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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Archaeology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Archaeology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Java_Man_(Homo_erectus_erectus)_(1891)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Java_Man_(Homo_erectus_erectus)_(1891)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Java Man (Homo erectus erectus) (1891)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Java_Man_(Homo_erectus_erectus)_(1891)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Columba_(constellation)_(1592)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Columba_(constellation)_(1592)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Columba (constellation) (1592)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Columba_(constellation)_(1592)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Novaya_Zemlya_effect_(1597)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Novaya_Zemlya_effect_(1597)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Novaya Zemlya effect (1597)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Novaya_Zemlya_effect_(1597)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-12_southern_constellations_(1597–1598)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#12_southern_constellations_(1597–1598)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>12 southern constellations (1597–1598)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-12_southern_constellations_(1597–1598)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Camelopardalis_(constellation)_(1612–1613)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Camelopardalis_(constellation)_(1612–1613)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.4</span> <span>Camelopardalis (constellation) (1612–1613)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Camelopardalis_(constellation)_(1612–1613)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monoceros_(constellation)_(1612–1613)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monoceros_(constellation)_(1612–1613)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.5</span> <span>Monoceros (constellation) (1612–1613)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monoceros_(constellation)_(1612–1613)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rings_of_Saturn_(1655)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rings_of_Saturn_(1655)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.6</span> <span>Rings of Saturn (1655)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rings_of_Saturn_(1655)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Titan_(Saturn's_moon)_(1655)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Titan_(Saturn's_moon)_(1655)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.7</span> <span>Titan (Saturn's moon) (1655)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Titan_(Saturn's_moon)_(1655)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kapteyn's_Star_(1897)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kapteyn's_Star_(1897)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.8</span> <span>Kapteyn's Star (1897)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kapteyn's_Star_(1897)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discovery_of_evidence_for_galactic_rotation_(1904)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery_of_evidence_for_galactic_rotation_(1904)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.9</span> <span>Discovery of evidence for galactic rotation (1904)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_of_evidence_for_galactic_rotation_(1904)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Galactic_halo_(1924)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Galactic_halo_(1924)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.10</span> <span>Galactic halo (1924)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Galactic_halo_(1924)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oort_constants_(1927)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oort_constants_(1927)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.11</span> <span>Oort constants (1927)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oort_constants_(1927)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evidence_of_dark_matter_(1932)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidence_of_dark_matter_(1932)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.12</span> <span>Evidence of dark matter (1932)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evidence_of_dark_matter_(1932)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discovery_of_methane_in_the_atmosphere_of_Titan_(1944)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery_of_methane_in_the_atmosphere_of_Titan_(1944)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.13</span> <span>Discovery of methane in the atmosphere of Titan (1944)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_of_methane_in_the_atmosphere_of_Titan_(1944)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discovery_of_carbon_dioxide_in_the_atmosphere_of_Mars_(1947)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery_of_carbon_dioxide_in_the_atmosphere_of_Mars_(1947)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.14</span> <span>Discovery of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Mars (1947)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_of_carbon_dioxide_in_the_atmosphere_of_Mars_(1947)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Miranda_(Uranus's_moon)_(1948)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miranda_(Uranus's_moon)_(1948)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.15</span> <span>Miranda (Uranus's moon) (1948)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miranda_(Uranus's_moon)_(1948)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nereid_(Neptune's_moon)_(1949)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nereid_(Neptune's_moon)_(1949)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.16</span> <span>Nereid (Neptune's moon) (1949)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nereid_(Neptune's_moon)_(1949)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oort_cloud_(1950)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oort_cloud_(1950)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.17</span> <span>Oort cloud (1950)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oort_cloud_(1950)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kuiper_belt_(1951)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kuiper_belt_(1951)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.18</span> <span>Kuiper belt (1951)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kuiper_belt_(1951)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Biology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Function_of_the_fallopian_tubes_(1660s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function_of_the_fallopian_tubes_(1660s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Function of the fallopian tubes (1660s)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Function_of_the_fallopian_tubes_(1660s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_ovarian_follicles_(1672)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_ovarian_follicles_(1672)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Development of ovarian follicles (1672)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_of_ovarian_follicles_(1672)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foundations_of_microbiology_(discovery_of_microorganisms)_(1670s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundations_of_microbiology_(discovery_of_microorganisms)_(1670s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Foundations of microbiology (discovery of microorganisms) (1670s)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foundations_of_microbiology_(discovery_of_microorganisms)_(1670s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photosynthesis_(1779)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photosynthesis_(1779)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.4</span> <span>Photosynthesis (1779)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photosynthesis_(1779)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant_respiration_(1779)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_respiration_(1779)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.5</span> <span>Plant respiration (1779)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant_respiration_(1779)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foundations_of_virology_(1898)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundations_of_virology_(1898)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.6</span> <span>Foundations of virology (1898)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foundations_of_virology_(1898)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemistry_of_photosynthesis_(1931)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemistry_of_photosynthesis_(1931)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.7</span> <span>Chemistry of photosynthesis (1931)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemistry_of_photosynthesis_(1931)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foundations_of_modern_ethology_(Tinbergen's_four_questions)_(1930s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundations_of_modern_ethology_(Tinbergen's_four_questions)_(1930s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.8</span> <span>Foundations of modern ethology (Tinbergen's four questions) (1930s)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foundations_of_modern_ethology_(Tinbergen's_four_questions)_(1930s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vroman_effect_(1975)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vroman_effect_(1975)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.9</span> <span>Vroman effect (1975)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vroman_effect_(1975)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Chemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Concept_of_gas_(1600s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concept_of_gas_(1600s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Concept of gas (1600s)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concept_of_gas_(1600s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foundations_of_stereochemistry_(1874)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundations_of_stereochemistry_(1874)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>Foundations of stereochemistry (1874)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foundations_of_stereochemistry_(1874)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foundations_of_modern_physical_chemistry_(1880s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundations_of_modern_physical_chemistry_(1880s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.3</span> <span>Foundations of modern physical chemistry (1880s)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foundations_of_modern_physical_chemistry_(1880s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Van_'t_Hoff_equation_(1884)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Van_'t_Hoff_equation_(1884)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.4</span> <span>Van 't Hoff equation (1884)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Van_'t_Hoff_equation_(1884)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Van_'t_Hoff_factor_(1884)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Van_'t_Hoff_factor_(1884)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.5</span> <span>Van 't Hoff factor (1884)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Van_'t_Hoff_factor_(1884)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lobry_de_Bruyn–van_Ekenstein_transformation_(1885)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lobry_de_Bruyn–van_Ekenstein_transformation_(1885)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.6</span> <span>Lobry de Bruyn–van Ekenstein transformation (1885)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lobry_de_Bruyn–van_Ekenstein_transformation_(1885)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prins_reaction_(1919)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prins_reaction_(1919)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.7</span> <span>Prins reaction (1919)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prins_reaction_(1919)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hafnium_(1923)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hafnium_(1923)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.8</span> <span>Hafnium (1923)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hafnium_(1923)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crystal_bar_process_(1925)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crystal_bar_process_(1925)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.9</span> <span>Crystal bar process (1925)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crystal_bar_process_(1925)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Koopmans'_theorem_(1934)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Koopmans'_theorem_(1934)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.10</span> <span>Koopmans' theorem (1934)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Koopmans'_theorem_(1934)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Genetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Concept_of_pangene/gene_(1889)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concept_of_pangene/gene_(1889)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.1</span> <span>Concept of pangene/gene (1889)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concept_of_pangene/gene_(1889)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rediscovery_the_laws_of_inheritance_(1900)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rediscovery_the_laws_of_inheritance_(1900)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.2</span> <span>Rediscovery the laws of inheritance (1900)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rediscovery_the_laws_of_inheritance_(1900)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Geology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bushveld_Igneous_Complex_(1897)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bushveld_Igneous_Complex_(1897)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.1</span> <span>Bushveld Igneous Complex (1897)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bushveld_Igneous_Complex_(1897)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Mathematics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Differential_geometry_of_curves_(concepts_of_the_involute_and_evolute_of_a_curve)_(1673)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differential_geometry_of_curves_(concepts_of_the_involute_and_evolute_of_a_curve)_(1673)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.1</span> <span>Differential geometry of curves (concepts of the involute and evolute of a curve) (1673)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differential_geometry_of_curves_(concepts_of_the_involute_and_evolute_of_a_curve)_(1673)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Korteweg–de_Vries_equation_(1895)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Korteweg–de_Vries_equation_(1895)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.2</span> <span>Korteweg–de Vries equation (1895)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Korteweg–de_Vries_equation_(1895)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proof_of_the_Brouwer_fixed-point_theorem_(1911)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proof_of_the_Brouwer_fixed-point_theorem_(1911)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.3</span> <span>Proof of the Brouwer fixed-point theorem (1911)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proof_of_the_Brouwer_fixed-point_theorem_(1911)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proof_of_the_hairy_ball_theorem_(1912)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proof_of_the_hairy_ball_theorem_(1912)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.4</span> <span>Proof of the hairy ball theorem (1912)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proof_of_the_hairy_ball_theorem_(1912)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debye_functions_(1912)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debye_functions_(1912)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.5</span> <span>Debye functions (1912)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debye_functions_(1912)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kramers–Kronig_relations_(1927)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kramers–Kronig_relations_(1927)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.6</span> <span>Kramers–Kronig relations (1927)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kramers–Kronig_relations_(1927)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heyting_algebra_(formalized_intuitionistic_logic)_(1930)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heyting_algebra_(formalized_intuitionistic_logic)_(1930)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.7</span> <span>Heyting algebra (formalized intuitionistic logic) (1930)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heyting_algebra_(formalized_intuitionistic_logic)_(1930)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zernike_polynomials_(1934)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zernike_polynomials_(1934)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.8</span> <span>Zernike polynomials (1934)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zernike_polynomials_(1934)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minnaert_function_(1941)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minnaert_function_(1941)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.9</span> <span>Minnaert function (1941)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minnaert_function_(1941)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Mechanics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Proof_of_the_law_of_equilibrium_on_an_inclined_plane_(1586)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proof_of_the_law_of_equilibrium_on_an_inclined_plane_(1586)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8.1</span> <span>Proof of the law of equilibrium on an inclined plane (1586)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proof_of_the_law_of_equilibrium_on_an_inclined_plane_(1586)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Centripetal_force_(1659)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Centripetal_force_(1659)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8.2</span> <span>Centripetal force (1659)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Centripetal_force_(1659)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Centrifugal_force_(1659)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Centrifugal_force_(1659)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8.3</span> <span>Centrifugal force (1659)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Centrifugal_force_(1659)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formula_for_the_period_of_mathematical_pendulum_(1659)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formula_for_the_period_of_mathematical_pendulum_(1659)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8.4</span> <span>Formula for the period of mathematical pendulum (1659)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formula_for_the_period_of_mathematical_pendulum_(1659)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tautochrone_curve_(isochrone_curve)_(1659)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tautochrone_curve_(isochrone_curve)_(1659)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8.5</span> <span>Tautochrone curve (isochrone curve) (1659)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tautochrone_curve_(isochrone_curve)_(1659)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coupled_oscillation_(spontaneous_synchronization)_(1665)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coupled_oscillation_(spontaneous_synchronization)_(1665)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8.6</span> <span>Coupled oscillation (spontaneous synchronization) (1665)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coupled_oscillation_(spontaneous_synchronization)_(1665)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Foundations_of_modern_(human)_anatomy_(1543)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundations_of_modern_(human)_anatomy_(1543)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9.1</span> <span>Foundations of modern (human) anatomy (1543)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foundations_of_modern_(human)_anatomy_(1543)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crystals_in_gouty_tophi_(1679)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crystals_in_gouty_tophi_(1679)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9.2</span> <span>Crystals in gouty tophi (1679)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crystals_in_gouty_tophi_(1679)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Boerhaave_syndrome_(1724)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boerhaave_syndrome_(1724)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9.3</span> <span>Boerhaave syndrome (1724)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boerhaave_syndrome_(1724)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Factor_V_Leiden_(1994)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factor_V_Leiden_(1994)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9.4</span> <span>Factor V Leiden (1994)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Factor_V_Leiden_(1994)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microbiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microbiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10</span> <span>Microbiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microbiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Blood_cells_(1658)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blood_cells_(1658)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10.1</span> <span>Blood cells (1658)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blood_cells_(1658)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Red_blood_cells_(1658)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Red_blood_cells_(1658)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10.2</span> <span>Red blood cells (1658)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Red_blood_cells_(1658)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Micro-organisms_(1670s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Micro-organisms_(1670s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10.3</span> <span>Micro-organisms (1670s)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Micro-organisms_(1670s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_nitrogen_fixation_(1885)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_nitrogen_fixation_(1885)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10.4</span> <span>Biological nitrogen fixation (1885)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological_nitrogen_fixation_(1885)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rhizobium_(1888)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rhizobium_(1888)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10.5</span> <span>Rhizobium (1888)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rhizobium_(1888)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spirillum_(first_isolated_sulfate-reducing_bacteria)_(1895)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spirillum_(first_isolated_sulfate-reducing_bacteria)_(1895)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10.6</span> <span>Spirillum (first isolated sulfate-reducing bacteria) (1895)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spirillum_(first_isolated_sulfate-reducing_bacteria)_(1895)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concept_of_virus_(1898)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concept_of_virus_(1898)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10.7</span> <span>Concept of virus (1898)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concept_of_virus_(1898)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Azotobacter_(1901)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Azotobacter_(1901)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10.8</span> <span>Azotobacter (1901)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Azotobacter_(1901)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enrichment_culture_(1904)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enrichment_culture_(1904)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10.9</span> <span>Enrichment culture (1904)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enrichment_culture_(1904)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11</span> <span>Physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-31_equal_temperament_(1661)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#31_equal_temperament_(1661)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.1</span> <span>31 equal temperament (1661)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-31_equal_temperament_(1661)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polarization_of_light_(1678)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polarization_of_light_(1678)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.2</span> <span>Polarization of light (1678)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polarization_of_light_(1678)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Huygens'_principle_(concepts_of_the_wavefront_and_wavelet)_(1690)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Huygens'_principle_(concepts_of_the_wavefront_and_wavelet)_(1690)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.3</span> <span>Huygens' principle (concepts of the wavefront and wavelet) (1690)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Huygens'_principle_(concepts_of_the_wavefront_and_wavelet)_(1690)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bernoulli's_principle_(1738)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bernoulli's_principle_(1738)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.4</span> <span>Bernoulli's principle (1738)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bernoulli's_principle_(1738)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brownian_motion_(1785)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brownian_motion_(1785)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.5</span> <span>Brownian motion (1785)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brownian_motion_(1785)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buys_Ballot's_law_(1857)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buys_Ballot's_law_(1857)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.6</span> <span>Buys Ballot's law (1857)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buys_Ballot's_law_(1857)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foundations_of_molecular_physics_(1873)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundations_of_molecular_physics_(1873)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.7</span> <span>Foundations of molecular physics (1873)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foundations_of_molecular_physics_(1873)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Van_der_Waals_equation_of_state_(1873)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Van_der_Waals_equation_of_state_(1873)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.8</span> <span>Van der Waals equation of state (1873)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Van_der_Waals_equation_of_state_(1873)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Van_der_Waals_forces_(1873)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Van_der_Waals_forces_(1873)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.9</span> <span>Van der Waals forces (1873)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Van_der_Waals_forces_(1873)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Van_der_Waals_radius_(1873)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Van_der_Waals_radius_(1873)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.10</span> <span>Van der Waals radius (1873)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Van_der_Waals_radius_(1873)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_of_corresponding_states_(1880)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_of_corresponding_states_(1880)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.11</span> <span>Law of corresponding states (1880)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_of_corresponding_states_(1880)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lorentz_ether_theory_(1892)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lorentz_ether_theory_(1892)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.12</span> <span>Lorentz ether theory (1892)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lorentz_ether_theory_(1892)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lorentz_force_law_(1892)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lorentz_force_law_(1892)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.13</span> <span>Lorentz force law (1892)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lorentz_force_law_(1892)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abraham–Lorentz_force_(1895)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abraham–Lorentz_force_(1895)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.14</span> <span>Abraham–Lorentz force (1895)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abraham–Lorentz_force_(1895)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lorentz_transformation_(1895)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lorentz_transformation_(1895)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.15</span> <span>Lorentz transformation (1895)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lorentz_transformation_(1895)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lorentz_contraction_(1895)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lorentz_contraction_(1895)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.16</span> <span>Lorentz contraction (1895)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lorentz_contraction_(1895)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lorentz_factor_(1895)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lorentz_factor_(1895)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.17</span> <span>Lorentz factor (1895)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lorentz_factor_(1895)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zeeman_effect_(1896)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zeeman_effect_(1896)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.18</span> <span>Zeeman effect (1896)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zeeman_effect_(1896)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liquid_helium_(liquefaction_of_helium)_(1908)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liquid_helium_(liquefaction_of_helium)_(1908)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.19</span> <span>Liquid helium (liquefaction of helium) (1908)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liquid_helium_(liquefaction_of_helium)_(1908)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Superconductivity_(1911)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Superconductivity_(1911)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.20</span> <span>Superconductivity (1911)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Superconductivity_(1911)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Einstein–de_Haas_effect_(1910s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Einstein–de_Haas_effect_(1910s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.21</span> <span>Einstein–de Haas effect (1910s)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Einstein–de_Haas_effect_(1910s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debye_model_(1912)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debye_model_(1912)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.22</span> <span>Debye model (1912)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debye_model_(1912)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-De_Sitter_precession_(1916)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#De_Sitter_precession_(1916)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.23</span> <span>De Sitter precession (1916)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-De_Sitter_precession_(1916)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-De_Sitter_space_and_anti-de_Sitter_space_(1920s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#De_Sitter_space_and_anti-de_Sitter_space_(1920s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.24</span> <span>De Sitter space and anti-de Sitter space (1920s)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-De_Sitter_space_and_anti-de_Sitter_space_(1920s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Van_der_Pol_oscillator_(1920)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Van_der_Pol_oscillator_(1920)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.25</span> <span>Van der Pol oscillator (1920)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Van_der_Pol_oscillator_(1920)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kramers'_opacity_law_(1923)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kramers'_opacity_law_(1923)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.26</span> <span>Kramers' opacity law (1923)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kramers'_opacity_law_(1923)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electron_spin_(1925)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electron_spin_(1925)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.27</span> <span>Electron spin (1925)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electron_spin_(1925)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solidification_of_helium_(1926)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solidification_of_helium_(1926)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.28</span> <span>Solidification of helium (1926)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solidification_of_helium_(1926)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ehrenfest_theorem_(1927)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ehrenfest_theorem_(1927)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.29</span> <span>Ehrenfest theorem (1927)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ehrenfest_theorem_(1927)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-De_Haas–van_Alphen_effect_(1930)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#De_Haas–van_Alphen_effect_(1930)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.30</span> <span>De Haas–van Alphen effect (1930)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-De_Haas–van_Alphen_effect_(1930)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shubnikov–de_Haas_effect_(1930)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shubnikov–de_Haas_effect_(1930)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.31</span> <span>Shubnikov–de Haas effect (1930)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shubnikov–de_Haas_effect_(1930)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kramers_degeneracy_theorem_(1930)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kramers_degeneracy_theorem_(1930)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.32</span> <span>Kramers degeneracy theorem (1930)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kramers_degeneracy_theorem_(1930)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minnaert_resonance_frequency_(1933)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minnaert_resonance_frequency_(1933)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.33</span> <span>Minnaert resonance frequency (1933)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minnaert_resonance_frequency_(1933)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Casimir_effect_(1948)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Casimir_effect_(1948)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.34</span> <span>Casimir effect (1948)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Casimir_effect_(1948)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tellegen's_theorem_(1952)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tellegen's_theorem_(1952)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.35</span> <span>Tellegen's theorem (1952)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tellegen's_theorem_(1952)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stochastic_cooling_(1970s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stochastic_cooling_(1970s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.36</span> <span>Stochastic cooling (1970s)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stochastic_cooling_(1970s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renormalization_of_gauge_theories_(1971)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renormalization_of_gauge_theories_(1971)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.37</span> <span>Renormalization of gauge theories (1971)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renormalization_of_gauge_theories_(1971)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Holographic_principle_(1993)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Holographic_principle_(1993)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.38</span> <span>Holographic principle (1993)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Holographic_principle_(1993)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Netherlands" title="Category:History of the Netherlands">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Netherlands">History of the Netherlands</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Leo Belgicus"><img alt="Leo Belgicus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/375px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/500px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Early</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_the_Netherlands" title="Prehistory of the Netherlands">Prehistory of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Batavi (Germanic tribe)">Batavi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cananefates" title="Cananefates">Cananefates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi">Chamavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era" title="Netherlands in the Roman era">Roman era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisians" title="Frisians">Frisians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxons#Saxons_in_the_Netherlands" title="Saxons">Saxons</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Medieval</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Kingdom" title="Frisian Kingdom">Frisian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Francia" title="Middle Francia">Middle Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotharingia" title="Lotharingia">Lotharingia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Lotharingia" title="Lower Lotharingia">Lower Lotharingia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Republic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age" title="Dutch Golden Age">Dutch Golden Age</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age_painting" title="Dutch Golden Age painting">painting</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch colonial empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of the Dutch Empire">evolution</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">VOC</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">East Indies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company" title="Dutch West India Company">WIC</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Dutch colonization of the Americas">Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonisation_of_the_Guianas" title="Dutch colonisation of the Guianas">Guianas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Brazil" title="Dutch Brazil">Brazil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_Dutch_Republic" title="List of wars involving the Dutch Republic">List of wars</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/French_period" title="French period">French period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Batavian_Revolution" title="Batavian Revolution">Batavian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Holland" title="Kingdom of Holland">Kingdom of Holland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Monarchy of the Netherlands">Monarchy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Principality_of_the_United_Netherlands" title="Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands">Sovereign Principality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands_(1900%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the Netherlands (1900–present)">Modern history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_II" title="Netherlands in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="Kingdom of the Netherlands">constituent country within the kingdom</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic history of the Netherlands">Economic history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Netherlands_(1500%E2%80%931815)" title="Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)">Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_guilder" title="Dutch guilder">Dutch guilder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_Entrep%C3%B4t" title="Amsterdam Entrepôt">Amsterdam Entrepôt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_mania" title="Tulip mania">Tulip mania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_disease" title="Dutch disease">Dutch disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whaling_in_the_Netherlands" title="Whaling in the Netherlands">Whaling in the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polder_model" title="Polder model">Polder model</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Netherlands" title="Military history of the Netherlands">Military history</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_Netherlands" title="List of wars involving the Netherlands">List of wars</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Colonial history</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Dutch_language" title="History of the Dutch language">Language</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_the_Netherlands" title="LGBT history in the Netherlands">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch-language_literature" title="Dutch-language literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Dutch_inventions_and_discoveries" title="Lists of Dutch inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control_in_the_Netherlands" title="Flood control in the Netherlands">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_healthcare_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of healthcare in the Netherlands">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_heraldry" title="Dutch heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of religion in the Netherlands">Religion</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Netherlands" title="Portal:Netherlands">Netherlands portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Netherlands" title="Template:History of the Netherlands"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Netherlands" title="Template talk:History of the Netherlands"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Netherlands" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Netherlands"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The following list is composed of objects, concepts, phenomena and processes that were discovered or invented by people from the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discoveries">Discoveries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Discoveries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeology">Archaeology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Archaeology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Java_Man_(Homo_erectus_erectus)_(1891)"><span id="Java_Man_.28Homo_erectus_erectus.29_.281891.29"></span>Java Man (Homo erectus erectus) (1891)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Java Man (Homo erectus erectus) (1891)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pithecanthropus-erectus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Pithecanthropus-erectus.jpg/220px-Pithecanthropus-erectus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Pithecanthropus-erectus.jpg/330px-Pithecanthropus-erectus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Pithecanthropus-erectus.jpg/440px-Pithecanthropus-erectus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="948" /></a><figcaption>Original fossils of <i>Pithecanthropus erectus</i> (now <i>Homo erectus</i>) found in Java in 1891. Estimated to be between 700,000 and 1,000,000 years old, at the time of their discovery the fossils of "<a href="/wiki/Java_Man" title="Java Man">Java Man</a>" were the oldest <a href="/wiki/Hominin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominin">hominin</a> fossils ever found.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Java_Man" title="Java Man">Java Man</a> (<i>Homo erectus erectus</i>) is the name given to hominid fossils discovered in 1891 at <a href="/wiki/Trinil" title="Trinil">Trinil</a> – <a href="/wiki/Ngawi_Regency" title="Ngawi Regency">Ngawi Regency</a> on the banks of the Solo River in <a href="/wiki/East_Java" title="East Java">East Java</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, one of the first known specimens of <a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a>. Its discoverer, Dutch paleontologist <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Dubois" title="Eugène Dubois">Eugène Dubois</a>, gave it the scientific name <b>Pithecanthropus erectus</b>, a name derived from Greek and Latin roots meaning <i>upright ape-man</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astronomy">Astronomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Columba_(constellation)_(1592)"><span id="Columba_.28constellation.29_.281592.29"></span>Columba (constellation) (1592)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Columba (constellation) (1592)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Constellation_Columba" class="mw-redirect" title="Constellation Columba">Columba</a> is a small, faint <a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">constellation</a> named in the late sixteenth century. Its name is <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> for <a href="/wiki/Dove" class="mw-redirect" title="Dove">dove</a>. It is located just south of <a href="/wiki/Canis_Major" title="Canis Major">Canis Major</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lepus_(constellation)" title="Lepus (constellation)">Lepus</a>. Columba was named by Dutch astronomer <a href="/wiki/Petrus_Plancius" title="Petrus Plancius">Petrus Plancius</a> in 1592 in order to differentiate the 'unformed stars' of the large constellation <a href="/wiki/Canis_Major" title="Canis Major">Canis Major</a>. Plancius first depicted Columba on the small celestial planispheres of his large wall map of 1592. It is also shown on his smaller world map of 1594 and on early Dutch celestial globes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Novaya_Zemlya_effect_(1597)"><span id="Novaya_Zemlya_effect_.281597.29"></span>Novaya Zemlya effect (1597)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Novaya Zemlya effect (1597)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first person to record the <a href="/wiki/Novaya_Zemlya_effect" title="Novaya Zemlya effect">Novaya Zemlya effect</a> was <a href="/wiki/Gerrit_de_Veer" title="Gerrit de Veer">Gerrit de Veer</a>, a member of <a href="/wiki/Willem_Barentsz" title="Willem Barentsz">Willem Barentsz</a>' ill-fated third expedition into the polar region. <a href="/wiki/Novaya_Zemlya" title="Novaya Zemlya">Novaya Zemlya</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">archipelago</a> where de Veer first observed the phenomenon, lends its name to the effect. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="12_southern_constellations_(1597–1598)"><span id="12_southern_constellations_.281597.E2.80.931598.29"></span>12 southern constellations (1597–1598)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 12 southern constellations (1597–1598)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Plancius defined 12 constellations created by Plancius from the observations of <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Dirkszoon_Keyser" title="Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser">Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_de_Houtman" title="Frederick de Houtman">Frederick de Houtman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ridpath,_Ian_1988_p._9–10_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ridpath,_Ian_1988_p._9–10-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lankford,_John_1997_p._161_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lankford,_John_1997_p._161-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stephenson,_Bruce_2000_p._24_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephenson,_Bruce_2000_p._24-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kanas,_Nick_2007_p._119–21_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kanas,_Nick_2007_p._119–21-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gendler,_Robert_2011_p._14_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gendler,_Robert_2011_p._14-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Simpson,_Phil_2012_p._559–61_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simpson,_Phil_2012_p._559–61-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ridpath,_Ian_2012_p._96_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ridpath,_Ian_2012_p._96-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Apus" title="Apus">Apus</a></i> is a faint constellation in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_sky" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern sky">southern sky</a>, first defined in the late 16th century. Its name means "no feet" in Greek, and it represents a <a href="/wiki/Bird-of-paradise" title="Bird-of-paradise">bird-of-paradise</a> (once believed to lack feet). It first appeared on a 35 cm diameter celestial globe published in 1597 (or 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius with <a href="/wiki/Jodocus_Hondius" title="Jodocus Hondius">Jodocus Hondius</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chamaeleon" title="Chamaeleon">Chamaeleon</a></i> is named after the <a href="/wiki/Chameleon" title="Chameleon">chameleon</a>, a kind of <a href="/wiki/Lizard" title="Lizard">lizard</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dorado" title="Dorado">Dorado</a></i> is now one of the 88 modern constellations. Dorado has been represented historically as a <a href="/wiki/Dolphinfish" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolphinfish">dolphinfish</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Swordfish" title="Swordfish">swordfish</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Grus_(constellation)" title="Grus (constellation)">Grus</a></i> is Latin for the <a href="/wiki/Crane_(bird)" title="Crane (bird)">crane</a>, a species of bird. The stars that form Grus were originally considered part of <a href="/wiki/Piscis_Austrinus" title="Piscis Austrinus">Piscis Austrinus</a> (the southern fish).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hydrus" title="Hydrus">Hydrus</a>'</i> name means "male water snake".</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indus_(constellation)" title="Indus (constellation)">Indus</a></i> represents an Indian, a word that could refer at the time to any native of Asia or the Americas.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Musca" title="Musca">Musca</a></i> is one of the minor southern constellations. It first appeared on a 35-cm diameter celestial globe published in 1597 (or 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius and Hondius. The first depiction of this constellation in a celestial atlas was in <a href="/wiki/Johann_Bayer" title="Johann Bayer">Johann Bayer</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Uranometria" title="Uranometria">Uranometria</a></i> of 1603.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pavo_(constellation)" title="Pavo (constellation)">Pavo</a></i> is <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> for <a href="/wiki/Peacock" class="mw-redirect" title="Peacock">peacock</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(constellation)" title="Phoenix (constellation)">Phoenix</a></i> is a minor southern constellation, named after the mythical <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(mythology)" title="Phoenix (mythology)">phoenix</a>. It was the largest of the twelve.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Triangulum_Australe" title="Triangulum Australe">Triangulum Australe</a></i> is Latin for "the southern triangle", which distinguishes it from <a href="/wiki/Triangulum" title="Triangulum">Triangulum</a> in the northern sky and is derived from the almost equilateral pattern of its three brightest stars. It was first depicted on a <a href="/wiki/Celestial_globe" title="Celestial globe">celestial globe</a> as Triangulus Antarcticus by Plancius in 1589, and later with more accuracy and its current name by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Bayer" title="Johann Bayer">Johann Bayer</a> in his 1603 <i>Uranometria</i>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tucana" title="Tucana">Tucana</a></i> is Latin for the <a href="/wiki/Toucan" title="Toucan">toucan</a>, a South American bird.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Volans" title="Volans">Volans</a></i> represents a <a href="/wiki/Flying_fish" title="Flying fish">flying fish</a>; its name is a shortened form of its original name, <i>Piscis Volans</i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Camelopardalis_(constellation)_(1612–1613)"><span id="Camelopardalis_.28constellation.29_.281612.E2.80.931613.29"></span>Camelopardalis (constellation) (1612–1613)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Camelopardalis (constellation) (1612–1613)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Camelopardalis</i> was created by Plancius in 1613 to represent the animal <a href="/wiki/Rebecca" title="Rebecca">Rebecca</a> rode to marry <a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="The Bible">the Bible</a>. One year later, <a href="/wiki/Jakob_Bartsch" title="Jakob Bartsch">Jakob Bartsch</a> featured it in his atlas. <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Hevelius" title="Johannes Hevelius">Johannes Hevelius</a> gave it the official name of "Camelopardus" or "Camelopardalis" because he saw the <a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">constellation</a>'s many faint stars as the spots of a <a href="/wiki/Giraffe" title="Giraffe">giraffe</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Monoceros_(constellation)_(1612–1613)"><span id="Monoceros_.28constellation.29_.281612.E2.80.931613.29"></span>Monoceros (constellation) (1612–1613)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Monoceros (constellation) (1612–1613)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Monoceros</i> is a relatively modern creation. Its first certain appearance was on a globe created by Plancius in 1612 or 1613. It was later charted by Bartsch as <i>Unicornus</i> in his 1624 star chart. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rings_of_Saturn_(1655)"><span id="Rings_of_Saturn_.281655.29"></span>Rings of Saturn (1655)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Rings of Saturn (1655)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unraveling_Saturn%27s_Rings.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Unraveling_Saturn%27s_Rings.jpg/200px-Unraveling_Saturn%27s_Rings.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Unraveling_Saturn%27s_Rings.jpg/300px-Unraveling_Saturn%27s_Rings.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Unraveling_Saturn%27s_Rings.jpg/400px-Unraveling_Saturn%27s_Rings.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> was the first person to describe <a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn" title="Rings of Saturn">Saturn's rings</a> as a disk surrounding <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1655, <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a> became the first person to suggest that Saturn was surrounded by a ring, after Galileo's much less advanced telescope had failed to show rings. Galileo had reported the anomaly as possibly 3 planets instead of one. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Titan_(Saturn's_moon)_(1655)"><span id="Titan_.28Saturn.27s_moon.29_.281655.29"></span>Titan (Saturn's moon) (1655)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Titan (Saturn's moon) (1655)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Titan_in_natural_color_Cassini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Titan_in_natural_color_Cassini.jpg/200px-Titan_in_natural_color_Cassini.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Titan_in_natural_color_Cassini.jpg/300px-Titan_in_natural_color_Cassini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Titan_in_natural_color_Cassini.jpg/400px-Titan_in_natural_color_Cassini.jpg 2x" data-file-width="589" data-file-height="589" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a> was the first known <a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn" title="Moons of Saturn">moon of Saturn</a>, discovered in 1655 by <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1655, using a 50 power <a href="/wiki/Refracting_telescope" title="Refracting telescope">refracting telescope</a> that he designed himself, Huygens discovered the first of <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>'s moons, <a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kapteyn's_Star_(1897)"><span id="Kapteyn.27s_Star_.281897.29"></span>Kapteyn's Star (1897)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Kapteyn's Star (1897)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Kapteyn%27s_Star" title="Kapteyn's Star">Kapteyn's Star</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Stellar_classification" title="Stellar classification">class M1</a> <a href="/wiki/Red_dwarf" title="Red dwarf">red dwarf</a> about 12.76 <a href="/wiki/Light-year" title="Light-year">light-years</a> from Earth in the southern <a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">constellation</a> <a href="/wiki/Pictor" title="Pictor">Pictor</a>, and the closest <a href="/wiki/Galactic_halo" title="Galactic halo">halo</a> star to the Solar System. With a <a href="/wiki/Apparent_magnitude" title="Apparent magnitude">magnitude</a> of nearly 9 it is visible through <a href="/wiki/Binoculars" title="Binoculars">binoculars</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a>. It had the highest <a href="/wiki/Proper_motion" title="Proper motion">proper motion</a> of any star known until the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Barnard%27s_Star" title="Barnard's Star">Barnard's Star</a> in 1916. Attention was first drawn to what is now known as <a href="/wiki/Kapteyn%27s_Star" title="Kapteyn's Star">Kapteyn's Star</a> by the Dutch astronomer <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Kapteyn" title="Jacobus Kapteyn">Jacobus Kapteyn</a>, in 1897. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Discovery_of_evidence_for_galactic_rotation_(1904)"><span id="Discovery_of_evidence_for_galactic_rotation_.281904.29"></span>Discovery of evidence for galactic rotation (1904)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Discovery of evidence for galactic rotation (1904)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1904, studying the <a href="/wiki/Proper_motion" title="Proper motion">proper motions</a> of stars, Dutch astronomer <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Kapteyn" title="Jacobus Kapteyn">Jacobus Kapteyn</a> reported that these were not random, as it was believed in that time; stars could be divided into two streams, moving in nearly opposite directions. It was later realized that Kapteyn's data had been the first evidence of the rotation of our <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">Galaxy</a>, which ultimately led to the finding of <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_rotation_curve" title="Galaxy rotation curve">galactic rotation</a> by <a href="/wiki/Bertil_Lindblad" title="Bertil Lindblad">Bertil Lindblad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jan_Oort" title="Jan Oort">Jan Oort</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Galactic_halo_(1924)"><span id="Galactic_halo_.281924.29"></span>Galactic halo (1924)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Galactic halo (1924)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1924, Dutch astronomer <a href="/wiki/Jan_Oort" title="Jan Oort">Jan Oort</a> <a href="/wiki/Category:Discoveries_by_Jan_Oort" title="Category:Discoveries by Jan Oort">discovered</a> the <a href="/wiki/Galactic_halo" title="Galactic halo">galactic halo</a>, a group of stars orbiting the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> but outside the main disk. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Oort_constants_(1927)"><span id="Oort_constants_.281927.29"></span>Oort constants (1927)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Oort constants (1927)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Oort_constants" title="Oort constants">Oort constants</a> (discovered by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Oort" title="Jan Oort">Jan Oort</a>) <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/47136aad860d145f75f3eed3022df827cee94d7a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B}"></span> are empirically derived parameters that characterize the local rotational properties of the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Evidence_of_dark_matter_(1932)"><span id="Evidence_of_dark_matter_.281932.29"></span>Evidence of dark matter (1932)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Evidence of dark matter (1932)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1932, Dutch astronomer <a href="/wiki/Jan_Oort" title="Jan Oort">Jan Oort</a> became the first person to discover evidence of <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a>. Oort proposed the substance after measuring the motions of nearby stars in the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> relative to the galactic plane. He found that the mass of the galactic plane must be more than the mass of the material that can be seen. A year later (1933), <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Zwicky" title="Fritz Zwicky">Fritz Zwicky</a> examined the dynamics of clusters of galaxies and found their movements similarly perplexing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Discovery_of_methane_in_the_atmosphere_of_Titan_(1944)"><span id="Discovery_of_methane_in_the_atmosphere_of_Titan_.281944.29"></span>Discovery of methane in the atmosphere of Titan (1944)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Discovery of methane in the atmosphere of Titan (1944)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first formal proof of the existence of an <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Titan" title="Atmosphere of Titan">atmosphere</a> around <a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a> came in 1944, when <a href="/wiki/Gerard_Kuiper" title="Gerard Kuiper">Gerard Kuiper</a> observed Titan with the new McDonald 82-inch (2.1 m) telescope and discovered spectral signatures on Titan at wavelengths longer than 0.6 μm (micrometers), among which he identified two absorption bands of <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> at 6190 and 7250 Å (Kuiper1944). This discovery was significant not only because it requires a dense <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> with a significant fraction of methane, but also because the atmosphere needs to be chemically evolved, since methane requires <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> in the presence of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, and molecular and atomic hydrogen would have escaped from Titan's weak gravitational field since the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Discovery_of_carbon_dioxide_in_the_atmosphere_of_Mars_(1947)"><span id="Discovery_of_carbon_dioxide_in_the_atmosphere_of_Mars_.281947.29"></span>Discovery of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Mars (1947)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Discovery of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Mars (1947)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Using <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> spectrometry, in 1947 the Dutch-American astronomer <a href="/wiki/Gerard_Kuiper" title="Gerard Kuiper">Gerard Kuiper</a> detected <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars" title="Atmosphere of Mars">Martian atmosphere</a>, a discovery of biological significance because it is a principal <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a> in the process of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> (see also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Mars_observation" title="History of Mars observation">History of Mars observation</a>). He was able to estimate that the amount of carbon dioxide over a given area of the surface is double that on the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Miranda_(Uranus's_moon)_(1948)"><span id="Miranda_.28Uranus.27s_moon.29_.281948.29"></span>Miranda (Uranus's moon) (1948)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Miranda (Uranus's moon) (1948)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Miranda_(moon)" title="Miranda (moon)">Miranda</a> is the smallest and innermost of <a href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</a>'s five major moons. It was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Gerard_Kuiper" title="Gerard Kuiper">Gerard Kuiper</a> on 16 February 1948 at <a href="/wiki/McDonald_Observatory" title="McDonald Observatory">McDonald Observatory</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nereid_(Neptune's_moon)_(1949)"><span id="Nereid_.28Neptune.27s_moon.29_.281949.29"></span>Nereid (Neptune's moon) (1949)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Nereid (Neptune's moon) (1949)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nereid_(moon)" title="Nereid (moon)">Nereid</a>, also known as Neptune II, is the third-largest <a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">moon</a> of <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a> and was its second moon to be discovered, on 1 May 1949, by Gerard Kuiper, on photographic plates taken with the 82-inch telescope at McDonald Observatory. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Oort_cloud_(1950)"><span id="Oort_cloud_.281950.29"></span>Oort cloud (1950)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Oort cloud (1950)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" title="Oort cloud">Oort cloud</a></i> or <i>Öpik–Oort cloud</i>, named after Dutch astronomer <a href="/wiki/Jan_Oort" title="Jan Oort">Jan Oort</a> and Estonian astronomer <a href="/wiki/Ernst_%C3%96pik" title="Ernst Öpik">Ernst Öpik</a>, is a spherical cloud of predominantly <a href="/wiki/Volatile_(astrogeology)" title="Volatile (astrogeology)">icy</a> <a href="/wiki/Planetesimal" title="Planetesimal">planetesimals</a> believed to surround the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> at a distance of up to 50,000 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">AU</a> (0.8 <a href="/wiki/Light-year" title="Light-year">ly</a>). Further evidence for the existence of the <a href="/wiki/Kuiper_belt" title="Kuiper belt">Kuiper belt</a> emerged from the study of comets. That comets have finite lifespans has been known for some time. As they approach the Sun, its heat causes their <a href="/wiki/Volatility_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Volatility (physics)">volatile</a> surfaces to sublimate into space, gradually evaporating them. In order for comets to continue to be visible over the age of the Solar System, they must be replenished frequently.<sup id="cite_ref-matter_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-matter-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One such area of replenishment is the <a href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" title="Oort cloud">Oort cloud</a>, a spherical swarm of comets extending beyond 50,000 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">AU</a> from the Sun first hypothesised by Dutch astronomer <a href="/wiki/Category:Discoveries_by_Jan_Oort" title="Category:Discoveries by Jan Oort">Jan Oort</a> in 1950.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" title="Oort cloud">Oort cloud</a> is believed to be the point of origin of <a href="/wiki/Long-period_comet" class="mw-redirect" title="Long-period comet">long-period comets</a>, which are those, like <a href="/wiki/Comet_Hale%E2%80%93Bopp" title="Comet Hale–Bopp">Hale–Bopp</a>, with orbits lasting thousands of years. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kuiper_belt_(1951)"><span id="Kuiper_belt_.281951.29"></span>Kuiper belt (1951)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Kuiper belt (1951)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Kuiper_belt" title="Kuiper belt">Kuiper belt</a> was named after Dutch-American astronomer <a href="/wiki/Gerard_Kuiper" title="Gerard Kuiper">Gerard Kuiper</a>, regarded by many as the father of modern <a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">planetary science</a>, though his role in hypothesising it has been heavily contested. In 1951, he proposed the existence of what is now called the <a href="/wiki/Kuiper_Belt" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuiper Belt">Kuiper Belt</a>, a disk-shaped region of <a href="/wiki/Minor_planets" class="mw-redirect" title="Minor planets">minor planets</a> outside the orbit of <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a>, which also is a source of short-period <a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">comets</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biology">Biology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Function_of_the_fallopian_tubes_(1660s)"><span id="Function_of_the_fallopian_tubes_.281660s.29"></span>Function of the fallopian tubes (1660s)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Function of the fallopian tubes (1660s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dutch physician and anatomist <a href="/wiki/Regnier_de_Graaf" title="Regnier de Graaf">Regnier de Graaf</a> may have been the first to understand the reproductive function of the <a href="/wiki/Fallopian_tube" title="Fallopian tube">fallopian tubes</a>. He described the <a href="/wiki/Hydrosalpinx" title="Hydrosalpinx">hydrosalpinx</a>, linking its development to female <a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">infertility</a>. de Graaf recognized pathologic conditions of the tubes. He was aware of tubal pregnancies, and he surmised that the mammalian egg traveled from the <a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">ovary</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">uterus</a> through the tube. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Development_of_ovarian_follicles_(1672)"><span id="Development_of_ovarian_follicles_.281672.29"></span>Development of ovarian follicles (1672)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Development of ovarian follicles (1672)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his <i>De Mulierum Organis Generatione Inservientibus</i> (1672), de Graaf provided the first thorough description of the female <a href="/wiki/Gonad" title="Gonad">gonad</a> and established that it produced the <a href="/wiki/Ovum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovum">ovum</a>. De Graaf used the terminology <a href="/wiki/Vesicle_(biology_and_chemistry)" title="Vesicle (biology and chemistry)">vesicle</a> or egg (ovum) for what now called the <a href="/wiki/Ovarian_follicle" title="Ovarian follicle">ovarian follicle</a>. Because the fluid-filled ovarian vesicles had been observed previously by others, including <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Falloppio" class="mw-redirect" title="Falloppio">Falloppio</a>, De Graaf did not claim their discovery. He noted that he was not the first to describe them, but to describe their development. De Graaf was the first to observe changes in the ovary before and after mating and describe the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_luteum" title="Corpus luteum">corpus luteum</a>. From the observation of <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a> in rabbits, he concluded that the follicle contained the <a href="/wiki/Oocyte" title="Oocyte">oocyte</a>. The mature stage of the ovarian follicle is called the <a href="/wiki/Graafian_follicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Graafian follicle">Graafian follicle</a> in his honour, although others, including <a href="/wiki/Fallopius" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallopius">Fallopius</a>, had noticed it previously but failed to recognize its reproductive significance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foundations_of_microbiology_(discovery_of_microorganisms)_(1670s)"><span id="Foundations_of_microbiology_.28discovery_of_microorganisms.29_.281670s.29"></span>Foundations of microbiology (discovery of microorganisms) (1670s)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Foundations of microbiology (discovery of microorganisms) (1670s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a> is often considered to be the <a href="/wiki/List_of_people_considered_father_or_mother_of_a_scientific_field" title="List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field">father</a> of <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiology</a>. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> is cited as the first to record microscopic observation of the fruiting bodies of <a href="/wiki/Mold_(fungus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold (fungus)">molds</a>, in 1665. However, the first observation of <a href="/wiki/Microbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbe">microbes</a> using a microscope is generally credited to van Leeuwenhoek. In the 1670s, he observed and researched bacteria and other <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>, using a single-lens microscope of his own design.<sup id="cite_ref-Windelspecht,_Michael_2002_p._168_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Windelspecht,_Michael_2002_p._168-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Maczulak,_Anne_2010_p._1–2_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maczulak,_Anne_2010_p._1–2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1981 the British microscopist <a href="/wiki/Brian_J._Ford" title="Brian J. Ford">Brian J. Ford</a> found that Leeuwenhoek's original specimens had survived in the collections of the Royal Society of London.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were found to be of high quality, and were all well preserved. Ford carried out observations with a range of microscopes, adding to our knowledge of Leeuwenhoek's work.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Photosynthesis_(1779)"><span id="Photosynthesis_.281779.29"></span>Photosynthesis (1779)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Photosynthesis (1779)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> is a fundamental <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemical</a> process in which plants, <a href="/wiki/Alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Alga">algae</a>, and some <a href="/wiki/Bacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterium">bacteria</a> convert sunlight to chemical energy. The process was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Ingenhousz" title="Jan Ingenhousz">Jan Ingenhousz</a> in 1779.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The chemical energy is used to drive reactions such as the formation of sugars or the fixation of nitrogen into <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>, the building blocks for <a href="/wiki/Protein_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein synthesis">protein synthesis</a>. Ultimately, nearly all living things depend on energy produced from photosynthesis. It is also responsible for producing the <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> that makes animal life possible. Organisms that produce energy through photosynthesis are called <a href="/wiki/Photoautotroph" title="Photoautotroph">photoautotrophs</a>. Plants are the most visible representatives of photoautotrophs, but bacteria and algae also employ the process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plant_respiration_(1779)"><span id="Plant_respiration_.281779.29"></span>Plant respiration (1779)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Plant respiration (1779)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Plant respiration was also discovered by Ingenhousz in 1779. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foundations_of_virology_(1898)"><span id="Foundations_of_virology_.281898.29"></span>Foundations of virology (1898)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Foundations of virology (1898)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Martinus_Beijerinck" title="Martinus Beijerinck">Martinus Beijerinck</a> is considered one of the founders of <a href="/wiki/History_of_virology" title="History of virology">virology</a>. In 1898, he published results on his filtration experiments, demonstrating that <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_mosaic_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Tobacco mosaic disease">tobacco mosaic disease</a> is caused by an infectious agent smaller than a bacterium. His results were in accordance with similar observations made by <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Ivanovsky" title="Dmitri Ivanovsky">Dmitri Ivanovsky</a> in 1892. Like Ivanovsky and <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Mayer" title="Adolf Mayer">Adolf Mayer</a>, predecessor at <a href="/wiki/Wageningen" title="Wageningen">Wageningen</a>, Beijerinck could not culture the filterable infectious agent. He concluded that the agent can replicate and multiply in living plants. He named the new <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">virus</a></i> to indicate its non-bacterial nature. This discovery is considered to be the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">virology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chemistry_of_photosynthesis_(1931)"><span id="Chemistry_of_photosynthesis_.281931.29"></span>Chemistry of photosynthesis (1931)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Chemistry of photosynthesis (1931)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1931, <a href="/wiki/C._B._van_Niel" title="C. B. van Niel">Cornelis van Niel</a> made key discoveries explaining the <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. By studying <a href="/wiki/Purple_sulfur_bacteria" title="Purple sulfur bacteria">purple sulfur bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">green sulfur bacteria</a>, he was the first scientist to demonstrate that photosynthesis is a <a href="/wiki/Light-dependent_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Light-dependent reaction">light-dependent</a> <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> reaction, in which <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> reduces <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Expressed as: </p> <dl><dd>2 H<sub>2</sub>A + CO<sub>2</sub> → 2A + CH<sub>2</sub>O + H<sub>2</sub>O</dd></dl> <p>where A is the <a href="/wiki/Electron_acceptor" title="Electron acceptor">electron acceptor</a>. His discovery predicted that H<sub>2</sub>O is the hydrogen donor in green plant photosynthesis and is oxidized to O<sub>2</sub>. The chemical summation of photosynthesis was a milestone in the understanding of the chemistry of photosynthesis. This was later experimentally verified by <a href="/wiki/Robin_Hill_(biochemist)" title="Robin Hill (biochemist)">Robert Hill</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foundations_of_modern_ethology_(Tinbergen's_four_questions)_(1930s)"><span id="Foundations_of_modern_ethology_.28Tinbergen.27s_four_questions.29_.281930s.29"></span>Foundations of modern ethology (Tinbergen's four questions) (1930s)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Foundations of modern ethology (Tinbergen's four questions) (1930s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Naturalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalists">naturalists</a> have studied aspects of animal behaviour throughout history. <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a> has its scientific roots in the work of Charles Darwin and of American and German ornithologists of the late 19th and early 20th century, including Charles O. Whitman, Oskar Heinroth, and Wallace Craig. The modern discipline of <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethology</a> is generally considered to have begun during the 1930s with the work of Dutch biologist <a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a> and by Austrian biologists <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tinbergen%27s_four_questions" title="Tinbergen's four questions">Tinbergen's four questions</a>, named after <a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a>, one of the founders of modern <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethology</a>, are complementary categories of explanations for behaviour. It suggests that an integrative understanding of behaviour must include both a proximate and ultimate (functional) analysis of behaviour, as well as an understanding of both phylogenetic/developmental history and the operation of current mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vroman_effect_(1975)"><span id="Vroman_effect_.281975.29"></span>Vroman effect (1975)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Vroman effect (1975)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Vroman_effect" title="Vroman effect">Vroman effect</a>, named after <a href="/wiki/Leo_Vroman" title="Leo Vroman">Leo Vroman</a>, is exhibited by <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> <a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">adsorption</a> to a surface by <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">blood serum</a> proteins. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemistry">Chemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Concept_of_gas_(1600s)"><span id="Concept_of_gas_.281600s.29"></span>Concept of gas (1600s)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Concept of gas (1600s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Flemish physician <a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">Jan Baptist van Helmont</a> is sometimes considered the founder of <a href="/wiki/Pneumatic_chemistry" title="Pneumatic chemistry">pneumatic chemistry</a>, coining the word <i><a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a></i> and conducting experiments involving gases. Van Helmont had derived the word "gas" from the Dutch word <i>geest</i>, which means ghost or spirit. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foundations_of_stereochemistry_(1874)"><span id="Foundations_of_stereochemistry_.281874.29"></span>Foundations of stereochemistry (1874)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Foundations of stereochemistry (1874)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dutch chemist <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Henricus_van_%27t_Hoff" title="Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff">Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff</a> is generally considered to be one of the founders of the field of <a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">stereochemistry</a>. In 1874, <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Henricus_van_%27t_Hoff" title="Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff">Van 't Hoff</a> built on the work on isomers of German chemist <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Wislicenus" title="Johannes Wislicenus">Johannes Wislicenus</a>, and showed that the four valencies of the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_atom" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon atom">carbon atom</a> were probably directed in space toward the four corners of a regular tetrahedron, a model which explained how optical activity could be associated with an asymmetric carbon atom. He shares credit for this with the French chemist <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Le_Bel" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Le Bel">Joseph Le Bel</a>, who independently came up with the same idea. Three months before his doctoral degree was awarded Van 't Hoff published this theory, which today is regarded as the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">stereochemistry</a>, first in a Dutch pamphlet in the fall of 1874, and then in the following May in a small French book entitled <i>La chimie dans l'espace</i>. A German translation appeared in 1877, at a time when the only job Van 't Hoff could find was at the Veterinary School in <a href="/wiki/Utrecht" title="Utrecht">Utrecht</a>. In these early years his theory was largely ignored by the scientific community, and was sharply criticized by one prominent chemist, <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Kolbe" title="Hermann Kolbe">Hermann Kolbe</a>. However, by about 1880 support for Van 't Hoff's theory by such important chemists as <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Wislicenus" title="Johannes Wislicenus">Johannes Wislicenus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Meyer" title="Viktor Meyer">Viktor Meyer</a> brought recognition. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foundations_of_modern_physical_chemistry_(1880s)"><span id="Foundations_of_modern_physical_chemistry_.281880s.29"></span>Foundations of modern physical chemistry (1880s)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Foundations of modern physical chemistry (1880s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jacobus_van_%27t_Hoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobus van 't Hoff">Jacobus van 't Hoff</a> is also considered as one of the modern founders of the disciple of <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physical chemistry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first scientific journal specifically in the field of physical chemistry was the German journal, <i>Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie</i>, founded in 1887 by <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Ostwald" title="Wilhelm Ostwald">Wilhelm Ostwald</a> and Van 't Hoff. Together with <a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a>, these were the leading figures in physical chemistry in the late 19th century and early 20th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Van_'t_Hoff_equation_(1884)"><span id="Van_.27t_Hoff_equation_.281884.29"></span>Van 't Hoff equation (1884)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Van 't Hoff equation (1884)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Van_%27t_Hoff_equation" title="Van 't Hoff equation">Van 't Hoff equation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">chemical thermodynamics</a> relates the change in the <a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_constant" title="Equilibrium constant">equilibrium constant</a>, <i>K<sub>eq</sub></i>, of a chemical equilibrium to the change in <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, <i>T</i>, given the <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Enthalpy of formation">standard enthalpy change</a>, <i>ΔH<sup><s>o</s></sup></i>, for the process. It was proposed by Dutch chemist <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Henricus_van_%27t_Hoff" title="Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff">Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff</a> in 1884.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Van 't Hoff equation</i> has been widely utilized to explore the changes in <a href="/wiki/State_functions" class="mw-redirect" title="State functions">state functions</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_system" title="Thermodynamic system">thermodynamic system</a>. The <i>Van 't Hoff plot</i>, which is derived from this equation, is especially effective in estimating the change in <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">enthalpy</a>, or total energy, and <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a>, or amount of disorder, of a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reaction</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Van_'t_Hoff_factor_(1884)"><span id="Van_.27t_Hoff_factor_.281884.29"></span>Van 't Hoff factor (1884)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Van 't Hoff factor (1884)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <b>van 't Hoff factor <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>i</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/add78d8608ad86e54951b8c8bd6c8d8416533d20" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.802ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i}"></span></b> is a measure of the effect of a solute upon <a href="/wiki/Colligative_properties" title="Colligative properties">colligative properties</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Osmotic_pressure" title="Osmotic pressure">osmotic pressure</a>, relative lowering in <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">vapor pressure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boiling-point_elevation" title="Boiling-point elevation">elevation of boiling point</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freezing_point_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Freezing point depression">freezing point depression</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Van_%27t_Hoff_factor" title="Van 't Hoff factor">van 't Hoff factor</a> is the ratio between the actual concentration of particles produced when the substance is dissolved, and the <a href="/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration">concentration</a> of a substance as calculated from its mass. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lobry_de_Bruyn–van_Ekenstein_transformation_(1885)"><span id="Lobry_de_Bruyn.E2.80.93van_Ekenstein_transformation_.281885.29"></span>Lobry de Bruyn–van Ekenstein transformation (1885)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Lobry de Bruyn–van Ekenstein transformation (1885)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrate chemistry">carbohydrate chemistry</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lobry_de_Bruyn%E2%80%93van_Ekenstein_transformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobry de Bruyn–van Ekenstein transformation">Lobry de Bruyn–van Ekenstein transformation</a> is the base or acid-catalyzed transformation of an <a href="/wiki/Aldose" title="Aldose">aldose</a> into the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketose_isomer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ketose isomer (page does not exist)">ketose isomer</a> or vice versa, with a tautomeric <a href="/wiki/Enediol" class="mw-redirect" title="Enediol">enediol</a> as reaction intermediate. The transformation is relevant for the industrial production of certain <a href="/wiki/Ketose" title="Ketose">ketoses</a> and was discovered in 1885 by <a href="/wiki/Cornelis_Adriaan_Lobry_van_Troostenburg_de_Bruyn" title="Cornelis Adriaan Lobry van Troostenburg de Bruyn">Cornelis Adriaan Lobry van Troostenburg de Bruyn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Willem_Alberda_van_Ekenstein" title="Willem Alberda van Ekenstein">Willem Alberda van Ekenstein</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prins_reaction_(1919)"><span id="Prins_reaction_.281919.29"></span>Prins reaction (1919)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Prins reaction (1919)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Prins reaction is an <a href="/wiki/Organic_reaction" title="Organic reaction">organic reaction</a> consisting of an <a href="/wiki/Electrophilic_addition" title="Electrophilic addition">electrophilic addition</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehyde</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ketone" title="Ketone">ketone</a> to an <a href="/wiki/Alkene" title="Alkene">alkene</a> or <a href="/wiki/Alkyne" title="Alkyne">alkyne</a> followed by capture of a <a href="/wiki/Nucleophile" title="Nucleophile">nucleophile</a>. Dutch chemist Hendrik Jacobus Prins discovered two new <a href="/wiki/Organic_reaction" title="Organic reaction">organic reactions</a>, both now carrying the name <a href="/wiki/Prins_reaction" title="Prins reaction">Prins reaction</a>. The first was the addition of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Polyhalogen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Polyhalogen (page does not exist)">polyhalogen</a> compounds to <a href="/wiki/Olefin" class="mw-redirect" title="Olefin">olefins</a>, was found during Prins doctoral research, while the others, the acid-catalyzed addition of aldehydes to olefinic compounds, became of industrial relevance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hafnium_(1923)"><span id="Hafnium_.281923.29"></span>Hafnium (1923)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Hafnium (1923)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dutch physicist <a href="/wiki/Dirk_Coster" title="Dirk Coster">Dirk Coster</a> and Hungarian-Swedish chemist <a href="/wiki/George_de_Hevesy" title="George de Hevesy">George de Hevesy</a> co-discovered <i><a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">Hafnium</a></i> (Hf) in 1923, by means of <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> spectroscopic analysis of <a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">zirconium</a> ore. <i>Hafnium' is named after </i>Hafnia', the Latin name for <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a> (Denmark), where it was discovered. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Crystal_bar_process_(1925)"><span id="Crystal_bar_process_.281925.29"></span>Crystal bar process (1925)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Crystal bar process (1925)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Crystal_bar_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystal bar process">crystal bar process</a> (also known as <i>iodide process</i> or the <i>van Arkel–de Boer process</i>) was developed by Dutch chemists <a href="/wiki/Anton_Eduard_van_Arkel" title="Anton Eduard van Arkel">Anton Eduard van Arkel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hendrik_de_Boer" title="Jan Hendrik de Boer">Jan Hendrik de Boer</a> in 1925. It was the first industrial process for the commercial production of pure ductile metallic <a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">zirconium</a>. It is used in the production of small quantities of ultra-pure <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a> and zirconium. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Koopmans'_theorem_(1934)"><span id="Koopmans.27_theorem_.281934.29"></span>Koopmans' theorem (1934)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Koopmans' theorem (1934)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Koopmans%27_theorem" title="Koopmans' theorem">Koopmans' theorem</a> states that in closed-shell <a href="/wiki/Hartree%E2%80%93Fock_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Hartree–Fock theory">Hartree–Fock theory</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">ionization energy</a> of a molecular system is equal to the negative of the orbital energy of the highest occupied molecular orbital (<a href="/wiki/HOMO" class="mw-redirect" title="HOMO">HOMO</a>). This theorem is named after <a href="/wiki/Tjalling_Koopmans" title="Tjalling Koopmans">Tjalling Koopmans</a>, who published this result in 1934.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Koopmans became a <a href="/wiki/Nobel_laureate" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel laureate">Nobel laureate</a> in 1975, though neither in physics nor chemistry, but in <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">economics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics">Genetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Concept_of_pangene/gene_(1889)"><span id="Concept_of_pangene.2Fgene_.281889.29"></span>Concept of pangene/gene (1889)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Concept of pangene/gene (1889)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1889, Dutch botanist <a href="/wiki/Hugo_de_Vries" title="Hugo de Vries">Hugo de Vries</a> published his book <i>Intracellular Pangenesis</i>, in which he postulated that different characters have different hereditary carriers, based on a modified version of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Pangenesis" title="Pangenesis">Pangenesis</a> of 1868. He specifically postulated that inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in <i>particles</i>. He called these units <i>pangenes</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rediscovery_the_laws_of_inheritance_(1900)"><span id="Rediscovery_the_laws_of_inheritance_.281900.29"></span>Rediscovery the laws of inheritance (1900)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Rediscovery the laws of inheritance (1900)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>1900 marked the "rediscovery of <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendelian genetics">Mendelian genetics</a>". The significance of <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a>'s work was not understood until early in the twentieth century, after his death, when his research was re-discovered by <a href="/wiki/Hugo_de_Vries" title="Hugo de Vries">Hugo de Vries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Correns" title="Carl Correns">Carl Correns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erich_von_Tschermak" title="Erich von Tschermak">Erich von Tschermak</a>, who were working on similar problems.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were unaware of Mendel's work. They worked independently on different plant hybrids, and came to Mendel's conclusions about the rules of <a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">inheritance</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geology">Geology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Geology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bushveld_Igneous_Complex_(1897)"><span id="Bushveld_Igneous_Complex_.281897.29"></span>Bushveld Igneous Complex (1897)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Bushveld Igneous Complex (1897)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Bushveld_Igneous_Complex" title="Bushveld Igneous Complex">Bushveld Igneous Complex</a> (or BIC) is a large, layered igneous intrusion within the Earth's crust that has been tilted and eroded and now outcrops around what appears to be the edge of a great geological basin, the <a href="/wiki/Transvaal_Basin" title="Transvaal Basin">Transvaal Basin</a>. Located in South Africa, the BIC contains some of Earth's richest <a href="/wiki/Ore_deposit" class="mw-redirect" title="Ore deposit">ore deposits</a>. The complex contains the world's largest reserves of <a href="/wiki/Platinum_group_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Platinum group metals">platinum group metals</a> (PGMs), <a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">platinum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">palladium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">osmium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">iridium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium">rhodium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium">ruthenium</a>, along with vast quantities of iron, <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a>. The site was discovered around 1897 by Dutch geologist <a href="/wiki/Gustaaf_Molengraaff" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustaaf Molengraaff">Gustaaf Molengraaff</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematics">Mathematics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Mathematics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Differential_geometry_of_curves_(concepts_of_the_involute_and_evolute_of_a_curve)_(1673)"><span id="Differential_geometry_of_curves_.28concepts_of_the_involute_and_evolute_of_a_curve.29_.281673.29"></span>Differential geometry of curves (concepts of the involute and evolute of a curve) (1673)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Differential geometry of curves (concepts of the involute and evolute of a curve) (1673)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> was the first to publish in 1673 (<i><a href="/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium" title="Horologium Oscillatorium">Horologium Oscillatorium</a></i>) a specific method of determining the <a href="/wiki/Evolute" title="Evolute">evolute</a> and <a href="/wiki/Involute" title="Involute">involute</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Curve" title="Curve">curve</a><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Korteweg–de_Vries_equation_(1895)"><span id="Korteweg.E2.80.93de_Vries_equation_.281895.29"></span>Korteweg–de Vries equation (1895)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Korteweg–de Vries equation (1895)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Korteweg%E2%80%93de_Vries_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Korteweg–de Vries equation">Korteweg–de Vries equation</a> (<b>KdV equation</b> for short) is a <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical model</a> of waves on shallow water surfaces. It is particularly notable as the prototypical example of an <a href="/wiki/Exactly_solvable_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Exactly solvable model">exactly solvable model</a>, that is, a non-linear <a href="/wiki/Partial_differential_equation" title="Partial differential equation">partial differential equation</a> whose solutions can be exactly and precisely specified. The equation is named for <a href="/wiki/Diederik_Korteweg" title="Diederik Korteweg">Diederik Korteweg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gustav_de_Vries" title="Gustav de Vries">Gustav de Vries</a> who, in 1895, proposed a mathematical model which allowed to predict the waves behaviour on shallow water surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Proof_of_the_Brouwer_fixed-point_theorem_(1911)"><span id="Proof_of_the_Brouwer_fixed-point_theorem_.281911.29"></span>Proof of the Brouwer fixed-point theorem (1911)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Proof of the Brouwer fixed-point theorem (1911)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Brouwer_fixed-point_theorem" title="Brouwer fixed-point theorem">Brouwer fixed-point theorem</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Fixed-point_theorem" title="Fixed-point theorem">fixed-point theorem</a> in <a href="/wiki/Topology" title="Topology">topology</a>, named after Dutchman <a href="/wiki/L._E._J._Brouwer" title="L. E. J. Brouwer">Luitzen Brouwer</a>, who proved it in 1911. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Proof_of_the_hairy_ball_theorem_(1912)"><span id="Proof_of_the_hairy_ball_theorem_.281912.29"></span>Proof of the hairy ball theorem (1912)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Proof of the hairy ball theorem (1912)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Hairy_ball_theorem" title="Hairy ball theorem">hairy ball theorem</a> of <a href="/wiki/Algebraic_topology" title="Algebraic topology">algebraic topology</a> states that there is no nonvanishing <a href="/wiki/Continuous_function" title="Continuous function">continuous</a> tangent <a href="/wiki/Vector_field" title="Vector field">vector field</a> on even-dimensional <a href="/wiki/N%E2%80%91sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="N‑sphere"><i>n</i>-spheres</a>. The theorem was first stated by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a> in the late 19th century. It was first proved in 1912 by <a href="/wiki/Luitzen_Egbertus_Jan_Brouwer" class="mw-redirect" title="Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer">Brouwer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Debye_functions_(1912)"><span id="Debye_functions_.281912.29"></span>Debye functions (1912)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Debye functions (1912)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Debye_functions" class="mw-redirect" title="Debye functions">Debye functions</a> are named in honor of <a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a>, who came across this function (with <i>n</i> = 3) in 1912 when he analytically computed the <a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">heat capacity</a> of what is now called the <a href="/wiki/Debye_model" title="Debye model">Debye model</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kramers–Kronig_relations_(1927)"><span id="Kramers.E2.80.93Kronig_relations_.281927.29"></span>Kramers–Kronig relations (1927)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Kramers–Kronig relations (1927)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Kramers%E2%80%93Kronig_relations" title="Kramers–Kronig relations">Kramers–Kronig relations</a> are bidirectional <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematical</a> relations, connecting the <a href="/wiki/Real_number" title="Real number">real</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imaginary_number" title="Imaginary number">imaginary</a> parts of any <a href="/wiki/Complex_analysis" title="Complex analysis">complex function</a> that is <a href="/wiki/Analytic_function" title="Analytic function">analytic</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Upper_half-plane" title="Upper half-plane">upper half-plane</a>. The relation is named in honor of <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Kronig" title="Ralph Kronig">Ralph Kronig</a><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Anthony_Kramers" class="mw-redirect" title="Hendrik Anthony Kramers">Hendrik Anthony Kramers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Heyting_algebra_(formalized_intuitionistic_logic)_(1930)"><span id="Heyting_algebra_.28formalized_intuitionistic_logic.29_.281930.29"></span>Heyting algebra (formalized intuitionistic logic) (1930)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Heyting algebra (formalized intuitionistic logic) (1930)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Formalized <a href="/wiki/Intuitionistic_logic" title="Intuitionistic logic">intuitionistic logic</a> was originally developed by <a href="/wiki/Arend_Heyting" title="Arend Heyting">Arend Heyting</a> to provide a formal basis for <a href="/wiki/Luitzen_Brouwer" class="mw-redirect" title="Luitzen Brouwer">Luitzen Brouwer</a>'s programme of <a href="/wiki/Intuitionism" title="Intuitionism">intuitionism</a>. Arend Heyting introduced <a href="/wiki/Heyting_algebra" title="Heyting algebra">Heyting algebra</a> (1930) to formalize <a href="/wiki/Intuitionistic_logic" title="Intuitionistic logic">intuitionistic logic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Zernike_polynomials_(1934)"><span id="Zernike_polynomials_.281934.29"></span>Zernike polynomials (1934)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Zernike polynomials (1934)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In mathematics, the <a href="/wiki/Zernike_polynomials" title="Zernike polynomials">Zernike polynomials</a> are a <a href="/wiki/Polynomial_sequence" title="Polynomial sequence">sequence</a> of <a href="/wiki/Polynomial" title="Polynomial">polynomials</a> that are <a href="/wiki/Orthogonal_polynomials" title="Orthogonal polynomials">orthogonal</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Unit_disk" title="Unit disk">unit disk</a>. Named after <a href="/wiki/Frits_Zernike" title="Frits Zernike">Frits Zernike</a>, the Dutch optical physicist, and the inventor of <a href="/wiki/Phase_contrast_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase contrast microscopy">phase contrast microscopy</a>, they play an important role in beam <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Minnaert_function_(1941)"><span id="Minnaert_function_.281941.29"></span>Minnaert function (1941)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Minnaert function (1941)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1941, <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Minnaert" title="Marcel Minnaert">Marcel Minnaert</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Minnaert_function" title="Minnaert function">Minnaert function</a>, which is used in optical measurements of celestial bodies. The <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Minnaert" title="Marcel Minnaert">Minnaert</a> function is a <a href="/wiki/Photometry_(astronomy)" title="Photometry (astronomy)">photometric</a> function used to interpret <a href="/wiki/Astronomical" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomical">astronomical</a> observations<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a> data for the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanics">Mechanics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Mechanics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Proof_of_the_law_of_equilibrium_on_an_inclined_plane_(1586)"><span id="Proof_of_the_law_of_equilibrium_on_an_inclined_plane_.281586.29"></span>Proof of the law of equilibrium on an inclined plane (1586)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Proof of the law of equilibrium on an inclined plane (1586)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1586, <a href="/wiki/Simon_Stevin" title="Simon Stevin">Simon Stevin</a> (Stevinus) derived the mechanical advantage of the <a href="/wiki/Inclined_plane" title="Inclined plane">inclined plane</a> by an argument that used a string of beads.<sup id="cite_ref-Koetsier_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koetsier-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stevin's proof of the <a href="/wiki/Inclined_plane#History" title="Inclined plane">law of equilibrium on an inclined plane</a>, known as the "Epitaph of Stevinus". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Centripetal_force_(1659)"><span id="Centripetal_force_.281659.29"></span>Centripetal force (1659)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Centripetal force (1659)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Centripetal_force_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Centripetal_force_diagram.svg/220px-Centripetal_force_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Centripetal_force_diagram.svg/330px-Centripetal_force_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Centripetal_force_diagram.svg/440px-Centripetal_force_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="596" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>A body experiencing <a href="/wiki/Uniform_circular_motion" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniform circular motion">uniform circular motion</a> requires a <a href="/wiki/Centripetal_force" title="Centripetal force">centripetal force</a>, towards the axis as shown, to maintain its circular path. In 1659, <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> coined the term "<a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_force" title="Centrifugal force">centrifugal force</a>" and was the first to derive the now standard mathematical description for the <a href="/wiki/Centripetal_force" title="Centripetal force">centripetal force</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> stated what is now known as the second of Newton's laws of motion in a quadratic form.<sup id="cite_ref-mach_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mach-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1659 he derived the now standard formula for the <a href="/wiki/Centripetal_force" title="Centripetal force">centripetal force</a>, exerted by an object describing a <a href="/wiki/Circular_motion" title="Circular motion">circular motion</a>, for instance on the string to which it is attached.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In modern notation: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F_{c}={\frac {m\ v^{2}}{r}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>m</mi> <mtext> </mtext> <msup> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mi>r</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F_{c}={\frac {m\ v^{2}}{r}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/043b8c59eda0bf4b8ee6a11c7300e3a68601a903" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:11.176ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F_{c}={\frac {m\ v^{2}}{r}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>with <i>m</i> the <a href="/wiki/Mass_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass (physics)">mass</a> of the object, <i>v</i> the <a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">velocity</a> and <i>r</i> the <a href="/wiki/Radius" title="Radius">radius</a>. The publication of the general formula for this force in 1673 was a significant step in studying orbits in astronomy. It enabled the transition from <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_third_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Kepler's third law">Kepler's third law</a> of planetary motion, to the <a href="/wiki/Inverse_square_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverse square law">inverse square law</a> of gravitation.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Centrifugal_force_(1659)"><span id="Centrifugal_force_.281659.29"></span>Centrifugal force (1659)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Centrifugal force (1659)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Huygens coined the term <i><a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_force" title="Centrifugal force">centrifugal force</a></i> in his 1659 <i>De Vi Centrifiga</i> and wrote of it in his 1673 <i>Horologium Oscillatorium</i> on <a href="/wiki/Pendulum" title="Pendulum">pendulums</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Formula_for_the_period_of_mathematical_pendulum_(1659)"><span id="Formula_for_the_period_of_mathematical_pendulum_.281659.29"></span>Formula for the period of mathematical pendulum (1659)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Formula for the period of mathematical pendulum (1659)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1659, <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> was the first to derive the formula for the <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">period</a> of an ideal mathematical <a href="/wiki/Pendulum" title="Pendulum">pendulum</a> (with massless rod or cord and length much longer than its swing),<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in modern notation: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T=2\pi {\sqrt {\frac {l}{g}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mfrac> <mi>l</mi> <mi>g</mi> </mfrac> </msqrt> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T=2\pi {\sqrt {\frac {l}{g}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5413ebd719825801e48ca3b82cec455ad2cb9a6c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:11.505ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T=2\pi {\sqrt {\frac {l}{g}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>with <i>T</i> the period, <i>l</i> the length of the <a href="/wiki/Pendulum" title="Pendulum">pendulum</a> and <i>g</i> the <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_acceleration" title="Gravitational acceleration">gravitational acceleration</a>. By his study of the oscillation period of compound pendulums Huygens made contributions to the development of the concept of <a href="/wiki/Moment_of_inertia" title="Moment of inertia">moment of inertia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tautochrone_curve_(isochrone_curve)_(1659)"><span id="Tautochrone_curve_.28isochrone_curve.29_.281659.29"></span>Tautochrone curve (isochrone curve) (1659)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Tautochrone curve (isochrone curve) (1659)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Tautochrone" class="mw-redirect" title="Tautochrone">tautochrone</a> or <a href="/wiki/Isochrone_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="Isochrone curve">isochrone curve</a> is the curve for which the time taken by an object sliding without friction in uniform gravity to its lowest point is independent of its starting point. The curve is a <a href="/wiki/Cycloid" title="Cycloid">cycloid</a>, and the time is equal to π times the square root of the radius over the <a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">acceleration of gravity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> was the first to discover the <a href="/wiki/Tautochrone" class="mw-redirect" title="Tautochrone">tautochronous property</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Isochrone_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="Isochrone curve">isochronous property</a>) of the cycloid.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Tautochrone" class="mw-redirect" title="Tautochrone">tautochrone</a> problem, the attempt to identify this curve, was solved by Christiaan Huygens in 1659. He proved geometrically in his <i><a href="/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium" title="Horologium Oscillatorium">Horologium Oscillatorium</a></i>, originally published in 1673, that the curve was a <a href="/wiki/Cycloid" title="Cycloid">cycloid</a>. Huygens also proved that the time of descent is equal to the time a body takes to fall vertically the same distance as the diameter of the circle which generates the cycloid, multiplied by π⁄2. The <a href="/wiki/Tautochrone_curve" title="Tautochrone curve">tautochrone curve</a> is the same as the <a href="/wiki/Brachistochrone_curve" title="Brachistochrone curve">brachistochrone curve</a> for any given starting point. <a href="/wiki/Johann_Bernoulli" title="Johann Bernoulli">Johann Bernoulli</a> posed the problem of the <a href="/wiki/Brachistochrone" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachistochrone">brachistochrone</a> to the readers of <i><a href="/wiki/Acta_Eruditorum" title="Acta Eruditorum">Acta Eruditorum</a></i> in June, 1696. He published his solution in the journal in May of the following year, and noted that the solution is the same curve as Huygens's <a href="/wiki/Tautochrone_curve" title="Tautochrone curve">tautochrone curve</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coupled_oscillation_(spontaneous_synchronization)_(1665)"><span id="Coupled_oscillation_.28spontaneous_synchronization.29_.281665.29"></span>Coupled oscillation (spontaneous synchronization) (1665)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Coupled oscillation (spontaneous synchronization) (1665)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> observed that two pendulum clocks mounted next to each other on the same support often become synchronized, swinging in opposite directions. In 1665, he reported the results by letter to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Society of London">Royal Society of London</a>. It is referred to as "an odd kind of sympathy" in the Society's minutes. This may be the first published observation of what is now called <i>coupled oscillations</i>. In the 20th century, <i>coupled oscillators</i> took on great practical importance because of two discoveries: <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">lasers</a>, in which different atoms give off light waves that oscillate in unison, and <a href="/wiki/Superconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Superconductor">superconductors</a>, in which pairs of electrons oscillate in synchrony, allowing electricity to flow with almost no resistance. <i>Coupled oscillators</i> are even more ubiquitous in nature, showing up, for example, in the synchronized flashing of fireflies and chirping of crickets, and in the pacemaker cells that regulate <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_cycle" title="Cardiac cycle">heartbeats</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine">Medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foundations_of_modern_(human)_anatomy_(1543)"><span id="Foundations_of_modern_.28human.29_anatomy_.281543.29"></span>Foundations of modern (human) anatomy (1543)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Foundations of modern (human) anatomy (1543)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vesalius_164frc.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Vesalius_164frc.png/200px-Vesalius_164frc.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="348" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Vesalius_164frc.png/300px-Vesalius_164frc.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Vesalius_164frc.png/400px-Vesalius_164frc.png 2x" data-file-width="819" data-file-height="1426" /></a><figcaption>One of the large, detailed illustrations in <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica">De humani corporis fabrica</a></i>, 1543</figcaption></figure> <p>Flemish anatomist and physician <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a> is often referred to as the founder of modern <a href="/wiki/Human_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Human anatomy">human anatomy</a> for the publication of the seven-volume <i><a href="/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica">De humani corporis fabrica</a></i> (<i>On the Structure of the Human Body</i>) in 1543. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Crystals_in_gouty_tophi_(1679)"><span id="Crystals_in_gouty_tophi_.281679.29"></span>Crystals in gouty tophi (1679)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Crystals in gouty tophi (1679)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1679, van Leeuwenhoek used a microscopes to assess tophaceous material and found that <a href="/wiki/Tophus" title="Tophus">gouty tophi</a> consist of aggregates of needle-shaped crystals, and not globules of chalk as was previously believed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Boerhaave_syndrome_(1724)"><span id="Boerhaave_syndrome_.281724.29"></span>Boerhaave syndrome (1724)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Boerhaave syndrome (1724)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Boerhaave_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Boerhaave syndrome">Boerhaave syndrome</a> (also known as <i>spontaneous esophageal perforation</i> or <i>esophageal rupture</i>) refers to an <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophageal</a> rupture secondary to forceful <a href="/wiki/Vomiting" title="Vomiting">vomiting</a>. Originally described in 1724 by Dutch physician/botanist <a href="/wiki/Herman_Boerhaave" title="Herman Boerhaave">Herman Boerhaave</a>, it is a rare condition with high mortality. The syndrome was described after the case of a Dutch admiral, Baron Jan von Wassenaer, who died of the condition. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Factor_V_Leiden_(1994)"><span id="Factor_V_Leiden_.281994.29"></span>Factor V Leiden (1994)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Factor V Leiden (1994)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Factor_V_Leiden" title="Factor V Leiden">Factor V Leiden</a> is an inherited disorder of blood clotting. It is a variant of human <a href="/wiki/Factor_V" title="Factor V">factor V</a> that causes a hypercoagulability disorder. It is named after the city Leiden, where it was first identified by R. Bertina, et al., in 1994. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microbiology">Microbiology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Microbiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Blood_cells_(1658)"><span id="Blood_cells_.281658.29"></span>Blood cells (1658)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Blood cells (1658)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1658 Dutch naturalist <a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Jan Swammerdam</a> was the first person to observe <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Red blood cells">red blood cells</a> under a microscope and in 1695, <a href="/wiki/Microscopist" class="mw-redirect" title="Microscopist">microscopist</a> <a href="/wiki/Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Antoni van Leeuwenhoek">Antoni van Leeuwenhoek</a>, also Dutch, was the first to draw an illustration of "red corpuscles", as they were called. No further <a href="/wiki/Blood_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood cells">blood cells</a> were discovered until 1842 when the <a href="/wiki/Platelets" class="mw-redirect" title="Platelets">platelets</a> were discovered. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Red_blood_cells_(1658)"><span id="Red_blood_cells_.281658.29"></span>Red blood cells (1658)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Red blood cells (1658)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first person to observe and describe <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cells</a> was Dutch biologist <a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Jan Swammerdam</a>, who had used an early microscope to study the <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> of a frog. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Micro-organisms_(1670s)"><span id="Micro-organisms_.281670s.29"></span>Micro-organisms (1670s)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: Micro-organisms (1670s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A resident of Delft, <a href="/wiki/Anton_van_Leeuwenhoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Anton van Leeuwenhoek">Anton van Leeuwenhoek</a>, used a high-power single-lens simple microscope to discover the world of <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">micro-organisms</a>. His simple microscopes were made of silver or copper frames, holding hand-ground lenses were capable of magnification up to 275 times. Using these he was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms, which he originally referred to as <i>animalcules</i>, and which now referred to as <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">micro-organisms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Microbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbe">microbes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruestow,_Edward_G._1996_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruestow,_Edward_G._1996-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Huerta,_Robert_D._2003_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huerta,_Robert_D._2003-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Burgess,_Jeremy_1990_p._186_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burgess,_Jeremy_1990_p._186-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infusoria" title="Infusoria">Infusoria</a> (1674) – Infusoria is a collective term for minute aquatic creatures including <a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">ciliate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euglena" title="Euglena">euglena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paramecium" title="Paramecium">paramecium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a> and unicellular <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> that exist in freshwater ponds. However, in formal classification <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganism</a> called infusoria belongs to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdom</a> <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">Phylum</a> <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">Protozoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">Class</a> <a href="/wiki/Ciliates" class="mw-redirect" title="Ciliates">Ciliates</a> (Infusoria). They were first discovered by <a href="/wiki/Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Antoni van Leeuwenhoek">Antoni van Leeuwenhoek</a>.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leishmania_donovani_01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Leishmania_donovani_01.png/200px-Leishmania_donovani_01.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Leishmania_donovani_01.png/300px-Leishmania_donovani_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Leishmania_donovani_01.png/400px-Leishmania_donovani_01.png 2x" data-file-width="1812" data-file-height="1201" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Leishmania" title="Leishmania">Leishmania</a> donovani</i>, (a species of protozoa) in a <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a> cell</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">Protozoa</a> (1674) – In 1674, <a href="/wiki/Van_Leeuwenhoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Van Leeuwenhoek">Van Leeuwenhoek</a> was the first person to observe and describe <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> (1676) – The first <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> were observed by van Leeuwenhoek in 1676 using his single-lens microscope.<sup id="cite_ref-Maczulak,_Anne_2010_p._12_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maczulak,_Anne_2010_p._12-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He described the creatures he saw as small creatures. The name <i>bacterium</i> was introduced much later, by <a href="/wiki/Christian_Gottfried_Ehrenberg" title="Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg">Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg</a> in 1828, derived from the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_word&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Greek word (page does not exist)">Greek word</a> βακτηριον meaning "small stick". Because of the difficulty in describing individual bacteria and the importance of their discovery, the study of bacteria is generally that of the study of <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiology</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperm_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperm cells">Sperm cells</a> (1677) – Sperm cells were first observed by <a href="/wiki/Anton_van_Leeuwenhoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Anton van Leeuwenhoek">Anton van Leeuwenhoek</a> in 1677. The term "<a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a>" refers to the male <a href="/wiki/Reproductive" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive">reproductive</a> <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>. A uniflagellar <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> cell that is <a href="/wiki/Motility" title="Motility">motile</a> is referred to as a "<a href="/wiki/Spermatozoon" title="Spermatozoon">spermatozoon</a>", whereas a non-motile <a href="/wiki/Sperm_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperm cell">sperm cell</a> is referred to as a "spermatium".</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatozoa">Spermatozoa</a> (1677) – A <a href="/wiki/Spermatozoon" title="Spermatozoon">spermatozoon</a> or spermatozoon (<i>pl.</i> spermatozoa), from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> <i>σπερμα</i> (seed) and <i>ζων</i> (alive) and more commonly known as a sperm cell, is the <a href="/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy">haploid</a> <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> that is the male <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gamete</a>. Sperm cells were first observed by a student of van Leeuwenhoek in 1677. Leeuwenhoek pictured sperm cells with great accuracy.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giardia_lamblia_SEM_8698_lores.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Giardia_lamblia_SEM_8698_lores.jpg/180px-Giardia_lamblia_SEM_8698_lores.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Giardia_lamblia_SEM_8698_lores.jpg/270px-Giardia_lamblia_SEM_8698_lores.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Giardia_lamblia_SEM_8698_lores.jpg/360px-Giardia_lamblia_SEM_8698_lores.jpg 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="737" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Giardia_lamblia" class="mw-redirect" title="Giardia lamblia">Giardia</a></i> trophozoite, <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">SEM</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Trophozoite" title="Trophozoite">trophozoite</a> form of <a href="/wiki/Giardia" title="Giardia">Giardia</a> was first observed in 1681 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in his own diarrhea stools.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giardia" title="Giardia">Giardia</a> (1681) – <i><a href="/wiki/Giardia" title="Giardia">Giardia</a></i> is a <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_organism" title="Anaerobic organism">anaerobic</a> <a href="/wiki/Flagellate" title="Flagellate">flagellated</a> <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoan</a> <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a> of the phylum Sarcomastigophora that colonise and reproduce in the small intestines of several <a href="/wiki/Vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrates">vertebrates</a>, causing <i><a href="/wiki/Giardiasis" title="Giardiasis">giardiasis</a></i>. Their life cycle alternates between an actively swimming <a href="/wiki/Trophozoite" title="Trophozoite">trophozoite</a> and an infective, resistant <a href="/wiki/Microbial_cyst" title="Microbial cyst">cyst</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Trophozoite" title="Trophozoite">trophozoite</a> form of <a href="/wiki/Giardia" title="Giardia">Giardia</a> was first observed in 1681 by <a href="/wiki/Van_Leeuwenhoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Van Leeuwenhoek">Van Leeuwenhoek</a> during observation of his own stool.<sup id="cite_ref-ErlandsenMeyer1984_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ErlandsenMeyer1984-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Volvox" title="Volvox">Volvox</a> (1700)- <a href="/wiki/Volvox" title="Volvox">Volvox</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorophyte">chlorophytes</a>, a type of <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a>. It forms spherical <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonies</a> of up to 50,000 cells. They live in a variety of <a href="/wiki/Freshwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater">freshwater</a> habitats, and were first reported by Van Leeuwenhoek in 1700. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biological_nitrogen_fixation_(1885)"><span id="Biological_nitrogen_fixation_.281885.29"></span>Biological nitrogen fixation (1885)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Biological nitrogen fixation (1885)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Biological <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a> was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Martinus_Beijerinck" title="Martinus Beijerinck">Martinus Beijerinck</a> in 1885. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rhizobium_(1888)"><span id="Rhizobium_.281888.29"></span>Rhizobium (1888)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Rhizobium (1888)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Rhizobium" title="Rhizobium">Rhizobium</a></i> is a <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gram-negative" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram-negative">Gram-negative</a> <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> that <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">fix nitrogen</a>. Rhizobium forms an <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbiotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixing</a> association with roots of <a href="/wiki/Legumes" class="mw-redirect" title="Legumes">legumes</a> and <i>Parasponia</i>. <a href="/wiki/Martinus_Beijerinck" title="Martinus Beijerinck">Martinus Beijerinck</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> was the first to isolate and cultivate a <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganism</a> from the nodules of legumes in 1888. He named it <i>Bacillus radicicola</i>, which is now placed in <i><a href="/wiki/Bergey%27s_Manual_of_Determinative_Bacteriology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology">Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology</a></i> under the genus Rhizobium. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spirillum_(first_isolated_sulfate-reducing_bacteria)_(1895)"><span id="Spirillum_.28first_isolated_sulfate-reducing_bacteria.29_.281895.29"></span>Spirillum (first isolated sulfate-reducing bacteria) (1895)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Spirillum (first isolated sulfate-reducing bacteria) (1895)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Martinus_Beijerinck" title="Martinus Beijerinck">Martinus Beijerinck</a> discovered the phenomenon of bacterial <a href="/wiki/Sulfate-reducing_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfate-reducing bacteria">sulfate reduction</a>, a form of <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_respiration" title="Anaerobic respiration">anaerobic respiration</a>. He learned that bacteria could use <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfate</a> as a terminal <a href="/wiki/Electron_acceptor" title="Electron acceptor">electron acceptor</a>, instead of oxygen. He isolated and described <i><a href="/wiki/Spirillum" title="Spirillum">Spirillum desulfuricans</a></i> (now called <i><a href="/wiki/Desulfovibrio_desulfuricans" title="Desulfovibrio desulfuricans">Desulfovibrio desulfuricans</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), the first known <a href="/wiki/Sulfate-reducing_bacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfate-reducing bacterium">sulfate-reducing bacterium</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Concept_of_virus_(1898)"><span id="Concept_of_virus_.281898.29"></span>Concept of virus (1898)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: Concept of virus (1898)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1898 Beijerinck coined the term "virus" to indicate that the causal agent of <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_mosaic_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Tobacco mosaic disease">tobacco mosaic disease</a> was non-bacterial. Beijerinck discovered what is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_mosaic_virus" title="Tobacco mosaic virus">tobacco mosaic virus</a>. He observed that the agent multiplied only in cells that were dividing and he called it a <a href="/wiki/Contagium_vivum_fluidum" title="Contagium vivum fluidum">contagium vivum fluidum</a> (<i>contagious living fluid</i>). Beijerinck's discovery is considered to be the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">virology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Azotobacter_(1901)"><span id="Azotobacter_.281901.29"></span>Azotobacter (1901)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: Azotobacter (1901)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Azotobacter" title="Azotobacter">Azotobacter</a></i> is a <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> of usually <a href="/wiki/Motility" title="Motility">motile</a>, oval or spherical <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> that form thick-walled <a href="/wiki/Cyst" title="Cyst">cysts</a> and may produce large quantities of capsular <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">slime</a>. They are aerobic, free-living soil <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microbes</a> which play an important role in the <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle" title="Nitrogen cycle">nitrogen cycle</a> in nature, binding atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, which is inaccessible to plants, and releasing it in the form of <a href="/wiki/Ammonium" title="Ammonium">ammonium</a> ions into the soil. Apart from being a <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organism</a>, it is used by humans for the production of <a href="/wiki/Biofertilizer" title="Biofertilizer">biofertilizers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">food additives</a>, and some <a href="/wiki/Biopolymer" title="Biopolymer">biopolymers</a>. The first representative of the genus, <i>Azotobacter chroococcum</i>, was discovered and described in 1901 by the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Microbiologist" title="Microbiologist">microbiologist</a> and botanist <a href="/wiki/Martinus_Beijerinck" title="Martinus Beijerinck">Martinus Beijerinck</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Enrichment_culture_(1904)"><span id="Enrichment_culture_.281904.29"></span>Enrichment culture (1904)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: Enrichment culture (1904)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beijerinck is credited with developing the first <a href="/wiki/Enrichment_culture" title="Enrichment culture">enrichment culture</a>, a fundamental method of studying microbes from the environment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physics">Physics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=81" title="Edit section: Physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="31_equal_temperament_(1661)"><span id="31_equal_temperament_.281661.29"></span>31 equal temperament (1661)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=82" title="Edit section: 31 equal temperament (1661)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Division of the <a href="/wiki/Octave" title="Octave">octave</a> into 31 steps arose naturally out of Renaissance <a href="/wiki/Music_theory" title="Music theory">music theory</a>; the lesser <a href="/wiki/Diesis" title="Diesis">diesis</a> – the ratio of an octave to three major thirds, 128:125 or 41.06 cents – was approximately a <a href="/wiki/Interval_(music)" title="Interval (music)">fifth</a> of a tone and a third of a <a href="/wiki/Semitone" title="Semitone">semitone</a>. In 1666, <a href="/wiki/Lemme_Rossi" title="Lemme Rossi">Lemme Rossi</a> first proposed an equal temperament of this order. Shortly thereafter, having discovered it independently, scientist <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> wrote about it also. Since the standard system of <a href="/wiki/Musical_tuning" title="Musical tuning">tuning</a> at that time was <a href="/wiki/Quarter-comma_meantone" title="Quarter-comma meantone">quarter-comma meantone</a>, in which the fifth is tuned to 5<sup>1/4</sup>, the appeal of this method was immediate, as the fifth of 31-et, at 696.77 cents, is only 0.19 cent wider than the fifth of quarter-comma meantone. Huygens not only realized this, he went farther and noted that 31-ET provides an excellent approximation of septimal, or <a href="/wiki/Limit_(music)" title="Limit (music)">7-limit</a> harmony. In the twentieth century, physicist, music theorist and composer <a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Fokker" title="Adriaan Fokker">Adriaan Fokker</a>, after reading Huygens's work, led a revival of interest in this system of tuning which led to a number of compositions, particularly by Dutch composers. Fokker designed the <a href="/wiki/Fokker_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Fokker organ">Fokker organ</a>, a 31-tone equal-tempered organ, which was installed in <a href="/wiki/Teylers_Museum" title="Teylers Museum">Teyler's Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Haarlem" title="Haarlem">Haarlem</a> in 1951. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Polarization_of_light_(1678)"><span id="Polarization_of_light_.281678.29"></span>Polarization of light (1678)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=83" title="Edit section: Polarization of light (1678)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1678, <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a> discovered the <a href="/wiki/Polarization_of_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Polarization of light">polarization of light</a> by <a href="/wiki/Double_refraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Double refraction">double refraction</a> in <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Huygens'_principle_(concepts_of_the_wavefront_and_wavelet)_(1690)"><span id="Huygens.27_principle_.28concepts_of_the_wavefront_and_wavelet.29_.281690.29"></span>Huygens' principle (concepts of the wavefront and wavelet) (1690)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=84" title="Edit section: Huygens' principle (concepts of the wavefront and wavelet) (1690)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his <i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatise on light">Treatise on light</a></i>, Huygens showed how <a href="/wiki/Snell%27s_law" title="Snell's law">Snell's law</a> of sines could be explained by, or derived from, the <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">wave</a> nature of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a>, using the <a href="/wiki/Huygens%E2%80%93Fresnel_principle" title="Huygens–Fresnel principle">Huygens–Fresnel principle</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bernoulli's_principle_(1738)"><span id="Bernoulli.27s_principle_.281738.29"></span>Bernoulli's principle (1738)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=85" title="Edit section: Bernoulli's principle (1738)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bernoulli%27s_principle" title="Bernoulli's principle">Bernoulli's principle</a> was discovered by Dutch-Swiss mathematician and physicist <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bernoulli" title="Daniel Bernoulli">Daniel Bernoulli</a> and named after him. It states that for an <a href="/wiki/Inviscid_flow" title="Inviscid flow">inviscid flow</a>, an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brownian_motion_(1785)"><span id="Brownian_motion_.281785.29"></span>Brownian motion (1785)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=86" title="Edit section: Brownian motion (1785)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1785, Ingenhousz described the irregular movement of <a href="/wiki/Coal_dust" title="Coal dust">coal dust</a> on the surface of alcohol and therefore has a claim as discoverer of what came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion" title="Brownian motion">Brownian motion</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Buys_Ballot's_law_(1857)"><span id="Buys_Ballot.27s_law_.281857.29"></span>Buys Ballot's law (1857)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=87" title="Edit section: Buys Ballot's law (1857)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The law takes its name from Dutch meteorologist <a href="/wiki/C._H._D._Buys_Ballot" title="C. H. D. Buys Ballot">C. H. D. Buys Ballot</a>, who published it in the <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, in November 1857. While <a href="/wiki/William_Ferrel" title="William Ferrel">William Ferrel</a> first theorized this in 1856, Buys Ballot was the first to provide an <a href="/wiki/Empirical_validation" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical validation">empirical validation</a>. The law states that in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere">Northern Hemisphere</a>, if a person stands with his back to the wind, the low pressure area will be on his left, because wind travels counterclockwise around low pressure zones in that <a href="/wiki/Hemisphere_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemisphere of the Earth">hemisphere</a>. this is approximately true in the higher latitudes and is reversed in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere" title="Southern Hemisphere">Southern Hemisphere</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foundations_of_molecular_physics_(1873)"><span id="Foundations_of_molecular_physics_.281873.29"></span>Foundations of molecular physics (1873)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=88" title="Edit section: Foundations of molecular physics (1873)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spearheaded by <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Mach</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Ostwald" title="Wilhelm Ostwald">Ostwald</a>, a strong philosophical current that denied the existence of <a href="/wiki/Molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecules">molecules</a> arose towards the end of the 19th century. The molecular existence was considered unproven and the molecular hypothesis unnecessary. At the time Van der Waals' thesis was written (1873), the <a href="/wiki/Molecular_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular structure">molecular structure</a> of <a href="/wiki/Fluids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluids">fluids</a> had not been accepted by most physicists, and <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vapor" title="Vapor">vapor</a> were often considered as chemically distinct. But <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Diderik_van_der_Waals" title="Johannes Diderik van der Waals">Van der Waals</a>'s work affirmed the reality of molecules and allowed an assessment of their size and <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Van der Waals forces">attractive strength</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By comparing <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_equation_of_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Van der Waals equation of state">his equation of state</a> with experimental data, Van der Waals was able to obtain estimates for the actual size of molecules and the strength of <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Van der Waals forces">their mutual attraction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_constants_(data_page)" title="Van der Waals constants (data page)">introducing parameters</a> characterizing molecular size and attraction in constructing his <a href="/wiki/Equation_of_state" title="Equation of state">equation of state</a>, Van der Waals set the tone for <a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">molecular physics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Molecular_dynamics" title="Molecular dynamics">molecular dynamics</a> in particular) of the 20th century. That molecular aspects such as size, shape, attraction, and <a href="/wiki/Intermolecular_force" title="Intermolecular force">multipolar interactions</a> should form the basis for mathematical formulations of the thermodynamic and transport properties of <a href="/wiki/Fluids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluids">fluids</a> is presently considered an axiom.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Van_der_Waals_equation_of_state_(1873)"><span id="Van_der_Waals_equation_of_state_.281873.29"></span>Van der Waals equation of state (1873)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=89" title="Edit section: Van der Waals equation of state (1873)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1873, <a href="/wiki/J._D._van_der_Waals" class="mw-redirect" title="J. D. van der Waals">J. D. van der Waals</a> introduced the <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_equation_of_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Van der Waals equation of state">first equation of state</a> derived by the assumption of a finite volume occupied by the constituent <a href="/wiki/Molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecules">molecules</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_equation" title="Van der Waals equation">Van der Waals equation</a> is generally regarded as the first somewhat realistic <a href="/wiki/Equation_of_state" title="Equation of state">equation of state</a> (beyond the ideal gas law). Van der Waals noted the <a href="/wiki/Ideal_gas" title="Ideal gas">non-ideality</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Gases">gases</a> and attributed it to the existence of <a href="/wiki/Intermolecular_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Intermolecular interaction">molecular</a> or atomic interactions. His new formula revolutionized the study of equations of state, and was most famously continued via the <a href="/wiki/Redlich-Kwong_equation_of_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Redlich-Kwong equation of state">Redlich-Kwong equation of state</a> (1949) and the Soave modification of Redlich-Kwong. While the Van der Waals equation is definitely superior to the <a href="/wiki/Ideal_gas_law" title="Ideal gas law">ideal gas law</a> and does predict the formation of a <a href="/wiki/Liquid_phase" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid phase">liquid phase</a>, the agreement with experimental data is limited for conditions where the liquid forms. Except at higher pressures, the <a href="/wiki/Real_gas" title="Real gas">real gases</a> do not obey <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_equation" title="Van der Waals equation">Van der Waals equation</a> in all ranges of pressures and temperatures. Despite its limitations, the equation has historical importance, because it was the first attempt to model the behaviour of <a href="/wiki/Real_gas" title="Real gas">real gases</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Van_der_Waals_forces_(1873)"><span id="Van_der_Waals_forces_.281873.29"></span>Van der Waals forces (1873)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=90" title="Edit section: Van der Waals forces (1873)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force" title="Van der Waals force">van der Waals forces</a> are named after the scientist who first described them in 1873. <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Diderik_van_der_Waals" title="Johannes Diderik van der Waals">Johannes Diderik van der Waals</a> noted the non-ideality of gases and attributed it to the existence of molecular or atomic interactions. They are forces that develop between the atoms inside molecules and keep them together.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Van der Waals forces between molecules, much weaker than <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical bonds">chemical bonds</a> but present universally, play a role in fields as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">supramolecular chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">structural biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">polymer science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">surface science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Van_der_Waals_radius_(1873)"><span id="Van_der_Waals_radius_.281873.29"></span>Van der Waals radius (1873)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=91" title="Edit section: Van der Waals radius (1873)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_radius" title="Van der Waals radius">Van der Waals radius</a>, <i>r</i><sub>w</sub>, of an <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> is the radius of an imaginary hard <a href="/wiki/Sphere" title="Sphere">sphere</a> which can be used to model the atom for many purposes. It is named after <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Diderik_van_der_Waals" title="Johannes Diderik van der Waals">Johannes Diderik van der Waals</a>, winner of the 1910 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a>, as he was the first to recognise that atoms were not simply <a href="/wiki/Point_(geometry)" title="Point (geometry)">points</a> and to demonstrate the physical consequences of their size through the <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_equation" title="Van der Waals equation">van der Waals equation of state</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Law_of_corresponding_states_(1880)"><span id="Law_of_corresponding_states_.281880.29"></span>Law of corresponding states (1880)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=92" title="Edit section: Law of corresponding states (1880)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Theorem_of_corresponding_states" title="Theorem of corresponding states">law of corresponding states</a> was first suggested and formulated by van der Waals in 1880. This showed that the van der Waals equation of state can be expressed as a simple function of the critical pressure, critical volume and critical temperature. This general form is applicable to all substances. The compound-specific constants a and b in the original equation are replaced by universal (compound-independent) quantities. It was this law that served as a guide during experiments which ultimately led to the <a href="/wiki/Liquefaction" title="Liquefaction">liquefaction</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> by <a href="/wiki/James_Dewar" title="James Dewar">James Dewar</a> in 1898 and of <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> by <a href="/wiki/Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes" title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes">Heike Kamerlingh Onnes</a> in 1908. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lorentz_ether_theory_(1892)"><span id="Lorentz_ether_theory_.281892.29"></span>Lorentz ether theory (1892)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=93" title="Edit section: Lorentz ether theory (1892)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lorentz_ether_theory" title="Lorentz ether theory">Lorentz ether theory</a> has its roots in <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a>'s "theory of electrons", which was the final point in the development of the classical <a href="/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)" title="Aether (classical element)">aether</a> theories at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century. Lorentz's initial theory created in 1892 and 1895 was based on a completely motionless aether. Many aspects of Lorentz's theory were incorporated into <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a> with the works of <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Minkowski" title="Hermann Minkowski">Hermann Minkowski</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lorentz_force_law_(1892)"><span id="Lorentz_force_law_.281892.29"></span>Lorentz force law (1892)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=94" title="Edit section: Lorentz force law (1892)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lorentz_force_particle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Lorentz_force_particle.svg/180px-Lorentz_force_particle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Lorentz_force_particle.svg/270px-Lorentz_force_particle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Lorentz_force_particle.svg/360px-Lorentz_force_particle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="325" data-file-height="345" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lorentz_force" title="Lorentz force">Lorentz force</a> <b>F</b> on a <a href="/wiki/Charged_particle" title="Charged particle">charged particle</a> (of <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">charge</a> <i>q</i>) in motion (instantaneous velocity <b>v</b>). The <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field"><b>E</b> field</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field"><b>B</b> field</a> vary in space and time.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1892, <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a> derived the modern form of the formula for the electromagnetic force which includes the contributions to the total force from both the electric and the magnetic fields.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many textbook treatments of classical electromagnetism, the <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_force_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorentz force law">Lorentz force law</a> is used as the <i>definition</i> of the electric and magnetic fields <b>E</b> and <b>B</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson20_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson20-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To be specific, the Lorentz force is understood to be the following empirical statement: </p> <dl><dd><i>The electromagnetic force <b>F</b> on a <a href="/wiki/Test_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Test charge">test charge</a> at a given point and time is a certain function of its charge </i>q<i> and velocity <b>v</b>, which can be parameterized by exactly two vectors <b>E</b> and <b>B</b>, in the functional form</i>:</dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =q(\mathbf {E} +\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} )}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">F</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mi>q</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">E</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">v</mi> </mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =q(\mathbf {E} +\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} )}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a3dd99e3bd55cbeff1cd2506d944405f3efa9e0c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:18.41ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =q(\mathbf {E} +\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} )}"></span></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abraham–Lorentz_force_(1895)"><span id="Abraham.E2.80.93Lorentz_force_.281895.29"></span>Abraham–Lorentz force (1895)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=95" title="Edit section: Abraham–Lorentz force (1895)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the physics of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Abraham%E2%80%93Lorentz_force" title="Abraham–Lorentz force">Abraham–Lorentz force</a> (also <i>Lorentz-Abraham force</i>) is the <a href="/wiki/Recoil" title="Recoil">recoil</a> <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a> on an <a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">accelerating</a> <a href="/wiki/Charged_particle" title="Charged particle">charged particle</a> caused by the particle emitting <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>. It is also called the <i>radiation reaction force</i> or the <i>self force</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lorentz_transformation_(1895)"><span id="Lorentz_transformation_.281895.29"></span>Lorentz transformation (1895)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=96" title="Edit section: Lorentz transformation (1895)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In physics, the <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_transformation" title="Lorentz transformation">Lorentz transformation</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_transformations" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorentz transformations">Lorentz transformations</a>) is named after the Dutch physicist <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a>. It was the result of attempts by Lorentz and others to explain how the speed of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> was observed to be independent of the <a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">reference frame</a>, and to understand the symmetries of the laws of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>. The Lorentz transformation is in accordance with <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>, but was derived before special relativity. Early approximations of the transformation were published by Lorentz in 1895. In 1905, <a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Poincaré</a> was the first to recognize that the transformation has the properties of a <a href="/wiki/Group_(mathematics)" title="Group (mathematics)">mathematical group</a>, and named it after Lorentz. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lorentz_contraction_(1895)"><span id="Lorentz_contraction_.281895.29"></span>Lorentz contraction (1895)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=97" title="Edit section: Lorentz contraction (1895)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In physics, <a href="/wiki/Length_contraction" title="Length contraction">length contraction</a> (more formally called <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_contraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorentz contraction">Lorentz contraction</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lorentz%E2%80%93FitzGerald_contraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorentz–FitzGerald contraction">Lorentz–FitzGerald contraction</a> after <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Francis_FitzGerald" title="George Francis FitzGerald">George FitzGerald</a>) is the phenomenon of a decrease in length measured by the observer, of an object which is traveling at any non-zero velocity relative to the observer. This contraction is usually only noticeable at a substantial fraction of the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lorentz_factor_(1895)"><span id="Lorentz_factor_.281895.29"></span>Lorentz factor (1895)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=98" title="Edit section: Lorentz factor (1895)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_factor" title="Lorentz factor">Lorentz factor</a> or <i>Lorentz term</i> is the factor by which time, length, and <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativistic mass">relativistic mass</a> change for an object while that object is moving. It is an expression which appears in several equations in <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>, and it arises from deriving the <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_transformation" title="Lorentz transformation">Lorentz transformations</a>. The name originates from its earlier appearance in <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_ether_theory" title="Lorentz ether theory">Lorentzian electrodynamics</a> – named after the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> physicist <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Zeeman_effect_(1896)"><span id="Zeeman_effect_.281896.29"></span>Zeeman effect (1896)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=99" title="Edit section: Zeeman effect (1896)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EinsteinZeemanEhrenfest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/EinsteinZeemanEhrenfest.jpg/180px-EinsteinZeemanEhrenfest.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/EinsteinZeemanEhrenfest.jpg/270px-EinsteinZeemanEhrenfest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/EinsteinZeemanEhrenfest.jpg/360px-EinsteinZeemanEhrenfest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2800" data-file-height="2124" /></a><figcaption>Discoverer of the <a href="/wiki/Zeeman_effect" title="Zeeman effect">Zeeman effect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Zeeman" title="Pieter Zeeman">Pieter Zeeman</a> with <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrenfest" title="Paul Ehrenfest">Paul Ehrenfest</a> in his laboratory in Amsterdam (circa 1920).</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Zeeman_effect" title="Zeeman effect">Zeeman effect</a>, named after the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> physicist <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Zeeman" title="Pieter Zeeman">Pieter Zeeman</a>, is the effect of splitting a <a href="/wiki/Spectral_line" title="Spectral line">spectral line</a> into several components in the presence of a static <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a>. It is analogous to the <a href="/wiki/Stark_effect" title="Stark effect">Stark effect</a>, the splitting of a spectral line into several components in the presence of an <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a>. Also similar to the Stark effect, transitions between different components have, in general, different intensities, with some being entirely forbidden (in the <a href="/wiki/Dipole" title="Dipole">dipole</a> approximation), as governed by the <a href="/wiki/Selection_rule" title="Selection rule">selection rules</a>. </p><p>Since the distance between the Zeeman sub-levels is a function of the magnetic field, this effect can be used to measure the magnetic field, e.g. that of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a> or in laboratory <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasmas</a>. The Zeeman effect is important in applications such as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">nuclear magnetic resonance</a> spectroscopy, <a href="/wiki/Electron_spin_resonance" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron spin resonance">electron spin resonance</a> spectroscopy, <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a> (MRI) and <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_spectroscopy" title="Mössbauer spectroscopy">Mössbauer spectroscopy</a>. It may also be utilized to improve accuracy in <a href="/wiki/Atomic_absorption_spectroscopy" title="Atomic absorption spectroscopy">atomic absorption spectroscopy</a>. </p><p>A theory about the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_sense" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic sense">magnetic sense</a> of birds assumes that a protein in the retina is changed due to the Zeeman effect.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the spectral lines are absorption lines, the effect is called <i>inverse Zeeman effect</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Liquid_helium_(liquefaction_of_helium)_(1908)"><span id="Liquid_helium_.28liquefaction_of_helium.29_.281908.29"></span>Liquid helium (liquefaction of helium) (1908)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=100" title="Edit section: Liquid helium (liquefaction of helium) (1908)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2_Helium.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/2_Helium.png/220px-2_Helium.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/2_Helium.png/330px-2_Helium.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/2_Helium.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="215" /></a><figcaption>Liquid helium in a cup.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">Helium</a> was first liquefied (<a href="/wiki/Liquid_helium" title="Liquid helium">liquid helium</a>) on 10 July 1908, by Dutch physicist <a href="/wiki/Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes" title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes">Heike Kamerlingh Onnes</a>. With the production of <a href="/wiki/Liquid_helium" title="Liquid helium">liquid helium</a>, it was said that "the coldest place on Earth" was in <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Superconductivity_(1911)"><span id="Superconductivity_.281911.29"></span>Superconductivity (1911)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=101" title="Edit section: Superconductivity (1911)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ehrenfest_Lorentz_Bohr_Kamerlingh_Onnes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Ehrenfest_Lorentz_Bohr_Kamerlingh_Onnes.jpg/220px-Ehrenfest_Lorentz_Bohr_Kamerlingh_Onnes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Ehrenfest_Lorentz_Bohr_Kamerlingh_Onnes.jpg/330px-Ehrenfest_Lorentz_Bohr_Kamerlingh_Onnes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Ehrenfest_Lorentz_Bohr_Kamerlingh_Onnes.jpg/440px-Ehrenfest_Lorentz_Bohr_Kamerlingh_Onnes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="348" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrenfest" title="Paul Ehrenfest">Paul Ehrenfest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> visit <a href="/wiki/Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes" title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes">Heike Kamerlingh Onnes</a> in the cryogenic lab (where Onnes discovered the <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenon</a> of <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">superconductivity</a> in 1911).</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">Superconductivity</a>, the ability of certain materials to conduct electricity with little or no resistance, was discovered by Dutch physicist <a href="/wiki/Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes" title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes">Heike Kamerlingh Onnes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Einstein–de_Haas_effect_(1910s)"><span id="Einstein.E2.80.93de_Haas_effect_.281910s.29"></span>Einstein–de Haas effect (1910s)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=102" title="Edit section: Einstein–de Haas effect (1910s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93de_Haas_effect" title="Einstein–de Haas effect">Einstein–de Haas effect</a> or the <i>Richardson effect</i> (after <a href="/wiki/Owen_Willans_Richardson" title="Owen Willans Richardson">Owen Willans Richardson</a>), is a physical phenomenon delineated by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wander_Johannes_de_Haas" title="Wander Johannes de Haas">Wander Johannes de Haas</a> in the mid-1910s, that exposes a relationship between <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum" title="Angular momentum">angular momentum</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Electron_magnetic_moment" title="Electron magnetic moment">spin</a> of elementary particles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Debye_model_(1912)"><span id="Debye_model_.281912.29"></span>Debye model (1912)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=103" title="Edit section: Debye model (1912)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solid_state_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid state physics">solid state physics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Debye_model" title="Debye model">Debye model</a> is a method developed by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a> in 1912 for estimating the <a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">phonon</a> contribution to the <a href="/wiki/Specific_heat" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific heat">specific heat</a> (heat capacity) in a <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It treats the <a href="/wiki/Oscillation" title="Oscillation">vibrations</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure#Classification" title="Crystal structure">atomic lattice</a> (heat) as <a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">phonons</a> in a box, in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Einstein_solid" title="Einstein solid">Einstein model</a>, which treats the solid as many individual, non-interacting <a href="/wiki/Quantum_harmonic_oscillator" title="Quantum harmonic oscillator">quantum harmonic oscillators</a>. The Debye model correctly predicts the low temperature dependence of the heat capacity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="De_Sitter_precession_(1916)"><span id="De_Sitter_precession_.281916.29"></span>De Sitter precession (1916)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=104" title="Edit section: De Sitter precession (1916)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Geodetic_effect" title="Geodetic effect">geodetic effect</a> (also known as geodetic precession, <a href="/wiki/De_Sitter_precession" class="mw-redirect" title="De Sitter precession">de Sitter precession</a> or <a href="/wiki/De_Sitter_precession" class="mw-redirect" title="De Sitter precession">de Sitter effect</a>) represents the effect of the curvature of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a>, predicted by <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a>, on a vector carried along with an orbiting body. The geodetic effect was first predicted by <a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Sitter" title="Willem de Sitter">Willem de Sitter</a> in 1916, who provided relativistic corrections to the Earth–Moon system's motion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="De_Sitter_space_and_anti-de_Sitter_space_(1920s)"><span id="De_Sitter_space_and_anti-de_Sitter_space_.281920s.29"></span>De Sitter space and anti-de Sitter space (1920s)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=105" title="Edit section: De Sitter space and anti-de Sitter space (1920s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In mathematics and physics, a <a href="/wiki/De_Sitter_space" title="De Sitter space">de Sitter space</a> is the analog in <a href="/wiki/Minkowski_space" title="Minkowski space">Minkowski space</a>, or spacetime, of a sphere in ordinary, <a href="/wiki/Euclidean_space" title="Euclidean space">Euclidean space</a>. The <i>n</i>-dimensional de Sitter space, denoted dS<sub><i>n</i></sub>, is the <a href="/wiki/Lorentzian_manifold" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorentzian manifold">Lorentzian manifold</a> analog of an <a href="/wiki/N-sphere" title="N-sphere"><i>n</i>-sphere</a> (with its canonical <a href="/wiki/Riemannian_metric" class="mw-redirect" title="Riemannian metric">Riemannian metric</a>); it is maximally <a href="/wiki/Symmetric" class="mw-redirect" title="Symmetric">symmetric</a>, has constant positive <a href="/wiki/Scalar_curvature" title="Scalar curvature">curvature</a>, and is <a href="/wiki/Simply_connected" class="mw-redirect" title="Simply connected">simply connected</a> for <i>n</i> at least 3. The de Sitter space, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Anti-de_Sitter_space" title="Anti-de Sitter space">anti-de Sitter space</a> is named after <a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Sitter" title="Willem de Sitter">Willem de Sitter</a> (1872–1934), professor of astronomy at <a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden University</a> and director of the <a href="/wiki/Leiden_Observatory" title="Leiden Observatory">Leiden Observatory</a>. Willem de Sitter and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> worked in the 1920s in <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a> closely together on the spacetime structure of our universe. De Sitter space was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Sitter" title="Willem de Sitter">Willem de Sitter</a>, and, at the same time, independently by <a href="/wiki/Tullio_Levi-Civita" title="Tullio Levi-Civita">Tullio Levi-Civita</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Van_der_Pol_oscillator_(1920)"><span id="Van_der_Pol_oscillator_.281920.29"></span>Van der Pol oscillator (1920)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=106" title="Edit section: Van der Pol oscillator (1920)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Dynamical_system" title="Dynamical system">dynamical systems</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Pol_oscillator" title="Van der Pol oscillator">Van der Pol oscillator</a> is a non-conservative <a href="/wiki/Oscillator" class="mw-redirect" title="Oscillator">oscillator</a> with non-linear <a href="/wiki/Damping_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Damping ratio">damping</a>. It was originally proposed by Dutch physicist <a href="/wiki/Balthasar_van_der_Pol" title="Balthasar van der Pol">Balthasar van der Pol</a> while he was working at Philips in 1920. Van der Pol studied a <a href="/wiki/Differential_equation" title="Differential equation">differential equation</a> that describes the circuit of a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tube</a>. It has been used to model other phenomenon such as human <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_cycle" title="Cardiac cycle">heartbeats</a> by colleague Jan van der Mark. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kramers'_opacity_law_(1923)"><span id="Kramers.27_opacity_law_.281923.29"></span>Kramers' opacity law (1923)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=107" title="Edit section: Kramers' opacity law (1923)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Kramers%27_opacity_law" title="Kramers' opacity law">Kramers' opacity law</a> describes the <a href="/wiki/Opacity_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Opacity (optics)">opacity</a> of a medium in terms of the ambient <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, assuming that the opacity is dominated by <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">bound-free absorption</a> (the absorption of light during ionization of a bound <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Free-free_absorption" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-free absorption">free-free absorption</a> (the absorption of light when scattering a free ion, also called <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">bremsstrahlung</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is often used to model <a href="/wiki/Radiative_transfer" title="Radiative transfer">radiative transfer</a>, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Stellar_atmosphere" title="Stellar atmosphere">stellar atmospheres</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relation is named after the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_people" title="Dutch people">Dutch</a> <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Kramers" class="mw-redirect" title="Hendrik Kramers">Hendrik Kramers</a>, who first derived the form in 1923.<sup id="cite_ref-Carroll274_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carroll274-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electron_spin_(1925)"><span id="Electron_spin_.281925.29"></span>Electron spin (1925)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=108" title="Edit section: Electron spin (1925)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1925, Dutch physicists <a href="/wiki/George_Eugene_Uhlenbeck" class="mw-redirect" title="George Eugene Uhlenbeck">George Eugene Uhlenbeck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Goudsmit" title="Samuel Goudsmit">Samuel Goudsmit</a> co-discovered the concept of <a href="/wiki/Electron_spin" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron spin">electron spin</a>, which posits an intrinsic <a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum" title="Angular momentum">angular momentum</a> for all electrons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Solidification_of_helium_(1926)"><span id="Solidification_of_helium_.281926.29"></span>Solidification of helium (1926)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=109" title="Edit section: Solidification of helium (1926)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1926, Onnes' student, Dutch physicist <a href="/wiki/Willem_Hendrik_Keesom" title="Willem Hendrik Keesom">Willem Hendrik Keesom</a>, invented a method to freeze <a href="/wiki/Liquid_helium" title="Liquid helium">liquid helium</a> and was the first person who was able to solidify the noble gas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ehrenfest_theorem_(1927)"><span id="Ehrenfest_theorem_.281927.29"></span>Ehrenfest theorem (1927)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=110" title="Edit section: Ehrenfest theorem (1927)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ehrenfest_theorem" title="Ehrenfest theorem">Ehrenfest theorem</a>, named after the Austrian-born <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Jew">Dutch-Jew</a> theoretical physicist <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrenfest" title="Paul Ehrenfest">Paul Ehrenfest</a> at <a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden University</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="De_Haas–van_Alphen_effect_(1930)"><span id="De_Haas.E2.80.93van_Alphen_effect_.281930.29"></span>De Haas–van Alphen effect (1930)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=111" title="Edit section: De Haas–van Alphen effect (1930)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/De_Haas%E2%80%93van_Alphen_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="De Haas–van Alphen effect">de Haas–van Alphen effect</a>, often abbreviated to dHvA, is a <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanical" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum mechanical">quantum mechanical</a> effect in which the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_moment" title="Magnetic moment">magnetic moment</a> of a pure metal <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystal</a> oscillates as the intensity of an applied <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a> B is increased. It was discovered in 1930 by <a href="/wiki/Wander_Johannes_de_Haas" title="Wander Johannes de Haas">Wander Johannes de Haas</a> and his student P. M. van Alphen. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shubnikov–de_Haas_effect_(1930)"><span id="Shubnikov.E2.80.93de_Haas_effect_.281930.29"></span>Shubnikov–de Haas effect (1930)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=112" title="Edit section: Shubnikov–de Haas effect (1930)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Shubnikov%E2%80%93de_Haas_effect" title="Shubnikov–de Haas effect">Shubnikov–de Haas effect</a> (ShdH) is named after Dutch physicist <a href="/wiki/Wander_Johannes_de_Haas" title="Wander Johannes de Haas">Wander Johannes de Haas</a> and Russian physicist <a href="/wiki/Lev_Shubnikov" title="Lev Shubnikov">Lev Shubnikov</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kramers_degeneracy_theorem_(1930)"><span id="Kramers_degeneracy_theorem_.281930.29"></span>Kramers degeneracy theorem (1930)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=113" title="Edit section: Kramers degeneracy theorem (1930)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In quantum mechanics, the <a href="/wiki/Kramers_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Kramers theorem">Kramers degeneracy theorem</a> states that for every energy eigenstate of a <a href="/wiki/T-symmetry" title="T-symmetry">time-reversal symmetric</a> system with half-integer total spin, there is at least one more eigenstate with the same energy. It was first discovered in 1930 by <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Anthony_Kramers" class="mw-redirect" title="Hendrik Anthony Kramers">H. A. Kramers</a><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as a consequence of the <a href="/wiki/Breit_equation" title="Breit equation">Breit equation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Minnaert_resonance_frequency_(1933)"><span id="Minnaert_resonance_frequency_.281933.29"></span>Minnaert resonance frequency (1933)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=114" title="Edit section: Minnaert resonance frequency (1933)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1933, <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Minnaert" title="Marcel Minnaert">Marcel Minnaert</a> published a solution for the <a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">acoustic</a> <a href="/wiki/Resonance_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Resonance frequency">resonance frequency</a> of a single <a href="/wiki/Liquid_bubble" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid bubble">bubble</a> in <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Minnaert_resonance" title="Minnaert resonance">Minnaert resonance</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Minnaert_resonance" title="Minnaert resonance">Minnaert resonance</a> or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Minnaert_frequency&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Minnaert frequency (page does not exist)">Minnaert frequency</a><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the <a href="/wiki/Acoustic_resonance" title="Acoustic resonance">acoustic</a> <a href="/wiki/Resonance" title="Resonance">resonance</a> frequency of a single bubble in an infinite domain of water (neglecting the effects of <a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">surface tension</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscous</a> <a href="/wiki/Attenuation" title="Attenuation">attenuation</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Casimir_effect_(1948)"><span id="Casimir_effect_.281948.29"></span>Casimir effect (1948)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=115" title="Edit section: Casimir effect (1948)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In quantum field theory, the <a href="/wiki/Casimir_effect" title="Casimir effect">Casimir effect</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Casimir%E2%80%93Polder_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Casimir–Polder force">Casimir–Polder force</a> are physical forces arising from a quantized field. Dutch physicists <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Casimir" title="Hendrik Casimir">Hendrik Casimir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dirk_Polder" title="Dirk Polder">Dirk Polder</a> at Philips Research Labs proposed the existence of a force between two polarizable atoms and between such an atom and a conducting plate in 1947. After a conversation with <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> who suggested it had something to do with zero-point energy, Casimir alone formulated the theory predicting a force between neutral conducting plates in 1948; the former is called the Casimir–Polder force while the latter is the Casimir effect in the narrow sense. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tellegen's_theorem_(1952)"><span id="Tellegen.27s_theorem_.281952.29"></span>Tellegen's theorem (1952)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=116" title="Edit section: Tellegen's theorem (1952)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Tellegen%27s_theorem" title="Tellegen's theorem">Tellegen's theorem</a> is one of the most powerful theorems in <a href="/wiki/Network_theory" title="Network theory">network theory</a>. Most of the energy distribution theorems and extremum principles in network theory can be derived from it. It was published in 1952 by <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Tellegen" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard Tellegen">Bernard Tellegen</a>. Fundamentally, Tellegen's theorem gives a simple relation between magnitudes that satisfy <a href="/wiki/Kirchhoff%27s_circuit_laws" title="Kirchhoff's circuit laws">Kirchhoff's laws</a> of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_circuit_theory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Electrical circuit theory (page does not exist)">electrical circuit theory</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stochastic_cooling_(1970s)"><span id="Stochastic_cooling_.281970s.29"></span>Stochastic cooling (1970s)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=117" title="Edit section: Stochastic cooling (1970s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 1970s <a href="/wiki/Simon_van_der_Meer" title="Simon van der Meer">Simon van der Meer</a>, a Dutch particle physicist at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>, discovered this technique to concentrate proton and anti-proton beams, leading to the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/W_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="W particle">W</a> and <a href="/wiki/Z_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Z particle">Z particles</a>. He won the 1984 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> together with <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rubbia" title="Carlo Rubbia">Carlo Rubbia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Renormalization_of_gauge_theories_(1971)"><span id="Renormalization_of_gauge_theories_.281971.29"></span>Renormalization of gauge theories (1971)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=118" title="Edit section: Renormalization of gauge theories (1971)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1971, <a href="/wiki/Gerardus_%27t_Hooft" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerardus 't Hooft">Gerardus 't Hooft</a>, who was completing his PhD under the supervision of Dutch theoretical physicist <a href="/wiki/Martinus_Veltman" class="mw-redirect" title="Martinus Veltman">Martinus Veltman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renormalization" title="Renormalization">renormalized</a> <a href="/wiki/Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory" title="Yang–Mills theory">Yang–Mills theory</a>. They showed that if the symmetries of Yang–Mills theory were to be realized in the <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking" title="Spontaneous symmetry breaking">spontaneously broken</a> mode, referred to as the Higgs mechanism, then Yang–Mills theory can be renormalized.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Renormalization of Yang–Mills theory is considered as a major achievement of twentieth century physics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Holographic_principle_(1993)"><span id="Holographic_principle_.281993.29"></span>Holographic principle (1993)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=119" title="Edit section: Holographic principle (1993)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Holographic_principle" title="Holographic principle">holographic principle</a> is a property of <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">string theories</a> and a supposed property of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a> that states that the description of a volume of <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a> can be thought of as encoded on a <a href="/wiki/Boundary_(topology)" title="Boundary (topology)">boundary</a> to the region – preferably a <a href="/wiki/Light-like" class="mw-redirect" title="Light-like">light-like</a> boundary like a <a href="/wiki/Apparent_horizon" title="Apparent horizon">gravitational horizon</a>. In 1993, Dutch theoretical physicist <a href="/wiki/Gerard_%27t_Hooft" title="Gerard 't Hooft">Gerard 't Hooft</a> proposed what is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Holographic_principle" title="Holographic principle">holographic principle</a>. It was given a precise string-theory interpretation by <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Susskind" title="Leonard Susskind">Leonard Susskind</a><sup id="cite_ref-SusskindArXiv_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SusskindArXiv-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who combined his ideas with previous ones of 't Hooft and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thorn" title="Charles Thorn">Charles Thorn</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SusskindArXiv_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SusskindArXiv-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=120" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Ridpath,_Ian_1988_p._9–10-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ridpath,_Ian_1988_p._9–10_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ridpath, Ian (1988). <i>Star Tales</i>, p. 9–10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lankford,_John_1997_p._161-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lankford,_John_1997_p._161_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lankford, John (1997). <i>History of Astronomy: An Encyclopedia</i>, p. 161</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stephenson,_Bruce_2000_p._24-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stephenson,_Bruce_2000_p._24_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephenson, Bruce; Bolt, Marvin; Friedman, Anna Felicity (2000). <i>The Universe Unveiled: Instruments and Images Through History</i>, p. 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kanas,_Nick_2007_p._119–21-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kanas,_Nick_2007_p._119–21_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kanas, Nick (2007). <i>Star Maps: History, Artistry, and Cartography</i>, p. 119–21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gendler,_Robert_2011_p._14-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gendler,_Robert_2011_p._14_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gendler, Robert; Christensen, Lars Lindberg; Malin, David (2011). <i>Treasures of the Southern Sky</i>, p. 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simpson,_Phil_2012_p._559–61-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Simpson,_Phil_2012_p._559–61_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simpson, Phil (2012). <i>Guidebook to the Constellations: Telescopic Sights, Tales, and Myths</i>, p. 559–61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ridpath,_Ian_2012_p._96-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ridpath,_Ian_2012_p._96_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ridpath, Ian (2012). <i>A Dictionary of Astronomy (Oxford Paperback Reference)</i>, p. 96</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, Robert Hanbury; Lebreton, Jean-Pierre; Waite, John H. 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Lewin (2009). <i>Illustrated Plant Pathology: Basic Concepts</i>, p. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shors, Teri (2013). <i>Understanding Viruses</i>, p. 628</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pommerville, Jeffrey C. (2014). ''<i>Fundamentals of Microbiology</i>, p. 453</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grove, David (2014). <i>Tapeworms, Lice, and Prions: A Compendium of Unpleasant Infections</i>, p. 429</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Turner, Gerard L'Estrange (1983). <i>Nineteenth-century Scientific Instruments</i>, p. 149</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Driggers, Ronald G. (2003). <i>Encyclopedia of Optical Engineering, Volume 1</i>, p. 183</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coulson, Kinsell (2012). <i>Solar and Terrestrial Radiation: Methods and Measurements</i>, p. 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johannes van der Waals (<i>The equation of state for gases and liquids</i>, Nobel Lecture, 12 December 1910)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sengers, Johanna Levelt (2002), p. 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sengers, Johanna Levelt (2002), p. 255–56</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van der Waals, J. D. (1873). <i>On the Continuity of the Gaseous and Liquid States</i> (Doctoral dissertation, Universiteit Leiden).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parsegian, V. Adrian (2005). <i>Van der Waals Forces: A Handbook for Biologists, Chemists, Engineers, and Physicists</i>, p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wadhwani, Navina (2007). <i>Electricity And Magnetism</i>, p. 78</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andriesse, Cornelis Dirk (2008). <i>Dutch Messengers: A History of Science Publishing, 1930–1980</i>, p. 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miyazaki, Terunobu; Jin, Hanmin (2012). <i>The Physics of Ferromagnetism</i>, p. 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson20-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jackson20_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, Jackson p. 777–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.A._WheelerC._MisnerK.S._Thorne1973" class="citation book cs1">J.A. Wheeler; C. Misner; K.S. Thorne (1973). <i>Gravitation</i>. W.H. Freeman & Co. pp. 72–73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-0344-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-0344-0"><bdi>978-0-7167-0344-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gravitation&rft.pages=72-73&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman+%26+Co&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-0344-0&rft.au=J.A.+Wheeler&rft.au=C.+Misner&rft.au=K.S.+Thorne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+Dutch+discoveries" class="Z3988"></span>. These authors use the Lorentz force in tensor form as definer of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_tensor" title="Electromagnetic tensor">electromagnetic tensor</a> <i>F</i>, in turn the fields <b>E</b> and <b>B</b>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFI.S._GrantW.R._PhillipsManchester_Physics2008" class="citation book cs1">I.S. Grant; W.R. Phillips; Manchester Physics (2008). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/electromagnetism0000gran"><i>Electromagnetism</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/electromagnetism0000gran/page/n135">122</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-92712-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-92712-9"><bdi>978-0-471-92712-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electromagnetism&rft.pages=122&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-471-92712-9&rft.au=I.S.+Grant&rft.au=W.R.+Phillips&rft.au=Manchester+Physics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felectromagnetism0000gran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+Dutch+discoveries" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/html/oneuniverse/motion_knowledge_concept_12.html">One universe</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Neil_deGrasse_Tyson" title="Neil deGrasse Tyson">Neil deGrasse Tyson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Tsun-Chu_Liu" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Tsun-Chu Liu">Charles Tsun-Chu Liu</a>, and Robert Irion.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/3/9/583.full">The magnetic compass mechanisms of birds and rodents are based on different physical principles</a>. Journal of the Royal Society</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matricon, Jean; Waysand, Georges (1994). <i>The Cold Wars: A History of Superconductivity</i>, p. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shachtman, Tom (1999). <i>Absolute Zero and the Conquest of Cold</i>, p. 186</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blundell, Stephen J. (2009). <i>Superconductivity: A Very Short Introduction</i>, p. 23–24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vidali, Gianfranco (1993). <i>Superconductivity: The Next Revolution?</i>, p. 30–38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matricon, Jean; Waysand, Georges (1994). <i>The Cold Wars: A History of Superconductivity</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shachtman, Tom (1999). <i>Absolute Zero and the Conquest of Cold</i>, p. 233</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buckel, Werner; Kleiner, Reinhold (2004). <i>Superconductivity: Fundamentals and Applications</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDebye1912" class="citation journal cs1">Debye, Peter (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1424256">"Zur Theorie der spezifischen Waerme"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Annalen_der_Physik" title="Annalen der Physik">Annalen der Physik</a></i>. <b>39</b> (4). Leipzig: 789–839. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1912AnP...344..789D">1912AnP...344..789D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19123441404">10.1002/andp.19123441404</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik&rft.atitle=Zur+Theorie+der+spezifischen+Waerme&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=789-839&rft.date=1912&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.19123441404&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1912AnP...344..789D&rft.aulast=Debye&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1424256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+Dutch+discoveries" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillips (1999), p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carroll (1996), p. 274–276.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carroll274-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carroll274_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carroll (1996), p. 274.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kramers, H. A., Proc. Amsterdam Acad. 33, 959 (1930)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinnaert1933" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Minnaert" title="Marcel Minnaert">Minnaert, M.</a> (1933), "On musical air-bubbles and the sound of running water", <i>Philosophical Magazine</i>, <b>16</b> (104): 235–48, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786443309462277">10.1080/14786443309462277</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120320419">120320419</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.atitle=On+musical+air-bubbles+and+the+sound+of+running+water&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=104&rft.pages=235-48&rft.date=1933&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786443309462277&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A120320419%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Minnaert&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+Dutch+discoveries" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFG._'t_HooftM._Veltman1972" class="citation journal cs1">G. 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Veltman (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repositorio.unal.edu.co/handle/unal/81144">"Regularization and Renormalization of Gauge Fields"</a>. <i>Nuclear Physics B</i>. <b>44</b> (1): 189–219. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972NuPhB..44..189T">1972NuPhB..44..189T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0550-3213%2872%2990279-9">10.1016/0550-3213(72)90279-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1874%2F4845">1874/4845</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Physics+B&rft.atitle=Regularization+and+Renormalization+of+Gauge+Fields&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=189-219&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1874%2F4845&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0550-3213%2872%2990279-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1972NuPhB..44..189T&rft.au=G.+%27t+Hooft&rft.au=M.+Veltman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepositorio.unal.edu.co%2Fhandle%2Funal%2F81144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+Dutch+discoveries" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/phys/2005-0622-155148/13877.pdf">Regularization and Renormalization of Gauge Fields by 't Hooft and Veltman (PDF)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120707134940/http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/phys/2005-0622-155148/13877.pdf">Archived</a> 7 July 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SusskindArXiv-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SusskindArXiv_124-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SusskindArXiv_124-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusskind1995" class="citation journal cs1">Susskind, Leonard (1995). "The World as a Hologram". <i>Journal of Mathematical Physics</i>. <b>36</b> (11): 6377–96. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/9409089">hep-th/9409089</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995JMP....36.6377S">1995JMP....36.6377S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.531249">10.1063/1.531249</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17316840">17316840</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Mathematical+Physics&rft.atitle=The+World+as+a+Hologram&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=6377-96&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-th%2F9409089&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17316840%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.531249&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995JMP....36.6377S&rft.aulast=Susskind&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+Dutch+discoveries" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThorn1991" class="citation conference cs1">Thorn, Charles B. (27–31 May 1991). <i>Reformulating string theory with the 1/N expansion</i>. International A.D. Sakharov Conference on Physics. Moscow. pp. 447–54. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/9405069">hep-th/9405069</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994hep.th....5069T">1994hep.th....5069T</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56072-073-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56072-073-7"><bdi>978-1-56072-073-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Reformulating+string+theory+with+the+1%2FN+expansion&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pages=447-54&rft.date=1991-05-27%2F1991-05-31&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-th%2F9405069&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994hep.th....5069T&rft.isbn=978-1-56072-073-7&rft.aulast=Thorn&rft.aufirst=Charles+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+Dutch+discoveries" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&action=edit&section=121" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150322003219/http://www.dailydutchinnovation.com/about/">Daily Dutch 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title="Template talk:Inventions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Inventions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Inventions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Inventions_and_discoveries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Inventions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Discovery_(observation)" title="Discovery (observation)">discoveries</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_inventions_or_discoveries" title="Category:Lists of inventions or discoveries">Lists of inventions or discoveries</a><br />by country/region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Australian_inventions" title="Timeline of Australian inventions">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Austrian inventions and discoveries">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Azerbaijani_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Azerbaijani inventions and discoveries">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Bangladeshi_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Bangladeshi inventions and discoveries">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Brazilian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Brazilian inventions and discoveries">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_innovations_and_discoveries" title="List of British innovations and discoveries">Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of English inventions and discoveries">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Scottish inventions and discoveries">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Welsh inventions and discoveries">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Canadian_inventions_and_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Canadian inventions and discoveries">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_discoveries" title="List of Chinese discoveries">discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Croatian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Croatian inventions and discoveries">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Czech_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Czech inventions and discoveries">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Egyptian inventions and discoveries">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of French inventions and discoveries">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of German inventions and discoveries">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Greek inventions and discoveries">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Indian inventions and discoveries">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indonesian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Indonesian inventions and discoveries">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Irish_inventions_and_discoveries" title="Timeline of Irish inventions and discoveries">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Israeli_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Israeli inventions and discoveries">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Italian inventions and discoveries">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jamaican_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Jamaican inventions and discoveries">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Japanese inventions and discoveries">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Korean_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Korean inventions and discoveries">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Malaysian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Malaysian inventions and discoveries">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mexican_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Mexican inventions and discoveries">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Dutch_inventions_and_discoveries" title="Lists of Dutch inventions and discoveries">Netherlands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Dutch_inventions_and_innovations" title="List of Dutch inventions and innovations">Inventions</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Dutch_explorations" title="List of Dutch explorations">explorations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Pakistani_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Pakistani inventions and discoveries">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Filipino_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Filipino inventions and discoveries">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology" title="Timeline of Polish science and technology">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Portuguese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Portuguese inventions and discoveries">Portugal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_inventions" title="Portuguese inventions">inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_maritime_exploration" title="Portuguese maritime exploration">discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation" title="Timeline of Russian innovation">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Serbian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Serbian inventions and discoveries">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_South_African_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of South African inventions and discoveries">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Spanish inventions and discoveries">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Swiss_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Swiss inventions and discoveries">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Taiwanese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Taiwanese inventions and discoveries">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Thai_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Thai inventions and discoveries">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Vietnamese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Vietnamese inventions and discoveries">Vietnam</a></li> <li>United States <ul><li>inventions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(before_1890)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)">before 1890</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)">1890–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(after_1991)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (after 1991)">after 1991</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">discoveries</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">by topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries" title="List of multiple discoveries">multiple discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" title="Timeline of scientific discoveries">science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Historic inventions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_inventions" title="List of military inventions">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_inventions_and_innovations_of_Indigenous_Americans" title="List of pre-Columbian inventions and innovations of Indigenous Americans">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lost_inventions" title="List of lost inventions">Lost inventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spurious_inventions" title="List of spurious inventions">Spurious inventions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Inventors_by_nationality" title="Category:Inventors by nationality">Lists of inventors or discoverers</a><br />by country/region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventors" title="List of inventors">Worldwide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_educators,_scientists_and_scholars" title="List of African educators, scientists and scholars">African</a></li> <li>American <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">African-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors" title="List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors">Puerto Rican</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Armenian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Armenian inventors and discoverers">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Austrian inventors and discoverers">Austrian</a></li> <li>British <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_inventors_and_designers" title="List of English inventors and designers">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventors" title="List of Welsh inventors">Welsh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Bulgarian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Bulgarian inventors and discoverers">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of German inventors and discoverers">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventors" title="List of Italian inventors">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Zealand_inventors" title="List of New Zealand inventors">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Polish inventors and discoverers">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Romanian inventors and discoverers">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_inventors" title="List of Russian inventors">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Serbian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Serbian inventors and discoverers">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Spanish inventors and discoverers">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors" title="List of Swedish inventors">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Swiss_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Swiss inventors and discoverers">Swiss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Netherlands_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Netherlands_topics" title="Template:Netherlands topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Netherlands_topics" title="Template talk:Netherlands topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Netherlands_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Netherlands topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Netherlands_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Part of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="Kingdom of the Netherlands">Kingdom of the Netherlands</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Netherlands">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romans_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans in the Netherlands">Roman Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi">Chamavi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Batavi (Germanic tribe)">Batavi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cananefates" title="Cananefates">Cananefates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frisians" title="Frisians">Frisians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks">Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorestad" title="Dorestad">Dorestad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Utrecht" title="Prince-Bishopric of Utrecht">Utrecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_urban_centers_in_the_Low_Countries" class="mw-redirect" title="History of urban centers in the Low Countries">Development urban centers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Kingdom" title="Frisian Kingdom">Frisian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Francia" title="Middle Francia">Middle Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Lorraine">Lower Lorraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">Flanders</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Holland" title="County of Holland">Holland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frisian_Freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Frisian Freedom">Frisian Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Brabant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guelders" class="mw-redirect" title="Guelders">Guelders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries" title="Renaissance in the Low Countries">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age" title="Dutch Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batavian_Revolution" title="Batavian Revolution">Batavian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Holland" title="Kingdom of Holland">Kingdom of Holland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_(Netherlands)" title="Incorporation (Netherlands)">Incorporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Principality_of_the_United_Netherlands" title="Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands">Principality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_II" title="Netherlands in World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Netherlands" title="German invasion of the Netherlands">Nazi invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_Day_(Netherlands)" title="Liberation Day (Netherlands)">Dutch Liberation Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_Indonesian_Independence" title="Proclamation of Indonesian Independence">Proclamation of Indonesian Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_for_the_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands">Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_the_Netherlands" title="Same-sex marriage in the Netherlands">Same-sex marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_17" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 17">Malaysia Airlines Flight MH17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Netherlands" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands">Coronavirus pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Netherlands" title="Geography of the Netherlands">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_birds_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of birds of the Netherlands">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_the_Netherlands_by_province" title="List of cities in the Netherlands by province">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_Works" title="Delta Works">Delta Works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of earthquakes in the Netherlands">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of extreme points of the Netherlands">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control_in_the_Netherlands" title="Flood control in the Netherlands">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groningen_gas_field" title="Groningen gas field">Gas field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of islands of the Netherlands">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of lakes of the Netherlands">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mammals_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of mammals of the Netherlands">Mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_and_hills_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of mountains and hills in the Netherlands">Mountains and hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of regions of the Netherlands">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of rivers of the Netherlands">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine%E2%80%93Meuse%E2%80%93Scheldt_delta" title="Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta">Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of volcanoes in the Netherlands">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the Netherlands">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuiderzee_Works" title="Zuiderzee Works">Zuiderzee Works</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Netherlands" title="Politics of the Netherlands">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Abortion in the Netherlands">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_Netherlands" title="Cabinet of the Netherlands">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Netherlands" title="Climate change in the Netherlands">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Netherlands" title="Constitution of the Netherlands">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_Netherlands" title="Corruption in the Netherlands">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Netherlands" title="Demographics of the Netherlands">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Drug policy of the Netherlands">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Netherlands" title="Education in the Netherlands">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_Netherlands" title="Elections in the Netherlands">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_in_the_Netherlands" title="Euthanasia in the Netherlands">Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_Netherlands" title="Healthcare in the Netherlands">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_Netherlands" title="Homelessness in the Netherlands">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Netherlands" title="Foreign relations of the Netherlands">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Netherlands" title="Human rights in the Netherlands">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the Netherlands">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigration to the Netherlands">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Netherlands" title="Law of the Netherlands">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Law enforcement in the Netherlands">Enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_firms_of_the_Netherlands" title="Law firms of the Netherlands">Law Firms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Monarchy of the Netherlands">Monarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipalities_of_the_Netherlands" title="Municipalities of the Netherlands">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_the_Netherlands" title="Provinces of the Netherlands">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Republicanism in the Netherlands">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States_General_of_the_Netherlands" title="States General of the Netherlands">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of political parties in the Netherlands">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_Netherlands" title="Prime Minister of the Netherlands">Prime Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_forces_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed forces of the Netherlands">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_board_(Netherlands)" title="Water board (Netherlands)">Water boards</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Economy of the Netherlands">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AEX_index" title="AEX index">AEX index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Nederlandsche_Bank" title="De Nederlandsche Bank">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_Netherlands" title="Energy in the Netherlands">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euronext" title="Euronext">Euronext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polder_model" title="Polder model">Polder model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_Netherlands" title="Taxation in the Netherlands">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Netherlands" title="Telecommunications in the Netherlands">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Tourism in the Netherlands">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_the_Netherlands" title="Trade unions in the Netherlands">Trade unions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Netherlands" title="Transport in the Netherlands">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cycling_in_the_Netherlands" title="Cycling in the Netherlands">Cycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transport_in_the_Netherlands" title="Public transport in the Netherlands">Public transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_the_Netherlands" title="Rail transport in the Netherlands">Rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_transport_in_the_Netherlands" title="Road transport in the Netherlands">Road transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Netherlands" title="Culture of the Netherlands">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Netherlands" title="Architecture of the Netherlands">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_art" title="Dutch art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_the_Netherlands" title="Cannabis in the Netherlands">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_Netherlands" title="Cinema of the Netherlands">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_cuisine" title="Dutch cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_wine" title="Dutch wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_customs_and_etiquette" title="Dutch customs and etiquette">Customs and etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decorations_and_medals_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Decorations and medals of the Netherlands">Decorations and medals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Irreligion in the Netherlands">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Netherlands" title="Languages of the Netherlands">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of the Netherlands">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Netherlands" title="Music of the Netherlands">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders_of_knighthood_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Orders of knighthood in the Netherlands">Orders of knighthood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_people" title="Dutch people">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pornography_in_the_Netherlands" title="Pornography in the Netherlands">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_Netherlands" title="Prostitution in the Netherlands">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_Netherlands" title="Public holidays in the Netherlands">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Religion in the Netherlands">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_the_Netherlands" title="Sport in the Netherlands">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbols of the Netherlands">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelmus" title="Wilhelmus">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Netherlands" title="Coat of arms of the Netherlands">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Netherlands" title="Flag of the Netherlands">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic_Lion" title="Dutch Republic Lion">Lion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_of_the_Low_Countries" title="Terminology of the Low Countries">Terminology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Netherlands" title="Outline of the Netherlands">Outline</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Netherlands" title="Category:Netherlands">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Netherlands" title="Portal:Netherlands">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&oldid=1223988504">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_discoveries&oldid=1223988504</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_inventions_or_discoveries" title="Category:Lists of inventions or discoveries">Lists of inventions or discoveries</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Netherlands_history-related_lists" title="Category:Netherlands history-related lists">Netherlands history-related lists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Netherlands" title="Category:History of science and technology in the Netherlands">History of science and technology in the Netherlands</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_in_the_Dutch_Republic" title="Category:Science and technology in the Dutch Republic">Science and technology in the Dutch Republic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_in_the_Netherlands" title="Category:Science and technology in the Netherlands">Science and technology in the Netherlands</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Dutch_exploration_in_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Category:Dutch exploration in the Age of Discovery">Dutch exploration in the Age of Discovery</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Netherlandic_studies" title="Category:Netherlandic studies">Netherlandic studies</a></li><li><a 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