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Composition of civil service subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Composition_of_civil_service-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Composition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recruitment_and_examination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recruitment_and_examination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Recruitment and examination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recruitment_and_examination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elite_bureaucracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elite_bureaucracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Elite bureaucracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elite_bureaucracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reform_of_the_elite_civil_service_since_the_1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reform_of_the_elite_civil_service_since_the_1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Reform of the elite civil service since the 1990s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reform_of_the_elite_civil_service_since_the_1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_in_the_civil_service" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_in_the_civil_service"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Women in the civil service</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_in_the_civil_service-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Japan_before_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan_before_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Japan before World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan_before_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occupied_Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupied_Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Occupied Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occupied_Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1970s_and_1980s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1970s_and_1980s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>1970s and 1980s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1970s_and_1980s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1990s_and_beyond" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1990s_and_beyond"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>1990s and beyond</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1990s_and_beyond-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>1990s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2000s_and_2010s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2000s_and_2010s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>2000s and 2010s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2000s_and_2010s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist" style="width:20em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics_of_Japan" title="Category:Politics of Japan">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><div class="adr"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Japan" title="Politics of Japan">Politics of Japan</a></div></th></tr><tr><th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/125px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/188px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/250px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="990" /></a></span></th></tr><tr><th style="border-bottom: #aaa 1px solid"></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Japan" title="Constitution of Japan">Constitution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Japan" title="Law of Japan">Laws</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Japan" title="Constitution of Japan">Constitution of Japan (1947–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiji_Constitution" title="Meiji Constitution">Meiji Constitution (1890–1947)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Japan" title="Law of Japan">Laws</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Japan" title="Emperor of Japan">The Monarchy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Japanese_Emperor.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_the_Japanese_Emperor.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Japanese_Emperor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_the_Japanese_Emperor.svg/68px-Flag_of_the_Japanese_Emperor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_the_Japanese_Emperor.svg/90px-Flag_of_the_Japanese_Emperor.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Japan" title="Emperor of Japan">The Emperor</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_Japan" title="List of emperors of Japan">List</a>)</li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Naruhito" title="Naruhito">Naruhito</a> </p><p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Japanese_Crown_Prince.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Flag_of_the_Japanese_Crown_Prince.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Japanese_Crown_Prince.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Flag_of_the_Japanese_Crown_Prince.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Japanese_Crown_Prince.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Flag_of_the_Japanese_Crown_Prince.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Japanese_Crown_Prince.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_Japanese_throne" title="Succession to the Japanese throne">Crown Prince</a></b></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Fumihito,_Crown_Prince_of_Japan" title="Fumihito, Crown Prince of Japan">Fumihito</a> </p> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_House_of_Japan" title="Imperial House of Japan">Imperial House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysanthemum_Throne" title="Chrysanthemum Throne">Chrysanthemum Throne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_Japanese_throne" title="Succession to the Japanese throne">Imperial Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Household_Agency" title="Imperial Household Agency">Imperial Household Agency</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Japan" title="Government of Japan">Government</a></b></li></ul> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Prime_Minister_of_Japan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Emblem_of_the_Prime_Minister_of_Japan.svg/30px-Emblem_of_the_Prime_Minister_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Emblem_of_the_Prime_Minister_of_Japan.svg/45px-Emblem_of_the_Prime_Minister_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Emblem_of_the_Prime_Minister_of_Japan.svg/60px-Emblem_of_the_Prime_Minister_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="188" /></a></span> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Japan" title="Prime Minister of Japan">Prime Minister</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Japan" title="List of prime ministers of Japan">List</a>)<br /></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Shigeru_Ishiba" title="Shigeru Ishiba">Shigeru Ishiba</a> (<a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_(Japan)" title="Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)">LDP</a>)<br /> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Japan" title="Cabinet of Japan">Cabinet</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_cabinets" title="List of Japanese cabinets">List</a>)<br /></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Second_Ishiba_Cabinet" title="Second Ishiba Cabinet">Second Ishiba Cabinet</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_(Japan)" title="Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)">LDP</a>–<a href="/wiki/Komeito" title="Komeito">Komeito</a> <a href="/wiki/Coalition_government" title="Coalition government">coalition</a>)<br /> </p> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministries_of_Japan" title="Ministries of Japan">Ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Administrative_Institution" title="Independent Administrative Institution">Administrative Agencies</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)">Legislature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/National_Diet" title="National Diet">National Diet</a></b></li></ul> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Go-shichi_no_kiri_crest_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Go-shichi_no_kiri_crest_2.svg/20px-Go-shichi_no_kiri_crest_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Go-shichi_no_kiri_crest_2.svg/30px-Go-shichi_no_kiri_crest_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Go-shichi_no_kiri_crest_2.svg/40px-Go-shichi_no_kiri_crest_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="231" data-file-height="154" /></a></span> </p> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/House_of_Representatives_(Japan)" title="House of Representatives (Japan)">House of Representatives</a></b></li></ul> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jap%C3%B3n_C%C3%A1mara_de_Representantes_2021.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Jap%C3%B3n_C%C3%A1mara_de_Representantes_2021.svg/50px-Jap%C3%B3n_C%C3%A1mara_de_Representantes_2021.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Jap%C3%B3n_C%C3%A1mara_de_Representantes_2021.svg/75px-Jap%C3%B3n_C%C3%A1mara_de_Representantes_2021.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Jap%C3%B3n_C%C3%A1mara_de_Representantes_2021.svg/100px-Jap%C3%B3n_C%C3%A1mara_de_Representantes_2021.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_House_of_Representatives_(Japan)" title="Speaker of the House of Representatives (Japan)">Speaker</a></b></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Fukushiro_Nukaga" title="Fukushiro Nukaga">Fukushiro Nukaga</a> </p> <ul><li><b>Vice Speaker</b></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/K%C5%8Dichir%C5%8D_Genba" title="Kōichirō Genba">Kōichirō Genba</a> </p> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/House_of_Councillors" title="House of Councillors">House of Councillors</a></b></li></ul> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Japan_House_of_Councillors_seat_composition_2022.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Japan_House_of_Councillors_seat_composition_2022.svg/50px-Japan_House_of_Councillors_seat_composition_2022.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Japan_House_of_Councillors_seat_composition_2022.svg/75px-Japan_House_of_Councillors_seat_composition_2022.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Japan_House_of_Councillors_seat_composition_2022.svg/100px-Japan_House_of_Councillors_seat_composition_2022.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_House_of_Councillors" title="President of the House of Councillors">President</a> </b></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Masakazu_Sekiguchi" title="Masakazu Sekiguchi">Masakazu Sekiguchi</a> </p> <ul><li><b>Vice President</b></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Hiroyuki_Nagahama" title="Hiroyuki Nagahama">Hiroyuki Nagahama</a><br /> </p> <hr /></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_Japan" title="Judicial system of Japan">Judiciary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Japan" title="Supreme Court of Japan">Supreme Court</a></b><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Justice of Japan">Chief Justice</a></b></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Saburo_Tokura" title="Saburo Tokura">Saburo Tokura</a> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_Japan" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of Japan">Justices of the Supreme Court</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_Property_High_Court" title="Intellectual Property High Court">Intellectual Property High Court</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Japan" title="Bank of Japan">Bank of Japan</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center"> <ul><li><b>Governor</b></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Kazuo_Ueda" title="Kazuo Ueda">Kazuo Ueda</a> </p> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_yen" title="Japanese yen">Japanese yen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Japanese_yen" title="Banknotes of the Japanese yen">Banknotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_yen#Coins" title="Japanese yen">Coins</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Japan" title="Elections in Japan">Elections</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_districts_of_the_House_of_Representatives_of_Japan" title="List of districts of the House of Representatives of Japan">List of districts of the House of Representatives of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_districts_of_the_House_of_Councillors_of_Japan" title="List of districts of the House of Councillors of Japan">List of districts of the House of Councillors of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_House_of_Councillors_national_proportional_representation_block" title="Japanese House of Councillors national proportional representation block">Japanese House of Councillors national proportional representation block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Japan" title="List of political parties in Japan">Political parties</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Japanese general elections</b></div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/1890_Japanese_general_election" title="1890 Japanese general election">1890</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1892_Japanese_general_election" title="1892 Japanese general election">1892</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/March_1894_Japanese_general_election" title="March 1894 Japanese general election">1894 (Mar)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/September_1894_Japanese_general_election" title="September 1894 Japanese general election">1894 (Sep)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/March_1898_Japanese_general_election" title="March 1898 Japanese general election">1898 (Mar)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/August_1898_Japanese_general_election" title="August 1898 Japanese general election">1898 (Aug)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1902_Japanese_general_election" title="1902 Japanese general election">1902</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1903_Japanese_general_election" title="1903 Japanese general election">1903</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1904_Japanese_general_election" title="1904 Japanese general election">1904</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1908_Japanese_general_election" title="1908 Japanese general election">1908</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1912_Japanese_general_election" title="1912 Japanese general election">1912</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1915_Japanese_general_election" title="1915 Japanese general election">1915</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1917_Japanese_general_election" title="1917 Japanese general election">1917</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1920_Japanese_general_election" title="1920 Japanese general election">1920</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1924_Japanese_general_election" title="1924 Japanese general election">1924</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1928_Japanese_general_election" title="1928 Japanese general election">1928</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1930_Japanese_general_election" title="1930 Japanese general election">1930</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1932_Japanese_general_election" title="1932 Japanese general election">1932</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1936_Japanese_general_election" title="1936 Japanese general election">1936</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1937_Japanese_general_election" title="1937 Japanese general election">1937</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1942_Japanese_general_election" title="1942 Japanese general election">1942</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1946_Japanese_general_election" title="1946 Japanese general election">1946</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1947_Japanese_general_election" title="1947 Japanese general election">1947</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1949_Japanese_general_election" title="1949 Japanese general election">1949</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1952_Japanese_general_election" title="1952 Japanese general election">1952</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1953_Japanese_general_election" title="1953 Japanese general election">1953</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1955_Japanese_general_election" title="1955 Japanese general election">1955</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1958_Japanese_general_election" title="1958 Japanese general election">1958</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1960_Japanese_general_election" title="1960 Japanese general election">1960</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1963_Japanese_general_election" title="1963 Japanese general election">1963</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1967_Japanese_general_election" title="1967 Japanese general election">1967</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1969_Japanese_general_election" title="1969 Japanese general election">1969</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1972_Japanese_general_election" title="1972 Japanese general election">1972</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1976_Japanese_general_election" title="1976 Japanese general election">1976</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1979_Japanese_general_election" title="1979 Japanese general election">1979</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1980_Japanese_general_election" title="1980 Japanese general election">1980</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1983_Japanese_general_election" title="1983 Japanese general election">1983</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1986_Japanese_general_election" title="1986 Japanese general election">1986</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1990_Japanese_general_election" title="1990 Japanese general election">1990</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1993_Japanese_general_election" title="1993 Japanese general election">1993</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1996_Japanese_general_election" title="1996 Japanese general election">1996</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2000_Japanese_general_election" title="2000 Japanese general election">2000</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2003_Japanese_general_election" title="2003 Japanese general election">2003</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2005_Japanese_general_election" title="2005 Japanese general election">2005</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2009_Japanese_general_election" title="2009 Japanese general election">2009</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2012_Japanese_general_election" title="2012 Japanese general election">2012</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2014_Japanese_general_election" title="2014 Japanese general election">2014</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2017_Japanese_general_election" title="2017 Japanese general election">2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2021_Japanese_general_election" title="2021 Japanese general election">2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2024_Japanese_general_election" title="2024 Japanese general election">2024</a></li></ul></div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Japanese House of Councillors elections</b></div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/1947_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1947 Japanese House of Councillors election">1947</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1950_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1950 Japanese House of Councillors election">1950</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1953_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1953 Japanese House of Councillors election">1953</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1956_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1956 Japanese House of Councillors election">1956</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1959_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1959 Japanese House of Councillors election">1959</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1962_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1962 Japanese House of Councillors election">1962</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1965_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1965 Japanese House of Councillors election">1965</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1968_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1968 Japanese House of Councillors election">1968</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1971_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1971 Japanese House of Councillors election">1971</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1974_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1974 Japanese House of Councillors election">1974</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1977_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1977 Japanese House of Councillors election">1977</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1980_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1980 Japanese House of Councillors election">1980</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1983_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1983 Japanese House of Councillors election">1983</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1986_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1986 Japanese House of Councillors election">1986</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1989_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1989 Japanese House of Councillors election">1989</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1992_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1992 Japanese House of Councillors election">1992</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1995_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1995 Japanese House of Councillors election">1995</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1998_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="1998 Japanese House of Councillors election">1998</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2001_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="2001 Japanese House of Councillors election">2001</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2004_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="2004 Japanese House of Councillors election">2004</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2007_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="2007 Japanese House of Councillors election">2007</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2010_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="2010 Japanese House of Councillors election">2010</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2013_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="2013 Japanese House of Councillors election">2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2016_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="2016 Japanese House of Councillors election">2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2019_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="2019 Japanese House of Councillors election">2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2022_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="2022 Japanese House of Councillors election">2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2025_Japanese_House_of_Councillors_election" title="2025 Japanese House of Councillors election"><i>2025</i></a></li></ul></div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Unified local elections</b></div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/2007_Japanese_unified_local_elections" title="2007 Japanese unified local elections">2007</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Japanese_unified_local_elections" title="2011 Japanese unified local elections">2011</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2015_Japanese_unified_local_elections" title="2015 Japanese unified local elections">2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2019_Japanese_unified_local_elections" title="2019 Japanese unified local elections">2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2023_Japanese_unified_local_elections" title="2023 Japanese unified local elections">2023</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Japan" title="Administrative divisions of Japan">Administrative divisions</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Prefectures_of_Japan" title="Prefectures of Japan">Prefectures</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(Japan)" title="Governor (Japan)">Governors</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Japanese_governors" title="List of current Japanese governors">List</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subprefectures_of_Japan" title="Subprefectures of Japan">Subprefectures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Japan" title="Districts of Japan">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipalities_of_Japan" title="Municipalities of Japan">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wards_of_Japan" title="Wards of Japan">Submunicipalities</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Japan" title="Foreign relations of Japan">Foreign relations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan)">Ministry of Foreign Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_Japan" title="Foreign policy of Japan">Foreign policy</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_foreign_relations" title="History of Japanese foreign relations">history</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Japan" title="List of diplomatic missions of Japan">Diplomatic missions of</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_in_Japan" title="List of diplomatic missions in Japan">in Japan</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_passport" title="Japanese passport">Japanese passport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visa_requirements_for_Japanese_citizens" title="Visa requirements for Japanese citizens">Visa requirements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visa_policy_of_Japan" title="Visa policy of Japan">Visa policy</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeria%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Algeria–Japan relations">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angola%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Angola–Japan relations">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djibouti%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Djibouti–Japan relations">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Egypt–Japan relations">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopia%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Ethiopia–Japan relations">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Kenya_relations" title="Japan–Kenya relations">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Namibia_relations" title="Japan–Namibia relations">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Nigeria_relations" title="Japan–Nigeria relations">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Somalia_relations" title="Japan–Somalia relations">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93South_Africa_relations" title="Japan–South Africa relations">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentina%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Argentina–Japan relations">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbados%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Barbados–Japan relations">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivia%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Bolivia–Japan relations">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Brazil–Japan relations">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Canada–Japan relations">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chile%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Chile–Japan relations">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombia%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Colombia–Japan relations">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecuador%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Ecuador–Japan relations">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Mexico_relations" title="Japan–Mexico relations">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Paraguay_relations" title="Japan–Paraguay relations">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Peru_relations" title="Japan–Peru relations">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Trinidad_and_Tobago_relations" title="Japan–Trinidad and Tobago relations">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Japan–United States relations">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Uruguay_relations" title="Japan–Uruguay relations">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Venezuela_relations" title="Japan–Venezuela relations">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Afghanistan–Japan relations">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenia%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Armenia–Japan relations">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Azerbaijan–Japan relations">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahrain%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Bahrain–Japan relations">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Bangladesh–Japan relations">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutan%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Bhutan–Japan relations">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunei%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Brunei–Japan relations">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodia%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Cambodia–Japan relations">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="China–Japan relations">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Timor%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="East Timor–Japan relations">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Georgia–Japan relations">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="India–Japan relations">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Indonesia–Japan relations">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Iran–Japan relations">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Israel–Japan relations">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Laos_relations" title="Japan–Laos relations">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Malaysia_relations" title="Japan–Malaysia relations">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Maldives_relations" title="Japan–Maldives relations">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Mongolia_relations" title="Japan–Mongolia relations">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan-Myanmar_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan-Myanmar relations">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Nepal_relations" title="Japan–Nepal relations">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93North_Korea_relations" title="Japan–North Korea relations">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Pakistan_relations" title="Japan–Pakistan relations">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Palestine_relations" title="Japan–Palestine relations">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Philippines_relations" title="Japan–Philippines relations">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Qatar_relations" title="Japan–Qatar relations">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_relations" title="Japan–Saudi Arabia relations">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Singapore_relations" title="Japan–Singapore relations">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93South_Korea_relations" title="Japan–South Korea relations">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Sri_Lanka_relations" title="Japan–Sri Lanka relations">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Taiwan_relations" title="Japan–Taiwan relations">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Thailand_relations" title="Japan–Thailand relations">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Turkey_relations" title="Japan–Turkey relations">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Vietnam_relations" title="Japan–Vietnam relations">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albania%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Albania–Japan relations">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Austria–Japan relations">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Belgium–Japan relations">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatia%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Croatia–Japan relations">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Czech Republic–Japan relations">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Denmark–Japan relations">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="France–Japan relations">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Germany–Japan relations">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Greece–Japan relations">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Hungary–Japan relations">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Holy See–Japan relations">Holy See</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceland%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Iceland–Japan relations">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ireland%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Ireland–Japan relations">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italy%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Italy–Japan relations">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Kosovo_relations" title="Japan–Kosovo relations">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Lithuania_relations" title="Japan–Lithuania relations">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Malta_relations" title="Japan–Malta relations">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Montenegro_relations" title="Japan–Montenegro relations">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Netherlands_relations" title="Japan–Netherlands relations">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Poland_relations" title="Japan–Poland relations">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Portugal_relations" title="Japan–Portugal relations">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Japan–Russia relations">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Serbia_relations" title="Japan–Serbia relations">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Spain_relations" title="Japan–Spain relations">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Sweden_relations" title="Japan–Sweden relations">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Ukraine_relations" title="Japan–Ukraine relations">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Japan–United Kingdom relations">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Australia–Japan relations">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiji%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Fiji–Japan relations">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93New_Zealand_relations" title="Japan–New Zealand relations">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Palau_relations" title="Japan–Palau relations">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Tonga_relations" title="Japan–Tonga relations">Tonga</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_foreign_policy_on_Africa" title="Japanese foreign policy on Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Arab_League_relations" title="Japan–Arab League relations">Arab world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Latin_America_relations" title="Japan–Latin America relations">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Oceania_relations" title="Japan–Oceania relations">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_foreign_policy_on_Southeast_Asia" title="Japanese foreign policy on Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93European_Union_relations" title="Japan–European Union relations">European Union</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japan_and_the_United_Nations" title="Japan and the United Nations">United Nations</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G20" title="G20">G20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_of_Seven" class="mw-redirect" title="Group of Seven">G7</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/32px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/48px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/64px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Japan" title="Portal:Japan">Japan portal</a> <div class="hlist" style="text-align:center;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science#Politics_by_region" title="Outline of political science">Other countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_of_Japan" title="Template:Politics of Japan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_of_Japan" title="Template talk:Politics of Japan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_of_Japan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics of Japan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Japanese civil service</b> employs over three million employees, with the <a href="/wiki/Japan_Self-Defence_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Self-Defence Forces">Japan Self-Defense Forces</a>, with 247,000 personnel, being the biggest branch. In the post-war period, this figure has been even higher, but the privatization of a large number of <a href="/wiki/Japanese_public_corporations" title="Japanese public corporations">public corporations</a> since the 1980s, including <a href="/wiki/Nippon_Telegraph_and_Telephone" title="Nippon Telegraph and Telephone">NTT</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_National_Railways" title="Japanese National Railways">Japanese National Railways</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Japan_Post" title="Japan Post">Japan Post</a>, already reduced the number. </p><p>The vast majority of civil servants (2.74 million) are employed by local governments, while around 585,000 are national government civil servants. National civil servants are divided into "special" and "regular" service categories. Appointments in the special service category are governed by political or other factors and do not involve competitive examinations. This category includes <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Japan" title="Cabinet of Japan">cabinet</a> ministers, heads of independent agencies, members of the Self-Defense Forces, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_diet" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese diet">Diet</a> officials, and ambassadors. </p><p>The core of the national civil service is composed of members of the regular service, who are recruited through competitive examinations. This group is further divided into the General Service and the Comprehensive Service, the latter forming a civil service elite. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Composition_of_civil_service">Composition of civil service</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_service_of_Japan&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Composition of civil service"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Composition">Composition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_service_of_Japan&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As of 2018, there are approximately 3.33 million civil servants in Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among these, the vast majority of around 2.74 million are local civil servants (<a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>: <span lang="ja">地方公務員</span>) working for local governments and agencies.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the around 585,000 national civil servants (<a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>: <span lang="ja">国家公務員</span>), roughly 298,000 are in Special Service (<a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>: <span lang="ja">特別職</span>) and 287,000 are in Regular Service (<a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>: <span lang="ja">一般職</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Special Service includes:<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Politicians, such as ministers, senior vice-ministers, ambassadors and <a href="/wiki/National_Diet" title="National Diet">National Diet</a> members,</li> <li>Judges, court employees, and employees of the Diet,</li> <li>Employees of the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Defense_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Defense (Japan)">Ministry of Defense</a> (approx. 268,000, consisting of the lion's share of Special Service employees), and</li> <li>Other employees with special duties, to whom certain civil service principles (e.g. recruitment by examination and guarantee of status) do not apply, such as <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Household_Agency" title="Imperial Household Agency">Imperial Household Agency</a> employees.</li></ol> <p>Regular Service employees form the rest of the national civil service, including various <a href="/wiki/Ministries_of_Japan" title="Ministries of Japan">ministries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Independent_Administrative_Institution" title="Independent Administrative Institution">Incorporated Administrative Agencies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the privatization of <a href="/wiki/Japan_Post" title="Japan Post">Japan Post</a>, the incorporation of certain Japanese universities, and other civil service reforms, the number of regular service employees decreased from over 800,000 to around 287,000 in 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recruitment_and_examination">Recruitment and examination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_service_of_Japan&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Recruitment and examination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Civil servants are generally recruited through competitive examinations.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Civil servants are classified into three types: (1) Comprehensive Service, which engages in policy-making and research, (2) General Service, which engages mainly in "routine work", and (3) Specialists, such as tax inspectors, air traffic controllers, doctors and teachers, who are recruited by exams or other forms of assessment.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Comprehensive Service recruits through several types of exams (known as Level I Examination), testing at levels of a university undergraduate or a graduate degree, with different exams based on the division of the Service.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The General Service also recruits through exams, with an exam aimed at university graduates (Level II Examination) and an exam for high school graduates (Level III Examination).<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Successful candidates are interviewed, and final selection takes into account the result of interviews.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historically, all senior officials were promoted from Comprehensive Service recruits, although there are recent efforts to offer General Service employees opportunities of promotion as well.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_Secretariat_(Japan)" title="Cabinet Secretariat (Japan)">Cabinet Secretariat</a>, for example, among the 4,715 employees in management positions, 73.1% were recruited by Level I examination, while 21.8% were recruited by Level II and III examinations.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among <i>kachō</i> level (<a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>: <span lang="ja">課長級</span>) positions, 87.2% were recruited by Level I examination.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elite_bureaucracy">Elite bureaucracy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_service_of_Japan&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Elite bureaucracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to a <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> report published in 1992, many Japan analysts have pointed to the elite <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a> as the people who really govern Japan, although they composed only a tiny fraction of the country's more than 1 million national government employees.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The elite civil servants' power was especially strong in the years of rapid economic growth, before the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several hundred of the elite are employed at each <a href="/wiki/Ministries_of_Japan" title="Ministries of Japan">national ministry</a> or agency.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although entry into the elite through open examinations does not require a college degree, the majority of its members are alumni of <a href="/wiki/Higher_education_in_Japan" title="Higher education in Japan">Japan's most prestigious universities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Tokyo" title="University of Tokyo">University of Tokyo</a> law faculty is the single most important source of elite bureaucrats.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After graduation from college and, increasingly, some graduate-level study, applicants take a series of difficult higher civil service examinations:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 2009, for example, 22,186 took the tests of higher (the 1st grade) civil service, but only 1,494, or 6.7 percent, were successful.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Of those who were successful, only 660 were actually hired.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Like the scholar-officials of imperial China, successful candidates were hardy survivors of a grueling education and testing process that necessarily began in early childhood and demanded total concentration.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The typical young bureaucrat, who is in most cases male, is an intelligent, hardworking, and dedicated individual.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But some bureaucrats, critics argue, lack imagination and compassion for people whose way of life is different from their own.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The public's attitude toward the elite is ambivalent. The elite enjoy great social prestige, but its members are also resented. They live in a realm that is at least partly public, yet far removed from the lives of ordinary people. Compared with politicians, they are generally viewed as honest.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Involvement of top officials in scandals such as the <a href="/wiki/Recruit_scandal" title="Recruit scandal">Recruit affair</a>, however, had to some extent tarnished their image.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Japan's elite bureaucrats are insulated from direct political pressure because there are very few political appointments in the civil service.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Japan" title="Cabinet of Japan">Cabinet</a> ministers are usually career politicians, but they are moved in and out of their posts quite frequently (with an average tenure of under a year), and usually have little opportunity to develop a power base within a ministry, or force their civil service subordinates to adopt reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Below the cabinet minister is the administrative vice minister (<a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>: <span lang="ja">事務次官</span> <a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%8B%E5%8B%99%E6%AC%A1%E5%AE%98" class="extiw" title="ja:事務次官">ja:事務次官</a>). Administrative vice ministers and their subordinates are career civil servants whose appointments are determined in accordance with an internally established principle of seniority.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reform_of_the_elite_civil_service_since_the_1990s">Reform of the elite civil service since the 1990s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_service_of_Japan&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reform of the elite civil service since the 1990s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The autonomy and power of the bureaucracy has been substantially reduced since the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1990s, electoral reforms gave politicians stronger links to their constituencies, strengthening their position. In the 2000s, <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Japan" title="Prime Minister of Japan">Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Junichiro_Koizumi" title="Junichiro Koizumi">Junichiro Koizumi</a> reduced the power of “tribal politicians” who spoke for special interests such as farmers, and brought in policy advisers to circumvent the civil service.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Successive reforms also restricted the practice of <i>amakudari</i> (<a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>: <span lang="ja">天下り</span>), the “descent from heaven”, where retiring bureaucrats were sent to lucrative jobs at the public body they used to oversee.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of these reforms, since the late 1990s, many top-class candidates in Japanese universities prefer to choose to join investment banks rather than the civil service.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Finally, in 2014, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Shinzo_Abe" title="Shinzo Abe">Abe Shinzo</a> again reduced bureaucratic autonomy by centralizing the appointment of all senior civil servants in the Cabinet Office.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Civil servants must now impress the prime minister's lieutenants to reach to the top, instead of their civil service colleagues.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Certain commentators have linked the reduction of the civil service's autonomy to recent scandals, including allegations of sexual harassment,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> falsified documents, obvious lies to parliament and misplaced military records.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_in_the_civil_service">Women in the civil service</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_service_of_Japan&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Women in the civil service"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2020, the Japanese government reported that 36.8% new civil servants hired in fiscal year 2020 were women, a new high.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of 8,461 civil servants hired in the career-track, general, and specialized positions, 3,117 were women.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the percentage of women hired is 1.4% higher than in 2019. By type of positions, 35.4% of new hires in career-track positions were women, compared to 39.1% in general positions, and 33.8% in specialist work.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As late as 2014, the percentage of women in new hires was 20–25%, before a jump to 30% in 2015 and further increases since 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increase in 2015 was accredited to the Cabinet's Fourth Basic Plan for Gender Equality, which set a goal of 30% for new hires in the civil service.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1990 to 2003, around 10% to 15% of new civil service recruits each year were women.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_service_of_Japan&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan_before_World_War_II">Japan before World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_service_of_Japan&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Japan before World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Japanese had been exposed to bureaucratic institutions at least by the early seventh century A.D. (<a href="/wiki/Nara_period" title="Nara period">Nara period</a>), when the imperial court adopted the laws and government structure of <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a> <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the distinctive Chinese (<a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a>) institution of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">civil service examinations</a> never took root, and the imported system was never successfully imposed on the country at large.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But by the middle of the <a href="/wiki/Edo_period" title="Edo period">Tokugawa period</a> (1600-1867), the <a href="/wiki/Samurai" title="Samurai">samurai</a> class functions had evolved from military to clerical and administrative functions.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a> (1868), the new elite, which came from the lower ranks of the samurai, established a Western-style civil service.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occupied_Japan">Occupied Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_service_of_Japan&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Occupied Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the <a href="/wiki/Occupied_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupied Japan">United States occupation</a> dismantled both the military and <a href="/wiki/Zaibatsu" title="Zaibatsu">zaibatsu</a> establishments, it did little, outside of abolishing the prewar <a href="/wiki/Home_Ministry_(Japan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Home Ministry (Japan)">Home Ministry</a>, to challenge the power of the bureaucracy.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was considerable continuity —in institutions, operating style, and personnel — between the civil service before and after the occupation, partly because General <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a>'s staff ruled indirectly and depended largely on the cooperation of civil servants.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A process of mutual co-optation occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, United States policy planners never regarded the civil service with the same opprobrium as the military or economic elites.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The civil service's role in Japan's militarism was generally downplayed.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the occupation figures themselves were products of President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>'s <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> and had strong faith in the merits of civil service professionalism.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, the perceived threat of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in the late 1940s created a community of interests for the occupiers and for conservative, social order-conscious administrators.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1970s_and_1980s">1970s and 1980s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_service_of_Japan&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 1970s and 1980s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a 1975 article, political scientist <a href="/wiki/Chalmers_Johnson" title="Chalmers Johnson">Chalmers Johnson</a> quotes a retired vice minister of the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_International_Trade_and_Industry" title="Ministry of International Trade and Industry">Ministry of International Trade and Industry</a> (MITI) who said that the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_diet" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese diet">Diet</a> was merely "an extension of the bureaucracy".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The official claimed that "the bureaucracy drafts all the laws.... All the legislature does is to use its powers of investigation, which for about half the year keeps most of the senior officials cooped up in the Diet."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the years since this official made his proud boast, however, it became apparent that there were limits to the bureaucrats' power.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most important was the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_of_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal Democratic Party of Japan">Liberal Democratic Party of Japan</a>'s growing role in policy formation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Political scientist <a href="/w/index.php?title=B.C._Koh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="B.C. Koh (page does not exist)">B.C. Koh</a> suggested that in many cases members of the LDP policy-oriented tribes (<a href="/wiki/Zoku" title="Zoku">zoku</a>) had greater expertise in their fields than elite bureaucrats.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the latter drafted legislation, they had to consult and follow the initiatives of the party's <a href="/w/index.php?title=Policy_Research_Council&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Policy Research Council (page does not exist)">Policy Research Council</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many analysts consider the role of the bureaucracy in drafting legislation to be no greater than that of its counterparts in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, and other countries.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, the decision of many retired bureaucrats to run as LDP candidates for the Diet might not reflect, as had been previously assumed, the power of the officials but rather the impatience of ambitious men who wanted to locate themselves, politically, "where the action is."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An intense rivalry among the ministries came into play whenever major policy decisions were formulated.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elite civil servants were recruited by and spent their entire careers in a single ministry.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, they developed a strong sectional solidarity and zealously defended their turf. Non-bureaucratic actors—the politicians and interest groups—could use this rivalry to their own advantage.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1990s_and_beyond">1990s and beyond</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_service_of_Japan&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 1990s and beyond"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1990s">1990s</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_service_of_Japan&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 1990s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Finance (Japan)">Ministry of Finance</a> is generally considered the most powerful and prestigious of the ministries.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its top officials are regarded as the cream of the elite. Although it was relatively unsuccessful in the 1970s when the deficit rose, the ministry was very successful in the 1980s in constraining government spending and raising taxes, including a twelve-year battle to get a <a href="/wiki/Consumption_tax" title="Consumption tax">consumption tax</a> passed.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The huge national debt in the early 1990s, however, may be evidence that this budget-minded body had been unsuccessful in the previous decade in curbing demands for popular policies such as health insurance, rice price supports, and the unprofitable nationwide network of the privatized <a href="/wiki/Japan_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Railway">Japan Railways</a> Group.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_International_Trade_and_Industry" title="Ministry of International Trade and Industry">Ministry of International Trade and Industry</a> (MITI) frequently encountered obstacles in its early post-occupation plans to reconsolidate the economy. It has not always been successful in imposing its will on private interests, politicians, or other ministries.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to law professor <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Owen_Haley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Owen Haley (page does not exist)">John Owen Haley</a>, writing in the late 1980s, MITI's practice of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gy%C5%8Dsei_shid%C5%8D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gyōsei shidō (page does not exist)">gyōsei shidō</a>, or administrative guidance, often described as evidence of the bureaucracy's hidden power, was in fact a second-best alternative to "express statutory authority that would have legitimated its exercise of authority."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Administrative reform policies in the 1980s imposed ceilings on civil service staff and spending that probably contributed to a deterioration of morale and working conditions. </p><p>Still another factor limiting bureaucratic power was the emergence of an affluent society.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early postwar period, the scarcity of capital made it possible for the Ministry of Finance and MITI to exert considerable influence over the economy through control of the banking system (see <a href="/wiki/Monetary_and_fiscal_policy_of_Japan" title="Monetary and fiscal policy of Japan">Monetary and fiscal policy</a>). To a decreasing extent, this scarcity remained until the 1980s because most major companies had high debt-equity ratios and depended on the banks for infusions of capital. Their huge profits and increasing reliance on securities markets in the late 1980s, however, meant that the Ministry of Finance had less influence. The wealth, technical sophistication, and new confidence of the companies also made it difficult for MITI to exercise administrative guidance. The ministry could not restrain aggressive and often politically controversial purchases by Japanese corporate investors in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_Estate" title="Mitsubishi Estate">Mitsubishi Estate</a>'s October 1989 purchase of <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Center" title="Rockefeller Center">Rockefeller Center</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, which, along with the <a href="/wiki/Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a> Corporation's acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Columbia_Pictures" title="Columbia Pictures">Columbia Pictures</a> several weeks earlier, heated up trade friction between the two countries. </p><p>The whole issue of trade friction and foreign pressure tended to politicize the bureaucracy and promote unprecedented divisiveness in the late 1980s and early 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Trade_policy_of_Japan" title="Trade policy of Japan">Structural Impediments Initiative</a> talks held by Japan and the United States in early 1990, basic changes in Japan's economy were discussed: reforms of the distribution and pricing systems, improvement of the infrastructure, and elimination of official procedures that limited foreign participation in the economy. Although foreign pressure of this sort is resented by many Japanese as an intrusion on national sovereignty, it also provides an opportunity for certain ministries to make gains at the expense of others.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is hardly a bureaucratic jurisdiction in the economic sphere that is not in some sense affected. </p><p>Internationally minded political and bureaucratic elites have found their market-opening reforms, designed to placate United States demands, repeatedly sabotaged by other interests, especially <a href="/wiki/Agriculture,_forestry,_and_fishing_in_Japan" title="Agriculture, forestry, and fishing in Japan">agriculture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such reactions intensified United States pressure, which in turn created a sense of crisis and a siege mentality within Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "internationalization" of Japan's society in other ways also divided the bureaucratic elite. MITI, the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health,_Labour_and_Welfare_(Japan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (Japan)">Ministry of Labor</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Justice (Japan)">Ministry of Justice</a> had divergent views on how to respond to the influx of unskilled, usually South Asian and Southeast Asian, laborers into the labor-starved Japanese economy. An estimated 300,000 to 400,000 of them worked illegally for small Japanese firms in the late 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education,_Culture,_Sports,_Science_and_Technology_(Japan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Japan)">Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture</a> revision of guidelines on the writing of history textbooks, ostensibly a domestic matter, aroused the indignation of Japan's Asian neighbors because the changes tended to soften accounts of wartime atrocities (see <a href="/wiki/Japanese_history_textbook_controversies" title="Japanese history textbook controversies">Japanese history textbook controversies</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2000s_and_2010s">2000s and 2010s</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_service_of_Japan&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 2000s and 2010s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Civil services in Japan underwent significant changes and reforms to work more efficiently in severe budget situation of the government. In 2001, <a href="/wiki/2001_Central_Government_Reform" title="2001 Central Government Reform">Central Government Reform</a> was implemented to merge existing ministries, strengthen the operation of cabinet and achieve more efficient work. Criticism to civil services from media and the public has got stronger against some scandals, such as the practice of <a href="/wiki/Amakudari" class="mw-redirect" title="Amakudari">amakudari</a> to assure the advantages of high-rank officials after retirement, salary standard and many other factors. </p><p>In 2007, <a href="/wiki/Junichiro_Koizumi" title="Junichiro Koizumi">Junichiro Koizumi</a> passed the <a href="/wiki/Postal_privatisation_bills" class="mw-redirect" title="Postal privatisation bills">postal privatisation bills</a> (see <a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%81%96%E5%9F%9F%E3%81%AA%E3%81%8D%E6%A7%8B%E9%80%A0%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9" class="extiw" title="ja:聖域なき構造改革">ja:聖域なき構造改革</a>). The major concern was Japan Post, with government backing, stymieing competition and giving politicians access to postal savings to fund pet projects.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Japan post was split into three companies in 2007, intending to be privatized by 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Koizumi also reformed <a href="/wiki/Independent_Administrative_Institution" title="Independent Administrative Institution">Independent Administrative Institution</a> staff as privatized officers, which reduced half of the civil service. Japan post employed 280,000 people, or one-third of civil servants.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as of 2020, the government still holds 57% of shares, and March 2028 was announced as the target date of privatization.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/2009_Japanese_general_election" title="2009 Japanese general election">2009 general election</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Japan" title="Democratic Party of Japan">Democratic Party of Japan</a> (DPJ) came to power after many years of <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_of_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal Democratic Party of Japan">Liberal Democratic Party of Japan</a> (LDP) government. DPJ set up the policy of “leadership by politics”, criticized the initiative of bureaucracy in the era of LDP, and planned to reform civil service. However, the DPJ was defeated in the <a href="/wiki/2012_Japanese_general_election" title="2012 Japanese general election">2012 general election</a>, and the LDP regained power. </p><p>In 2014, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Shinzo_Abe" title="Shinzo Abe">Abe Shinzo</a> again reduced bureaucratic autonomy by centralizing the appointment of all senior civil servants in the Cabinet Office.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_service_of_Japan&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Japan" title="Law of Japan">Law of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Japan" title="Government of Japan">Government of Japan</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_service_of_Japan&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/country-studies/about-this-collection/"><i>Country Studies</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Research_Division" title="Federal Research Division">Federal Research Division</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Country+Studies&rft.pub=Federal+Research+Division&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fcollections%2Fcountry-studies%2Fabout-this-collection%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+service+of+Japan" class="Z3988"></span> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html">Japan</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:4-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Personnel_Authority,_Government_of_Japan" class="citation web cs1">National Personnel Authority, Government of Japan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jinji.go.jp/en/recomme/annual2018/index.html">"Annual Report FY2018 (April, 2018 - 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nippon.com&rft.atitle=Women+Account+for+New+High+of+36.8%25+of+Japanese+Civil+Servant+Hires&rft.date=2020-07-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nippon.com%2Fen%2Fjapan-data%2Fh00755%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+service+of+Japan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://asia.nikkei.com/Opinion/Japan-Post-s-zombie-privatization-is-warning-to-Shinzo-Abe">"Japan Post's zombie privatization is warning to Shinzo Abe"</a>. <i>Nikkei Asian Review</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nikkei+Asian+Review&rft.atitle=Japan+Post%27s+zombie+privatization+is+warning+to+Shinzo+Abe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasia.nikkei.com%2FOpinion%2FJapan-Post-s-zombie-privatization-is-warning-to-Shinzo-Abe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+service+of+Japan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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title="Beamter">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_Service" title="Greek Civil Service">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Services_of_India" title="Civil Services of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Civil Service of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Senior_Civil_Service" title="Italian Senior Civil Service">Italy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service_in_Malaysia" title="Civil service in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sector_organisations_in_New_Zealand#Public_service_departments" class="mw-redirect" title="Public sector organisations in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_Service" title="Nigerian Civil Service">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Superior_Services" title="Central Superior Services">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Civil Service of the Russian Federation">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore_Civil_Service" title="Singapore Civil Service">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Administrative_Service" title="Sri Lanka Administrative Service">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_(United_Kingdom)" title="Civil Service (United Kingdom)">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Civil_Service" title="Northern Ireland Civil Service">Northern Ireland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_civil_service" title="United States federal civil service">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Civil_Service" title="European Civil Service">European Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:National_civil_service_commissions" title="Category:National civil service commissions">National civil service commissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Government_occupations" title="Category:Government occupations">Government occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Civil_service_by_country" title="Category:Civil service by country">Civil service by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>See also:</i> <a href="/wiki/Civil_service_reform_in_developing_countries" title="Civil service reform in developing countries">Civil service reform in developing countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved 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