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id="toc-Types_of_crust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_crust_/_primordial_crust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_crust_/_primordial_crust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Primary crust / primordial crust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_crust_/_primordial_crust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_crust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_crust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Secondary crust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_crust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tertiary_crust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tertiary_crust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Tertiary crust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tertiary_crust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earth's_crust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earth's_crust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Earth's crust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earth's_crust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moon's_crust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moon's_crust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Moon's crust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moon's_crust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Crust (geology)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kors_(geologie)" title="Kors (geologie) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kors (geologie)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%A9_(%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7)" title="قشرة (جيولوجيا) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قشرة (جيولوجيا)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%82_(%DA%98%D8%A6%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C)" title="قابیق (ژئولوژی) – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قابیق (ژئولوژی)" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%95_(%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC)" title="ভূত্বক (ভূতত্ত্ব) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভূত্বক (ভূতত্ত্ব)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="क्रस्ट – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="क्रस्ट" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%C3%A1rn%C3%AD_k%C5%AFra" title="Planetární kůra – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Planetární kůra" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skorpe_(geologi)" title="Skorpe (geologi) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Skorpe (geologi)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdkruste" title="Erdkruste – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Erdkruste" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corteza_(geolog%C3%ADa)" title="Corteza (geología) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Corteza (geología)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87_(%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C)" title="پوسته (زمین‌شناسی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پوسته (زمین‌شناسی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cro%C3%BBte_terrestre" title="Croûte terrestre – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Croûte terrestre" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screamh_(geola%C3%ADocht)" title="Screamh (geolaíocht) – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Screamh (geolaíocht)" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EA%B0%81_(%EC%A7%80%EC%A7%88%ED%95%99)" title="지각 (지질학) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지각 (지질학)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerak_(geologi)" title="Kerak (geologi) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kerak (geologi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosta_(esogeologia)" title="Crosta (esogeologia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Crosta (esogeologia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E6%AE%BB" title="地殻 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="地殻" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology) – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Crust (geology)" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B4%D8%B1_(%DA%81%D9%85%DA%A9%E2%80%8C%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87)" title="قشر (ځمک‌پوهنه) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="قشر (ځمک‌پوهنه)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kros_(jaaloji)" title="Kros (jaaloji) – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Kros (jaaloji)" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skorupa_ziemska" title="Skorupa ziemska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Skorupa ziemska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosta" title="Crosta – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Crosta" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0_(%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Кора (геология) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кора (геология)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology) – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Crust (geology)" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korja_(gjeologji)" title="Korja (gjeologji) – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Korja (gjeologji)" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%C3%A1rna_k%C3%B4ra" title="Planetárna kôra – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Planetárna kôra" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skorja_(geologija)" title="Skorja (geologija) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Skorja (geologija)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%DB%8E%DA%A9%DA%B5_(%D8%B2%DB%95%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C)" title="توێکڵ (زەویناسی) – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="توێکڵ (زەویناسی)" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7" title="เปลือกดาว – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เปลือกดาว" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabuk_(jeoloji)" title="Kabuk (jeoloji) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kabuk (jeoloji)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0_(%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F)" title="Кора (геологія) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кора (геологія)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B4%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B6_(%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B6%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA)" title="قشر ارض (ارضیات) – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قشر ارض (ارضیات)" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%9Bp_v%E1%BB%8F_(%C4%91%E1%BB%8Ba_ch%E1%BA%A5t)" title="Lớp vỏ (địa chất) – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lớp vỏ (địa chất)" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E5%A3%B3" title="地壳 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="地壳" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E5%A3%B3" title="地壳 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="地壳" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Outermost solid shell of astronomical bodies</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For any other use, see <a href="/wiki/Crust_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Crust (disambiguation)">Crust (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth_poster.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Earth_poster.svg/300px-Earth_poster.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Earth_poster.svg/450px-Earth_poster.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Earth_poster.svg/600px-Earth_poster.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="317" /></a><figcaption>The internal structure of Earth</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, the <b>crust</b> is the outermost solid shell of a <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dwarf_planet" title="Dwarf planet">dwarf planet</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">natural satellite</a>. It is usually distinguished from the underlying <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> by its chemical makeup; however, in the case of icy satellites, it may be distinguished based on its phase (solid crust vs. liquid mantle). </p><p>The crusts of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Io_(moon)" title="Io (moon)">Io</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Planetary_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Planetary body">planetary bodies</a> formed via <a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">igneous</a> processes and were later modified by <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Impact_crater" title="Impact crater">impact cratering</a>, volcanism, and sedimentation. </p><p>Most <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">terrestrial planets</a> have fairly uniform crusts. Earth, however, has two distinct types: <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a>. These two types have different chemical compositions and physical properties and were formed by different geological processes. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_crust">Types of crust</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_elements_in_Earth%27s_crust" title="Abundance of elements in Earth's crust">Abundance of elements in Earth's crust</a></div> <p>Planetary geologists divide crust into three categories based on how and when it formed.<sup id="cite_ref-Hargitai_2014_1–8_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hargitai_2014_1–8-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_crust_/_primordial_crust"><span id="Primary_crust_.2F_primordial_crust"></span>Primary crust / primordial crust</h3></div> <p>This is a planet's "original" crust. It forms from solidification of a magma ocean. Toward the end of <a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">planetary accretion</a>, the terrestrial planets likely had surfaces that were magma oceans. As these cooled, they solidified into crust.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This crust was likely destroyed by large impacts and re-formed many times as the <a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">Era of Heavy Bombardment</a> drew to a close.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The nature of primary crust is still debated: its chemical, mineralogic, and physical properties are unknown, as are the igneous mechanisms that formed them. This is because it is difficult to study: none of Earth's primary crust has survived to today.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earth's high rates of erosion and crustal recycling from plate tectonics has destroyed <a href="/wiki/Oldest_dated_rocks" title="Oldest dated rocks">all rocks older than about 4 billion years</a>, including whatever primary crust Earth once had. </p><p>However, geologists can glean information about primary crust by studying it on other terrestrial planets. Mercury's highlands might represent primary crust, though this is debated.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor-2009_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-2009-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Anorthosite" title="Anorthosite">anorthosite</a> <a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_Moon" title="Geology of the Moon">highlands</a> of the Moon are primary crust, formed as <a href="/wiki/Plagioclase" title="Plagioclase">plagioclase</a> crystallized out of the Moon's initial magma ocean and floated to the top;<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, it is unlikely that Earth followed a similar pattern, as the Moon was a water-less system and Earth had water.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Martian_meteorite" title="Martian meteorite">Martian meteorite</a> <a href="/wiki/Allan_Hills_84001" title="Allan Hills 84001">ALH84001</a> might represent primary crust of Mars; however, again, this is debated.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor-2009_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-2009-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like Earth, Venus lacks primary crust, as the entire planet has been repeatedly resurfaced and modified.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_crust">Secondary crust</h3></div> <p>Secondary crust is formed by <a href="/wiki/Partial_melting" title="Partial melting">partial melting</a> of mostly <a href="/wiki/Silicate_mineral" title="Silicate mineral">silicate</a> materials in the mantle, and so is usually <a href="/wiki/Basaltic" class="mw-redirect" title="Basaltic">basaltic</a> in composition.<sup id="cite_ref-Hargitai_2014_1–8_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hargitai_2014_1–8-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This is the most common type of crust in the Solar System. Most of the surfaces of Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars comprise secondary crust, as do the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_mare" title="Lunar mare">lunar maria</a>. On Earth secondary crust forms primarily at <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean spreading centers</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_process" title="Adiabatic process">adiabatic</a> rise of mantle causes partial melting. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tertiary_crust">Tertiary crust</h3></div> <p>Tertiary crust is more chemically-modified than either primary or secondary. It can form in several ways: </p> <ul><li>Igneous processes: partial-melting of secondary crust, coupled with differentiation or dehydration<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor-2009_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-2009-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Erosion and sedimentation: sediments derived from primary, secondary, or tertiary crust</li></ul> <p>The only known example of tertiary crust is the continental crust of the Earth. It is unknown whether other terrestrial planets can be said to have tertiary crust, though the evidence so far suggests that they do not. This is likely because plate tectonics is needed to create tertiary crust, and Earth is the only planet in the Solar System with plate tectonics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Earth's_crust"><span id="Earth.27s_crust"></span>Earth's crust</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">Earth's crust</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plates_tect2_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Plates_tect2_en.svg/350px-Plates_tect2_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Plates_tect2_en.svg/525px-Plates_tect2_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Plates_tect2_en.svg/700px-Plates_tect2_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="4167" data-file-height="2844" /></a><figcaption>Plates in the crust of Earth</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">Earth's crust</a> is a thin shell on the outside of Earth, accounting for less than 1% of Earth's volume. It is the top component of the <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a>, a division of Earth's layers that includes the crust and the upper part of the <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates that move, allowing heat to escape from the interior of Earth into space.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Moon's_crust"><span id="Moon.27s_crust"></span>Moon's crust</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_Moon" title="Geology of the Moon">Geology of the Moon</a></div> <p>A theoretical <a href="/wiki/Protoplanet" title="Protoplanet">protoplanet</a> named "<a href="/wiki/Theia_(planet)" title="Theia (planet)">Theia</a>" is thought to have collided with the forming Earth, and part of the material ejected into space by the collision accreted to form the Moon. As the Moon formed, the outer part of it is thought to have been molten, a "<a href="/wiki/Lunar_magma_ocean" title="Lunar magma ocean">lunar magma ocean</a>". <a href="/wiki/Plagioclase" title="Plagioclase">Plagioclase</a> <a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspar</a> crystallized in large amounts from this <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> ocean and floated toward the surface. The <a href="/wiki/Cumulate_rock" title="Cumulate rock">cumulate rocks</a> form much of the crust. The upper part of the crust probably averages about 88% plagioclase (near the lower limit of 90% defined for <a href="/wiki/Anorthosite" title="Anorthosite">anorthosite</a>): the lower part of the crust may contain a higher percentage of ferromagnesian minerals such as the <a href="/wiki/Pyroxene" title="Pyroxene">pyroxenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a>, but even that lower part probably averages about 78% plagioclase.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The underlying mantle is denser and olivine-rich. </p><p>The thickness of the crust ranges between about 20 and 120 km. Crust on the <a href="/wiki/Far_side_of_the_Moon" title="Far side of the Moon">far side of the Moon</a> averages about 12 km thicker than that on the <a href="/wiki/Near_side_of_the_Moon" title="Near side of the Moon">near side</a>. Estimates of average thickness fall in the range from about 50 to 60 km. Most of this plagioclase-rich crust formed shortly after formation of the Moon, between about 4.5 and 4.3 billion years ago. Perhaps 10% or less of the crust consists of igneous rock added after the formation of the initial plagioclase-rich material. The best-characterized and most voluminous of these later additions are the mare <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalts</a> formed between about 3.9 and 3.2 billion years ago. Minor volcanism continued after 3.2 billion years, perhaps as recently as 1 billion years ago. There is no evidence of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>. </p><p>Study of the Moon has established that a crust can form on a rocky planetary body significantly smaller than Earth. Although the radius of the Moon is only about a quarter that of Earth, the lunar crust has a significantly greater average thickness. This thick crust formed almost immediately after formation of the Moon. Magmatism continued after the period of intense meteorite impacts ended about 3.9 billion years ago, but igneous rocks younger than 3.9 billion years make up only a minor part of the crust.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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.citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHargitai2014" class="citation book cs1">Hargitai, Henrik (2014). "Crust (Type)". <i>Encyclopedia of Planetary Landforms</i>. Springer New York. pp. 1–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-9213-9_90-1">10.1007/978-1-4614-9213-9_90-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781461492139" title="Special:BookSources/9781461492139"><bdi>9781461492139</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Crust+%28Type%29&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Planetary+Landforms&rft.pages=1-8&rft.pub=Springer+New+York&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4614-9213-9_90-1&rft.isbn=9781461492139&rft.aulast=Hargitai&rft.aufirst=Henrik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrust+%28geology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChambers2004" class="citation journal cs1">Chambers, John E. (2004). "Planetary accretion in the inner Solar System". <i><a href="/wiki/Earth_and_Planetary_Science_Letters" title="Earth and Planetary Science Letters">Earth and Planetary Science Letters</a></i>. <b>223</b> (3–4): 241–252. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004E&PSL.223..241C">2004E&PSL.223..241C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.epsl.2004.04.031">10.1016/j.epsl.2004.04.031</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth+and+Planetary+Science+Letters&rft.atitle=Planetary+accretion+in+the+inner+Solar+System&rft.volume=223&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=241-252&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.epsl.2004.04.031&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004E%26PSL.223..241C&rft.aulast=Chambers&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrust+%28geology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1989" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, Stuart Ross (1989). "Growth of planetary crusts". <i><a href="/wiki/Tectonophysics_(journal)" title="Tectonophysics (journal)">Tectonophysics</a></i>. <b>161</b> (3–4): 147–156. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989Tectp.161..147T">1989Tectp.161..147T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0040-1951%2889%2990151-0">10.1016/0040-1951(89)90151-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tectonophysics&rft.atitle=Growth+of+planetary+crusts&rft.volume=161&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=147-156&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0040-1951%2889%2990151-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989Tectp.161..147T&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Stuart+Ross&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrust+%28geology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_KranendonkSmithiesBennett2007" class="citation book cs1">Van Kranendonk, Martin; Smithies, R. H.; Bennett, Vickie C. (2007). <i>Earth's oldest rocks</i> (1st ed.). Amsterdam: <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780080552477" title="Special:BookSources/9780080552477"><bdi>9780080552477</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/228148014">228148014</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Earth%27s+oldest+rocks&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F228148014&rft.isbn=9780080552477&rft.aulast=Van+Kranendonk&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Smithies%2C+R.+H.&rft.au=Bennett%2C+Vickie+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrust+%28geology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor-2009-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor-2009_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor-2009_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor-2009_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylorMcLennan2009" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Stuart Ross; McLennan, Scott M. (2009). <i>Planetary crusts : their composition, origin and evolution</i>. Cambridge, UK: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521841863" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521841863"><bdi>978-0521841863</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/666900567">666900567</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Planetary+crusts+%3A+their+composition%2C+origin+and+evolution&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F666900567&rft.isbn=978-0521841863&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Stuart+Ross&rft.au=McLennan%2C+Scott+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrust+%28geology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2009" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, G. J. (2009-02-01). "Ancient Lunar Crust: Origin, Composition, and Implications". <i><a href="/wiki/Elements_(journal)" title="Elements (journal)">Elements</a></i>. <b>5</b> (1): 17–22. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Eleme...5...17T">2009Eleme...5...17T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2113%2Fgselements.5.1.17">10.2113/gselements.5.1.17</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1811-5209">1811-5209</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17684919">17684919</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Elements&rft.atitle=Ancient+Lunar+Crust%3A+Origin%2C+Composition%2C+and+Implications&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=17-22&rft.date=2009-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2113%2Fgselements.5.1.17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17684919%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1811-5209&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009Eleme...5...17T&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=G.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrust+%28geology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbarèdeBlichert-Toft2007" class="citation journal cs1">Albarède, Francis; <a href="/wiki/Janne_Blichert-Toft" title="Janne Blichert-Toft">Blichert-Toft, Janne</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://comptes-rendus.academie-sciences.fr/geoscience/articles/10.1016/j.crte.2007.09.006/">"The split fate of the early Earth, Mars, Venus, and Moon"</a>. <i>Comptes Rendus Geoscience</i>. <b>339</b> (14–15): 917–927. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007CRGeo.339..917A">2007CRGeo.339..917A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.crte.2007.09.006">10.1016/j.crte.2007.09.006</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+Rendus+Geoscience&rft.atitle=The+split+fate+of+the+early+Earth%2C+Mars%2C+Venus%2C+and+Moon&rft.volume=339&rft.issue=14%E2%80%9315&rft.pages=917-927&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.crte.2007.09.006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007CRGeo.339..917A&rft.aulast=Albar%C3%A8de&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft.au=Blichert-Toft%2C+Janne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcomptes-rendus.academie-sciences.fr%2Fgeoscience%2Farticles%2F10.1016%2Fj.crte.2007.09.006%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrust+%28geology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Venus II—geology, geophysics, atmosphere, and solar wind environment</i>. 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A. & Zuber, M. T. (2001), "The composition and origin of the lunar crust: Constraints from central peaks and crustal thickness modeling", <i>Geophysical Research Letters</i>, <b>28</b> (21): 4023–4026, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001GeoRL..28.4023W">2001GeoRL..28.4023W</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2001GL012918">10.1029/2001GL012918</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28776724">28776724</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=The+composition+and+origin+of+the+lunar+crust%3A+Constraints+from+central+peaks+and+crustal+thickness+modeling&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=4023-4026&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A28776724%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2001GL012918&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001GeoRL..28.4023W&rft.aulast=Wieczorek&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rft.au=Zuber%2C+M.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrust+%28geology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerald_Hiesinger_and_James_W._Head_III2006" class="citation journal cs1">Herald Hiesinger and James W. Head III (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120224232636/http://www.planetary.brown.edu/pdfs/2961_proof.pdf">"New views of Lunar geoscience: An introduction and overview"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry</i>. <b>60</b> (1): 1–81. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006RvMG...60....1H">2006RvMG...60....1H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2138%2Frmg.2006.60.1">10.2138/rmg.2006.60.1</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.planetary.brown.edu/pdfs/2961_proof.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2012-02-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+in+Mineralogy+%26+Geochemistry&rft.atitle=New+views+of+Lunar+geoscience%3A+An+introduction+and+overview&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-81&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2138%2Frmg.2006.60.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006RvMG...60....1H&rft.au=Herald+Hiesinger+and+James+W.+Head+III&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.planetary.brown.edu%2Fpdfs%2F2961_proof.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrust+%28geology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCondie1989" class="citation journal cs1">Condie, Kent C. (1989). "Origin of the Earth's Crust". <i>Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology (Global and Planetary Change Section)</i>. <b>75</b> (1–2): 57–81. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989PPP....75...57C">1989PPP....75...57C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0031-0182%2889%2990184-3">10.1016/0031-0182(89)90184-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeogeography%2C+Palaeoclimatology%2C+Palaeoecology+%28Global+and+Planetary+Change+Section%29&rft.atitle=Origin+of+the+Earth%27s+Crust&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=57-81&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0031-0182%2889%2990184-3&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989PPP....75...57C&rft.aulast=Condie&rft.aufirst=Kent+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrust+%28geology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">The Wikibook <i><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Historical_Geology" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Historical Geology">Historical Geology</a></i> has a page on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Historical_Geology/Structure_of_the_Earth" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Historical Geology/Structure of the Earth">Structure of the Earth</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earthquake.usgs.gov/data/crust/crust.php">USGS Crustal Thickness Map</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeikie1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Geikie" title="Archibald Geikie">Geikie, Archibald</a> (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Geology"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Geology">"Geology" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). pp. 638–674.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Geology&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=638-674&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Geikie&rft.aufirst=Archibald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrust+%28geology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Crust of the Earth"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1920)/Crust_of_the_Earth">"Crust of the Earth" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana" title="Encyclopedia Americana">Encyclopedia Americana</a></i>. 1920.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Crust+of+the+Earth&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Americana&rft.date=1920&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrust+%28geology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Structure_of_Earth" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Internal_structure_of_Earth" title="Internal structure of Earth">Structure of Earth</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Shells</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">Crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle" title="Earth's mantle">Mantle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_mantle" title="Upper mantle">Upper mantle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithospheric_mantle" title="Lithospheric mantle">Lithospheric mantle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asthenosphere" title="Asthenosphere">Asthenosphere</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_mantle" title="Lower mantle">Lower mantle</a> (aka <a href="/wiki/Mesosphere_(mantle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesosphere (mantle)">Mesosphere</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_core" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's core">Core</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_outer_core" title="Earth's outer core">Outer core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_inner_core" title="Earth's inner core">Inner core</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Global discontinuities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić (crust–mantle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_zone_(Earth)" title="Transition zone (Earth)">410 discontinuity (upper mantle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_zone_(Earth)" title="Transition zone (Earth)">660 discontinuity (upper mantle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Core%E2%80%93mantle_boundary" title="Core–mantle boundary">D’’ discontinuity (lower mantle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Core%E2%80%93mantle_boundary" title="Core–mantle boundary">Core–mantle boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_core#Discovery" class="mw-redirect" title="Inner core">Inner-core boundary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional discontinuities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_discontinuity" title="Conrad discontinuity">Conrad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithosphere%E2%80%93asthenosphere_boundary" title="Lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary">Gutenberg (upper mantle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lehmann_discontinuity" title="Lehmann discontinuity">Lehmann (upper mantle)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> 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