanitation services, as well as by substantial fees (<i>part collectivité</i>) paid by private operators to the municipalities (Euro 2bn in 2006, or 30% of the amount billed by private operators) for the costs of investments (service budget of the municipality). Only in the case of municipalities with less than 3,000 inhabitants some limited tax revenue (general budget) is used to finance water and sanitation investments.<sup id="cite_ref-FPEE_2008_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FPEE_2008-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basin agencies finance themselves through charges for water abstraction and wastewater discharge by utilities and industries. </p><p>In rural areas, investment subsidies are available from the National Fund for the Development of Water Supply (<i>Fonds National pour le Développement des Adductions d’Eau</i>, FNDAE)<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This fund, created in 1954, is funded by a surcharge on all water bills (55% of funding) and by a share in the revenues of the public agency in charge of organizing horse race betting, the <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pari_Mutuel_Urbain" class="extiw" title="fr:Pari Mutuel Urbain">Pari Mutuel Urbain</a> (45%). The FNDAE has an annual budget of 145m Euro. It is managed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and its departmental branches. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decentralized_international_cooperation">Decentralized international cooperation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Decentralized international cooperation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UMP_regional_elections_Paris_2010-01-21_n5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/UMP_regional_elections_Paris_2010-01-21_n5.jpg/150px-UMP_regional_elections_Paris_2010-01-21_n5.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/UMP_regional_elections_Paris_2010-01-21_n5.jpg/225px-UMP_regional_elections_Paris_2010-01-21_n5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/UMP_regional_elections_Paris_2010-01-21_n5.jpg/300px-UMP_regional_elections_Paris_2010-01-21_n5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2250" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Conservative politician André Santini submitted a law that allows water agencies and water companies to use funds for international cooperation</figcaption></figure> <p>Some municipalities and water agencies are engaged in international cooperation to improve access to water supply and sanitation in developing countries. As opposed to "centralized" international cooperation implemented by the <a href="/wiki/French_Development_Agency" title="French Development Agency">French Development Agency</a> or <a href="/wiki/Multilateral_development_bank" class="mw-redirect" title="Multilateral development bank">multilateral development banks</a>, in France this form of aid is called decentralized cooperation. In 2002 the <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Audit_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Court of Audit of France">Court of Audit of France</a> condemned decentralized cooperation by water agencies as contrary to their objectives. In response, the conservative member of Parliament <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Santini" title="André Santini">André Santini</a>, President of the Council of the Water Agency for Seine-Normandie and President of SEDIF, the utility in charge of water supply in the region of Paris, introduced a law passed in 2005 named after himself and former Senator <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Oudin" title="Jacques Oudin">Jacques Oudin</a>. The <i>Loi Oudin-Santini</i> allows water agencies and municipal water companies to spend up to 1% of their budget on international cooperation. According to the NGO psEau the law could mobilize up to Euro 100 million. However, far from all water companies make use of the option provided by the law. The NGO s-eau-s (pronounced SOS) criticized the law, because it allegedly promotes the "export of the French water management model" and the "conquest of markets by big French water companies".<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Efficiency_(water_losses)"><span id="Efficiency_.28water_losses.29"></span>Efficiency (water losses)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Efficiency (water losses)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to a report by the Association of Private Water Companies in France (FP2E), water losses stood at 19% of water production in 2010 (81% efficiency of the supply network, losses being equal to 100% minus the efficiency of the supply network), up from 18% in 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-BIPE_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BIPE-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a study commissioned by the German <a href="/wiki/Water_industry" title="Water industry">water industry</a> association BGW water losses in the distribution network in France have been estimated at an average 26 percent, compared to only 7 percent in Germany, 19 percent in England/Wales and 29 percent in Italy<sup id="cite_ref-bgw.de_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bgw.de-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study states that its methodology allows for an accurate comparison, including water used to flush pipes and for firefighting. This is consistent with the International Water Association's definition of <a href="/wiki/Non-revenue_water" title="Non-revenue water">non-revenue water</a>, which includes authorized non-metered consumption such as for flushing and firefighting. </p><p>According to a 2002 study by the Association of French Departments, non-revenue water was actually slightly higher and stood at 28%.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EU_water_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="EU water policy">EU water policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandre" title="Sandre">Sandre</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2003-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2003_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2003_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://agriculture.gouv.fr/sections/thematiques/vie-en-milieu-rural/equipements-ruraux/alimentation-en-eau-potable/alimentation-en-eau-potable">L'alimentation en eau potable (AEP) des communes rurales</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>, Ministry of Agriculture, June 2003</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amf.asso.fr/_gabarit/fichier.asp?...20080522...SPANC...">Grégory Mascarau:Le service public d'assainissement non collectif 2008</a>, quoting BIPE-FP2E 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to the French version of this article <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eau_potable_en_France" class="extiw" title="fr:Eau potable en France">fr:Eau potable en France</a>, quoting the Institut Français de l'Environnement (IFEN)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ifen.fr/uploads/media/eau_ree2006_01.pdf">Institut Français de l'Environnement:L'eau</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081209105413/http://www.ifen.fr/uploads/media/eau_ree2006_01.pdf">Archived</a> 9 December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> shows total water abstraction for drinking water as 6.2 bn m3 per year, which corresponds to 262 liter/capita/day for 65 million inhabitants, including leakage.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to a study by the consulting firm BIPE, quoted in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cieau.com/">Centre de l'Information sur l'Eau CIEAU</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BIPE-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BIPE_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BIPE_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRaphaël_DEMOULIERE,_Joy_BENSAID_SCHEMBA,_Joshua_BERGER,_Ahmed_AÏT_KACI,_Fanny_Rougier2012" class="citation web cs1">Raphaël DEMOULIERE, Joy BENSAID SCHEMBA, Joshua BERGER, Ahmed AÏT KACI, Fanny Rougier (March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fp2e.org/userfiles/files/publication/etudes/Etude%20FP2E-BIPE%202012_VA.pdf">"Public water supply and sanitation services in France. Economic, social and environmental data"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. FP2E/BIPE. p. 82<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Public+water+supply+and+sanitation+services+in+France.+Economic%2C+social+and+environmental+data.&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=FP2E%2FBIPE&rft.date=2012-03&rft.au=Rapha%C3%ABl+DEMOULIERE%2C+Joy+BENSAID+SCHEMBA%2C+Joshua+BERGER%2C+Ahmed+A%C3%8FT+KACI%2C+Fanny+Rougier&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fp2e.org%2Fuserfiles%2Ffiles%2Fpublication%2Fetudes%2FEtude%2520FP2E-BIPE%25202012_VA.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+supply+and+sanitation+in+France" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cms.sictiam.com/cms/30_adm06/upload/Gestion%20de%20leau.pdf">Alain Tiret, Fédération Professionnelle des Entreprises de l'Eau, 2008, p. 10</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120216001645/http://cms.sictiam.com/cms/30_adm06/upload/Gestion%20de%20leau.pdf">Archived</a> 16 February 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 5.6 billion Euro divided by 65 million inhabitants.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ecologie.gouv.fr-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ecologie.gouv.fr_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ecologie.gouv.fr/Les-differents-modes-de-gestion-de.html">Ministry of Environment: Water management models</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081205143443/http://www.ecologie.gouv.fr/Les-differents-modes-de-gestion-de.html">Archived</a> 5 December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bgw.de-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bgw.de_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bgw.de_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Metropolitan Consulting Group: VEWA – Vergleich europaeischer Wasser- und Abwasserpreise, p. 4 of the executive summary <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.bgw.de/pdf/0.1_resource_2006_6_12_4.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927012030/http://www.bgw.de/pdf/0.1_resource_2006_6_12_4.pdf">Archived</a> 27 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amf.asso.fr/_gabarit/fichier.asp?...20080522...SPANC...">Grégory Mascarau:Le service public d'assainissement non collectif 2008</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://agriculture.gouv.fr/sections/thematiques/vie-en-milieu-rural/equipements-ruraux/assainissement/assainissement">L'assainissement des communes rurales</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>, Ministry of Agriculture, June 2003. The definition of "rural" used here obviously includes small and medium-sized towns.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Centre d'Information sur l'Eau (C.I.Eau):<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cieau.com/la-ressource/les-usages">Les usages de l'eau en chiffres</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100830204748/http://www.cieau.com/la-ressource/les-usages">Archived</a> 30 August 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Centre de l'Information sur l'Eau (C.I.Eau):<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cieau.com/la-ressource">Les ressources en France</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100918233033/http://www.cieau.com/la-ressource">Archived</a> 18 September 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 13 March 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sictiam28-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sictiam28_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sictiam28_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120216001645/http://cms.sictiam.com/cms/30_adm06/upload/Gestion%20de%20leau.pdf">"Alain Tiret, Fédération Professionnelle des Entreprises de l'Eau, 2008, p. 28"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cms.sictiam.com/cms/30_adm06/upload/Gestion%20de%20leau.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alain+Tiret%2C+F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration+Professionnelle+des+Entreprises+de+l%27Eau%2C+2008%2C+p.+28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcms.sictiam.com%2Fcms%2F30_adm06%2Fupload%2FGestion%2520de%2520leau.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+supply+and+sanitation+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barometer-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Barometer_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Centre de l'Information sur l'Eau (C.I.Eau): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cieau.com/toutpubl/sommaire/texte/5/f52.htm">Baromètre C.I.EAU / TNS SOFRES 2008 – 13ème édition "Les Français et l'eau", principaux résultats</a>, Avril 2008. Retrieved 13 March 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100602095934/http://www.cieau.com/toutpubl/sommaire/texte/5/f52.htm">Archived</a> 2 June 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/08/150&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en">Waste water treatment: Commission gives France final warning</a> 31 January 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">European Commission, Directorate General Communications, Press Releases Rapid:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/09/1794&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en">Waste water treatment: Commission takes France to court; sends warning to five Member States</a>, 20 November 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/rap-info/i3081.asp">Rapport d'information n° 3081</a>, Assemblée nationale, 22 mai 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cieau.com/toutpubl/actu/index.htm">Baromètre C.I.EAU/TNS SOFRES 2008</a> The survey included face-to-face interviews with a representative sample of 1,977 adults. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080719123542/http://www.cieau.com/toutpubl/actu/index.htm">Archived</a> 19 July 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120216001645/http://cms.sictiam.com/cms/30_adm06/upload/Gestion%20de%20leau.pdf">"Alain Tiret, Fédération Professionnelle des Entreprises de l'Eau, 2008, p. 7-8"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cms.sictiam.com/cms/30_adm06/upload/Gestion%20de%20leau.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alain+Tiret%2C+F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration+Professionnelle+des+Entreprises+de+l%27Eau%2C+2008%2C+p.+7-8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcms.sictiam.com%2Fcms%2F30_adm06%2Fupload%2FGestion%2520de%2520leau.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+supply+and+sanitation+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to the French version of this article at <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eau_potable_en_France#Le_réseau_d'assainissement_et_de_distribution" class="extiw" title="fr:Eau potable en France">Eau potable en France</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.onema.fr/-Missions-">Office national de l'eau et des milieux aquatiques (Onema): Missions</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maires74.asso.fr/docs/conseil_municipal/1079077564.pdf">Association des Maires: La Commission Consultative des Services Publics Locaux</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccomptes.fr/fr/CC/documents/RPT/RapportEau.pdf">Cour des Comptes, La gestion des services publics d’eau et d’assainissement, 2003</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120306204933/http://www.ccomptes.fr/fr/CC/documents/RPT/RapportEau.pdf">Archived</a> 6 March 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> p. 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alain Tiret, Délégué général de la Fédération professionnelle des entreprises de l'eau:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cms.sictiam.com/cms/30_adm06/upload/Gestion%20de%20leau.pdf">Présentation des services publics de l’eau et de l’assainissement en France</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120216001645/http://cms.sictiam.com/cms/30_adm06/upload/Gestion%20de%20leau.pdf">Archived</a> 16 February 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 2e Rencontres des Maires – Symposium de Cannes, 25 juin 2008, p. 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dgcl.interieur.gouv.fr/sections/a_votre_service/statistiques/intercommunalite/bilan_statistique/repartition_des_grou/downloadFile/file/repartition_groupements_nb_communes_regroupees.pdf?nocache=1205402203.6">Ministry of Interior:Municipal associations</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2016">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071201151729/http://www.lgdj.fr/fiche_ouvrage.php?_Ouvrage=16131">"Le livre noir de l'intercommunalité. Les incohérences de la loi Chevènement"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lgdj.fr/fiche_ouvrage.php?_Ouvrage=16131">the original</a> on 1 December 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Le+livre+noir+de+l%27intercommunalit%C3%A9.+Les+incoh%C3%A9rences+de+la+loi+Chev%C3%A8nement&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lgdj.fr%2Ffiche_ouvrage.php%3F_Ouvrage%3D16131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+supply+and+sanitation+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110613025102/http://www.ccomptes.fr/fr/CC/documents/RPT/RapportIntercommun.pdf">"rapport public particulier de la Cour des comptes sur l'intercommunalité en France"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccomptes.fr/fr/CC/documents/RPT/RapportIntercommun.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 13 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=rapport+public+particulier+de+la+Cour+des+comptes+sur+l%27intercommunalit%C3%A9+en+France&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccomptes.fr%2Ffr%2FCC%2Fdocuments%2FRPT%2FRapportIntercommun.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+supply+and+sanitation+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sedif.com/le_sedif/accueil_organisation.html">SEDIF</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ecologie.gouv.fr/Les-differents-modes-de-gestion-de.html">Ministry of Environment: Water management models</a> quotes even higher figures: 75% for water and 50% for sanitation <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081205143443/http://www.ecologie.gouv.fr/Les-differents-modes-de-gestion-de.html">Archived</a> 5 December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080626095648/http://www.remunicipalisation.org/cases#Paris">"Remunicipalization Paris"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.remunicipalisation.org/cases">the original</a> on 26 June 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 June</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Remunicipalization+Paris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.remunicipalisation.org%2Fcases&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+supply+and+sanitation+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Municipality of Paris:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paris.fr/portail/accueil/Portal.lut?page_id=1&document_type_id=2&document_id=76394&portlet_id=21961">L'eau remunicipalisée depuis le 1er janvier</a>, 27 January 2010</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006080988&dateTexte=20080724">Legifrance:Loi Sapin</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120216001645/http://cms.sictiam.com/cms/30_adm06/upload/Gestion%20de%20leau.pdf">"Alain Tiret, Fédération Professionnelle des Entreprises de l'Eau, 2008, p. 23"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cms.sictiam.com/cms/30_adm06/upload/Gestion%20de%20leau.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alain+Tiret%2C+F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration+Professionnelle+des+Entreprises+de+l%27Eau%2C+2008%2C+p.+23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcms.sictiam.com%2Fcms%2F30_adm06%2Fupload%2FGestion%2520de%2520leau.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+supply+and+sanitation+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fondation-igd.org/">Institut de la Gestion Déléguée</a>, a research institute studying <a href="/wiki/Public-private" class="mw-redirect" title="Public-private">public-private</a> partnerships</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100725222807/http://www.fondation-igd.org/pages.php?ARB_N_ID=8">"Charte des Services Publics Locaux 2002"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fondation-igd.org/pages.php?ARB_N_ID=8">the original</a> on 25 July 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Charte+des+Services+Publics+Locaux+2002&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fondation-igd.org%2Fpages.php%3FARB_N_ID%3D8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+supply+and+sanitation+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110726061500/http://www.fondation-igd.org/pdf/Publi/IDP_eau.pdf">"IGD:Indicateurs de performance eau potable et assainissement 2004"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fondation-igd.org/pdf/Publi/IDP_eau.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 26 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IGD%3AIndicateurs+de+performance+eau+potable+et+assainissement+2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fondation-igd.org%2Fpdf%2FPubli%2FIDP_eau.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+supply+and+sanitation+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr/var/storage/rapports-publics/034000735.pdf">Cour des Comptes 2003:La gestion des services publics d'eau et assainissement</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120216001645/http://cms.sictiam.com/cms/30_adm06/upload/Gestion%20de%20leau.pdf">"Alain Tiret, Fédération Professionnelle des Entreprises de l'Eau, 2008, p. 20"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cms.sictiam.com/cms/30_adm06/upload/Gestion%20de%20leau.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alain+Tiret%2C+F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration+Professionnelle+des+Entreprises+de+l%27Eau%2C+2008%2C+p.+20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcms.sictiam.com%2Fcms%2F30_adm06%2Fupload%2FGestion%2520de%2520leau.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+supply+and+sanitation+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">NUS Consulting 2005–2006 International Water Report & Cost Survey <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.nusconsulting.com/downloads/2006WaterSurvey.pdf">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061206184217/http://www.nusconsulting.com/downloads/2006WaterSurvey.pdf">Archived</a> 6 December 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> The study covered Denmark, Germany, the UK, Belgium, France, The Netherlands, Italy, Finland, Australia, Spain, South Africa, Sweden, Canada and the US. The report means by "costs" average tariffs and not the costs of the utility, which can be lower or higher than average tariffs. Also, water consumption in the US and in Canada (which have lower tariffs) is much higher than in France and water consumption is lower in Germany (which has higher tariffs). Therefore, residential water bills may be very similar, even if the tariff per unit of consumption differs. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090327150422/http://www.nusconsulting.com/downloads/2006WaterSurvey.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from the original on 27 March 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nusconsulting.com%2Fdownloads%2F2006WaterSurvey.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+supply+and+sanitation+in+France" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>) CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Metropolitan Consulting Group: VEWA – Vergleich europaeischer Wasser- und Abwasserpreise, p. 7 of the executive summary <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bgw.de/files/pdf/0.1_resource_2006_7_14.pdf">VEWA study 2006</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2016">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bgw.de/pdf/0.1_resource_2006_6_12_4.pdf">VEWA study 2006</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927012030/http://www.bgw.de/pdf/0.1_resource_2006_6_12_4.pdf">Archived</a> 27 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cieau.com/">Centre de l'Information sur l'Eau CIEAU</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">BIPE, quoted in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cieau.com/">Centre de l'Information sur l'Eau CIEAU</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120216001645/http://cms.sictiam.com/cms/30_adm06/upload/Gestion%20de%20leau.pdf">"Alain Tiret, Fédération Professionnelle des Entreprises de l'Eau, 2008, p. 10"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cms.sictiam.com/cms/30_adm06/upload/Gestion%20de%20leau.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alain+Tiret%2C+F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration+Professionnelle+des+Entreprises+de+l%27Eau%2C+2008%2C+p.+10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcms.sictiam.com%2Fcms%2F30_adm06%2Fupload%2FGestion%2520de%2520leau.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+supply+and+sanitation+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.senat.fr/rap/l02-215-2/l02-215-262.html">Sénat:La qualité de l'eau et assainissement en France</a>, quoting: Evaluation IFEN – Les données de l'environnement – décembre 2001 – Étude de l'Association des départements de France (ADF) – mars 2002.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FPEE_2008-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FPEE_2008_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FPEE_2008_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">BIPE-FPEE (Fédération Professionnelle des Entreprises de l 'Eau):<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fp2e.org/.../12041893272_Rapport_BIPEFP2E_2008_BAT_vf.pdf">Les services collectifs d'eau et d'assainissement en France:Données économiques, sociales et techniques</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>, 2nd edition, 2008, p. 25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fndae.fr/index.htm">Fonds National pour le Développement des Adductions d’Eau</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080617130557/http://www.fndae.fr/index.htm">Archived</a> 17 June 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (FNDAE)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://seaus.free.fr/spip.php?article25">Association s-eau-s</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://seaus.free.fr/spip.php?article13">Loi "Oudin-Santini" sur la coopération internationale : une nouvelle arme pour les lobbies de l’eau?</a>. Retrieved 12 March 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.senat.fr/rap/l02-215-2/l02-215-262.html">Sénat:La qualité de l'eau et assainissement en France</a>, quoting: Evaluation IFEN – Les données de l'environnement – décembre 2001 – Étude de l'Association des départements de France (ADF) – mars 2002. Non-revenue water is one minus "rendement" or 100%–72%=28%.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fp2e.org/userfiles/files/publication/etudes/Etude%20FP2E-BIPE%202012_VA.pdf">Public water supply and sanitation in France</a> (pdf), a publication by BIPE and F2PE, 2012</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.services.eaufrance.fr/">Observatoire national des services publics d'eau et d'assainissement</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cieau.com/">Centre d'Information sur l'Eau</a>, a not-for-profit organization set up by the major private water companies in France to provide better information to consumers on water</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fp2e.org/page.php?lg=fr&rub=01">Fédération professionnelle des entreprises de l'eau</a> (FP2E), the association of the French private water companies</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fnccr.asso.fr/">Fédération Nationale des Collectivités Concédantes et en Régie (FNCCR)</a>, the association of the French municipalities</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081111093111/http://www.partenariat-francais-eau.fr/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=182">partenariat français pour l'eau</a>, a partnership of French public entities, private companies and NGOs working internationally</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.onema.fr/">Office national de l’eau et des milieux aquatiques</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070523100650/http://www.onema.fr/">Archived</a> 23 May 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, the French water resources agency</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://assainissement.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/">Urban Waste Water Treatment in France – Système d'information géographique du ministère sur l'asssainissement collectif, 2010 </a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Isvm1FjoTq8">Du poison dans l'eau du robinet - France 3 - emission du vendredi 2 mars 2012 à 23h15 - YouTube</a> (1:29:49) (Poison in the water tap - <a href="/wiki/France_3" title="France 3">France 3</a> - program of Friday, 2 March 2012) (in French) (with emphasis on aluminium and <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_private_water_companies">French private water companies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: French private water companies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.veoliawater.com/">Veolia Environnement</a>(ex-Compagnie Générale des Eaux)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.suez-environnement.com/">SUEZ Environnement</a> (ex-<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lyonnaise-des-eaux.fr/">Compagnie Lyonnaise des Eaux</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170814163905/https://www.lyonnaise-des-eaux.fr/">Archived</a> 14 August 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saur.com/">SAUR</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alteau.fr/">Alteau</a>, a regional operator with its main areas of operation in the <a href="/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne-Alpes" title="Rhône-Alpes">Rhône-Alpes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Centre_(French_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Centre (French region)">Centre</a>-<a href="/wiki/Auvergne_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Auvergne (region)">Auvergne</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country" title="Template talk:Water supply and sanitation by country"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Water supply and sanitation by country"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Water supply and sanitation by country</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_European_Union" title="Water supply and sanitation in the European Union">European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Latin_America" title="Water supply and sanitation in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_responsibilities_in_the_water_supply_and_sanitation_sector_in_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="List of responsibilities in the water supply and sanitation sector in Latin America and the Caribbean">Responsibilities in Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span style="display: inline-block; transform: rotate(90deg);"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bonn,_Kl%C3%A4ranlage_Salierweg.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Bonn%2C_Kl%C3%A4ranlage_Salierweg.JPG/190px-Bonn%2C_Kl%C3%A4ranlage_Salierweg.JPG" decoding="async" width="190" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Bonn%2C_Kl%C3%A4ranlage_Salierweg.JPG/285px-Bonn%2C_Kl%C3%A4ranlage_Salierweg.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Bonn%2C_Kl%C3%A4ranlage_Salierweg.JPG/380px-Bonn%2C_Kl%C3%A4ranlage_Salierweg.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="2268" /></a></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Algeria" title="Water supply and sanitation in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Angola" title="Water supply and sanitation in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Botswana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Botswana (page does not exist)">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Benin" title="Water supply and sanitation in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Water supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Burundi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Burundi (page does not exist)">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Cameroon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Cameroon (page does not exist)">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Democratic Republic of the Congo (page does not exist)">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Egypt" title="Water supply and sanitation in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Eswatini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Eswatini (page does not exist)">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Ethiopia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Ghana" title="Water supply and sanitation in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Ivory_Coast&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Ivory Coast (page does not exist)">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Kenya" title="Water supply and sanitation in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Lesotho" title="Water supply and sanitation in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Liberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Malawi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Malawi (page does not exist)">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Mali" title="Water supply and sanitation in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Morocco" title="Water supply and sanitation in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Mozambique" title="Water supply and sanitation in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Namibia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Nigeria" title="Water supply and sanitation in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Rwanda" title="Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Senegal" title="Water supply and sanitation in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sierra_Leone" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_South_Africa" title="Water supply and sanitation in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_South_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Tanzania" title="Water supply and sanitation in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Tunisia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Uganda" title="Water supply and sanitation in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Zambia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Zimbabwe" title="Water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Azerbaijan" title="Water supply and sanitation in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Bangladesh" title="Water supply and sanitation in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Cambodia" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China" title="Water supply and sanitation in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Hong_Kong" title="Water supply and sanitation in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Macau" title="Water supply and sanitation in Macau">Macau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Georgia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_India" title="Water supply and sanitation in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Indonesia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Israel" title="Water supply and sanitation in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Iran" title="Water supply and sanitation in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Japan" title="Water supply and sanitation in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Jordan" title="Water supply and sanitation in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Kazakhstan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Kazakhstan (page does not exist)">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Kyrgyzstan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Kyrgyzstan (page does not exist)">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Laos" title="Water supply and sanitation in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Lebanon" title="Water supply and sanitation in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Malaysia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Oman" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Pakistan" title="Water supply and sanitation in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Water supply and sanitation in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_Philippines" title="Water supply and sanitation in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Russia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Singapore" title="Water supply and sanitation in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_South_Korea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in South Korea (page does not exist)">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sri_Lanka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Sri Lanka (page does not exist)">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Syria" title="Water supply and sanitation in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Taiwan" title="Water supply and sanitation in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_United_Arab_Emirates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in United Arab Emirates (page does not exist)">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Vietnam" title="Water supply and sanitation in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Yemen" title="Water supply and sanitation in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Australasia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Australia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_East_Timor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in East Timor (page does not exist)">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_New_Zealand" title="Water supply and sanitation in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Papua_New_Guinea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Papua New Guinea (page does not exist)">Papua New Guinea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Albania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Albania (page does not exist)">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Armenia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Armenia (page does not exist)">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Austria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Austria (page does not exist)">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Belgium" title="Water supply and sanitation in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Bulgaria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Bulgaria (page does not exist)">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Croatia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Croatia (page does not exist)">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_Czech_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in the Czech Republic (page does not exist)">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Denmark" title="Water supply and sanitation in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Estonia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Estonia (page does not exist)">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Finland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Finland (page does not exist)">Finland</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Germany" title="Water supply and sanitation in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Greece" title="Water supply and sanitation in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Hungary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Hungary (page does not exist)">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Iceland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Iceland (page does not exist)">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Italy" title="Water supply and sanitation in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Latvia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Latvia (page does not exist)">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Lithuania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Lithuania (page does not exist)">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_Netherlands" title="Water supply and sanitation in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_North_Macedonia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in North Macedonia (page does not exist)">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Norway&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Norway (page does not exist)">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Serbia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Serbia (page does not exist)">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Poland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Poland (page does not exist)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Portugal" title="Water supply and sanitation in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Water supply and sanitation in the Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Romania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Romania (page does not exist)">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Russia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Slovakia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Slovakia (page does not exist)">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Slovenia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Slovenia (page does not exist)">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Spain" title="Water supply and sanitation in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sweden&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Sweden (page does not exist)">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Switzerland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Switzerland (page does not exist)">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Turkey" title="Water supply and sanitation in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Ukraine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Ukraine (page does not exist)">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_England_and_Wales" title="Water supply and sanitation in England and Wales">England and Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Scotland" title="Water supply and sanitation in Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Belize" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Canada" title="Water supply and sanitation in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Costa_Rica" title="Water supply and sanitation in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Cuba" title="Water supply and sanitation in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Water supply and sanitation in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_El_Salvador" title="Water supply and sanitation in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Guatemala" title="Water supply and sanitation in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Haiti" title="Water supply and sanitation in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Honduras" title="Water supply and sanitation in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Jamaica" title="Water supply and sanitation in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Mexico" title="Water supply and sanitation in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Nicaragua" title="Water supply and sanitation in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Panama" title="Water supply and sanitation in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Argentina" title="Water supply and sanitation in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Bolivia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Brazil" title="Water supply and sanitation in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Chile" title="Water supply and sanitation in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Colombia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Ecuador" title="Water supply and sanitation in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Guyana" title="Water supply and sanitation in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Paraguay" title="Water supply and sanitation in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Peru" title="Water supply and sanitation in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Uruguay" title="Water supply and sanitation in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Venezuela" title="Water supply and sanitation in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&oldid=1233282247">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France&oldid=1233282247</a>"</div></div> <div 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