CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>History of Islamic economics - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"0468c513-ba27-48d4-a33a-a6973259a9ce","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"History_of_Islamic_economics","wgTitle":"History of Islamic economics","wgCurRevisionId":1263136489,"wgRevisionId":1263136489,"wgArticleId":7757234,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles needing additional references from October 2016","All articles needing additional references","All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from October 2016","All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases","Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from October 2016", "Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from October 2017","All articles with vague or ambiguous time","Vague or ambiguous time from November 2016","Articles needing additional references from January 2018","Articles needing additional references from June 2017","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from June 2017","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2016","Articles with unsourced statements from February 2010","Islamic economics","Islamic economic jurisprudence"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"History_of_Islamic_economics","wgRelevantArticleId":7757234,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true, "wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":70000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q10513540","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading", "ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions", "wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.15"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="History of Islamic economics - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-History_of_Islamic_economics rootpage-History_of_Islamic_economics skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+Islamic+economics" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+Islamic+economics" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+Islamic+economics" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+Islamic+economics" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Legal institutions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legal_institutions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legal institutions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legal_institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hawala_agency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hawala_agency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Hawala agency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hawala_agency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Waqf_trust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Waqf_trust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Waqf trust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Waqf_trust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Muslim_commerce" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Muslim_commerce"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Classical Muslim commerce</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classical_Muslim_commerce-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classical Muslim commerce subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classical_Muslim_commerce-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economy_in_the_Caliphate_and_Islamic_empires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy_in_the_Caliphate_and_Islamic_empires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Economy in the Caliphate and Islamic empires</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy_in_the_Caliphate_and_Islamic_empires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Islamic India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agriculture_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Agriculture in the medieval Islamic world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_capitalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_capitalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Islamic capitalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_capitalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_socialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_socialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Islamic socialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_socialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Industrial development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labour_force" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labour_force"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Labour force</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labour_force-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urbanization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urbanization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Urbanization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urbanization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Islamic_economic_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Islamic_economic_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Classical Islamic economic thought</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classical_Islamic_economic_thought-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classical Islamic economic thought subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classical_Islamic_economic_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Islamic_economic_thinkers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Islamic_economic_thinkers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Early Islamic economic thinkers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Islamic_economic_thinkers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ibn_Khaldun" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ibn_Khaldun"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Ibn Khaldun</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ibn_Khaldun-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-colonial_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-colonial_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Post-colonial era</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Post-colonial_era-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Post-colonial era subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Post-colonial_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Contemporary_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Contemporary economics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Controversies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Controversies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Land_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Land reform</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_stock_index" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_stock_index"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Islamic stock index</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_stock_index-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Islamic economics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 8 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-8" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">8 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0slam_iqtisadiyyat%C4%B1_tarixi" title="İslam iqtisadiyyatı tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İslam iqtisadiyyatı tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="ইসলামি অর্থনীতির ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইসলামি অর্থনীতির ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE%DA%86%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="تاریخچه اقتصاد اسلامی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخچه اقتصاد اسلامی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarihin_Tattalin_Arzikin_Musulunci" title="Tarihin Tattalin Arzikin Musulunci – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Tarihin Tattalin Arzikin Musulunci" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_ekonomi_Islam_di_dunia" title="Sistem ekonomi Islam di dunia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sistem ekonomi Islam di dunia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="اسلامی اقتصادی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="اسلامی اقتصادی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_economia_isl%C3%A2mica" title="História da economia islâmica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da economia islâmica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="اسلامی اقتصادی تاریخ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اسلامی اقتصادی تاریخ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q10513540#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_Islamic_economics" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/History_of_Islamic_economics" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&oldid=1263136489" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=History_of_Islamic_economics&id=1263136489&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_Islamic_economics"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_Islamic_economics"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q10513540" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="Special:EditPage/History of Islamic economics">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22History+of+Islamic+economics%22">"History of Islamic economics"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22History+of+Islamic+economics%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22History+of+Islamic+economics%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22History+of+Islamic+economics%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22History+of+Islamic+economics%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22History+of+Islamic+economics%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Between the 9th and 14th centuries, the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> developed many advanced economic concepts, techniques and usages. These ranged from areas of production, investment, finance, economic development, taxation, property use such as <a href="/wiki/Hawala" title="Hawala">Hawala</a>: an early informal value transfer system, Islamic trusts, known as <a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">waqf</a>, systems of <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contract</a> relied upon by merchants, a widely circulated common currency, <a href="/wiki/Cheque" title="Cheque">cheques</a>, <a href="/wiki/Promissory_note" title="Promissory note">promissory notes</a>, early contracts, bills of exchange, and forms of commercial partnership such as mufawada. </p><p>Specific Islamic concepts involving money, property, taxation, charity and the <a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Five Pillars</a> include: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">zakat</a></i> (the "taxing of certain goods, such as harvest, to allocate these taxes to expand that, are also explicitly defined, such as aid to the needy");</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gharar" title="Gharar">Gharar</a></i> ("the interdiction of chance ... that is, of the presence of any element of uncertainty, in a contract (which excludes not only insurance but also the lending of money without participation in the risks); and</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Riba" title="Riba">riba</a></i> ("every kind of excess or unjustified disparity between the exchanged objects or counter values"<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>).</li></ul> <p>These concepts, like others in <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">jurisprudence</a>, came from the "prescriptions, anecdotes, examples, and words of the Prophet, all gathered together and systematized by commentators according to an inductive, casuistic method."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoy1994132_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoy1994132-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes other sources such as <a href="/wiki/Al-urf" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-urf">al-urf</a>, (the custom), al-<a href="/wiki/%27aql" class="mw-redirect" title="'aql">'aql</a> (<a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>) or al-<a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">ijma</a> (consensus of the <a href="/wiki/Ulema" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulema">jurists</a>) were employed.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, Islamic law has developed areas of law that correspond to secular laws of <a href="/wiki/Contracts" class="mw-redirect" title="Contracts">contracts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Torts" class="mw-redirect" title="Torts">torts</a>. </p><p>Contemporary Islamic scholars draw heavily on classical opinions.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern Islamic economics emerged in the 1945s. As of 2004, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic banking">Islamic Banks</a> have been established in over eight countries, and <a href="/wiki/Interest" title="Interest">interest</a> has been banned in three: <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EoIMW-596_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EoIMW-596-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_institutions">Legal institutions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Legal institutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hawala_agency">Hawala agency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hawala agency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hawala" title="Hawala">Hawala</a></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Hawala" title="Hawala">Hawala</a></i>, an early <a href="/wiki/Informal_value_transfer_system" title="Informal value transfer system">informal value transfer system</a>, has its origins in classical <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a>, and is mentioned in texts of <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Islamic jurisprudence</a> as early as the 8th century. <i>Hawala</i> itself later influenced the development of the <a href="/wiki/Agency_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Agency (law)">agency</a> in <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil laws</a> such as the <i>aval</i> in <a href="/wiki/Law_of_France" title="Law of France">French law</a> and the <i>Cavallo</i> in Italian law. The words <i>aval</i> and <i>Cavallo</i> were themselves derived from <i>Hawala</i>. The transfer of <a href="/wiki/Debt" title="Debt">debt</a>, which was "not permissible under <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> but became widely practiced in medieval Europe, especially in <a href="/wiki/Commercial_transaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial transaction">commercial transactions</a>", was due to the large extent of the "trade conducted by the Italian cities with the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> in the Middle Ages." The agency was also "an <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">institution</a> unknown to Roman law" as no "individual could conclude a binding contract on behalf of another as his <a href="/wiki/Agent_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Agent (law)">agent</a>." In Roman law, the "contractor himself was considered the party to the contract and it took a second contract between the person who acted on behalf of a principal and the latter to transfer the rights and the obligations deriving from the contract to him." On the other hand, Islamic law and the later common law "had no difficulty in accepting agency as one of its institutions in the field of contracts and obligations in general."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Waqf_trust">Waqf trust</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Waqf trust"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">Waqf</a></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">waqf</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a>, which developed in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">medieval Islamic world</a> from the 7th to 9th centuries, bears a notable resemblance to the English <a href="/wiki/Trust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust law">trust law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi1988_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi1988-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Every <i>waqf</i> was required to have a <i>waqif</i> (founder), <i>mutawillis</i> (trustee), <i><a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">qadi</a></i> (judge) and beneficiaries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881237–1240_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881237–1240-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under both a <i>waqf</i> and a trust, "property is reserved, and its <a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a> appropriated, for the benefit of specific individuals, or for a general <a href="/wiki/Charitable_organization" title="Charitable organization">charitable</a> purpose; the corpus becomes <a href="/wiki/Inalienable_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Inalienable rights">inalienable</a>; <a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">estates</a> for life in favor of successive beneficiaries can be created" and "without regard to the law of <a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">inheritance</a> or the rights of the heirs; and continuity is secured by the successive appointment of trustees or <i>mutawillis</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881246_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881246-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The only significant distinction between the Islamic <i>waqf</i> and English trust was "the express or implied reversion of the <i>waqf</i> to charitable purposes when its specific object has ceased to exist",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881246–1247_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881246–1247-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though this difference only applied to the <i>waqf ahli</i> (Islamic family trust) rather than the <i>waqf khairi</i> (devoted to a charitable purpose from its inception). Another difference was the English vesting of "legal estate" over the trust property in the trustee, though the "trustee was still bound to administer that property for the benefit of the beneficiaries." In this sense, the "role of the English trustee, therefore, does not differ significantly from that of the <i> mutually</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881247_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881247-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The trust law developed in England at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> (during the 12th and 13th centuries) was introduced by Crusaders who may have been influenced by the <i>waqf</i> institutions they came across in the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHudson200332_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson200332-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881244–1245_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881244–1245-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Islamic waqf law and <a href="/wiki/Madrassah" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrassah">madrassah</a> foundations were firmly established by the 10th century, the number of <a href="/wiki/Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">Bimaristan</a> hospitals multiplied throughout Islamic lands. In the 11th century, every Islamic city had at least several hospitals. The waqf trust institutions funded the hospitals for various expenses, including the <a href="/wiki/Wage" title="Wage">wages</a> of doctors, <a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophthalmology in medieval Islam">ophthalmologists</a>, surgeons, <a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharmacist" title="Pharmacist">pharmacists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domestic_worker" title="Domestic worker">domestics</a> and all other staff, the purchase of foods and <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical drug">drugs</a>; hospital equipment such as beds, mattresses, bowls and perfumes; and repairs to buildings. The waqf trusts also funded medical schools, and their revenues covered various expenses such as their maintenance and the payment of teachers and students.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMicheau1996999–1001_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheau1996999–1001-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_Muslim_commerce">Classical Muslim commerce</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Classical Muslim commerce"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The systems of <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contract</a> relied upon by merchants was very effective. Merchants would buy and sell on <a href="/wiki/Commission_(remuneration)" title="Commission (remuneration)">commission</a>, with money <a href="/wiki/Loan" title="Loan">loaned</a> to them by wealthy investors, or a joint investment of several merchants, who were often Muslim, Christian and Jewish. Recently, a collection of documents was found in an <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a> <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogue</a> shedding a very detailed and human light on the life of medieval Middle Eastern merchants. Business <a href="/wiki/Partnership" title="Partnership">partnerships</a> would be made for many <a href="/wiki/Joint_venture" title="Joint venture">commercial ventures</a>, and bonds of <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> enabled trade <a href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">networks</a> to form over huge distances. During the ninth century banks enabled the drawing of check-in by a bank in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> that could be cashed in <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The concepts of <a href="/wiki/Welfare_(financial_aid)" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare (financial aid)">welfare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pension" title="Pension">pension</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (October 2016)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> were introduced in early <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a> as forms of <i><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></i> (charity), one of the <a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Five Pillars of Islam</a>, since the time of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">Al-Mansur</a> in the 8th century. The taxes (including <i>Zakat</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a></i>) collected in the <a href="/wiki/Treasury" title="Treasury">treasury</a> of an Islamic <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a> was used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. According to the Islamic jurist <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a> (Algazel, 1058–1111), the government was also expected to store up food supplies in every region in case of a disaster or famine occurs. The <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> was thus one of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">welfare states</a>, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Crone_2005_308–9_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crone_2005_308–9-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economy_in_the_Caliphate_and_Islamic_empires">Economy in the Caliphate and Islamic empires</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Economy in the Caliphate and Islamic empires"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the medieval <a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a>, a social transformation took place as a result of changing land <a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">ownership</a> giving individuals of any <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994263_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994263-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the right to buy, sell, <a href="/wiki/Mortgage_law" title="Mortgage law">mortgage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">inherit</a> land. </p><p>Early forms of proto-<a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">free markets</a> were present in the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Europe_p._437_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Europe_p._437-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An early <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a> and early form of <a href="/wiki/Merchant_capitalism" title="Merchant capitalism">merchant capitalism</a> developed between the 8th and 12th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A vigorous <a href="/wiki/Monetary_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Monetary economy">monetary economy</a> developed based on the wide circulation of a common currency (the <a href="/wiki/Dinar" title="Dinar">dinar</a>) and the integration of previously independent monetary areas. Business techniques and forms of <a href="/wiki/Company" title="Company">business organization</a> employed during this time included early contracts, <a href="/wiki/Bills_of_exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Bills of exchange">bills of exchange</a>, long-distance <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a>, early forms of <a href="/wiki/Partnership" title="Partnership">partnership</a> (<i>mufawada</i>) such as <a href="/wiki/Limited_partnership" title="Limited partnership">limited partnerships</a> (<i>mudaraba</i>), and early forms of credit, debt, profit, loss, <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a> (<i>al-mal</i>), <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a> (<i>nama al-mal</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-Banaji_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banaji-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Circulating_capital" title="Circulating capital">circulating capital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capital_expenditure" title="Capital expenditure">capital expenditure</a>, revenue, <a href="/wiki/Cheque" title="Cheque">cheques</a>, <a href="/wiki/Promissory_note" title="Promissory note">promissory notes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Robert_Sabatino_Lopez_2001_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert_Sabatino_Lopez_2001-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Trusts" class="mw-redirect" title="Trusts">trusts</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">waqf</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Savings_account" title="Savings account">savings accounts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transactional_account" class="mw-redirect" title="Transactional account">transactional accounts</a>, pawning, loaning, <a href="/wiki/Exchange_rate" title="Exchange rate">exchange rates</a>, bankers, <a href="/wiki/Money_changer" title="Money changer">money changers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ledger" title="Ledger">ledgers</a>, deposits, <a href="/wiki/Assignment_(law)" title="Assignment (law)">assignments</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Double-entry_bookkeeping_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Double-entry bookkeeping system">double-entry bookkeeping system</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabib196992–93_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabib196992–93-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">lawsuits</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ray_Spier_2002_pp._357–58_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ray_Spier_2002_pp._357–58-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">Organizational</a> <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">enterprises</a> similar to <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporations</a> independent from the <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">state</a> also existed in the medieval Islamic world.<sup id="cite_ref-Said_Amir_Arjomand_1999_pp._263_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Said_Amir_Arjomand_1999_pp._263-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Samir_Amin_1978_pp._3_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Samir_Amin_1978_pp._3-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these concepts were adopted and further advanced in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Europe">medieval Europe</a> from the 13th century onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-Banaji_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banaji-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_India">Islamic India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Islamic India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_rule_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim rule in India">Muslim rule in India</a>, realms such as the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Sultanate" title="Bengal Sultanate">Bengal Sultanate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nizam_of_Hyderabad" title="Nizam of Hyderabad">Nizam of Hyderabad</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Kingdom of Mysore</a> made significant contributions to the South Asian economy. In the 17th century Mughal India became the world's largest economy,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> becoming the leading textile manufacturing power in the world, valued over 25% of world <a href="/wiki/GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP">GDP</a>. </p><p>The concepts of <a href="/wiki/Welfare_(financial_aid)" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare (financial aid)">welfare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pension" title="Pension">pension</a> were present in early <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a> as forms of zakat one of the <a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Five Pillars of Islam</a>, since the time of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a> in the 7th century. The <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">taxes</a> (including zakat and jizya) collected in the <a href="/wiki/Treasury" title="Treasury">treasury</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Bayt_al-mal" title="Bayt al-mal">bayt al-mal</a></i>) of an <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Republic">Islamic government</a> were used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, the elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. According to the Islamic jurist <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a> (Algazel, 1058–1111), the government was also expected to stockpile food supplies in every region in case of disaster or famine. The Caliphate was thus one of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">welfare states</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Crone_2005_308–9_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crone_2005_308–9-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hamid_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamid-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade">Trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic geography">Islamic geography</a></div> <p>During the Islamic Golden Age, isolated regions had contact with a far-reaching Muslim trade network extending from the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean in the west to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China Sea</a> in the east, and covering most of the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Hobson-29-30_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hobson-29-30-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including significant areas of Asia and Africa and much of Europe, with their trade networks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabib1969_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabib1969-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arabic silver <i><a href="/wiki/Dirham" title="Dirham">dirham</a></i> coins were being circulated throughout the <a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasian</a> landmass, as far as <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a> in the south and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">northern Europe</a> in the north, often in exchange for goods and <a href="/wiki/Slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave">slaves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This helped establish the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashidun Empire">Rashidun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</a>, Abbasid, <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayyubid">Ayyubid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fatimid" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid">Fatimid</a> Caliphates as the world's leading extensive economic powers in the 7th-13th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Hobson-29-30_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hobson-29-30-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to religious sanctions against debt, <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Muslim" title="Tamil Muslim">Tamil Muslims</a> have historically been <a href="/wiki/Money_changer" title="Money changer">money changers</a> (not money lenders) throughout South and South East Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world">Agriculture in the medieval Islamic world</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Agriculture in the medieval Islamic world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a></div> <p>From the 8th century to the 13th century in Muslim lands many crops and plants were planted along Muslim trade routes, farming techniques spread. In addition to changes in economy, population distribution, vegetation cover,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> agricultural production, population levels, <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urban growth</a>, the distribution of the labor force, and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world were affected according to Andrew Watson.<sup id="cite_ref-Watson_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watson-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However this is disputed by other scholars, who claim cultivation and consumption of staples such as <a href="/wiki/Durum_wheat" title="Durum wheat">durum wheat</a>, Asiatic rice, and <a href="/wiki/Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a>, as well as cotton, were already commonplace centuries before,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or that agricultural production declined in areas brought under Muslim rule in the Middle Ages.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early Abbasid Caliphate also had the highest literacy rates among pre-modern societies, alongside the city of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">classical Athens</a> in the 4th century BC,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> after the introduction of printing from the 10th century.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One factor for the relatively high literacy rates in the early Islamic Empire<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (October 2016)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> was its parent-driven educational marketplace, as the state did not systematically subsidize educational services until the introduction of state funding under <a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a> in the 11th century.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another factor was the diffusion of <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a> from China,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which led to an efflorescence of books and written culture in Islamic society, thus <a href="/wiki/Papermaking" title="Papermaking">papermaking</a> technology transformed Islamic society (and later, the rest of <a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasia</a>) from an oral to <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribal</a> culture, comparable to the later shifts from scribal to <a href="/wiki/Typography" title="Typography">typographic</a> culture, and from typographic culture to the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other factors include the widespread use of paper books in Islamic society (more so than any other previously existing society), the study <a href="/wiki/Hafiz_(Qur%27an)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hafiz (Qur'an)">and memorization</a> of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Qur%27_an&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qur' an (page does not exist)">Qur' an</a>, flourishing commercial activity, and the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Maktab_(education)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maktab (education)">Maktab</a> and <a href="/wiki/Madrasah" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrasah">Madrasah</a> educational institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_capitalism">Islamic capitalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Islamic capitalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Capitalism_and_Islam" title="Capitalism and Islam">Capitalism and Islam</a></div> <p>Early forms of <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> are thought to have developed in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> from the 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Banaji_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banaji-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabib1969_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabib1969-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994402–403_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994402–403-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early Islamic commerce applied a number of concepts and techniques, including <a href="/wiki/Bills_of_exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Bills of exchange">bills of exchange</a>, forms of <a href="/wiki/Partnership" title="Partnership">partnership</a> (<i>mufawada</i>) such as <a href="/wiki/Limited_partnership" title="Limited partnership">limited partnerships</a> (<i>mudaraba</i>), and early forms of <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a> (<i>al-mal</i>), <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a> (<i>nama al-mal</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-Banaji_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banaji-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cheque" title="Cheque">cheques</a>, <a href="/wiki/Promissory_note" title="Promissory note">promissory notes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Robert_Sabatino_Lopez_2001_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert_Sabatino_Lopez_2001-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Trusts" class="mw-redirect" title="Trusts">trusts</a> (see <i><a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">waqf</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Transactional_account" class="mw-redirect" title="Transactional account">transactional accounts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loan" title="Loan">loans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ledger" title="Ledger">ledgers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assignment_(law)" title="Assignment (law)">assignments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabib196992–93_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabib196992–93-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">Organizational</a> <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">enterprises</a> independent of the <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a> also existed in the medieval Islamic world, while the <a href="/wiki/Agency_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Agency (law)">agency</a> institution was also introduced.<sup id="cite_ref-Said_Amir_Arjomand_1999_pp._263_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Said_Amir_Arjomand_1999_pp._263-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Samir_Amin_1978_pp._3_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Samir_Amin_1978_pp._3-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Europe">Medieval Europe</a> adopted and developed many of these concepts from the 13th century onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-Banaji_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banaji-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a> was established in the Islamic world on the basis of an economic system resembling <a href="/wiki/Merchant_capitalism" title="Merchant capitalism">merchant capitalism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Labour_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour (economics)">Labour</a> promoted <a href="/wiki/Capital_formation" title="Capital formation">capital formation</a> in medieval Islamic society, and a considerable number of owners of <a href="/wiki/Monetary" class="mw-redirect" title="Monetary">monetary</a> <a href="/wiki/Funds" class="mw-redirect" title="Funds">funds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">precious metals</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Financial_capital" title="Financial capital">financial capital</a>. The capitalists (<i>sahib al-mal</i>) stood at the height of their power between the 9th and 12th centuries, but their influence declined after the arrival of the <i>ikta</i> (<a href="/wiki/Landowner" class="mw-redirect" title="Landowner">landowners</a>) and after the state<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (October 2017)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Monopolized" class="mw-redirect" title="Monopolized">monopolized</a> <a href="/wiki/Production_(economics)" title="Production (economics)">production</a>; both these trends hampered any development of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism#Industrial_Revolution" title="Capitalism">industrial capitalism</a> in the Islamic world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994402–403_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994402–403-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="/wiki/State_enterprise" class="mw-redirect" title="State enterprise">state enterprises</a> still had a <a href="/wiki/Capitalist_mode_of_production_(Marxist_theory)" title="Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)">capitalist mode of production</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Pearl_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearl diving">pearl diving</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Textile_industry" title="Textile industry">textile industry</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the 11th to the 13th centuries, the "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Karimis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karimis (page does not exist)">Karimis</a>", an enterprise and <a href="/wiki/Business_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Business group">business group</a> controlled by <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Entrepreneur">entrepreneurs</a>, came to dominate much of the Islamic world's economy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabib196981–82_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabib196981–82-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The group was controlled by about fifty Muslim <a href="/wiki/Merchant" title="Merchant">merchants</a> labeled as "Karimis", who were of <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemeni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a> and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian</a> origin.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each Karimi merchant had considerable wealth, ranging from at least 100,000 <a href="/wiki/Dinar" title="Dinar">dinars</a> to as much as 10 million dinars. The group had considerable influence in most important eastern markets, and sometimes influenced politics through its financing activities and through a variety of customers, including <a href="/wiki/Emir" title="Emir">Emirs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vizier" title="Vizier">Viziers</a>, foreign merchants, and common consumers. The Karimis dominated many of the <a href="/wiki/Trade_routes" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade routes">trade routes</a> across the Mediterranean, the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, and as far as <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a> in the north, China in the east, and <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a> in the south, where they obtained gold from <a href="/wiki/Gold_mine" class="mw-redirect" title="Gold mine">gold mines</a>. Practices employed by the Karimis included the use of <a href="/wiki/Agent_(economics)" title="Agent (economics)">agents</a>, the financing of <a href="/wiki/Project" title="Project">projects</a> as a method of acquiring capital, and a <a href="/wiki/Banking_institution" class="mw-redirect" title="Banking institution">banking institution</a> for loans and deposits. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_socialism">Islamic socialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Islamic socialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_socialism" title="Islamic socialism">Islamic socialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bayt_al-mal" title="Bayt al-mal">Bayt al-mal</a></div> <p>Though medieval Islamic economics appears to have somewhat resembled a form of capitalism, some arguing that it laid the foundations for the development of modern capitalism,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others see Islamic economics as neither completely capitalistic nor completely <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialistic</a>, but rather a balance between the two, emphasizing both "individual economic freedom and the need to serve the common good."<sup id="cite_ref-Hamid_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamid-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Abu_Dharr_al-Ghifari" title="Abu Dharr al-Ghifari">Abū Dharr al-Ghifārī</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Sahaba" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahaba">Companion</a> of Muḥammad, is credited by many as the founder of Islamic <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The concepts of <a href="/wiki/Welfare_(financial_aid)" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare (financial aid)">welfare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pension" title="Pension">pension</a> were introduced in early <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a> as forms of <i><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></i> (charity), one of the <a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Five Pillars of Islam</a>, during the time of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a> caliph <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a> in the 7th century. This practiced continued well into the era of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>, as seen under <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">Al-Ma'mun</a>'s rule in the 8th century, for example. The <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">taxes</a> (including <i>Zakat</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a></i>) collected in the <a href="/wiki/Treasury" title="Treasury">treasury</a> of an Islamic <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a> were used to provide <a href="/wiki/Income" title="Income">income</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">needy</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_age" title="Old age">elderly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orphan" title="Orphan">orphans</a>, widows, and the <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">disabled</a>. According to the Islamic jurist <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a> (Algazel, 1058–1111), the government was also expected to stockpile food supplies in every region in case a <a href="/wiki/Disaster" title="Disaster">disaster</a> or <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a> occurred. The <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> is thus considered the world's first major <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">welfare state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Crone_2005_308–9_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crone_2005_308–9-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hamid_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamid-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_development">Industrial development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Industrial development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Inventions_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Inventions in medieval Islam">Muslim engineers in the Islamic world</a> were responsible for numerous innovative industrial uses of <a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">hydropower</a>, early industrial uses of <a href="/wiki/Tide_mill" title="Tide mill">tide mills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a>. A variety of industrial mills were used in the Islamic world, including fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, sawmills, shipmills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, tide mills, and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Muslim engineers also employed <a href="/wiki/Water_turbine" title="Water turbine">water turbines</a>, and gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.<sup id="cite_ref-Hassan_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassan-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by <a href="/wiki/Manual_labour" title="Manual labour">manual labour</a> in ancient times to be <a href="/wiki/Mechanization" title="Mechanization">mechanized</a> and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Europe">medieval Europe</a> later laid the foundations for the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> in 18th century Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to government-owned <i>tiraz</i> textile factories, there were also <a href="/wiki/Privately_owned_enterprise" class="mw-redirect" title="Privately owned enterprise">privately owned enterprises</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (November 2016)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> run largely by landlords who collected taxes and invested them in the textile industry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller199447–48_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller199447–48-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labour_force">Labour force</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Labour force"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Female_Labor_Force_Participation_Rate_in_Majority_Muslim_Countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Female Labor Force Participation Rate in Majority Muslim Countries">Female Labor Force Participation Rate in Majority Muslim Countries</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-One_source plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-one_source" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>relies largely or entirely on a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_with_a_single_source" title="Wikipedia:Articles with a single source">single source</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_Islamic_economics" title="Talk:History of Islamic economics">talk page</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">introducing citations to additional sources</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22History+of+Islamic+economics%22">"History of Islamic economics"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22History+of+Islamic+economics%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22History+of+Islamic+economics%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22History+of+Islamic+economics%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22History+of+Islamic+economics%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22History+of+Islamic+economics%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2018</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Labor_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor force">labor force</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> were <a href="/wiki/Employed" class="mw-redirect" title="Employed">employed</a> from diverse <a href="/wiki/Ethnic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic">ethnic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious">religious</a> backgrounds, while both men and women were involved in diverse occupations and <a href="/wiki/Economic" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic">economic</a> activities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller19946–7_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller19946–7-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women were employed in a wide range of commercial activities and diverse occupations<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994400–401_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994400–401-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the primary sector (as <a href="/wiki/Farmer" title="Farmer">farmers</a> for example), secondary sector (as <a href="/wiki/Construction_worker" title="Construction worker">construction workers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">dyers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spinning_(textiles)" title="Spinning (textiles)">spinners</a>, etc.) and tertiary sector (as <a href="/wiki/Investor" title="Investor">investors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">doctors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Nurse">nurses</a>, <a href="/wiki/President_(corporate_title)" title="President (corporate title)">presidents</a> of <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guilds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Broker" title="Broker">brokers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peddler" title="Peddler">peddlers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lender" class="mw-redirect" title="Lender">lenders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scholar" title="Scholar">scholars</a>, etc.).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994350–362_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994350–362-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Muslim women also held a <a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopoly</a> over certain branches of the <a href="/wiki/Textile_industry" title="Textile industry">textile industry</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994400–401_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994400–401-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs additional references to reliable sources. (June 2017)">additional citation(s) needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the largest and most specialized and market-oriented industry at the time, in occupations such as <a href="/wiki/Spinning_(textiles)" title="Spinning (textiles)">spinning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dyeing" title="Dyeing">dyeing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Embroidery" title="Embroidery">embroidery</a>. In comparison, <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">female</a> <a href="/wiki/Property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Property rights">property rights</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">wage labour</a> were relatively uncommon in Europe until the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> in the 18th and 19th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1997175–177_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1997175–177-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">division of labour</a> was diverse and had been evolving over the centuries. During the 8th–11th centuries, there were on average 63 unique occupations in the <a href="/wiki/Primary_sector_of_economic_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary sector of economic activity">primary sector of economic activity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Extract" title="Extract">extractive</a>), 697 unique occupations in the <a href="/wiki/Secondary_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary sector">secondary sector</a> (<a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a>), and 736 unique occupations in the <a href="/wiki/Tertiary_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Tertiary sector">tertiary sector</a> (<a href="/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">service</a>). By the 12th century, the number of unique occupations in the primary sector and secondary sector decreased to 35 and 679 respectively, while the number of unique occupations in the tertiary sector increased to 1,175. These changes in the division of labour reflect the increased <a href="/wiki/Mechanization" title="Mechanization">mechanization</a> and use of <a href="/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">machinery</a> to replace <a href="/wiki/Manual_labour" title="Manual labour">manual labour</a> and the increased <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a> of most citizens in the Caliphate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994169–170_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994169–170-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An economic transition occurred during this period, due to the diversity of the service sector being far greater than any other previous or contemporary society, and the high degree of <a href="/wiki/Economic_integration" title="Economic integration">economic integration</a> between the labour force and the <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economy</a>. Islamic society also experienced a change in attitude towards <a href="/wiki/Manual_labour" title="Manual labour">manual labour</a>. In previous civilizations such as <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a> and in contemporary civilizations such as <a href="/wiki/Early_medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Early medieval">early medieval</a> Europe, intellectuals saw manual labour in a negative light and looked down on them with contempt.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs additional references to reliable sources. (June 2017)">additional citation(s) needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This resulted in technological stagnation as they did not see the need for <a href="/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">machinery</a> to replace manual labour.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs additional references to reliable sources. (June 2017)">additional citation(s) needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the Islamic world, however, manual labour was seen in a far more positive light, as intellectuals such as the <a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Brethren of Purity</a> likened them to a participant in the act of <a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">creation</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> alluded to the benefits of manual labour to the progress of society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994400–401_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994400–401-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the early 10th century, the idea of the <a href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">academic degree</a> was introduced and being granted at <a href="/wiki/Maktab_(education)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maktab (education)">Maktab</a> schools, <a href="/wiki/Madrasah" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrasah">Madrasah</a> colleges and <a href="/wiki/Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">Bimaristan</a> hospitals. In the <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicine in medieval Islam">medical field</a> in particular, the <i><a href="/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah">Ijazah</a></i> certificate was granted to those qualified to be practicing physicians, in order to differentiate them from unqualified <a href="/wiki/Quackery" title="Quackery">quacks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urbanization">Urbanization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Urbanization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There was a significant increase in <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> during this period, due to numerous scientific advances in fields such as agriculture, <a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">hygiene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inventions_in_the_Muslim_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Inventions in the Muslim world">engineering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This also resulted in a rising <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a> population. </p><p>The head of the family was given the position of authority in his household,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> although a <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">qadi</a>, or judge was able to negotiate and resolve differences in issues of disagreements within families and between them. The two senior representatives of municipal authority were the qadi and the <a href="/wiki/Muhtasib" title="Muhtasib">muhtasib</a>, who held the responsibilities of many issues, including quality of water, maintenance of city streets, containing outbreaks of disease, supervising the markets, and a prompt burial of the dead. </p><p>Another aspect of Islamic urban life was <a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">waqf</a>, a religious charity directly dealing with the qadi and religious leaders. Through donations, the waqf owned many of the <a href="/wiki/Public_bath" class="mw-redirect" title="Public bath">public baths</a> and factories, using the revenue to fund education,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and to provide irrigation for orchards outside the city. Following expansion, this system was introduced into Eastern Europe by Ottoman Turks.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Taxes were also levied on an unmarried man until he was wed. Non-Muslims were required to pay the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a>, an administrative tax on non-Muslims analogous to zakat (a Muslim only tax). The Jizya was applied only to young able-bodied adult males and exempted non-Muslims from military service. The Muslim state would then be responsible for the administration & security of the Non-Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_Islamic_economic_thought">Classical Islamic economic thought</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Classical Islamic economic thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To some degree, the early Muslims based their <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economic</a> analyses on the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> (such as opposition to <i><a href="/wiki/Riba" title="Riba">riba</a></i>, meaning <a href="/wiki/Usury" title="Usury">usury</a> or <a href="/wiki/Interest" title="Interest">interest</a>), and from <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">sunnah</a>, the sayings and doings of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Islamic_economic_thinkers">Early Islamic economic thinkers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Early Islamic economic thinkers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a> (1058–1111) classified economics as one of the sciences connected with religion, along with metaphysics, ethics, and psychology. Authors have noted, however, that this connection has not caused early Muslim economic thought to remain static.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpengler1964274_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpengler1964274-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iranian philosopher <a href="/wiki/Nas%C4%ABr_al-D%C4%ABn_al-T%C5%ABs%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a> (1201–1274) presents an early definition of economics (what he calls hekmat-e-madani, the science of city life) in discourse three of his <i>Ethics</i>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"the study of universal laws governing the public interest (welfare?) in so far as they are directed, through cooperation, toward the optimal (perfection)."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosseini200339_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosseini200339-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Many scholars trace the <a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">history of economic thought</a> through the Muslim world, which was in a <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a> from the 8th to 13th century and whose <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">philosophy</a> continued the work of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic</a> thinkers and came to influence Aquinas when Europe "rediscovered" Greek philosophy through <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">Arabic translation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A common theme among these scholars was the praise of economic activity and even self-interested accumulation of wealth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosseini200336_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosseini200336-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Persian philosopher <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Miskawayh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Miskawayh">Ibn Miskawayh</a> (b. 1030) notes: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"The creditor desires the well-being of the debtor in order to get his money back rather than because of his love for him. The debtor, on the other hand, does not take great interest in the creditor."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosseini200336_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosseini200336-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This view is in conflict with an idea <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a> called the great gap. The great gap thesis comes out of Schumpeter's 1954 <i>History of Economic Analysis</i> which discusses a break in economic thought during the five hundred-year period between the decline of the Greco-Roman civilizations and the work of Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchumpeter1954_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchumpeter1954-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in 1964, Joseph Spengler's "Economic Thought of Islam: Ibn Khaldun" appeared in the journal <i>Comparative Studies in Society and History</i> and took a large step in bringing early Muslim scholars to the attention of the contemporary West.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The influence of earlier <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic thought</a> on the Muslim world began largely with <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a>, who sponsored the translation of <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> texts into <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> in the 9th century by <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. But already by that time numerous Muslim scholars had written on economic issues, and early Muslim leaders had shown sophisticated attempts to enforce fiscal and monetary financing, use deficit financing, use taxes to encourage production, the use of credit instruments for banking, including rudimentary savings and checking accounts, and contract law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosseini200333_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosseini200333-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the earliest Muslim economic thinkers was <a href="/wiki/Abu_Yusuf" title="Abu Yusuf">Abu Yusuf</a> (731–798), a student of the founder of the Hanafi Sunni School of Islamic thought, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Hanifah" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Hanifah">Abu Hanifah</a>. Abu Yusuf was chief jurist for Abbasid Caliph <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a>, for whom he wrote the <i>Book of Taxation</i> (<i>Kitab al-Kharaj</i>). This book outlined Abu Yusuf's ideas on taxation, public finance, and agricultural production. He discussed proportional tax on produce instead of fixed taxes on property as being superior as an incentive to bring more land into cultivation. He also advocated forgiving tax policies which favor the producer and a centralized tax administration to reduce corruption. Abu Yusuf favored the use of tax revenues for socioeconomic infrastructure, and included discussion of various types of taxes, including sales tax, death taxes, and import tariffs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosseini200334_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosseini200334-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early discussion of the benefits of division of labor are included in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Mo%27ali_Abol-hasan_Ghaboos_ibn_Wushmgir" class="mw-redirect" title="Shams al-Mo'ali Abol-hasan Ghaboos ibn Wushmgir">Qabus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a> (873–950), <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina</a> (Avicenna) (980–1037), <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Miskawayh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Miskawayh">Ibn Miskawayh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nas%C4%ABr_al-D%C4%ABn_al-T%C5%ABs%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a> (1201–74), <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> (1332–1406), and Asaad Davani (b. 1444). Among them, the discussions included division of labor within households, societies, factories, and among nations. Farabi notes that each society lacks at least some necessary resources, and thus an optimal society can only be achieved where domestic, regional, and international trade occur, and that such trade can be beneficial to all parties involved.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ghazali was also noted for his subtle understanding of monetary theory and formulation of another version of <a href="/wiki/Gresham%27s_law" title="Gresham's law">Gresham's law</a>. </p><p>The power of <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a> was understood to some extent by various early Muslim scholars as well. <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Taymiyyah">Ibn Taymiyyah</a> illustrates: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"If desire for goods increases while its availability decreases, its price rises. On the other hand, if availability of the good increases and the desire for it decreases, the price comes down."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosseini200328_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosseini200328-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Ibn Taymiyyah also elaborated on a circumstantial analysis of the market mechanism, with a theoretical insight unusual in his time. His discourses on the welfare advantages and disadvantages of market regulation and deregulation have an almost contemporary ring to them.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ghazali suggests an early version of <a href="/wiki/Price_elasticity_of_demand" title="Price elasticity of demand">price inelasticity of demand</a> for certain goods, and he and Ibn Miskawayh discuss <a href="/wiki/Economic_equilibrium" title="Economic equilibrium">equilibrium prices</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosseini200338_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosseini200338-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (October 2016)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Other important Muslim scholars who wrote about economics include <a href="/wiki/Al-Mawardi" title="Al-Mawardi">al-Mawardi</a> (1075–1158), <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taimiyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Taimiyah">Ibn Taimiyah</a> (1263–1328), and <a href="/wiki/Al-Maqrizi" title="Al-Maqrizi">al-Maqrizi</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ibn_Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ibn Khaldun"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muqaddimah" title="Muqaddimah">Muqaddimah</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Asabiyyah" title="Asabiyyah">Asabiyyah</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ibn_Khaldoun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Ibn_Khaldoun.jpg/150px-Ibn_Khaldoun.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Ibn_Khaldoun.jpg/225px-Ibn_Khaldoun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Ibn_Khaldoun.jpg/300px-Ibn_Khaldoun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Ibn Khaldoun in <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a></figcaption></figure> <table class="toccolours" style="float: left; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align: left;">When civilization [population] increases, the available labor again increases. In turn, luxury again increases in correspondence with the increasing profit, and the customs and needs of luxury increase. Crafts are created to obtain luxury products. The value realized from them increases, and, as a result, profits are again multiplied in the town. Production there is thriving even more than before. And so it goes with the second and third increase. All the additional labor serves luxury and wealth, in contrast to the original labor that served the necessity of life.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><i><b>Ibn Khaldun on <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a></b></i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Perhaps the best known Islamic scholar who wrote about economics was Ibn Khaldun of <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> (1332–1406),<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who is considered a forerunner of modern economists.<sup id="cite_ref-Oweiss_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oweiss-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ibn Khaldun wrote on economic and political theory in the introduction, or <i><a href="/wiki/Muqaddimah" title="Muqaddimah">Muqaddimah</a></i> (<i>Prolegomena</i>), of his <i>History of the World</i> (<i>Kitab al-Ibar</i>). In the book, he discussed what he called <i>asabiyya</i> (social cohesion), which he sourced as the cause of some civilizations becoming great and others not. Ibn Khaldun felt that many social forces are cyclic, although there can be sudden sharp turns that break the pattern.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss199529–30_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss199529–30-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His idea about the benefits of the division of labor also relate to <i>asabiyya</i>, the greater the social cohesion, the more complex the successful division may be, the greater the economic growth. He noted that growth and development positively stimulates both supply and demand and that the forces of supply and demand are what determines the prices of goods.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also noted macroeconomic forces of population growth, <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a> development, and technological developments effects on development.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, Ibn Khaldun thought that population growth was directly a function of wealth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss199533_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss199533-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although he understood that money served as a standard of value, a medium of exchange, and a preserver of value, he did not realize that the value of gold and silver changed based on the forces of supply and demand.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss199532_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss199532-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also introduced the concept known as the <a href="/wiki/Khaldun-Laffer_Curve" class="mw-redirect" title="Khaldun-Laffer Curve">Khaldun-Laffer Curve</a> (the relationship between tax rates and tax revenue increases as tax rates increase for a while, but then the increases in tax rates begin to cause a decrease in tax revenues as the taxes to impose too great a cost to producers in the economy). </p><p>Ibn Khaldun introduced the <a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_value" title="Labor theory of value">labor theory of value</a>. He described labor as the source of value, necessary for all earnings and capital accumulation, obvious in the case of craft. He argued that even if earning "results from something other than a craft, the value of the resulting profit and acquired (capital) must (also) include the value of the labor by which it was obtained. Without labor, it would not have been acquired."<sup id="cite_ref-Oweiss_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oweiss-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His theory of <i>asabiyyah</i> has often been compared to modern <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian economics</a>, with Ibn Khaldun's theory clearly containing the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Spending_multiplier" class="mw-redirect" title="Spending multiplier">multiplier</a>. A crucial difference, however, is that whereas for <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a> it is the <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a>'s greater propensity to <a href="/wiki/Saving" title="Saving">save</a> that is to blame for <a href="/wiki/Depression_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Depression (economics)">economic depression</a>, for Ibn Khaldun it is the governmental propensity to save at times when <a href="/wiki/Investment" title="Investment">investment</a> opportunities do not take up the slack which leads to <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">aggregate demand</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another modern economic theory anticipated by Ibn Khaldun is <a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">supply-side economics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He "argued that high <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">taxes</a> were often a factor in causing empires to collapse, with the result that lower revenue was collected from high rates." He wrote:<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"It should be known that at the beginning of the dynasty, taxation yields a large revenue from small assessments. At the end of the dynasty, taxation yields a small revenue from large assessments."</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-colonial_era">Post-colonial era</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Post-colonial era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the modern <a href="/wiki/Post-colonial" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-colonial">post-colonial</a> era, as Western ideas, including Western economics, began to influence the Muslim world, some Muslim writers sought to produce an Islamic discipline of economics. In the 1960s and 70s Shia Islamic thinkers worked to develop a unique Islamic economic philosophy with "its answers to contemporary economic problems." Several works were particularly influential, </p> <ul><li><i>slam VA Malekiyyat</i> (Islam and Property) by Mahmud Taleqani (1951),</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Iqtisaduna" title="Iqtisaduna">Iqtisaduna</a></i> (Our Economics) by <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Baqir_al-Sadr" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr">Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr</a> (1961) and</li> <li><i>Eqtesad-e Towhidi</i> (The Economics of Divine Harmony) by <a href="/wiki/Abolhassan_Banisadr" title="Abolhassan Banisadr">Abolhassan Banisadr</a> (1978)</li> <li><i>Some Interpretations of Property Rights, Capital, and Labor from Islamic Perspective</i> by Habibullah Peyman (1979).<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-international.ucla.edu_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-international.ucla.edu-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Al-Sadr, in particular, has been described as having "almost single-handedly developed the notion of Islamic economics" <sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In their writings, Sadr and the other <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a> authors "sought to depict Islam as a religion committed to social justice, the equitable distribution of wealth, and the cause of the deprived classes", with doctrines "acceptable to Islamic jurists", while refuting existing non-Islamic theories of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>. This version of Islamic economics, which influenced the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a>, called for public ownership of land and large "industrial enterprises", while private economic activity continued "within reasonable limits."<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These ideas helped shape the large public sector and public subsidy policies of the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Islamic revolution</a>. </p><p>In the 1980s and 1990s, as the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran#Iran's_economy_and_human_development" title="History of the Islamic Republic of Iran">Iranian revolution</a> failed to reach the per capita income level achieved by the regime it overthrew, and Communist states and socialist parties in the non-Muslim world turned away from <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>, Muslim interest shifted away from government ownership and regulation. In Iran, it is reported that "<i>entered-e Islami</i> (meaning both Islamic economics and economy) ... once a revolutionary shibboleth is indubitably absent in all official documents and the media. It disappeared from Iranian political discourse about 15 years ago [1990]."<sup id="cite_ref-international.ucla.edu_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-international.ucla.edu-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>But in other parts of the Muslim world, the term lived on, shifting form to the less ambitious goal of interest-free banking. Some Muslim bankers and religious leaders suggested ways to integrate Islamic law on the usage of money with modern concepts of <a href="/wiki/Ethical_investing" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical investing">ethical</a> <a href="/wiki/Investing" class="mw-redirect" title="Investing">investing</a>. In banking, this was done through the use of sales transactions (focusing on the fixed rate return modes) to achieve similar results to interest. This has been criticized by some western writers as a means of covering conventional banking with an Islamic facade. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_economics">Contemporary economics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Contemporary economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Female_labor_force_in_the_Muslim_world" title="Female labor force in the Muslim world">Female labor force in the Muslim world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics_in_Pakistan" title="Islamic economics in Pakistan">Islamic economics in Pakistan</a></div> <p>In modern times, economic policies of the 1979 <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Revolution">Islamic Revolution</a> in predominantly <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a> <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> were heavily statist with a very large public sector, and official rhetoric celebrating revolution and the rights of the dispossessed, although this tendency has faded over time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoy1994138_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoy1994138-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, the policies of the <a href="/wiki/National_Islamic_Front" title="National Islamic Front">National Islamic Front</a> party dominated regime in the 1990s have been the reverse, employing <a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">economic liberalism</a> and accepting "market forces in the formulation of state policies." In <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamist" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamist">Islamist</a> parties have supported <a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">populist</a> policies, showing a "marked reluctance to adopt austerity policies and decreased subsidies."<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In recent years, Turkey had a rapidly growing <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Turkey" title="Economy of Turkey">economy</a> and became a developed country according to the <a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> and Turkey are members of the <a href="/wiki/G-20_major_economies" class="mw-redirect" title="G-20 major economies">G-20 major economies</a>. </p><p>In 2008, at least $500 billion in assets around the world were managed by <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a>, or Islamic law, and the sector was growing at more than 10% per year. Islamic finance seeks to promote social justice by banning exploitative practices. In reality, this boils down to a set of prohibitions—on paying interest, on gambling with derivatives and options, and on investing in firms that make pornography or pork.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another form of modern finance that originated from the Muslim world is <a href="/wiki/Microcredit" title="Microcredit">microcredit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microfinance" title="Microfinance">microfinance</a>. It began in the 1970s in <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> with <a href="/wiki/Grameen_Bank" title="Grameen Bank">Grameen Bank</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Yunus" title="Muhammad Yunus">Muhammad Yunus</a>, recipient of the 2006 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a>. Among 6 representative studies selected from a sample of more than 100 studies as being methodologically most sound, five found no evidence that microcredit reduced poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Controversies">Controversies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Controversies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout history, socialism has been accepted by many Muslim thinkers and Muslims have presented different views on this school. They somehow saw socialism and Islam as non-contradictory. In "Iran", the nature of "Islamic economy" has been widely disputed by "Iranians" has taken and for example, one view of the Islamic economic system was considered a "socialist economy" and they accepted it.,<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But on the other hand, there have been Muslims or other Muslim groups who have taken a strong stance against socialism. In general, in Iran, there have been Iranians who agree or disagree with these views. For example, there is another opinion had condemned all (other) "isms" as doomed to failure.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Land_reform">Land reform</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Land reform"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One issue "generally absent" from contemporary <a href="/wiki/Islamist" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamist">Islamist</a> economic thought (except <a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Sayyid Qutb</a>) and action "whether moderate or radical" is the question of <a href="/wiki/Agrarian_reform" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrarian reform">agrarian reform</a>. Opposition to agrarian reform even played a role in Islamist uprisings (Iran 1963, Afghanistan, 1978).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoy1994136_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoy1994136-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least one observer (<a href="/wiki/Olivier_Roy_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Olivier Roy (professor)">Olivier Roy</a>) believes this is primarily because it would "imply a reexamination of the concept of ownership", and in particular "throw into question the <a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">Waqf</a>, endowments whose revenue ensures the functioning of religious institutions."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoy1994136_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoy1994136-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Islamic Republic of <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, for example, waqf holdings are very large (in <a href="/wiki/Khorasan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Khorasan Province">Khorasan Province</a>, "50% of the cultivated lands belong to the religious foundation Astan-i Quds, which oversees" the <a href="/wiki/Imam_Reza_shrine" title="Imam Reza shrine">Imam Reza shrine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mashhad" title="Mashhad">Mashhad</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoy1994136_104-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoy1994136-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus questioning waqf property would mean questioning "the foundation of the financial autonomy of the mullahs and mosques", particularly among <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a> Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoy1994136_104-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoy1994136-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_stock_index">Islamic stock index</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Islamic stock index"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In June 2005, the <a href="/wiki/Dow_Jones_Industrial_Average" title="Dow Jones Industrial Average">Dow Jones</a> Indexes in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=RHB_Securities&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="RHB Securities (page does not exist)">RHB Securities</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur" title="Kuala Lumpur">Kuala Lumpur</a> teamed up to launch a new "Islamic <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> Index"—a collection of 45 stocks representing Malaysian companies that comply with a variety of Sharia-based requirements. For example, total debt, cash plus interest-bearing securities and <a href="/wiki/Accounts_receivable" title="Accounts receivable">accounts receivables</a> must each be less than 33% of the trailing 12-month average capitalization.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Also, "gambling" on derivatives and options, and on investing in firms that make pornography or pork are also unacceptable. Islamic bonds, or <a href="/wiki/Sukuk" title="Sukuk">sukuk</a>, use asset returns to pay investors to comply with the religion's ban on interest and are currently traded privately on the <a href="/wiki/Over-the-counter" class="mw-redirect" title="Over-the-counter">over-the-counter</a> market. In late December 2009 <a href="/wiki/Bursa_Malaysia" title="Bursa Malaysia">Bursa Malaysia</a> announced it was considering enabling individuals to trade Shariah-compliant debt on its exchange as part of a plan to attract new investors.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Islamic economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dow_Jones_Islamic_Fund" title="Dow Jones Islamic Fund">Dow Jones Islamic Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dow_Jones_Islamic_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Dow Jones Islamic Index">Dow Jones Islamic Index</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Banks</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Development_Bank" title="Islamic Development Bank">Islamic Development Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_Islam_Malaysia" title="Bank Islam Malaysia">Bank Islam Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_Muamalat_Malaysia" title="Bank Muamalat Malaysia">Bank Muamalat Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubai_Islamic_Bank" title="Dubai Islamic Bank">Dubai Islamic Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Bank_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Bank of Britain">Islamic Bank of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meezan_Bank_Limited" class="mw-redirect" title="Meezan Bank Limited">Meezan Bank Limited</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">El‐Sheikh, S., 2008. The moral economy of classical Islam: a hiqhiconomic model. The Muslim World, 98(1), p.120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoy1994132-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoy1994132_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoy1994">Roy (1994)</a>, p. 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schirazi, Asghar, <i>Constitution of Iran</i>, (1997), p.170</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Siegfried, N.A., 2001. Concepts of paper money in Islamic legal thought. Arab LQ, 16, p.319.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EoIMW-596-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EoIMW-596_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMartin2014" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Richard C., ed. (2014). "Riba". <i>Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World</i>. Macmillan Reference USA. pp. <span class="nowrap">596–</span>7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865912-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865912-1"><bdi>978-0-02-865912-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Riba&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Islam+and+the+Muslim+World&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E596-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865912-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBadr1978" class="citation cs2">Badr, Gamal Moursi (Spring 1978), "Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems", <i>The American Journal of Comparative Law</i>, <b>26</b> (2 – Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, February 24–25, 1977), The American Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 26, No. 2: <span class="nowrap">187–</span>198, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F839667">10.2307/839667</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/839667">839667</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Comparative+Law&rft.atitle=Islamic+Law%3A+Its+Relation+to+Other+Legal+Systems&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2+%E2%80%93+Proceedings+of+an+International+Conference+on+Comparative+Law%2C+Salt+Lake+City%2C+Utah%2C+February+24%E2%80%9325%2C+1977&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E187-%3C%2Fspan%3E198&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F839667&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F839667%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Badr&rft.aufirst=Gamal+Moursi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi1988-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi1988_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGaudiosi1988">Gaudiosi (1988)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881237–1240-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881237–1240_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGaudiosi1988">Gaudiosi (1988)</a>, pp. 1237–1240.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881246-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881246_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGaudiosi1988">Gaudiosi (1988)</a>, p. 1246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881246–1247-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881246–1247_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGaudiosi1988">Gaudiosi (1988)</a>, pp. 1246–1247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881247-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881247_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGaudiosi1988">Gaudiosi (1988)</a>, p. 1247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson200332-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHudson200332_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHudson2003">Hudson (2003)</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881244–1245-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaudiosi19881244–1245_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGaudiosi1988">Gaudiosi (1988)</a>, pp. 1244–1245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheau1996999–1001-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMicheau1996999–1001_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMicheau1996">Micheau (1996)</a>, pp. 999–1001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peters, Edward. <i>Europe and the Middle Ages</i>, 1983. p. 125</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crone_2005_308–9-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Crone_2005_308–9_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crone_2005_308–9_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crone_2005_308–9_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrone2005" class="citation book cs1">Crone, Patricia (2005). <i>Medieval Islamic Political Thought</i>. <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_University_Press" title="Edinburgh University Press">Edinburgh University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">308–</span>309. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-2194-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7486-2194-6"><bdi>0-7486-2194-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Islamic+Political+Thought&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E308-%3C%2Fspan%3E309&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-7486-2194-6&rft.aulast=Crone&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994263-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994263_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShatzmiller1994">Shatzmiller (1994)</a>, p. 263.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Europe_p._437-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Europe_p._437_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Cambridge economic history of Europe</i>, p. 437. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-08709-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-08709-0">0-521-08709-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Timur Kuran (2005), "The Absence of the Corporation in Islamic Law: Origins and Persistence", <i>American Journal of Comparative Law</i> <b>53</b>, pp. 785–834 [798–99].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Banaji-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Banaji_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Banaji_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Banaji_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Banaji_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Banaji_20-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jairus Banaji (2007), "Islam, the Mediterranean and the rise of capitalism", <i><a href="/wiki/Historical_Materialism_(journal)" title="Historical Materialism (journal)">Historical Materialism</a></i> <b>15</b> (1), pp. 47–74, <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robert_Sabatino_Lopez_2001-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Robert_Sabatino_Lopez_2001_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robert_Sabatino_Lopez_2001_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Sabatino Lopez, Irving Woodworth Raymond, Olivia Remie Constable (2001), <i>Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents</i>, <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-12357-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-12357-4">0-231-12357-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabib196992–93-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabib196992–93_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabib196992–93_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLabib1969">Labib (1969)</a>, pp. 92–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ray_Spier_2002_pp._357–58-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ray_Spier_2002_pp._357–58_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ray Spier (2002), "The history of the peer-review process", <i>Trends in Biotechnology</i> <b>20</b> (8), pp. 357–58 [357].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Said_Amir_Arjomand_1999_pp._263-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Said_Amir_Arjomand_1999_pp._263_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Said_Amir_Arjomand_1999_pp._263_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Said Amir Arjomand (1999), "The Law, Agency, and Policy in Medieval Islamic Society: Development of the Institutions of Learning from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Century", <i>Comparative Studies in Society and History</i> <b>41</b>, pp. 263–93. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Samir_Amin_1978_pp._3-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Samir_Amin_1978_pp._3_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Samir_Amin_1978_pp._3_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Samir Amin (1978), "The Arab Nation: Some Conclusions and Problems", <i>MERIP Reports</i> <b>68</b>, pp. 3–14 [8, 13].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Shahid_Alam2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/M._Shahid_Alam" class="mw-redirect" title="M. Shahid Alam">M. Shahid Alam</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=suKKCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32"><i>Poverty From The Wealth of Nations: Integration and Polarization in the Global Economy since 1760</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-98564-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-98564-9"><bdi>978-0-333-98564-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poverty+From+The+Wealth+of+Nations%3A+Integration+and+Polarization+in+the+Global+Economy+since+1760&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-333-98564-9&rft.au=M.+Shahid+Alam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsuKKCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhandker2015" class="citation news cs1">Khandker, Hissam (31 July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thedailystar.net/op-ed/politics/which-india-claiming-have-been-colonised-119284">"Which India is claiming to have been colonised?"</a>. <i>The Daily Star</i> (Op-ed).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Star&rft.atitle=Which+India+is+claiming+to+have+been+colonised%3F&rft.date=2015-07-31&rft.aulast=Khandker&rft.aufirst=Hissam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thedailystar.net%2Fop-ed%2Fpolitics%2Fwhich-india-claiming-have-been-colonised-119284&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaddison2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Angus_Maddison" title="Angus Maddison">Maddison, Angus</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA259"><i>Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/OECD_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="OECD Publishing">OECD Publishing</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">259–</span>261. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9264104143" title="Special:BookSources/9264104143"><bdi>9264104143</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Development+Centre+Studies+The+World+Economy+Historical+Statistics%3A+Historical+Statistics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E259-%3C%2Fspan%3E261&rft.pub=OECD+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9264104143&rft.aulast=Maddison&rft.aufirst=Angus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrHJGz3HiJbcC%26pg%3DPA259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hamid-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hamid_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hamid_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hamid_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShadi_Hamid2003" class="citation cs2">Shadi Hamid (August 2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110825064646/http://www.renaissance.com.pk/Augvipo2y3.html">"An Islamic Alternative? Equality, Redistributive Justice, and the Welfare State in the Caliphate of Umar"</a>, <i>Renaissance: Monthly Islamic Journal</i>, <b>13</b> (8), archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.renaissance.com.pk/Augvipo2y3.html">the original</a> on 2011-08-25<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-12-23</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Renaissance%3A+Monthly+Islamic+Journal&rft.atitle=An+Islamic+Alternative%3F+Equality%2C+Redistributive+Justice%2C+and+the+Welfare+State+in+the+Caliphate+of+Umar&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=8&rft.date=2003-08&rft.au=Shadi+Hamid&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.renaissance.com.pk%2FAugvipo2y3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hobson-29-30-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hobson-29-30_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hobson-29-30_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">John M. Hobson (2004), <i>The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation</i>, p. 29-30, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-54724-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-54724-5">0-521-54724-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabib1969-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabib1969_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabib1969_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLabib1969">Labib (1969)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roman K. Kovalev, Alexis C. Kaelin (2007), "Circulation of Arab Silver in Medieval Afro-Eurasia: Preliminary Observations", <i>History Compass</i> <b>5</b> (2), pp. 560–80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTyabji1991" class="citation book cs1">Tyabji, Amini (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BCC6veZPfNoC&q=tamil+muslim&pg=PA60">"Historical dominance on money changing business"</a>. In Mohamed Ariff (ed.). <i>The Muslim Private Sector in Southeast Asia: Islam and the Economic Development of Southeast Asia (Social Issues in Southeast Asia)</i>. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-3016-10-8" title="Special:BookSources/981-3016-10-8"><bdi>981-3016-10-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Historical+dominance+on+money+changing+business&rft.btitle=The+Muslim+Private+Sector+in+Southeast+Asia%3A+Islam+and+the+Economic+Development+of+Southeast+Asia+%28Social+Issues+in+Southeast+Asia%29&rft.pub=Institute+of+Southeast+Asian+Studies&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=981-3016-10-8&rft.aulast=Tyabji&rft.aufirst=Amini&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBCC6veZPfNoC%26q%3Dtamil%2Bmuslim%26pg%3DPA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew M. Watson (1983), <i>Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World</i>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-24711-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-24711-X">0-521-24711-X</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watson-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Watson_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew M. Watson (1974), "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700-1100", <i>The Journal of Economic History</i> <b>34</b> (1), p. 8-35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Decker, Michael (2009), "Plants and Progress: Rethinking the Islamic Agricultural Revolution", Journal of World History 20 (2): 187–206, DOI:10.1353/jwh.0.0058.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ashtor, E (1976), A Social and Economic History of the Near East in the Middle Ages, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 58–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoulson">Coulson</a>, p. 117. "Reaching further back through the centuries, the civilizations regarded as having the highest literacy rates of their ages were parent-driven educational marketplaces. The ability to read and write was far more widely enjoyed in the early medieval Islamic empire and fourth-century-B.C.E. Athens than in any other cultures of their times."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurke2009">Burke (2009)</a>. "The spread of written knowledge was at least the equal of what it was in China after printing became common there in the tenth century. (Chinese books were printed in small editions of a hundred or so copies.)"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoulson">Coulson</a>, p. 117. "In neither case did the state supply or even systematically subsidize educational services. The Muslim world's eventual introduction of state funding under Nizam al-Mulk in the eleventh century was quickly followed by partisan religious squabbling over education and the gradual fall of Islam from its place of cultural and scientific preeminence."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurke2009">Burke (2009)</a>. "According to legend, paper came to the Islamic world as a result of the capture of Chinese papermakers at the 751 C.E. Battle of Talas River."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurke2009">Burke (2009)</a>. "Whatever the source, the diffusion of paper-making technology via the lands of Islam produced a shift from oral to scribal culture across the rest of Afroeurasia that was rivaled only by the move from scribal to typographic culture. (Perhaps it will prove to have been even more important than the recent move from typographic culture to the Internet.) The result was remarkable. As historian Jonathan Bloom informs us, paper encouraged "an efflorescence of books and written culture incomparably more brilliant than was known anywhere in Europe until the invention of printing with movable type in the fifteenth century."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurke2009">Burke (2009)</a>. "More so than any previously existing society, Islamic society of the period 1000–1500 was profoundly a culture of books. [...] The emergence of a culture of books is closely tied to cultural dispositions toward literacy in Islamic societies. Muslim young men were encouraged to memorize the Qur'an as part of their transition to adulthood, and while most presumably did not (though little is known about literacy levels in pre-Mongol Muslim societies), others did. Types of literacy, in any event, varied, as Nelly Hanna has recently suggested, and are best studied as part of the complex social dynamics and contexts of individual Muslim societies. The need to conform commercial contracts and business arrangements to Islamic law provided a further impetus for literacy, especially likely in commercial centers. Scholars often engaged in commercial activity and craftsmen or tradesmen spent time studying in madrasas. The connection between what <a href="/wiki/Brian_Street" title="Brian Street">Brian Street</a> has called "<i>maktab</i> literacy" and commercial literacy was real and exerted a steady pressure on individuals to upgrade their reading skills."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994402–403-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994402–403_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994402–403_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShatzmiller1994">Shatzmiller (1994)</a>, pp. 402–403.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Judith Tucker (1975), "<i>Islam and Capitalism</i> by Maxime Rodinson", <i>MERIP Reports</i> <b>34</b>, pp. 31–2 [31].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabib196981–82-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabib196981–82_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLabib1969">Labib (1969)</a>, pp. 81–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Cambridge economic history of Europe</i>, pp. 438–440. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-08709-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-08709-0">0-521-08709-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeck2006" class="citation cs2">Heck, Gene W. (2006), <i>Charlemagne, Muhammad, and the Arab roots of capitalism</i>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-019229-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-019229-2"><bdi>3-11-019229-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Charlemagne%2C+Muhammad%2C+and+the+Arab+roots+of+capitalism&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=3-11-019229-2&rft.aulast=Heck&rft.aufirst=Gene+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNolan2007" class="citation cs2">Nolan, Peter (2007), <i>Capitalism and Freedom: The Contradictory Character of Globalisation</i>, Anthem Press, p. 277, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84331-280-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84331-280-2"><bdi>978-1-84331-280-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Capitalism+and+Freedom%3A+The+Contradictory+Character+of+Globalisation&rft.pages=277&rft.pub=Anthem+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84331-280-2&rft.aulast=Nolan&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordencycloped01espo"><i>Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World</i></a></span>, New York: Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 19, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-506613-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-506613-8"><bdi>0-19-506613-8</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/94030758">94030758</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+the+Modern+Islamic+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F94030758&rft.isbn=0-19-506613-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordencycloped01espo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130618011126/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e30?_hi=0&_pos=5">"Abu Dharr al-Ghifari"</a>. <i>Oxford Islamic Studies Online</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e30?_hi=0&_pos=5">the original</a> on June 18, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 January</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Islamic+Studies+Online&rft.atitle=Abu+Dharr+al-Ghifari&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordislamicstudies.com%2Farticle%2Fopr%2Ft125%2Fe30%3F_hi%3D0%26_pos%3D5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranchamber.com/personalities/ashariati/works/once_again_abu_dhar1.php"><i>And Once Again Abu Dharr</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 January</span> 2010</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=And+Once+Again+Abu+Dharr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranchamber.com%2Fpersonalities%2Fashariati%2Fworks%2Fonce_again_abu_dhar1.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHannaGeorge_H._Gardner1969" class="citation cs2">Hanna, Sami A.; George H. Gardner (1969), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zsoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA273"><i>Arab Socialism: A Documentary Survey</i></a>, Leiden: E.J. Brill, p. 273<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 January</span> 2010</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab+Socialism%3A+A+Documentary+Survey&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=273&rft.pub=E.J.+Brill&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Hanna&rft.aufirst=Sami+A.&rft.au=George+H.+Gardner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzsoUAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanna1969" class="citation cs2">Hanna, Sami A. (1969), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100913151901/http://www.financeinislam.com/article/1_37/1/309">"al-Takaful al-Ijtimai and Islamic Socialism"</a>, <i>The Muslim World</i>, <b>59</b> (<span class="nowrap">3–</span>4): <span class="nowrap">275–</span>286, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1478-1913.1969.tb02639.x">10.1111/j.1478-1913.1969.tb02639.x</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.financeinislam.com/article/1_37/1/309">the original</a> on 2010-09-13<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-04-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Muslim+World&rft.atitle=al-Takaful+al-Ijtimai+and+Islamic+Socialism&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E275-%3C%2Fspan%3E286&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1478-1913.1969.tb02639.x&rft.aulast=Hanna&rft.aufirst=Sami+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.financeinislam.com%2Farticle%2F1_37%2F1%2F309&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lucas-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lucas_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lucas_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", <i>Technology and Culture</i> <b>46</b> (1), pp. 1–30 [10].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hassan-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hassan_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ahmad Y Hassan, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm">Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080218171021/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm">Archived</a> 2008-02-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller199447–48-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller199447–48_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShatzmiller1994">Shatzmiller (1994)</a>, pp. 47–48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller19946–7-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller19946–7_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShatzmiller1994">Shatzmiller (1994)</a>, pp. 6–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994400–401-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994400–401_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994400–401_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994400–401_59-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShatzmiller1994">Shatzmiller (1994)</a>, pp. 400–401.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994350–362-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994350–362_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShatzmiller1994">Shatzmiller (1994)</a>, pp. 350–362.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1997175–177-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1997175–177_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShatzmiller1997">Shatzmiller (1997)</a>, pp. 175–177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994169–170-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1994169–170_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShatzmiller1994">Shatzmiller (1994)</a>, pp. 169–170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlatas2006" class="citation cs2">Alatas, Syed Farid (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/29439">"From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue"</a>, <i>Current Sociology</i>, <b>54</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">112–</span>132, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0011392106058837">10.1177/0011392106058837</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144509355">144509355</a>, <q>The idea of the degree most likely came from Islam. In 931 AD the Abbasid caliph al-Muqtadir had all practising physicians examined and those who passed were granted certificates (<i>ijazah</i>). In this way, Baghdad was able to get rid of its quacks (Hitti, 1970: 364). The <i>ijazah</i> was the principal means by which scholars and Sufis passed on their teachings to students, granting them permission to carry on their teachings. Although the learned scholars of Islam taught in formal institutions of learning such as the <i>maktab</i>, the <i>kuttab</i>, the <i>madrasah</i> and the <i>jami`ah</i>, the degree was personally granted by the scholar to the student.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Sociology&rft.atitle=From+Jami%27ah+to+University%3A+Multiculturalism+and+Christian%E2%80%93Muslim+Dialogue&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E112-%3C%2Fspan%3E132&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0011392106058837&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144509355%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Alatas&rft.aufirst=Syed+Farid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F29439&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Avner Greif (1989), "Reputation and Coalitions in Medieval Trade: Evidence on the Maghribi Traders", <i>The Journal of Economic History</i> <b>49</b> (4), pp. 857–82 [862, 874].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.al-islam.org/philosophy-islamic-laws-nasir-makarim-shirazi-jafar-subhani/question-18-what-purpose-jizya">"Question 18: What Is The Purpose of Jizya"</a>. <i>Al-Islam.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Al-Islam.org&rft.atitle=Question+18%3A+What+Is+The+Purpose+of+Jizya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.al-islam.org%2Fphilosophy-islamic-laws-nasir-makarim-shirazi-jafar-subhani%2Fquestion-18-what-purpose-jizya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpengler1964274-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpengler1964274_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSpengler1964">Spengler (1964)</a>, p. 274.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosseini200339-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosseini200339_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHosseini2003">Hosseini (2003)</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthew_E._FalagasEffie_A._ZarkadouliaGeorge_Samonis2006" class="citation journal cs1">Matthew E. Falagas; Effie A. Zarkadoulia; George Samonis (August 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1096%2Ffj.06-0803ufm">"Arab science in the golden age (750–1258 C.E.) and today"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_American_Societies_for_Experimental_Biology" title="Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology">The FASEB Journal</a></i>. <b>20</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">1581–</span>1586. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1096%2Ffj.06-0803ufm">10.1096/fj.06-0803ufm</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16873881">16873881</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+FASEB+Journal&rft.atitle=Arab+science+in+the+golden+age+%28750%E2%80%931258+C.E.%29+and+today&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1581-%3C%2Fspan%3E1586&rft.date=2006-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1096%2Ffj.06-0803ufm&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16873881&rft.au=Matthew+E.+Falagas&rft.au=Effie+A.+Zarkadoulia&rft.au=George+Samonis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1096%252Ffj.06-0803ufm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosseini200336-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosseini200336_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosseini200336_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHosseini2003">Hosseini (2003)</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchumpeter1954-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchumpeter1954_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchumpeter1954">Schumpeter (1954)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The prevalence and error of Schumpeter's thesis and the importance of Spengler's paper are discussed in <a href="#CITEREFHosseini2003">Hosseini (2003)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosseini200333-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosseini200333_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHosseini2003">Hosseini (2003)</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosseini200334-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosseini200334_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHosseini2003">Hosseini (2003)</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Farabi, Abu Nassr 1982: <i>Madineh Fazeleh (Good City)</i>, Persian translation by Sajadi. Teheran, Iran: Zuhuri. p25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosseini200328-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosseini200328_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHosseini2003">Hosseini (2003)</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaeck1994" class="citation cs2">Baeck, Louis (1994), <i>The Mediterranean tradition in economic thought</i>, Routledge, p. 99, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-09301-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-09301-5"><bdi>0-415-09301-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mediterranean+tradition+in+economic+thought&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-415-09301-5&rft.aulast=Baeck&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosseini200338-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosseini200338_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHosseini2003">Hosseini (2003)</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeiss1995">Weiss (1995)</a>, p. 30 quotes Muqaddimah 2:272-273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchumpeter1954">Schumpeter (1954)</a>, p. 136 mentions his sociology, others, including <a href="#CITEREFHosseini2003">Hosseini (2003)</a>, emphasize him as well</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oweiss-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oweiss_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oweiss_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">I. M. Oweiss (1988), "Ibn Khaldun, the Father of Economics", <i>Arab Civilization: Challenges and Responses</i>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_University_Press" title="New York University Press">New York University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88706-698-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-88706-698-4">0-88706-698-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jean David C. Boulakia (1971), "Ibn Khaldun: A Fourteenth-Century Economist", <i>The Journal of Political Economy</i> <b>79</b> (5): 1105-1118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss199529–30-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss199529–30_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeiss1995">Weiss (1995)</a>, pp. 29–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeiss1995">Weiss (1995)</a>, p. 31 quotes Muqaddimah 2:276-278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeiss1995">Weiss (1995)</a>, p. 31 quotes Muqaddimah 2:272-273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss199533-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss199533_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeiss1995">Weiss (1995)</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss199532-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss199532_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeiss1995">Weiss (1995)</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGellner1983" class="citation cs2">Gellner, Ernest (1983), <i>Muslim Society</i>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, pp. <span class="nowrap">34–</span>5, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-27407-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-27407-9"><bdi>0-521-27407-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslim+Society&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E34-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-521-27407-9&rft.aulast=Gellner&rft.aufirst=Ernest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence1983" class="citation cs2">Lawrence, Bruce B. (1983), "Introduction: Ibn Khaldun and Islamic Ideology", <i>Journal of Asian and African Studies</i>, <b>XVIII</b> (<span class="nowrap">3–</span>4): 154–165 [157 & 164], <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002190968301800302">10.1177/002190968301800302</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144858781">144858781</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Asian+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Ibn+Khaldun+and+Islamic+Ideology&rft.volume=XVIII&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=154-165+157+%26+164&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002190968301800302&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144858781%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lawrence&rft.aufirst=Bruce+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartlett" class="citation cs2">Bartlett, Bruce, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171013113314/http://web.uconn.edu/cunningham/econ309/lafferpdf.pdf">"Supply-Side Economics: "Voodoo Economics" or Lasting Contribution?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Laffer Associates</i> (November 11, 2003), archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.uconn.edu/cunningham/econ309/lafferpdf.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2017-10-13<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-11-17</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Laffer+Associates&rft.atitle=Supply-Side+Economics%3A+%22Voodoo+Economics%22+or+Lasting+Contribution%3F&rft.issue=November+11%2C+2003&rft.aulast=Bartlett&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.uconn.edu%2Fcunningham%2Fecon309%2Flafferpdf.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bakhash, Shaul, <i>The Reign of the Ayatollahs</i>, Basic Books, c.1984, p. 167-168</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-international.ucla.edu-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-international.ucla.edu_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-international.ucla.edu_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.international.ucla.edu/cms/files/behdadtxt.pdf">Revolutionary Surge and Quiet Demise of Islamic Economics in Iran</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120117090118/http://www.international.ucla.edu/cms/files/behdadtxt.pdf">Archived</a> 2012-01-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.meforum.org/article/825">The Renewal of Islamic Law</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bakhash, Shaul, <i>The Reign of the Ayatollahs</i>, Basic Books, c.1984, p. 172-173</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoy1994138-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoy1994138_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoy1994">Roy (1994)</a>, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fuller, Graham E., <i>The Future of Political Islam</i>, Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), p.142</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070613023714/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/appendix/appendix-b.html">Developed Countries</a>, World Factbook, CIA.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/2008/04/21/islamic-finance-sharia-islamic-finance-islamicfinance08-cx_ee_mn_0421islam_land.html">Islamic Finance</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Forbes" title="Forbes">Forbes</a></i> (April 21, 2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestover2008" class="citation journal cs1">Westover, J. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081001222753/http://www.sociology.org/content/2008/_westover_finance.pdf">"The Record of Microfinance: The Effectiveness/Ineffectiveness of Microfinance Programs as a Means of Alleviating Poverty"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Electronic_Journal_of_Sociology" title="Electronic Journal of Sociology">Electronic Journal of Sociology</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sociology.org/content/2008/_westover_finance.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2008-10-01. <q>Some studies have found marked decreases in overall poverty levels, including declining levels of extreme poverty (Khandker, 2005), while other studies do not find the same direct effect (Morris and Barnes, 2005; Kan, Olds, and Kah, 2005; Goetz and Gupta, 1996). Still, other studies provide mixed results (Copestake, Bhalotra, and Johnson, 2001; Morduch, 1998).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Journal+of+Sociology&rft.atitle=The+Record+of+Microfinance%3A+The+Effectiveness%2FIneffectiveness+of+Microfinance+Programs+as+a+Means+of+Alleviating+Poverty&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Westover&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sociology.org%2Fcontent%2F2008%2F_westover_finance.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhandker2005" class="citation journal cs1">Khandker, SR (2005). "Microfinance and poverty: evidence using panel data from Bangladesh". <i>The World Bank Economic Review</i>. <b>19</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">263–</span>286. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fwber%2Flhi008">10.1093/wber/lhi008</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10986%2F16478">10986/16478</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15335913">15335913</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+World+Bank+Economic+Review&rft.atitle=Microfinance+and+poverty%3A+evidence+using+panel+data+from+Bangladesh&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E263-%3C%2Fspan%3E286&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10986%2F16478&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15335913%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fwber%2Flhi008&rft.aulast=Khandker&rft.aufirst=SR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ensani.ir/fa/content/11479/default.aspx">"نهضت خداپرستان سوسیالیست"</a>. پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D9%86%D9%87%D8%B6%D8%AA+%D8%AE%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86+%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA&rft.pub=%D9%BE%DA%98%D9%88%D9%87%D8%B4%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85+%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C+%D9%88+%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA+%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ensani.ir%2Ffa%2Fcontent%2F11479%2Fdefault.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rooziato.com/1397157268/%D8%AF%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1-%D8%B9%D9%84%DB%8C-%D8%B4%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B9%D8%AA%DB%8C/">"دکتر علی شریعتی"</a>. 19 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D8%AF%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1+%D8%B9%D9%84%DB%8C+%D8%B4%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B9%D8%AA%DB%8C&rft.date=2018-06-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frooziato.com%2F1397157268%2F%25D8%25AF%25DA%25A9%25D8%25AA%25D8%25B1-%25D8%25B9%25D9%2584%25DB%258C-%25D8%25B4%25D8%25B1%25DB%258C%25D8%25B9%25D8%25AA%25DB%258C%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.asriran.com/fa/news/221900/%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A-%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%87%D8%A7-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84-%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA">"صالحي: برخلاف اسلام، تمام "ايسم"ها در حال نابودي است"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A%3A+%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81+%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%8C+%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85+%22%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%85%22%D9%87%D8%A7+%D8%AF%D8%B1+%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84+%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.asriran.com%2Ffa%2Fnews%2F221900%2F%25D8%25B5%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25AD%25D9%258A-%25D8%25A8%25D8%25B1%25D8%25AE%25D9%2584%25D8%25A7%25D9%2581-%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B3%25D9%2584%25D8%25A7%25D9%2585-%25D8%25AA%25D9%2585%25D8%25A7%25D9%2585-%25D8%25A7%25D9%258A%25D8%25B3%25D9%2585%25D9%2587%25D8%25A7-%25D8%25AF%25D8%25B1-%25D8%25AD%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584-%25D9%2586%25D8%25A7%25D8%25A8%25D9%2588%25D8%25AF%25D9%258A-%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B3%25D8%25AA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.isna.ir/news/91041508866/%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A-%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%85-%D9%87%D8%A7-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84-%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA">"صالحي: برخلاف اسلام، تمام "ايسم"ها در حال نابودي است"</a>. 5 July 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A%3A+%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81+%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%8C+%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85+%22%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%85%22%D9%87%D8%A7+%D8%AF%D8%B1+%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84+%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA&rft.date=2012-07-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.isna.ir%2Fnews%2F91041508866%2F%25D8%25B5%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25AD%25D9%258A-%25D8%25A8%25D8%25B1%25D8%25AE%25D9%2584%25D8%25A7%25D9%2581-%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B3%25D9%2584%25D8%25A7%25D9%2585-%25D8%25AA%25D9%2585%25D8%25A7%25D9%2585-%25D8%25A7%25D9%258A%25D8%25B3%25D9%2585-%25D9%2587%25D8%25A7-%25D8%25AF%25D8%25B1-%25D8%25AD%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584-%25D9%2586%25D8%25A7%25D8%25A8%25D9%2588%25D8%25AF%25D9%258A-%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B3%25D8%25AA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoy1994136-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoy1994136_104-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoy1994136_104-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoy1994136_104-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoy1994136_104-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoy1994">Roy (1994)</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOpalesque2009" class="citation web cs1">Opalesque (30 December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.opalesque.com/fullarticle/56533/islamic%20finance/Malaysia_Exchange_reviewing472.html">"Malaysia exchange reviewing sharia-compliant bonds"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Malaysia+exchange+reviewing+sharia-compliant+bonds&rft.date=2009-12-30&rft.au=Opalesque&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.opalesque.com%2Ffullarticle%2F56533%2Fislamic%2520finance%2FMalaysia_Exchange_reviewing472.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke2009" class="citation journal cs1">Burke, Edmund (June 2009). "Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_World_History" title="Journal of World History">Journal of World History</a></i>. <b>20</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawaii_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Hawaii Press">University of Hawaii Press</a>: <span class="nowrap">165–</span>186. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.0.0045">10.1353/jwh.0.0045</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143484233">143484233</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.atitle=Islam+at+the+Center%3A+Technological+Complexes+and+the+Roots+of+Modernity&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E165-%3C%2Fspan%3E186&rft.date=2009-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjwh.0.0045&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143484233%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulson" class="citation report cs1">Coulson, Andrew J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110817054244/http://media.hoover.org/sites/default/files/documents/0817928928_105.pdf">Delivering Education</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Institution" title="Hoover Institution">Hoover Institution</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">105–</span>145. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.hoover.org/documents/0817928928_105.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2011-08-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-11-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Delivering+Education&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E105-%3C%2Fspan%3E145&rft.pub=Hoover+Institution&rft.aulast=Coulson&rft.aufirst=Andrew+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedia.hoover.org%2Fdocuments%2F0817928928_105.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaudiosi1988" class="citation cs2">Gaudiosi, Monica M. (April 1988), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3909&context=penn_law_review">"The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Law_Review" title="University of Pennsylvania Law Review">University of Pennsylvania Law Review</a></i>, <b>136</b> (4), University of Pennsylvania Law Review, Vol. 136, No. 4: <span class="nowrap">1231–</span>1261, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3312162">10.2307/3312162</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3312162">3312162</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Pennsylvania+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Influence+of+the+Islamic+Law+of+Waqf+on+the+Development+of+the+Trust+in+England%3A+The+Case+of+Merton+College&rft.volume=136&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1231-%3C%2Fspan%3E1261&rft.date=1988-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3312162&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3312162%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gaudiosi&rft.aufirst=Monica+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.upenn.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D3909%26context%3Dpenn_law_review&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHosseini2003" class="citation cs2">Hosseini, Hamid S. (2003), "Contributions of Medieval Muslim Scholars to the History of Economics and their Impact: A Refutation of the Schumpeterian Great Gap", in Biddle, Jeff E.; Davis, Jon B.; Samuels, Warren J. (eds.), <i>A Companion to the History of Economic Thought</i>, Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, pp. <span class="nowrap">28–</span>45, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470999059.ch3">10.1002/9780470999059.ch3</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-22573-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-22573-0"><bdi>0-631-22573-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Contributions+of+Medieval+Muslim+Scholars+to+the+History+of+Economics+and+their+Impact%3A+A+Refutation+of+the+Schumpeterian+Great+Gap&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+History+of+Economic+Thought&rft.place=Malden%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E28-%3C%2Fspan%3E45&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470999059.ch3&rft.isbn=0-631-22573-0&rft.aulast=Hosseini&rft.aufirst=Hamid+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson2003" class="citation cs2">Hudson, A. (2003), <i>Equity and Trusts</i> (3rd ed.), London: Cavendish Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85941-729-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-85941-729-9"><bdi>1-85941-729-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Equity+and+Trusts&rft.place=London&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cavendish+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-85941-729-9&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLabib1969" class="citation cs2">Labib, Subhi Y. (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>, <b>29</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">79–</span>96, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050700097837">10.1017/S0022050700097837</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Capitalism+in+Medieval+Islam&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E79-%3C%2Fspan%3E96&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050700097837&rft.aulast=Labib&rft.aufirst=Subhi+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMicheau1996" class="citation book cs1">Micheau, Françoise (1996). "The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mnAXV09Z5bIC"><i>Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Volume 3: Technology, alchemy and life sciences</i></a>. By Morelon, Régis. Rāshid, Rushdī (ed.). <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">985–</span>1007. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12412-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12412-6"><bdi>978-0-415-12412-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Scientific+Institutions+in+the+Medieval+Near+East&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Arabic+Science%2C+Volume+3%3A+Technology%2C+alchemy+and+life+sciences&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E985-%3C%2Fspan%3E1007&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-415-12412-6&rft.aulast=Micheau&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7oise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmnAXV09Z5bIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy1994" class="citation book cs1">Roy, Olivier (1994). <i>The Failure of Political Islam</i>. Translated by Carol Volk. Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Failure+of+Political+Islam&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchumpeter1954" class="citation cs2">Schumpeter, Joseph (1954), <i>History of Economic Analysis</i>, New York: Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Economic+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Schumpeter&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShatzmiller1994" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Maya_Shatzmiller" title="Maya Shatzmiller">Shatzmiller, Maya</a> (1994), <i>Labour in the Medieval Islamic World</i>, <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-09896-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-09896-8"><bdi>90-04-09896-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Labour+in+the+Medieval+Islamic+World&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=90-04-09896-8&rft.aulast=Shatzmiller&rft.aufirst=Maya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShatzmiller1997" class="citation journal cs1">Shatzmiller, Maya (1997). "Women and Wage Labour in the Medieval Islamic West: Legal Issues in an Economic Context". <i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient</i>. <b>40</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">174–</span>206. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1568520972600748">10.1163/1568520972600748</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Women+and+Wage+Labour+in+the+Medieval+Islamic+West%3A+Legal+Issues+in+an+Economic+Context&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E174-%3C%2Fspan%3E206&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1568520972600748&rft.aulast=Shatzmiller&rft.aufirst=Maya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpengler1964" class="citation journal cs1">Spengler, J. Joseph (1964). "Economic thought of Islam: Ibn Khaldun". <i>Comparative Studies in Society and History</i>. <b>6</b> (3). Cambridge University Press: <span class="nowrap">264–</span>306. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0010417500002164">10.1017/s0010417500002164</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/177577">177577</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Studies+in+Society+and+History&rft.atitle=Economic+thought+of+Islam%3A+Ibn+Khaldun&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E264-%3C%2Fspan%3E306&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0010417500002164&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F177577%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Spengler&rft.aufirst=J.+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiss1995" class="citation journal cs1">Weiss, Dieter (1995). "Ibn Khaldun on Economic Transformation". <i>International Journal of Middle East Studies</i>. <b>27</b> (1). Cambridge University Press: <span class="nowrap">29–</span>37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800061560">10.1017/S0020743800061560</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/176185">176185</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Ibn+Khaldun+on+Economic+Transformation&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E29-%3C%2Fspan%3E37&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800061560&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F176185%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Weiss&rft.aufirst=Dieter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBadr1989" class="citation cs2">Badr, Gamal M. (Spring 1989), "To the Editor", <i>The American Journal of Comparative Law</i>, <b>37</b> (2), The American Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 37, No. 2: <span class="nowrap">424–</span>425, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F840180">10.2307/840180</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/840180">840180</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Comparative+Law&rft.atitle=To+the+Editor&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E424-%3C%2Fspan%3E425&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F840180&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F840180%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Badr&rft.aufirst=Gamal+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoehler2014" class="citation cs2">Koehler, Benedikt (2014), <i>Early Islam and the Birth of Capitalism</i>, Lexington Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-8882-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-8882-8"><bdi>978-0-7391-8882-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Islam+and+the+Birth+of+Capitalism&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-8882-8&rft.aulast=Koehler&rft.aufirst=Benedikt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Islamic+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles/pdf/doi/10.1257/jel.20171243?return_path=/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jel.20171243&etoc=1">Kuran, Timur. 2018. "Islam and Economic Performance: Historical and Contemporary Links." Journal of Economic Literature, 56(4):1292-1359.</a></li> <li>Waleed Addas (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/8264/">Methodology of Economics: Secular versus Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iqtisaduna" title="Iqtisaduna">Iqtisaduna</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305194143/http://vision.ae/articles/islamic_economy_leap_of_faith">Article on Islamic Economy</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_studies259" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_studies" title="Template:Islamic studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_studies" title="Template talk:Islamic studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_studies259" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Geometric pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_influences_on_Western_art" title="Islamic influences on Western art">Influences on Western art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawala" title="Hawala">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism_and_Islam" title="Capitalism and Islam">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_poverty" title="Islam and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_socialism" title="Islamic socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riba" title="Riba">Usury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayt_al-mal" title="Bayt al-mal">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Islamic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Islamic history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Contributions to Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_of_Islam_in_early_modern_Europe" title="Reception of Islam in early modern Europe">Reception in early modern Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_democracy" title="Islam and democracy">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">consultation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Jurisprudence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">use of analogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">decision-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">schools</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Peace in Islamic philosophy">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_quietism_in_Islam" title="Political quietism in Islam">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_secularism" title="Islam and secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">State</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">dialectic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asabiyyah" title="Asabiyyah">solidarity</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world" title="Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy and chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">cosmology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Geography and cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">ophthalmology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah">Ijazah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuttab" title="Kuttab">elementary school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_studies" title="Sufi studies">Sufi studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_cosmology" title="Sufi cosmology">cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">philosophy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islam_topics273" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islam_topics" title="Template:Islam topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islam_topics" title="Template talk:Islam topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islam_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islam topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islam_topics273" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Islam" title="Outline of Islam">Outline of Islam</a></b></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Beliefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God in Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawhid</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">In Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Revelation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Qadar</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Resurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Day of Resurrection">Judgement Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiest_sites_in_Islam" title="Holiest sites in Islam">Holiest sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Five Pillars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">Shahada</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Salah</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Islam" title="Fasting in Islam">Sawm</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_religious_leaders" title="Islamic religious leaders">Leaders</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_Islam" title="Timeline of the history of Islam">Timeline of the history of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Historiography</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Sahaba</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Ahl al-Bayt</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Shi'a Imams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate"><i>Rashidun</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Córdoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Religious texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Tafsir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophetic_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophetic biography">Seerah</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qisas_Al-Anbiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Qisas Al-Anbiya">Story of Prophets</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Denominations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazili" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazili">Mu'tazili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Bektashi Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhakkima" title="Muhakkima">Muhakkima</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azariqa" title="Azariqa">Azariqa</a></li> <li>Moderate Kharijites <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azzabas" title="Azzabas">Azzabas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukkari" title="Nukkari">Nukkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam#Wahbi_school" title="Ibadi Islam">Wahbi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufri" title="Sufri">Sufri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdat" title="Najdat">Najdat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lahore_Ahmadiyya_Movement_for_the_Propagation_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam">Lahori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Life</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Culture</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Islam" title="Animals in Islam">Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_association_football" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_children" title="Islam and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_clothing" title="Islamic clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_flags" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holidays" title="Islamic holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_in_Islam" title="Morality in Islam">Moral teachings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Political aspects</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qurban_(Islamic_ritual_sacrifice)" title="Qurban (Islamic ritual sacrifice)">Qurbani</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_attitudes_towards_science" title="Islamic attitudes towards science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_humanity" title="Islam and humanity">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT in Islam">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Islam by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="LawJurisprudence273" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Jurisprudence</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Banking</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Economic history</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sukuk" title="Sukuk">Sukuk</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Takaful" title="Takaful">Takaful</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Murabaha" title="Murabaha">Murabaha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Riba" title="Riba">Riba</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Hygiene</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ghusl" title="Ghusl">Ghusl</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Miswak" title="Miswak">Miswak</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Najis" title="Najis">Najis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tayammum" title="Tayammum">Tayammum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_toilet_etiquette" title="Islamic toilet etiquette">Toilet</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wudu" title="Wudu">Wudu</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_family_jurisprudence" title="Islamic family jurisprudence">Family</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marital_jurisprudence" title="Islamic marital jurisprudence">Marriage</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_sexual_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic sexual jurisprudence">Sex</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Haya_(Islam)" title="Haya (Islam)">Haya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marriage_contract" title="Islamic marriage contract">Marriage contract</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mahr" title="Mahr">Mahr</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mahram" title="Mahram">Mahram</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_Islam" title="Marriage in Islam">Nikah</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nikah_mut%27ah" title="Nikah mut'ah">Nikah mut'ah</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zina" title="Zina">Zina</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Baligh" title="Baligh">Baligh</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Cleanliness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_criminal_jurisprudence" title="Islamic criminal jurisprudence">Criminal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_blasphemy" title="Islam and blasphemy">Blasphemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Islam" title="Capital punishment in Islam">Death penalty</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhabihah" title="Dhabihah">Dhabiĥa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">Dhimmi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Islam" title="Divorce in Islam">Divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_dietary_laws" title="Islamic dietary laws">Diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adab_(Islam)" title="Adab (Islam)">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maisir" title="Maisir">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">Gender segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_honorifics" title="Islamic honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hudud" title="Hudud">Hudud</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_inheritance_jurisprudence" title="Islamic inheritance jurisprudence">Inheritance</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_leadership" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic leadership">Leadership</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war in Islam">POWs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_sharia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sources of sharia">Sources of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_theological_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic theological jurisprudence">Theological</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">Schools of islamic jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Islamic_studies273" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="padding-left:2.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_rug" title="Oriental rug">Carpets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Geometric patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Pottery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy and chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Geography and cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Theological</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_evolution" title="Islamic views on evolution">Creationism (evolution)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Liberalism and progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shu%27ubiyya" title="Shu'ubiyya">Shu'ubiyya</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_of_non-Islamic_places_of_worship_into_mosques" title="Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques">Conversion to mosques</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Other273" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="padding-left:2.5em;"> </span>Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_other_religions" title="Islam and other religions">Other religions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Mormonism" title="Islam and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_and_Islam" title="Protestantism and Islam">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze#Relationship_with_Muslims" title="Druze">Druzism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Jainism" title="Islam and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Sikhism" title="Islam and Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam_by_country" title="Apostasy in Islam by country">Apostasy in Islam by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-Muslims" title="Ex-Muslims">Ex-Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_Muslims" title="List of former Muslims">List of former Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ex-Muslim_organisations" title="List of ex-Muslim organisations">List of ex-Muslim organisations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam" title="Criticism of Islam">Criticism of Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad" title="Criticism of Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Quran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Muslim">Cultural Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islamism" title="Criticism of Islamism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Islamism" title="Post-Islamism">Post-Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutbism" title="Qutbism">Qutbism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_extremism" title="Islamic extremism">Islamic extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">Islamic terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_miracles" title="Islamic view of miracles">Islamic view of miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_domestic_violence" title="Islam and domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_in_Islam" title="Nursing in Islam">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quran_and_miracles" class="mw-redirect" title="Quran and miracles">Quran and miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_Islam" title="Symbols of Islam">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&oldid=1263136489">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&oldid=1263136489</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islamic_economics" title="Category:Islamic economics">Islamic economics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islamic_economic_jurisprudence" title="Category:Islamic economic jurisprudence">Islamic economic jurisprudence</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_October_2016" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from October 2016">Articles needing additional references from October 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_October_2016" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from October 2016">Articles lacking reliable references from October 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases" title="Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases">All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases_from_October_2016" title="Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from October 2016">Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from October 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases_from_October_2017" title="Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from October 2017">Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from October 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_vague_or_ambiguous_time" title="Category:All articles with vague or ambiguous time">All articles with vague or ambiguous time</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Vague_or_ambiguous_time_from_November_2016" title="Category:Vague or ambiguous time from November 2016">Vague or ambiguous time from November 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_January_2018" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from January 2018">Articles needing additional references from January 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_June_2017" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from June 2017">Articles needing additional references from June 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_June_2017" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2017">Articles with unsourced statements from June 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2016" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2016">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_February_2010" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2010">Articles with unsourced statements from February 2010</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 14 December 2024, at 22:26<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Islamic_economics&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Islamic economics</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>8 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-6f54dd9999-p4xgj","wgBackendResponseTime":124,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.941","walltime":"1.172","ppvisitednodes":{"value":10285,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":240679,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":13098,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":28,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":224584,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 971.936 1 -total"," 31.32% 304.393 1 Template:Reflist"," 12.87% 125.062 42 Template:Sfnp"," 12.02% 116.788 7 Template:Cite_book"," 9.23% 89.746 21 Template:Citation"," 8.93% 86.793 12 Template:Fix"," 8.57% 83.307 5 Template:Navbox"," 7.51% 73.029 1 Template:Islamic_studies"," 7.27% 70.629 1 Template:Short_description"," 5.94% 57.766 2 Template:Ambox"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.538","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":8941092,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAlatas2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBadr1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBadr1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaeck1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBartlett\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurke2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoulson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrone2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaudiosi1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGellner1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanna1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHannaGeorge_H._Gardner1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeck2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHosseini2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhandker2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhandker2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoehler2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLabib1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawrence1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM._Shahid_Alam2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaddison2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthew_E._FalagasEffie_A._ZarkadouliaGeorge_Samonis2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMicheau1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNolan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOpalesque2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoy1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchumpeter1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShadi_Hamid2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShatzmiller1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShatzmiller1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpengler1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTyabji1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeiss1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestover2008\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Additional citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 4,\n [\"Citation\"] = 21,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 7,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Google books\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 12,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 6,\n [\"Islam topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Islamic studies\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 5,\n [\"More citations needed\"] = 1,\n [\"One source\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 5,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 42,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n [\"When\"] = 1,\n [\"Which\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-6458bccbb8-5xn9p","timestamp":"20250210045823","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of Islamic economics","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_Islamic_economics","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q10513540","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q10513540","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2006-11-03T13:07:38Z","dateModified":"2024-12-14T22:26:15Z","headline":"economic life"}</script> </body> </html>