Target Development towards First Production of High-Molar- Activity 44gSc and 47Sc by Mass Separation at CERN-MEDICIS

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} div.type-section h2 { font-size: 20px; line-height: 26px; font-weight: 300; } div.type-section h3 { margin-left: 15px; margin-bottom: 0px; font-weight: 300; } .journal-tabs .tab-title.active a { } </style> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/slick.css?f38b2db10e01b157?1732522730"> <meta name="title" content="Target Development towards First Production of High-Molar- Activity 44gSc and 47Sc by Mass Separation at CERN-MEDICIS"> <meta name="description" content="The radionuclides 43Sc,  44g/mSc, and 47Sc can be produced cost-effectively in sufficient yield for medical research and applications by irradiating  natTi and  natV target materials with protons. Maximizing the production yield of the therapeutic 47Sc in the highest cross section energy range of 24–70 MeV results in the co-production of long-lived, high-γ-ray-energy 46Sc and 48Sc contaminants if one does not use enriched target materials. Mass separation can be used to obtain high molar activity and isotopically pure Sc radionuclides from natural target materials; however, suitable operational conditions to obtain relevant activity released from irradiated  natTi and  natV have not yet been established at CERN-MEDICIS and ISOLDE. The objective of this work was to develop target units for the production, release, and purification of Sc radionuclides by mass separation as well as to investigate target materials for the mass separation that are compatible with high-yield Sc radionuclide production in the 9–70 MeV proton energy range. In this study, the in-target production yield obtained at MEDICIS with 1.4 GeV protons is compared with the production yield that can be reached with commercially available cyclotrons. The thick-target materials were irradiated at MEDICIS and comprised of metallic  natTi,  natV metallic foils, and  natTiC pellets. The produced radionuclides were subsequently released, ionized, and extracted from various target and ion source units and mass separated. Mono-atomic Sc laser and molecule ionization with forced-electron-beam-induced arc-discharge ion sources were investigated. Sc radionuclide production in thick  natTi and  natV targets at MEDICIS is equivalent to low- to medium-energy cyclotron-irradiated targets at medically relevant yields, furthermore benefiting from the mass separation possibility. A two-step laser resonance ionization scheme was used to obtain mono-atomic Sc ion beams. Sc radionuclide release from irradiated target units most effectively could be promoted by volatile scandium fluoride formation. Thus, isotopically pure  44g/mSc, 46Sc, and 47Sc were obtained as mono-atomic and molecular ScF 2+ ion beams and collected for the first time at CERN-MEDICIS. Among all the investigated target materials,  natTiC is the most suitable target material for Sc mass separation as molecular halide beams, due to high possible operating temperatures and sustained release." > <link rel="image_src" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/pharmaceuticals-logo.png?746b14512b967404" > <meta name="dc.title" content="Target Development towards First Production of High-Molar- Activity 44gSc and 47Sc by Mass Separation at CERN-MEDICIS"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Edgars Mamis"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Charlotte Duchemin"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Valentina Berlin"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Cyril Bernerd"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Mathieu Bovigny"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Eric Chevallay"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Bernard Crepieux"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Vadim Maratovich Gadelshin"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Reinhard Heinke"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Ronaldo Mendez Hernandez"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Jake David Johnson"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Patrīcija Kalniņa"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Alexandros Koliatos"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Laura Lambert"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Ralf Erik Rossel"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Sebastian Rothe"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Julien Thiboud"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Felix Weber"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Klaus Wendt"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Rudolfs Jānis Zabolockis"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Elīna Pajuste"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Thierry Stora"> <meta name="dc.type" content="Article"> <meta name="dc.source" content="Pharmaceuticals 2024, Vol. 17, Page 390"> <meta name="dc.date" content="2024-03-18"> <meta name ="dc.identifier" content="10.3390/ph17030390"> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="dc.rights" content="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/"> <meta name="dc.format" content="application/pdf" > <meta name="dc.language" content="en" > <meta name="dc.description" content="The radionuclides 43Sc,  44g/mSc, and 47Sc can be produced cost-effectively in sufficient yield for medical research and applications by irradiating  natTi and  natV target materials with protons. Maximizing the production yield of the therapeutic 47Sc in the highest cross section energy range of 24–70 MeV results in the co-production of long-lived, high-γ-ray-energy 46Sc and 48Sc contaminants if one does not use enriched target materials. Mass separation can be used to obtain high molar activity and isotopically pure Sc radionuclides from natural target materials; however, suitable operational conditions to obtain relevant activity released from irradiated  natTi and  natV have not yet been established at CERN-MEDICIS and ISOLDE. The objective of this work was to develop target units for the production, release, and purification of Sc radionuclides by mass separation as well as to investigate target materials for the mass separation that are compatible with high-yield Sc radionuclide production in the 9–70 MeV proton energy range. In this study, the in-target production yield obtained at MEDICIS with 1.4 GeV protons is compared with the production yield that can be reached with commercially available cyclotrons. The thick-target materials were irradiated at MEDICIS and comprised of metallic  natTi,  natV metallic foils, and  natTiC pellets. The produced radionuclides were subsequently released, ionized, and extracted from various target and ion source units and mass separated. Mono-atomic Sc laser and molecule ionization with forced-electron-beam-induced arc-discharge ion sources were investigated. Sc radionuclide production in thick  natTi and  natV targets at MEDICIS is equivalent to low- to medium-energy cyclotron-irradiated targets at medically relevant yields, furthermore benefiting from the mass separation possibility. A two-step laser resonance ionization scheme was used to obtain mono-atomic Sc ion beams. Sc radionuclide release from irradiated target units most effectively could be promoted by volatile scandium fluoride formation. Thus, isotopically pure  44g/mSc, 46Sc, and 47Sc were obtained as mono-atomic and molecular ScF 2+ ion beams and collected for the first time at CERN-MEDICIS. Among all the investigated target materials,  natTiC is the most suitable target material for Sc mass separation as molecular halide beams, due to high possible operating temperatures and sustained release." > <meta name="dc.subject" content="scandium radionuclides" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="mass separation" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="ISOL target units" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="target materials" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="laser resonant ionization" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="molecular beams" > <meta name ="prism.issn" content="1424-8247"> <meta name ="prism.publicationName" content="Pharmaceuticals"> <meta name ="prism.publicationDate" content="2024-03-18"> <meta name ="prism.volume" content="17"> <meta name ="prism.number" content="3"> <meta name ="prism.section" content="Article" > <meta name ="prism.startingPage" content="390" > <meta name="citation_issn" content="1424-8247"> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Pharmaceuticals"> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="citation_title" content="Target Development towards First Production of High-Molar- Activity 44gSc and 47Sc by Mass Separation at CERN-MEDICIS"> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2024/3"> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2024/03/18"> <meta name="citation_volume" content="17"> <meta name="citation_issue" content="3"> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="390"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Mamis, Edgars"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Duchemin, Charlotte"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Berlin, Valentina"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Bernerd, Cyril"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Bovigny, Mathieu"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Chevallay, Eric"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Crepieux, Bernard"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Gadelshin, Vadim Maratovich"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Heinke, Reinhard"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Hernandez, Ronaldo Mendez"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Johnson, Jake David"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Kalniņa, Patrīcija"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Koliatos, Alexandros"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Lambert, Laura"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Rossel, Ralf Erik"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Rothe, Sebastian"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Thiboud, Julien"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Weber, Felix"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Wendt, Klaus"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Zabolockis, Rudolfs Jānis"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Pajuste, Elīna"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Stora, Thierry"> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.3390/ph17030390"> <meta name="citation_id" content="mdpi-ph17030390"> <meta name="citation_abstract_html_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390"> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/pdf?version=1711081259"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/pdf" title="PDF Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/pdf?version=1711081259"> <meta name="fulltext_pdf" content="https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/pdf?version=1711081259"> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/htm"> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" title="HTML Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/htm"> <meta name="fulltext_html" content="https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/htm"> <link rel="alternate" type="text/xml" title="XML Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/xml"> <meta name="fulltext_xml" content="https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/xml"> <meta name="citation_xml_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/xml"> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@MDPIOpenAccess" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/pharmaceuticals-logo-social.png?746b14512b967404" /> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="131189377574"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="MDPI"/> <meta property="og:type" content="article"/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Target Development towards First Production of High-Molar- Activity 44gSc and 47Sc by Mass Separation at CERN-MEDICIS" /> <meta property="og:description" content="The radionuclides 43Sc,  44g/mSc, and 47Sc can be produced cost-effectively in sufficient yield for medical research and applications by irradiating  natTi and  natV target materials with protons. Maximizing the production yield of the therapeutic 47Sc in the highest cross section energy range of 24–70 MeV results in the co-production of long-lived, high-γ-ray-energy 46Sc and 48Sc contaminants if one does not use enriched target materials. Mass separation can be used to obtain high molar activity and isotopically pure Sc radionuclides from natural target materials; however, suitable operational conditions to obtain relevant activity released from irradiated  natTi and  natV have not yet been established at CERN-MEDICIS and ISOLDE. The objective of this work was to develop target units for the production, release, and purification of Sc radionuclides by mass separation as well as to investigate target materials for the mass separation that are compatible with high-yield Sc radionuclide production in the 9–70 MeV proton energy range. In this study, the in-target production yield obtained at MEDICIS with 1.4 GeV protons is compared with the production yield that can be reached with commercially available cyclotrons. The thick-target materials were irradiated at MEDICIS and comprised of metallic  natTi,  natV metallic foils, and  natTiC pellets. The produced radionuclides were subsequently released, ionized, and extracted from various target and ion source units and mass separated. Mono-atomic Sc laser and molecule ionization with forced-electron-beam-induced arc-discharge ion sources were investigated. Sc radionuclide production in thick  natTi and  natV targets at MEDICIS is equivalent to low- to medium-energy cyclotron-irradiated targets at medically relevant yields, furthermore benefiting from the mass separation possibility. A two-step laser resonance ionization scheme was used to obtain mono-atomic Sc ion beams. Sc radionuclide release from irradiated target units most effectively could be promoted by volatile scandium fluoride formation. Thus, isotopically pure  44g/mSc, 46Sc, and 47Sc were obtained as mono-atomic and molecular ScF 2+ ion beams and collected for the first time at CERN-MEDICIS. 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<div class="content__container"> <a href="/journal/pharmaceuticals"> <img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/pharmaceuticals-logo.png?746b14512b967404" alt="pharmaceuticals-logo" title="Pharmaceuticals" style="max-height: 60px; margin: 0 0 0 0;"> </a> <div class="generic-item no-border"> <a class="button button--color button--full-width js-journal-active-only-link js-journal-active-only-submit-link UC_ArticleSubmitButton" href="https://susy.mdpi.com/user/manuscripts/upload?form%5Bjournal_id%5D%3D18" data-disabledmessage="creating new submissions is not possible."> Submit to this Journal </a> <a class="button button--color button--full-width js-journal-active-only-link UC_ArticleReviewButton" href="https://susy.mdpi.com/volunteer/journals/review" data-disabledmessage="volunteering as journal reviewer is not possible."> Review for this Journal </a> <a class="button button--color-inversed button--color-journal button--full-width js-journal-active-only-link 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hypothesis_container"> by <span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop12461992' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Edgars Mamis</div><div id="profile-card-drop12461992" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Edgars Mamis</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/3366519?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.net/scholars?q=Edgars%20Mamis" 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class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Ralf Erik Rossel</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/author/cU1maG5BMTdCbTZuK2thc1NUZnY3MGVONHdmNjk2T05nZWRidjF1SFg1UT0=?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.net/scholars?q=Ralf%20Erik%20Rossel" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Ralf%20Erik%20Rossel&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a 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href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Julien%20Thiboud" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 1</sup>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop12462009' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Felix Weber</div><div id="profile-card-drop12462009" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Felix Weber</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/2179691?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.net/scholars?q=Felix%20Weber" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Felix%20Weber&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Felix%20Weber" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 3</sup><a href="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7702-5706" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/orcid.png?0465bc3812adeb52?1732522730" title="ORCID" style="position: relative; width: 13px; margin-left: 3px; max-width: 13px !important; height: auto; top: -5px;"></a>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><div 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50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Rudolfs Jānis Zabolockis</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/3412241?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.net/scholars?q=Rudolfs%20J%C4%81nis%20Zabolockis" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Rudolfs%20J%C4%81nis%20Zabolockis&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Rudolfs%20J%C4%81nis%20Zabolockis" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 2</sup><a href="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6654-9982" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img 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class="inlineblock author-item-hidden js-author-item-hidden"><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop12462013' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Thierry Stora</div><div id="profile-card-drop12462013" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Thierry Stora</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/61748?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.net/scholars?q=Thierry%20Stora" 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class="affiliation-item"><sup>3</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Institut für Physik, Johannes Gutenberg Universität, Staudingerweg 7, 55128 Mainz, Germany</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>4</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Instituto Superior de Tecnologías y Ciencias Aplicadas, Universidad de La Habana (InSTEC-UH), Ave. Salvador Allende No. 1110 e, Infanta y Rancho Boyeros, Plaza de la Revolucion, La Habana 10400, Cuba</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>5</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Department of Physics and Astronomy (IKS), Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200D, 3010 Heverlee, Belgium</div> </div> <div class="affiliation"> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>*</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="bib-identity" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <em>Pharmaceuticals</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>17</em>(3), 390; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ph17030390">https://doi.org/10.3390/ph17030390</a> </div> <div class="pubhistory" style="font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px;"> <span style="display: inline-block">Submission received: 25 January 2024</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Revised: 19 February 2024</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Accepted: 14 March 2024</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Published: 18 March 2024</span> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/pharmaceuticals/special_issues/M0H0807H2Y ">New Trends in Applications and Production of Metal Radionuclides for Nuclear Medicine</a>)<br/> </div> <div class="highlight-box1"> <div class="download"> <a class="button button--color-inversed button--drop-down" data-dropdown="drop-download-1359184" aria-controls="drop-supplementary-1359184" aria-expanded="false"> Download <i class="material-icons">keyboard_arrow_down</i> </a> <div id="drop-download-1359184" class="f-dropdown label__btn__dropdown label__btn__dropdown--button" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <a class="UD_ArticlePDF" href="/1424-8247/17/3/390/pdf?version=1711081259" data-name="Target Development towards First Production of High-Molar- Activity 44gSc and 47Sc by Mass Separation at CERN-MEDICIS" data-journal="pharmaceuticals">Download PDF</a> <br/> <a id="js-pdf-with-cover-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/1424-8247/17/3/390/pdf-with-cover" class="accessCaptcha">Download PDF with Cover</a> <br/> <a id="js-xml-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/1424-8247/17/3/390/xml" class="accessCaptcha">Download XML</a> <br/> <a href="/1424-8247/17/3/390/epub" id="epub_link">Download Epub</a> <br/> </div> <div class="js-browse-figures" style="display: inline-block;"> <a href="#" class="button button--color-inversed margin-bottom-10 openpopupgallery UI_BrowseArticleFigures" data-target='article-popup' data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/browse" >Browse Figures</a> </div> <div id="article-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g001.png?1711081341" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Fit of <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti and <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V excitation experimental data for Sc radionuclide production with protons up to 1.6 GeV [<a href="#B13-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">13</a>].</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g002.png?1711081343" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>MEDICIS mass separator beamline schematics. Adapted from [<a href="#B37-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">37</a>].</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g003.png?1711081345" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Particle fluences for MEDICIS <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti foil target charge irradiation with 1.4 GeV protons.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g004.png?1711081348" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>VADIS VD-5 target unit schematic on mass separator front-end without aluminium vessel.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g005.png?1711081349" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Mono-atomic Sc laser ionization scheme and power-saturation curve: (<b>a</b>) Two-step Sc laser ionization scheme used at MELISSA. (<b>b</b>) Laser power saturation for Sc ionization. Data were fit with <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mfrac> <mi>I</mi> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mn>0</mn> </msub> </mfrac> <mo>=</mo> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>P</mi> <mo>/</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mi>P</mi> <mo>/</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </semantics></math>. X-axis: Power as a fraction of the nominal operating power during the efficiency tests.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g006.png?1711081352" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Gas-leak and BN-insulator Cu cooling structure for target unit: (<b>a</b>) Gas-leak cooling structure components. (<b>b</b>) Target unit with installed gas-leak cooling structure.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g007.png?1711081353" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Target container and ion source cathode covered with metallic foils: (<b>a</b>) V lining in the target container. (<b>b</b>) VADIS cathode covered with W.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g008.png?1711081354" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Heat screen placement on an ISOLDE/MEDICIS target container: (<b>a</b>) Prototype heat screen assembly. (<b>b</b>) Standard heat screen assembly.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g009.png?1711081356" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Embossed <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti and <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V metallic foils and pressed <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC pills used for target charges: (<b>a</b>) <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti double-foil roll. (<b>b</b>) Embossed metallic <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V foil. (<b>c</b>) Pressed <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC pill.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g010.png?1711081357" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Carbon sleeve and <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC pellet dimensions used for target charge production.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g011.png?1711081358" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Mass scan of irradiated and fluorinated <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC target material with ion source at 2000 °C and target container at 2000 °C.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g012.png?1711081359" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Mass scan of irradiated and fluorinated <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V target material with ion source at 2000 °C and target container at 1725 °C.</p> "> </a> </div> <a class="button button--color-inversed" href="/1424-8247/17/3/390/notes">Versions Notes</a> </div> </div> <div class="responsive-moving-container small hidden" data-id="article-counters" style="margin-top: 15px;"></div> <div class="html-dynamic"> <section> <div class="art-abstract art-abstract-new in-tab hypothesis_container"> <p> <div><section class="html-abstract" id="html-abstract"> <h2 id="html-abstract-title">Abstract</h2><b>:</b> <div class="html-p">The radionuclides <sup>43</sup>Sc, <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"></mspace> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> <mo>/</mo> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, and <sup>47</sup>Sc can be produced cost-effectively in sufficient yield for medical research and applications by irradiating <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"></mspace> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti and <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"></mspace> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V target materials with protons. Maximizing the production yield of the therapeutic <sup>47</sup>Sc in the highest cross section energy range of 24–70 MeV results in the co-production of long-lived, high-<math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>γ</mi> </semantics></math>-ray-energy <sup>46</sup>Sc and <sup>48</sup>Sc contaminants if one does not use enriched target materials. Mass separation can be used to obtain high molar activity and isotopically pure Sc radionuclides from natural target materials; however, suitable operational conditions to obtain relevant activity released from irradiated <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"></mspace> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti and <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"></mspace> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V have not yet been established at CERN-MEDICIS and ISOLDE. The objective of this work was to develop target units for the production, release, and purification of Sc radionuclides by mass separation as well as to investigate target materials for the mass separation that are compatible with high-yield Sc radionuclide production in the 9–70 MeV proton energy range. In this study, the in-target production yield obtained at MEDICIS with 1.4 GeV protons is compared with the production yield that can be reached with commercially available cyclotrons. The thick-target materials were irradiated at MEDICIS and comprised of metallic <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"></mspace> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti, <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"></mspace> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V metallic foils, and <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"></mspace> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC pellets. The produced radionuclides were subsequently released, ionized, and extracted from various target and ion source units and mass separated. Mono-atomic Sc laser and molecule ionization with forced-electron-beam-induced arc-discharge ion sources were investigated. Sc radionuclide production in thick <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"></mspace> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti and <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"></mspace> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V targets at MEDICIS is equivalent to low- to medium-energy cyclotron-irradiated targets at medically relevant yields, furthermore benefiting from the mass separation possibility. A two-step laser resonance ionization scheme was used to obtain mono-atomic Sc ion beams. Sc radionuclide release from irradiated target units most effectively could be promoted by volatile scandium fluoride formation. Thus, isotopically pure <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"></mspace> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> <mo>/</mo> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, <sup>46</sup>Sc, and <sup>47</sup>Sc were obtained as mono-atomic and molecular ScF<math display="inline"><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"></mspace> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math> ion beams and collected for the first time at CERN-MEDICIS. Among all the investigated target materials, <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"></mspace> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC is the most suitable target material for Sc mass separation as molecular halide beams, due to high possible operating temperatures and sustained release.</div> </section> <div id="html-keywords"> <div class="html-gwd-group"><div id="html-keywords-title">Keywords: </div><a href="/search?q=scandium+radionuclides">scandium radionuclides</a>; <a href="/search?q=mass+separation">mass separation</a>; <a href="/search?q=ISOL+target+units">ISOL target units</a>; <a href="/search?q=target+materials">target materials</a>; <a href="/search?q=laser+resonant+ionization">laser resonant ionization</a>; <a href="/search?q=molecular+beams">molecular beams</a></div> <div> </div> </div> </div> </p> </div> </section> </div> <div class="hypothesis_container"> <ul class="menu html-nav" data-prev-node="#html-quick-links-title"> </ul> <div class="html-body"> <section id='sec1-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type='intro'><h2 data-nested='1'> 1. Introduction</h2><div class='html-p'>Theranostics is a rapidly evolving personalized nuclear medicine approach, combining therapy and diagnostics. It offers cellular-cancer diagnostics followed by non-invasive tumor treatment using drugs labeled with radionuclides. Most commonly, such theranostic drug pairs are created with radionuclides of different chemical elements, such as diagnostic <sup>68</sup>Ga or <sup>18</sup>F paired with therapeutic <sup>177</sup>Lu [<a href="#B1-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">1</a>]. Therefore, the drug kinetics and sometimes their exact physico-chemical properties do not exactly match when therapeutic and diagnostic agents are compared. To resolve this issue, radioisotopes of the same chemical element can be used to create so-called “matched pair” radiopharmaceuticals. They have the same chemical properties and pharmacokinetics that help in the efficient planning and monitoring of personalized targeted cancer treatment [<a href="#B2-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">2</a>]. With the use of “matched pair” radiopharmaceuticals, the received-dose estimation and pharmacokinetics in the body could better be understood and, therefore, optimized [<a href="#B3-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">3</a>]. A perfect candidate for “matched pair” radiopharmaceuticals development is scandium with <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>43</mn> <mo>/</mo> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, both applicable in Positron-Emission Tomography (PET) and <sup>47</sup>Sc (T<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>/</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 3.35 d) as the therapeutic match with a <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>γ</mi> </semantics></math>-ray emission (E<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mi>γ</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> = 159.4 keV (68.3%)) suitable for Single-Photon-Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT). Another advantage is that these Sc radionuclides decay into bio-compatible chemical elements, namely Ca and Ti. While <sup>43</sup>Sc (T<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>/</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 3.89 h) and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc (T<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>/</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 4.04 h) have similar half-life and positron emission probabilities, <sup>43</sup>Sc shows an advantage for the imaging technique in comparison with <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc by the absence of high-energy <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>γ</mi> </semantics></math>-ray emission (1157 keV) [<a href="#B4-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">4</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>The availability of <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>43</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc and <sup>47</sup>Sc for clinical studies is still very limited, and their production is mostly undertaken with enriched titanium and calcium target materials. The most common and efficient production of <sup>43</sup>Sc and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc proceeds via cyclotrons using low-energy protons (<30 MeV), deuterons, or alpha particles on natural and enriched calcium targets. The <sup>43</sup>Ca, <sup>44</sup>Ca, and <sup>46</sup>Ca isotopes are naturally present in low quantities in <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca. However, due to limited enrichment and abundance, the use of enriched Ca targets significantly increases production costs. Furthermore, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc (T<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>/</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 58.61 h) is co-produced in most cases (see <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t001" class="html-table">Table 1</a>) [<a href="#B5-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">5</a>]. The <sup>47</sup>Sc radionuclide, as the therapeutic counterpart in an Sc “matched pair”, can be efficiently produced in nuclear reactors by activating <sup>47</sup>Ti, which is naturally present in <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti (<sup>46</sup>Ti 8.25%, <sup>47</sup>Ti 7.44%, <sup>48</sup>Ti 73.72%, <sup>49</sup>Ti 5.41%, <sup>50</sup>Ti 5.18%) or by thermal neutron capture on <sup>46</sup>Ca resulting in <sup>47</sup>Ca/<sup>47</sup>Sc generator [<a href="#B6-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">6</a>,<a href="#B7-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">7</a>]. The scarce availability of nuclear reactors with the necessary neutron energy has fostered accelerator use for the production. The most common accessible and commercially available cyclotrons can accelerate protons and in some cases deuterons and alpha particles to energies up to 18 MeV. Several routes—by using intermediate-(<30 MeV)-energy or medium-(30–70 MeV)-energy cyclotrons and enriched-titanium, -calcium, or -vanadium target materials and accelerated protons or deuterons—have been investigated for the production of <sup>47</sup>Sc. All of them present similar production cross sections (ranging from 30 to 60 mb) but show different production costs, due to the availability of the enriched material [<a href="#B8-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">8</a>]. Less common production routes involve photonuclear reactions on enriched <sup>48</sup>Ti target material [<a href="#B9-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">9</a>] as well as <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>44</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>51</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>V irradiation with alpha beams [<a href="#B10-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">10</a>]. As in <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc production, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc is accompanied by long-lived, high-<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>γ</mi> </semantics></math>-ray-energy <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>48</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc contaminants (see <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t001" class="html-table">Table 1</a>).</div><div class='html-p'>Although acceptable radionuclidic-purity Sc radionuclide production with cyclotrons and nuclear reactors is possible from enriched target materials (e.g., <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>43</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>44</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>46</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>48</mn> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca), this route is not sustainable in terms of production cost or availability to neutron irradiation. An alternative, more cost-efficient way would be the use of natural titanium or vanadium target materials. Utilizing <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V as a target for <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc production requires the use of medium-energy protons and leads to a quite-low production yield, due to a low cross section (<11 mb). If one wants to avoid the production of <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc in the final product, the cross section falls to 7.4 mb [<a href="#B19-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">19</a>]. Compared to <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti irradiation by protons with cyclotrons yields higher Sc radionuclide production; however, a mix of the same long-lived, high-<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>γ</mi> </semantics></math>-ray <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>48</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc contaminants are produced (see <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>). Therefore, the irradiated targets must go through a mass separation step to remove the <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>48</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc contaminants before or after any radiochemical separation. As indicated in <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t001" class="html-table">Table 1</a>, mass separation is required to separate <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>43</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc from <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, as well as for purification of <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> <mo>/</mo> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc that is not possible with any other conventional methods or even enriched target materials.</div><div class='html-p'>Electromagnetic-ion-beam mass separation is a technique that uses a dipole magnet to induce a magnetic field and separate accelerated ions according to their mass-to-charge ratio, through the Lorentzian principle. The magnetic rigidity of the ion beam of interest depends on the applied magnetic field from the dipole as well as the charged state of the ion, mass, and energy. By blocking out unwanted trajectories, only pure beams of interest can be selected. In contrast to chemical separation, isobars or atoms with the same mass number (A) but different atomic numbers (Z) are separated from the initial sample. The quality of a mass separator is expressed by the mass resolving power, and certain mass separators have sufficient resolution to separate isobars [<a href="#B20-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">20</a>,<a href="#B21-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">21</a>]. CERN-ISOLDE (Isotope Separation On-Line DEvice) in Switzerland is a facility that has utilized this technique for decades to deliver isotopes for atomic, nuclear, and solid-state physics experiments [<a href="#B22-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">22</a>,<a href="#B23-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">23</a>]. The mass separation technique was recently adapted by the CERN-MEDICIS (MEdical Isotopes Collected from ISolde) offline mass separator to obtain isotopically pure non-conventional medical radionuclides. These mass separated radionuclides are implanted into thin metallic or salt-coated foils and dispatched to biomedical or radiochemical research centers worldwide [<a href="#B24-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">24</a>]. To test target units, study target materials, ion sources, and stable (non-radioactive) isotopes and molecules, two offline mass separators (Offline-1 and Offline-2) are available [<a href="#B25-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">25</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>Sc radionuclides have been produced at ISOLDE before; however, the conditions of their efficient release were extreme, not optimized, and not suitable for lower-melting-point-(<2000 °C) target materials. Spallation reactions of <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ta foils are the primary source in obtaining Sc isotopes at ISOLDE for physics experiments, due to the stability of Ta at very high operating temperatures (>2000 °C). However, the production yield of medically relevant Sc radionuclides with mass separation from <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ta is not yet applicable for medical research [<a href="#B26-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">26</a>]. Furthermore, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ta spallation requires high-energy protons that are not available in typical intermediate- or medium-energy cyclotron centers.</div><div class='html-p'>Refractory-element release from the target units (e.g., Si, B, C, Sc, Ti, V, and transition metals Nb, Mo, Tc, W, Re, Os) can be promoted with in situ chemical reactions in the target containers and ion sources by creating more volatile molecules and can be extracted from target units as molecular-ion species [<a href="#B27-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">27</a>]. Molecular-beam formation is achieved by either injecting reactive gas, such as CF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> and SF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>6</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> [<a href="#B28-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">28</a>], CO [<a href="#B29-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">29</a>], or evaporating salts (e.g., CCl<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>, AgCl, BF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>) from a separate container within the target unit. Molecular-beam formation can also be observed from impurities in raw target materials or from its chemical composition (e.g., LaF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>, Ce<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>S<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>, CeS) [<a href="#B30-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">30</a>,<a href="#B31-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">31</a>]; however, in such cases, the reaction rate cannot be controlled during operations.</div><div class='html-p'>This study was motivated by the potential and benefits of combining the novel mass separation method with conventional cyclotron-compatible, cost-efficient target materials to obtain high molar activity and isotopically pure Sc radionuclides. The objective of this work was to investigate, test, and determine the most suitable target and ion source units as well as cost-efficient target materials for medical Sc radionuclide production and mass separation at CERN-MEDICIS. During this study, natural vanadium foils were used for the first time for radioactive ion beam production at CERN. Various halogenating (NF<sub>3</sub>, Cl<sub>2</sub>, CF<sub>4</sub>) gases as well as target units, ion sources, and operational parameters were systematically tested with these target materials for Sc molecular ion beam formation and extraction. In this study, a new two-step laser resonance mono-atomic Sc ionization scheme was tested and used to obtain Sc ion beams from irradiated target materials. Also, the first molecular ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math> (<math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>X</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math>) beams at MEDICIS and the first <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> <mo>/</mo> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math>, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>45</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math>, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math>, and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math> radioactive molecular beams were observed and used for Sc isotope mass separation. Each investigation in this study is reflected in a separate section showing the context and historical data and explaining the applicable methods and equipment, followed by the observed findings and results. This way, the potential of performing mass separation of <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>43</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> <mo>/</mo> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc from naturally abundant, irradiated thick MEDICIS targets as well as externally irradiated samples to obtain high molar activity and radiochemically pure Sc radionuclides is systematically shown.</div></section><section id='sec2-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 2. Thick Targets and Mass Separator</h2><section id='sec2dot1-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.1. Historical Target Materials at ISOLDE</h4><div class='html-p'>The most common thick-target materials used at ISOLDE for radioactive ion beam production are uranium carbide (UC<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>) or metallic natural tantalum (<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ta) foils [<a href="#B32-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">32</a>,<a href="#B33-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">33</a>], which are also used at MEDICIS for radiolanthanide production and mass separation [<a href="#B34-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">34</a>]. Various forms of <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V target materials capable of producing Sc isotope beams have been used at ISOLDE in the past 40 years [<a href="#B32-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">32</a>] and are summarized in <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t002" class="html-table">Table 2</a>. TiO<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>, Ti<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>O<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>, Ti<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>5</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>Si<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>, and TiN target materials for isotope separation on-line (ISOL) have been investigated by Oak Ridge National Laboratory (US) and TRIUMF (Canada), but only for <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>48</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>V release [<a href="#B35-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">35</a>]. Ti, VC, and TiC target materials have been fluorinated with CF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> gas addition during operations at ISOLDE to promote Sc release, but the extraction of mono-atomic Sc even at 1900 °C from target units was slow and did not improve with the CF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> addition [<a href="#B28-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">28</a>,<a href="#B35-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">35</a>] or was obtained in conditions where the target material was molten and being evaporated [<a href="#B36-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">36</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>Because of the insufficient yield (atoms per <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>C incident proton beam), slow isotope release from the target unit, melting point of the material, powder sintering, or element selectivity, these materials were discarded from routine use. On the other hand, such a controlled and sustained release approach would be suitable for collections at MEDICIS for radionuclides, where single-batch collections can last for days.</div><div class='html-p'>Refractory Sc release from the ISOLDE and MEDICIS target units has proven to be very challenging, due to the high boiling point, low vapor pressure, and high chemical reactivity of scandium. The refractory nature of Sc is one of the reasons for the low yields as well as the inconsistent beam-delivery results obtained for mass separation up to now. Titanium has higher vapor pressure and lower melting temperature than vanadium [<a href="#B35-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">35</a>]; however, only V powder has been used as target material at ISOLDE. Powders tend to sinter more easily and at lower temperatures, thereby lowering the extracted isotope yield over time [<a href="#B20-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">20</a>]. Before MEDICIS, there was limited interest in sustained slow mono-atomic or molecular-scandium-isotope ion beam release and production of medically suitable activities, which explains why no further investigations of these target materials were done.</div></section><section id='sec2dot2-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.2. Mass Separator</h4><div class='html-p'>In this study, two mass separators were used to develop and extract the scandium ion beams. Radioactive Sc ion beams were obtained and mass separated by the MEDICIS offline mass separator. The MEDICIS mass separator schematic is shown in <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f002" class="html-fig">Figure 2</a>. The first part is a front-end for the radioactive ion beam production, acceleration, and optics. The front-end consists of:</div><div class='html-p'><ul class='html-bullet'><li><div class='html-p'>an electrically isolated target-unit coupling system, operated at 30–60 kV potential;</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>a target and ion source unit that is exchanged for each production batch;</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>a Ti extraction electrode that is placed at 50–80 mm distance from the ion source;</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>an Einzel lens to shape the ion beam, operated at 11–26 kV, depending on the extraction potential and ion source type;</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>horizontal and vertical electrostatic deflectors (±200–600 V).</div></li></ul></div><div class='html-p'>The MEDICIS mass separator section consists of a 55° double-focusing magnet with a bending radius of 1.5 m and is operated up to 90 A current [<a href="#B37-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">37</a>]. A dedicated window opposite the front-end is used to reflect the laser beam directly into the ion source. Before the bending magnet, a copper Faraday cup is inserted into the beam path to measure the total beam current entering the dipole magnet. The beam instrumentation box after the magnet houses a wire scanner to assess the beam shape and position, another Faraday cup to measure the separated beam current, and a recently upgraded double-slit system, which allows for isolating single or two-ion different-mass ion beams simultaneously, with a mass difference of 1–3 amu [<a href="#B34-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">34</a>]. Last on the beamline is the sample collection chamber, where the sample holder with up to three collection foils (15 × 20 mm) is placed in the radioactive ion beam path to implant the isotope(s) of interest. The sample holder consists of a collimator, an electron repeller, and a sample plate into which the impinging beam current can also be monitored. The produced ions are collected on Zn- or Al-coated gold foils, full Al foils, or salt-covered Al foils in a position perpendicular or angular to the ion beam.</div><div class='html-p'>The MEDICIS mass separator is operated at a pressure of 1 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>–1 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>7</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math> mbar. Neutral radioactive isotopes are pumped from the separator volume and are stored in local tanks until their decay to a sufficiently low level for release into the atmosphere [<a href="#B37-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">37</a>]. Every separator section can be isolated by valves. Reactive and noble gas injection into the target units is done through a dedicated gas supply system that is located inside the high-voltage-and-power-supply room, outside the separator bunker. Another isolated gas system is connected to the same feed line to the target for Cl<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> injection and residual-gas neutralization. Up to 1.4 bar pressure can be applied to the target-unit gas leaks.</div><div class='html-p'>Short <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>γ</mi> </semantics></math> spectroscopy measurements during radioactive ion beam collection are performed online with a 1 cm cubed Cadmium Zinc Telluride (CZT) <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>γ</mi> </semantics></math>-ray Kromek GR1+ semiconductor detector that is placed directly behind the sample foil [<a href="#B38-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">38</a>]. This way, the radionuclide activity that is collected on the collection foils can be monitored during the whole experiment. Two minutes of real-time acquisitions were done every 5 min. The resolution of GR1+ is <2.0% FWHM @ 662 keV [<a href="#B39-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">39</a>]. The obtained spectra were acquired, saved, displayed, and quantitatively analyzed by the Kromek Multi-Spect Analysis spectroscopy software (Version 14.24.3.243). In addition, high resolution <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>γ</mi> </semantics></math>-spectroscopy measurements were performed on every retrieved sample after collection and radiochemistry procedure. The spectra were taken with an HPGe coaxial detector from MIRION Technologies (Canberra) S.A.S. The energy range of the detector is 3–10,000 keV, with relative efficiency of >40% and resolution of <1.2 keV (at 122 keV) and <2.0 keV (at 1332 keV) [<a href="#B40-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">40</a>]. These latter measurements were used to quantify the separation efficiency at the end of the collections and any possible sputtering effect [<a href="#B41-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">41</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>Before proceeding to the extraction of radioactive Sc isotopes at MEDICIS, an offline mass separator (ISOLDE Offline-1) was used for target-unit testing before irradiation and for stable (non-radioactive) beam developments. The layout of the Offline-1 separator is similar to the MEDICIS one; however, the target unit is operated only at 30 kV [<a href="#B21-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">21</a>]. Another recent Offline-1 upgrade includes a collection chamber at the end of the instrumentation box, where a stable ion beam can be implanted in metallic foil, released by resistively heating the foil, and detected by a residual gas analyzer (1–200 amu) at the top of the collection chamber [<a href="#B25-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">25</a>]. A separate target coupling table (pump stand) having the possibility to apply current for heating and to reach a vacuum inside the target units down to 1 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>7</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math> mbar was used to calibrate each target container and transfer line temperature according to the applied current. It was also used for outgassing of the <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC pellet charge.</div></section></section><section id='sec3-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 3. Scandium Radionuclide Production Yields</h2><section id='sec3dot1-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.1. Radionuclide Production at MEDICIS</h4><div class='html-p'>In this study, the target materials were irradiated at CERN-MEDICIS with a 1.4 GeV proton beam delivered by the Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB). The target units were placed downstream of an ISOLDE target unit. An increase of proton energy to 2 GeV is planned in a few years. The proton beam first travels through an empty ISOLDE aluminium target-unit vessel (direct beam) or a full target container (indirect beam). Therefore, the irradiation parameters at CERN-MEDICIS and the conditions strongly depend on an ongoing ISOLDE experiment (see [<a href="#B24-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">24</a>] for more details). The pulsed proton beam impinges on the target units with up to 2.0 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>A intensity. The PSB cycle consists of up to 3.3 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>13</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math> protons per 2.4 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>A pulse every 1.2 s. In addition to the two different modes of irradiation (direct and indirect), there are two irradiation stations available. The irradiation stations are named after the ISOLDE separators: namely, the General-Purpose Separator (GPS) and the High-Resolution Separator (HRS) [<a href="#B42-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">42</a>]. MEDICIS also utilizes another mode of operation, thanks to the institutes that are part of the MEDICIS collaboration. The target materials irradiated at external cyclotron or reactor facilities can be shipped to MEDICIS and placed inside an empty target-unit container and the radionuclide of interest subsequently mass separated [<a href="#B24-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">24</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>MEDICIS operates in a so-called “batch mode” of production and extraction, meaning that the starting activity of the radionuclide within the inventory for each experiment is a finite amount and decreases from both the radioactive decay and release of the nuclides throughout the collection. This is the main difference between an offline and an online isotope mass separator facility such as ISOLDE. ISOLDE typically operates with a proton beam constantly impinging on the target during mass separation. Therefore, the efficiency in the context of an offline mass separator is defined as the decay-corrected amount (activity) of radionuclides collected at the end of the collection against the amount at the start of the collection. The target materials are irradiated at room temperature and in an Ar atmosphere. No active target cooling is provided. Most of the irradiated target units used for radionuclide release and collections at MEDICIS are re-irradiated and re-used; therefore, multiple collection batches are performed from the same target unit. The irradiation times usually range from a few hours up to a full day (24 h). Every target unit for irradiation in the ISOLDE target area is transported via an automatic rail conveyor system. After irradiation, the dose rate at 27 cm of the retrieved target unit is measured at the MEDICIS decay station. Thus far, the target-unit dose rate has reached 3 Sv/h, 15 min after the End Of the Beam (EOB). It prevents any sample fraction removal for spectroscopy analysis. The target units are transported and placed on the MEDICIS front-end by remote handling, using a KUKA<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>®</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> (Augsburg, Germany) robot [<a href="#B24-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">24</a>]. Due to the high dose rate and amount of radionuclides produced inside each target, spectrometry of the whole target unit is also not yet feasible.</div><div class='html-p'>The radionuclide inventory from each production is predicted via the use of the FLUKA (version 4.3) multi-purpose Monte Carlo code. It covers nucleus–nucleus, hadron–nucleus, and hadron–hadron interactions from their threshold up to 10 PeV energy. FLUKA includes multiple models to describe the interactions. For the energy of 1.4 GeV that concerns our study, the PreEquilibrium Approach to NUclear Thermalization (PEANUT) model is used [<a href="#B21-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">21</a>,<a href="#B43-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">43</a>,<a href="#B44-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">44</a>]. The FLUKA code has been benchmarked with experimental data from radionuclide production in the corresponding energy range [<a href="#B45-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">45</a>,<a href="#B46-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">46</a>,<a href="#B47-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">47</a>]. Flair (version 4-3.1), an advanced interface for several Monte Carlo codes originally developed for FLUKA, was used for visualization and modeling of the geometry as well as processing the results generated from the FLUKA input [<a href="#B48-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">48</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>ActiWiz (version 3.5.9/2021-2907), another computational tool, was used in this study. While it allows for calculating the production of each isotope from a set of particle fluence spectra as a function of the particle type and energy [<a href="#B49-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">49</a>,<a href="#B50-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">50</a>], it can also import nuclide production rates from external general-purpose Monte Carlo codes and derive the nuclide inventories by solving the Bateman equation. In addition, it includes many post-processing options to directly analyze the results, which is what the tool was used for in this context.</div></section><section id='sec3dot2-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.2. Theoretical In-Target Production and Thick-Target Yield Results</h4><div class='html-p'>After irradiation of the target units for Sc release and mass separation, <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>γ</mi> </semantics></math>-spectroscopy measurements were impossible, due to the dose rate of the targets (0.3–1.0 Sv/h at 27 cm distance). The radionuclide inventory for yield estimation was computed with FLUKA and ActiWiz. To estimate the production yield, a few approximations and assumptions had to be considered:</div><div class='html-p'><ul class='html-bullet'><li><div class='html-p'>The target-material nucleus inside the particle-tracking (scoring) region in FLUKA was uniformly distributed. The same was assumed for more complex chemical compounds and molecules, as FLUKA does not take into account the chemical structure of the compound;</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>The metallic foil rolls were loaded directly inside the target container and, therefore, the loaded charge density was uniformly distributed and less than the corresponding pure material density. Depending on the weight and foil layers, the obtained charge densities in this study varied from 0.5–1.5 g/cm<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>. Even though the actual prepared <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V-foil target charge densities resulted in <1 g/cm<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>, the highest prepared-metallic-foil charge density was 1.5 g/cm<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msup> </semantics></math> (for <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti) and was, therefore, taken as a reference for <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V in-target production estimations as well;</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>The target-material geometry was not precisely defined in the code, and the nucleus distribution assumption was close enough, due to the particle fluence distribution and small energy loss in the target container region (see <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>a,b);</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>The <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC pellet charge was confined in a carbon sleeve; therefore, the radionuclide production region in this case was the inner-carbon-sleeve volume that was taken up by the pellets. The rest of the space inside the target container was taken up by the carbon sleeve or left empty. For this reason, the mass of all out-gassed pellets per their initial volume was assumed, resulting in 2.7 g/cm<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msup> </semantics></math> density.</div></li></ul></div><div class='html-p'>FLUKA production predictions give a good relative comparison of the proposed materials to maximize on direct Sc radionuclide or <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>44</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti/<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca/<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc generator production feasibility. One should note the co-production of light radioactive N, C, B, Be, and Li species from carbon in the sleeve and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC; however, only <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>7</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Be and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>10</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Be are long-lived and the rest are very short-lived isotopes [<a href="#B13-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">13</a>,<a href="#B51-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">51</a>]. <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t003" class="html-table">Table 3</a> shows a comparison of production yields with statistical uncertainties for target materials used in this study at various irradiation stations and modes. The yields were simulated with 1 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math> primary particles (protons) and the results are given as produced nuclides per gram of user-defined target material per primary particle. For indirect irradiation, a target unit with a depleted uranium carbide target charge was considered upstream of the proton beam, because it is the most widely used target for radioactive ion beam productions at ISOLDE [<a href="#B33-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">33</a>].</div><div class='html-p'><a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t004" class="html-table">Table 4</a> provides a comparison of the Thick-Target production Yields (TTYs) that can be achieved at MEDICIS and with cyclotrons. The yield of Sc radionuclides and proton fluence per primary particle at MEDICIS is 11 times higher in the case of direct irradiation in comparison with indirect irradiation on the HRS station. Also, the yield from direct irradiation on HRS is 7 times higher than GPS indirect irradiation (ISIS table). The yields from indirect irradiation on GPS are higher than HRS, due to less proton beam straggling because of the difference in distance between the ISOLDE and MEDICIS targets on HRS (530 mm) and GPS (240 mm).</div><div class='html-p'>Based on FLUKA computations, Thick-Target Yields (TTYs) were estimated with 1 h irradiation time and no cooling time after the End of the Beam (EOB). The obtained results are summarized in <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t004" class="html-table">Table 4</a>. To estimate the highest production yield that can be achieved with charge densities for Ti and V foils of 1.5 g/cm<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msup> </semantics></math> and 2.7 g/cm<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msup> </semantics></math> for <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC, full target charges were assumed. Full-target-charge mass of 100 g for double-foil <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti, double-foil <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V, and 65 g (154 pellets) for <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC were considered. Based on the particle fluence in <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>, the production yield was calculated for direct irradiation on the HRS station; hence, the highest production yield.</div><div class='html-p'>Production of TTYs from metallic foils and pressed TiC targets with cyclotrons were estimated, considering a realistic scenario of targets with 1 mm thickness. For comparison, no cooling time after the EOB was considered. Energies of 30 and 70 MeV proton beams were considered. The energy degradation inside the targets for the TTYs calculation was simulated with the SRIM software [<a href="#B52-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">52</a>]. The average value between impinging-beam and residual-beam energy was used to obtain an estimate of the yield. To obtain the cross sections at the desired proton energy range, a fit from experimental data, available from the EXFOR database in <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>, was performed. The TENDL-2023 [<a href="#B53-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">53</a>] theoretical cross section database was used for radionuclides that lack experimental data. Obtained TTYs for MEDICIS targets are relatively higher due to target thickness; however, the MEDICIS target materials are irradiated with a 2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>A proton beam whereas cyclotrons can reach up to 100–350 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>A intensities, eventually placing both irradiation modes in the same yield range. One should note that to estimate achievable activity per production run, the possibility of increasing the cyclotron target thickness as well as the mass separation efficiency (0.1–50%, depending on the chemical element) should be taken into account [<a href="#B34-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">34</a>,<a href="#B54-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">54</a>].</div></section></section><section id='sec4-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 4. Target and Ion Source Developments</h2><section id='sec4dot1-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 4.1. Target and Ion Source Units</h4><div class='html-p'>The target and ion source units that are used for radioactive ion beam production and mass separation at MEDICIS generally are identical to the ones being developed for and used at ISOLDE [<a href="#B21-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">21</a>,<a href="#B37-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">37</a>]. The target unit typically consists of three main parts: an aluminium base and enclosure, a target container and its accessories, and an ion source. Each target unit produced for either MEDICIS or ISOLDE can differ in its specification, modification, and ion source to maximize longevity, production yield, and ionization of the species of interest. Since 1990, more than 840 target units in total have been produced, and some of them are re-used multiple times until dismantling and long-term storage [<a href="#B55-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">55</a>]. As shown in <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a>, the target container and ion source are fixed to the target base, which is water-cooled to temperatures <20 °C during operation. Finally, the target container and ion source assembly with their accessories are enclosed by an aluminium vessel to obtain a pressure below <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math> mbar. The target container and transfer line/ion source are resistively heated to obtain the desired temperature, with currents up to 370 A for the transfer line/ion source and 1200 A for the target container. The target container and ion source are covered in Ta, W, and Mo heat screens, to have more uniform heat distribution during operations. The target container housing for the target material or external samples is made out of Ta material, due to its durability and refractory nature. Possible alternatives would be W or Re; however, due to the complex structures needed for target-unit assembly these materials are most difficult to manufacture accordingly. In cases where exposure to Ta should be limited, thin metal foil linings or covers such as 10–30 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>m V and W foils are inserted in the target container. The target container’s inner diameter is 20 mm, and it is 200 mm long. The transfer line to the ion source is located in the middle of the target container perpendicular to the container.</div><div class='html-p'>The key accessory for molecular-beam formation is a gas injection line within the target unit, which is a two-piece Ta tube that connects the target-unit base with the target container. The gas injection line faces the transfer line on the target container and is connected via a hollow boron nitride (BN) cylinder to ensure electrical insulation. To control gas flow to the target container, 316 L grade sintered stainless-steel powder calibrated gas leaks (High Technology Products Ltd., East Sussex, UK) are installed on the base plate at the beginning of the gas line. Typical leak rates used are within the range of 4 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math> to 2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math> mbar.L/s (for air). By controlling the gas pressure applied to the gas leak from the reservoir side, the gas flow into the target container can be varied.</div><div class='html-p'>To ionize the created gaseous atoms and molecules within the target container, various ion source and transfer-line modifications have been developed, tested, and used [<a href="#B21-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">21</a>,<a href="#B56-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">56</a>,<a href="#B57-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">57</a>]. The most simple one of them is the surface ion source, which is a hot hollow metallic tube with a high work function <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>ϕ</mi> </semantics></math>, such as Ta (<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>ϕ</mi> </semantics></math> = 4.0–4.8 eV), W (<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>ϕ</mi> </semantics></math> = 4.3–5.2 eV), or Re (<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>ϕ</mi> </semantics></math> = 4.7–5.1 eV). They are typically operated at 2000–2400 °C and capable of ionizing low-Ionization Potential (IP) species with IP < 6 eV [<a href="#B21-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">21</a>,<a href="#B58-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">58</a>,<a href="#B59-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">59</a>,<a href="#B60-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">60</a>,<a href="#B61-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">61</a>]. Laser ionization is also possible at MEDICIS, thanks to a dedicated laser laboratory, MELISSA (MEDICIS Laser Ion Source for Separator Assembly) [<a href="#B62-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">62</a>,<a href="#B63-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">63</a>]. The ionization of mono-atomic Sc was tested with different target-unit configurations (see <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t005" class="html-table">Table 5</a>), using a two-step laser scheme with auto-ionization resonance.</div><div class='html-p'>Because of the high mono-atomic Sc and molecule ionization or dissociation potential, the Versatile-Arc-Discharge Ion Source (VADIS) was mainly used in this study. VADIS is a Forced-Electron-Beam-Induced Arc Discharge (FEBIAD) or the so-called plasma ion source. It is an optimized version with an increased active volume and a reduced amount of graphite compared to its predecessor MK series [<a href="#B64-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">64</a>]. In this study, the VD-5 target-unit type was most commonly used. It has a hot Ta transfer line from the target container to the VADIS ion source. The VADIS Ta cathode is directly connected to the transfer line and, hence, they are heated together to the same temperatures. Electron emission and acceleration through a grid into the anode body create plasma conditions upon electron impact with gaseous species at 1900–2100 °C. The electrons are deflected by an axial magnet on helical orbits. Because of the electron acceleration at 50–200 V (0–300 V total range) on the anode, the ion source is capable of ionizing/dissociating all low and high IP species reaching the ion source. Open Ta surfaces in one of the prototype target units were decreased by lining the transfer line and the cathode with tungsten. An open VADIS VD-5 target unit schematic overview is shown in <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a>.</div></section><section id='sec4dot2-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 4.2. Molecular Ion Beams</h4><div class='html-p'>Refractory and rare earth elements such as Sc are difficult to extract from thick ISOL target units in the form of mono-atomic gas [<a href="#B27-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">27</a>]. Sc is known to form halides that are more volatile than the atomic counterpart and could, therefore, be used for extraction from target units in a molecular form. To create scandium-halide molecules, reactive gases such as carbon tetrafluoride (CF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>, 99.995% pure), nitrogen trifluoride (NF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>, 99.99% pure), and chlorine (Cl<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>, 99.8% pure) were applied to the target container via the calibrated gas leak.</div><div class='html-p'>Molecular and mono-atomic Sc ion beam formation is mainly obtained through stable molecule dissociation rather than direct ionization, because the dissociation potential of ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> </msub> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mn>3</mn> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </semantics></math> species is lower than their direct ionization [<a href="#B65-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">65</a>,<a href="#B66-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">66</a>]. Both the dissociation and ionization potential of atomic Sc and ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> molecules is >6 eV, which exceeds the work function of Ta, W, and Re, suggesting that the surface ion source is not suitable for Sc mass separation. Nevertheless, Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> and ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> beams have been reported at ISOLDE with a W surface source [<a href="#B36-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">36</a>], due to certain released molecule-fraction dissociative ionization and drift electron acceleration in the extraction field. Hence, Sc mono-atomic ionization with a laser or halide-molecule ionization with a FEBIAD-type ion source should be preferred [<a href="#B65-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">65</a>]. Since laser ionization is not efficient with a VADIS ion source, due to distance and colder ion source structures in between the transfer line and the extraction electrode, W and Re surface ion sources were used for laser resonant ionization tests. For VADIS ion source ionization efficiency tests and comparisons a mix of noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe of 20% each, 99.999% pure) was also used.</div></section><section id='sec4dot3-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 4.3. Laser Resonant Ionization Results</h4><div class='html-p'>Laser ionization tests were performed, using a stable <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>45</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>O<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> sample, which was dried on Ta foil and loaded into an empty target container. Resonance laser ionization of Sc isotopes is only possible for mono-atomic scandium vapor. The obtained response to the laser ionization showed that a chemical reduction and dissociation of the oxide molecule in the Ta target container had happened.</div><div class='html-p'>Laser ionization was performed, using a two-step resonant ionization scheme, shown in <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f005" class="html-fig">Figure 5</a>a, which was developed at AG LARISSA, Institute of Physics, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany. The first-step laser excited the Sc from the 168.34 cm<sup>−1</sup> state, for which the relative population was calculated to be 57.4% at 2000 °C, to the 33278.37 cm<sup>−1</sup> energy level determined from [<a href="#B67-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">67</a>]. The laser light for this step (302.02 nm) was generated using a titanium/sapphire (Ti:Sa) laser with an external frequency-tripling unit [<a href="#B68-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">68</a>]. The light for the second step (461.37 nm) was produced using an intra-cavity doubled Ti:Sa laser. A scan of the second ionization step in the range [21600.00–22400.00 cm<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>] was first performed to determine the Auto-Ionization State (AIS) that gave the highest ion current. Several AISs were measured and compared, with the strongest observed at an energy of 54952.97 cm<sup>−1</sup>. The second-step laser was operated at this frequency for the efficiency test. The power of the lasers during the efficiency test was 25 mW and 225 mW for the 302.02 nm and 461.37 nm light, respectively. <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f005" class="html-fig">Figure 5</a>b shows the saturation curve of both excitation steps. The parameter <math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mn>80</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> is the laser power of the step that is required to observe 80% of the maximum-possible achievable laser ion current and is taken as the power at which the transition is considered saturated. In this case, step 1 was well-saturated, whereas step 2 had not reached saturation. With a higher power for step 2, the laser ion beam current could be improved by a factor of up to ×1.5.</div><div class='html-p'>During the tests, mono-atomic laser ionized Sc ions were observed when the target container temperature was increased over 1530 ± 10 °C for two different target units with a transfer-line temperature of 2000 °C. One of the target units was equipped with Re and the other with a W surface ion source. To obtain the relevant beam current for the Sc collection, the target-container temperature had to be increased over 2000 °C. This temperature well exceeds the metallic-foil target-material melting points that are considered suitable for radioactive Sc production, making it almost impossible to collect atomic Sc with high efficiency and within a reasonable collection time. In addition, from a target unit with a W transfer line/surface source, from a stable sample of 600 nAh (1 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>g), 0.38 nAh were detected on the separated-beam Faraday cup over 2 days, corresponding to a collection efficiency of around 0.06%. This is the lower estimation of efficiency, and the actual value should be measured in future research.</div><div class='html-p'>The same ionization scheme was tested for the ionization of Sc with an irradiated <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V-foil target unit. The target unit used for this experiment was equipped with the back of the transfer-line-heated container and the VADIS ion source. This is a target container design where the transfer-line heating connection is attached to the back of the line instead of the usual middle section. It creates a more homogeneous temperature profile along the whole length of the transfer line. Even though the VADIS ion source is not the best fit for laser ionization, atomic <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>45</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>, and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> were observed with laser resonance when the target container temperature of 1570–1700 °C was achieved. After one day of operation, mono-atomic laser ionized species were no longer observed, even by increasing the target-container temperature, indicating full release of the Sc isotopes from the target material in an atomic form. Laser ionization tests of Sc were also performed with a target material fluorinated prior to irradiation; however, no laser resonance and mono-atomic Sc presence was observed with the same operating conditions.</div></section><section id='sec4dot4-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 4.4. Target and Ion Source Unit Development Results</h4><div class='html-p'>In order to improve the conditions for the molecular beam formation and the temperature profile of the target container and to reduce Sc adsorption on target unit structures, multiple parts of the VADIS VD5 target units were modified and tested, as indicated in <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a> and summarized in <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t005" class="html-table">Table 5</a>.</div><div class='html-p'>The calibrated gas leaks were identified as a weak point for target units when NF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> reactive gas was used for molecular-beam studies. The stainless steel melting point is in the range of 1375–1400 °C. However, the sintering of conventional powders is expected at about 50–80% of the material melting point (<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mi>m</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>) [<a href="#B23-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">23</a>]. The radiation heat from the hot target container has been observed to reach over 340 °C during operations at the actively cooled base plate. Furthermore, the Ta gas tubing is directly connected to the target container and can conduct heat directly to the gas leak. This is sufficient to induce a chemical reaction with the NF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> gas and components of the stainless steel, such as iron, chromium, nickel, and molybdenum, leading to a reduced gas-leak rate and an increase in the total beam background. In addition, the gaseous particles from a hot target container can migrate towards the gas leak, where they condense on the surface of stainless steel or BN insulators. On the other hand, during the use of the Cl<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> gas, degradation of the gas leak and an increase in the leak rate were observed. To reduce the possibility of reactions with the gas leak, a copper cooling structure was developed, which had strong direct contact with the gas leak, a BN insulator, and an actively cooled base plate (see <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f006" class="html-fig">Figure 6</a>). Because of the perpendicular connection for Ta tubes to the BN insulator, it could also act as a cold trap to condense a fraction of outgassed particles and prevent them from depositing on the gas leak. During operation with the cooling structure and target container temperature at 1600 °C the insulator temperature still reached 110 °C.</div><div class='html-p'>Compared to previous target units, the additional cooling structure slightly reduced the TaF and TaO<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>F<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mi>y</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> relative beam intensities in the total beam; however, it eventually did not prevent the gas leak from clogging when NF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> gas was applied to the target container at temperatures over 1400 °C. The leak rate reduced to a point where almost no fluorination of the target material was observed. When NF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> was used for stable <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti metallic foil tests, the formation of titanium nitride was observed, suggesting relatively stable nitride species formation in the target container. Due to these observations, CF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> was used as a fluorinating agent.</div><div class='html-p'>Sc has high adsorption enthalpy on a Ta surface (−521 kJ/mol [<a href="#B69-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">69</a>]), of which the VADIS VD-5 target container, transfer line, and ion source are made. The effusion time from the target container can be approximated through delay-time estimation [<a href="#B70-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">70</a>]:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD1-pharmaceuticals-17-00390'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mi>ν</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>ν</mi> </mfrac> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow> <mi>w</mi> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mi>f</mi> </msub> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(1)</label> </div> </div> where <math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mi>ν</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> [s<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>] is the effusion mean delay time [s], <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>ν</mi> </semantics></math> [s<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>] is the effusion time constant, n<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>w</mi> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> [dim] the number of wall collisions, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mi>f</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> [s] is the mean flight time between two wall collisions, and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> [s] is the mean sticking time for a wall collision, which depends on the Frenkel equation [<a href="#B71-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">71</a>]:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD2-pharmaceuticals-17-00390'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mn>0</mn> </msub> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mo>Δ</mo> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> <mi>d</mi> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>R</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </msup> <mo>,</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(2)</label> </div> </div> where <math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mn>0</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> [s] is the period of oscillation perpendicular to the surface, and where <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> [Jmol<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>] is the adsorption enthalpy, which depends on the element–surface combination number of collisions. By considering 1 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>5</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math> collisions of mono-atomic Sc with Ta surfaces in the target container and transfer line, the time for Sc release from the target unit is then calculated to be ∼24 h with the Ta surface at 1550 °C. Here, re-adsorption on Ti and V has not been taken into account and, therefore, the real delay time could be even higher. In the case of W as the main surface material (<math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> = −507.3 kJ/mol [<a href="#B69-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">69</a>]), the mean effusion time would drop to ∼11 h with the same conditions. To reduce Sc interactions with Ta surfaces and delayed release, the lining of the target-unit transfer line and coverage of the ion source cathode was performed with 25 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>m-thick W foil and the target container with 25 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>m-thick V foil (the same as the target material used for that particular target unit), as shown in <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f007" class="html-fig">Figure 7</a>. Tungsten was used for the cathode and transfer line because the VADIS VD-5 ion source optimal operation temperature is ∼2000 °C. The reduced exposure to Ta structures in comparison to the regular Ta target container and transfer line, however, did not noticeably influence the release of the elemental Sc, the extraction onset temperature or the intensity of the <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math> molecular beam, suggesting that mono-atomic Sc migration within the target unit is not the limiting release cause and could be attributed to interdiffusion or chemical diffusion.</div><div class='html-p'>Due to operation at high temperatures, the target container as well as the transfer line are shielded with multiple layers of heat screens. These help to maintain the heat inside the target container, achieve higher temperatures, and improve the homogeneity. Many studies have been done to homogenize the temperature profile in target containers for ISOL experiments [<a href="#B25-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">25</a>]. Typically, the extremities of the target container would be 100–150 °C colder than the center part. This can be the limiting factor for radionuclide release because of their vapor condensation at the colder parts of the container. In fact, the transfer line has a temperature gradient and is not homogeneous throughout its full length. If radionuclide release from the target unit is close to the melting point of the target material, further heating and extraction of such radionuclides from the colder target-container extremities is not possible. If decreasing temperature profiles are applied from extremities towards the middle section of the container, migrating species might be forced to travel across the decreasing temperature profile towards the ion source. For these reasons, a new target-container type with transfer-line heating from the backside of the target container [<a href="#B25-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">25</a>] was tested in combination with a prototype heat screen assembly (see <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f008" class="html-fig">Figure 8</a>a). The prototype was expected to reduce the temperature difference between the extremities and the middle part of the target container as well as to improve the transfer-line temperature homogeneity. Typically, heat screens of Ta, Mo, and W are assembled along the full length of the target container and separated/secured with Ta wire with <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>⌀</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> mm (see <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f008" class="html-fig">Figure 8</a>b). To heat the container, current flows from one side of the container to the opposite. It is postulated that in the prototype design the electric contact with the resistively heated container and heat screens is reduced, therefore increasing the temperature at the extremities of the container body.</div><div class='html-p'>The prototype heat screen assembly together with the back-of-line-heating target container did not meet the expected temperature gradient. Due to the necessity to heat the transfer line/cathode to 1900–2000 °C, the middle section of the target container remained higher than the extremities. Therefore, the heat screens from the transfer-line attachment to the target container had to be locally removed. This resulted in the quarterly section remaining the hottest and closest to the target-material melting point during nominal Sc-release temperature conditions. Deep plugs could be inserted in the target container from both opening sides up to the target material, by mitigating the gaseous-particle access to colder parts. In such a case, particle migration to the coldest target-container sections would be excluded, but the available volume for target material would be reduced.</div><div class='html-p'>Multiple modes of failure were observed for the target units and their modifications, mainly the VADIS ion source anode-voltage short circuit, due to the coating of the insulators. In the majority of cases, the target units were repaired or manipulated in conditions to reduce the coating until satisfactory drain-current and voltage-stability conditions were reached, to continue with the required tests or collections.</div></section></section><section id='sec5-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 5. Target Material Developments and Sc Mass Separation at MEDICIS</h2><div class='html-p'>Target units with empty containers were produced and first used in stable-beam tests. The target units were then loaded with prepared target materials and used for radioactive Sc production, release, and mass separation in multiple batches. In this study, the focus was set on medium-energy cyclotron-compatible and mass separator-compatible target materials, to investigate conditions and their potential for mass separation. The summary list of investigated target materials and produced charges is presented in <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t006" class="html-table">Table 6</a>.</div><section id='sec5dot1-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 5.1. Target Materials for Sc Ion Beams at MEDICIS</h4><div class='html-p'>The metallic <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V target charges were made out of thin foils that were cut into 10–15 mm-wide strips, rolled in a cylindrical shape (<math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>⌀</mo> <mo><</mo> <mn>20</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> mm) and held together with a Ta wire (see <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f009" class="html-fig">Figure 9</a>a). To reduce sintering, the foil strips were embossed, creating a hill–valley pattern and a larger space in between the rolled layers (see <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f009" class="html-fig">Figure 9</a>b). To increase the production yield from irradiation, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti double-layer foil rolls were prepared, with one strip layer embossed and the second kept flat. The 25 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>m-thick metallic <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V foils were purchased from Goodfellow Cambridge Ltd. (Huntingdon, UK). The rolls were washed in 70 % ethanol and an ultrasonic bath for 10 min and dried in air.</div><div class='html-p'>Titanium carbide <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC powder with a particle size of 1–2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>m (bought from Alfa Aesar, US) was pressed in 13 ± 1 mm diameter and 1.2 ± 0.2 mm-thick-sized compact cylindric pellets, weighing approximately 0.42 g each (see <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f009" class="html-fig">Figure 9</a>c). The measured specific surface area was 2.48 m<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>g<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>. A semi-automated 15-ton hydraulic press (Specac Ltd., Orpington, UK) was used to press the <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC powder in pellets with 295–330 MPa pressure. The prepared pellets were loaded in a carbon sleeve (see <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f010" class="html-fig">Figure 10</a>) to maintain their shape and integrity during transfer, outgassing, irradiation, mass separation, and to ease the loading of the charge inside the target container. The carbon sleeve had a circular opening in the middle to allow effusing particles to escape. After the pellets were loaded into the carbon sleeve, they were placed in a separate target unit that consisted of only the base plate, target container, and heat screens. The <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC pellets with the carbon sleeve were outgassed overnight at 1800 °C temperature, with the pressure of the target unit being kept below 1.5 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math> mbar. After outgassing, a few pellets were removed for characterization and weight-loss measurements. The target charge was then loaded inside the target container exactly at the middle with the sleeve opening facing the transfer line to the ion source.</div></section><section id='sec5dot2-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 5.2. Molecular-Beam Development Results</h4><div class='html-p'>To investigate the stability and release of Sc radionuclides from irradiated MEDICIS target units in the form of mono-atomic and molecular ions, a series of experiments were done with the Offline-1 mass separator. Halide, oxide, and oxyhalide molecular ion formation and release were investigated with the VADIS ion source because of the molecule’s high ionization or dissociation potential. To assess the target-material influence on total and separated beams as well as on molecule formation, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>45</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc molecular-beam experiments were performed with and without the natural target materials of <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti (<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti-8.25%, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti-7.44%, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>48</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti-73.72%, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>49</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti-5.41%, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>50</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti-5.18%) and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V (<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>50</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>V-0.25%, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>51</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>V-99.75%) being present in the target container.</div><div class='html-p'>Scandium halides and especially fluorides were chosen as the molecules of highest interest, due to halide-molecule volatility, the mono-isotopic nature of fluorine, the absence of scandium oxyhalides, stability at relatively high temperatures, and practical aspects of handling reactive chemicals and gases. Various chemical forms of stable <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>45</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc isotope compounds with known concentrations and reactive/buffer gases were used in this study. Anhydrous, crystalline <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>45</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> (>99.9% purity) was purchased from Appollo Scientific (Manchester, UK), anhydrous, crystalline <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>45</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>ScCl<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> (>99.9% purity) from Fisher Scientific AG (Schwerte, Germany), and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>45</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>O<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> in 5 % HNO<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> (>99.995% purity, 1000 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>g/mL) was purchased from Alfa Aesar (Ward Hill, MA, USA). All the liquid samples were dried on metallic Ta, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti, or <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V substrates in the air at 70–80 °C, before being loaded inside the target container. To determine the molecular-beam feasibility for Sc mass separation, an extraction-efficiency measurement was done, resulting in ∼5 % efficiency for an <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>45</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math> molecular beam from stable <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>45</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>O<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> and NF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> as the fluorine source in an empty target container.</div><div class='html-p'>Because of the reactive nature of fluorine also towards the target unit structures, the total beam extracted from target units holds a vast amount of high-intensity (few nA to <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>A) molecular and mono-atomic beams. In this study, attention was drawn only toward the beams directly produced from the target material and the ones overlapping the intended radioactive Sc molecular-beam atomic-mass regions. The observed atomic and molecular ions of interest from each stable sample are indicated in <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t007" class="html-table">Table 7</a>.</div><div class='html-p'>Doubly charged ions of both mono-atomic and molecular beams were observed, due to dissociation and electron-impact energy (50–200 eV). Oxygen-containing molecules are formed from native oxide layers and impurities of <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V, and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ta target-unit structures. Due to the mono-isotopic nature of stable <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>45</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, the distinction in mass spectra of a single, weak intensity line is often not conclusive and certain species were not confirmed. The intensities of such beams were also often too low to allow collection and post-analysis with Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Radioactive isotope collections, however, did confirm or deny certain hypotheses. Sc was found to form scandium fluorides mainly, and no clear release was observed as oxyfluorides, chlorides, oxychlorides, and oxides.</div><div class='html-p'>High-intensity contaminant beams should be avoided, due to the possibility of coating insulating parts of the mass separator or VADIS ion source. Due to fluorination also, intense beams of CO<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>, BeF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>, BeF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math>, and COF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> are formed in VADIS VD-5 type target units, contributing to the total beam. BeF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math> and COF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> are creating isobaric contamination at mass 47 with relatively high beam intensities. Because of high-beam-current-induced sputtering [<a href="#B41-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">41</a>], the collection of mono-atomic <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> or <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> is not favored using a VADIS ion source if target material is being fluorinated. Chlorine injections in the target units were only available at MEDICIS due to the absence of a specified gas injection and neutralization system at Offline-1. Cl<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> tests were carried out on already-fluorinated and pre-irradiated target materials because, at the time of this study, only MEDICIS was licensed and permitted to handle Cl<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> gas.</div></section><section id='sec5dot3-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 5.3. Sc Radionuclide Release and Mass Separation Results</h4><div class='html-p'>The target materials proposed for Sc radionuclide production as well as the target units and their modifications were tested on Offline-1 and MEDICIS mass separators, for target-unit functionality, stable isotope beams, irradiated-material Sc radionuclide release, and mass separation. Before the start-up of the MEDICIS facility, the collection efficiency for Sc radionuclides from the available ISOLDE-yield database was estimated at 5% [<a href="#B54-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">54</a>]; however, no Sc radionuclides have been collected since its first radioactive ion beams in 2017 [<a href="#B24-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">24</a>]. The developments in this study resulted in the first mass separation and collection of isotopically pure <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> <mo>/</mo> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc radionuclides, with radioactivity ranging from a few kBq up to a few MBq. For the first time at MEDICIS, Sc molecular-beam extraction and collection efficiencies exceeded 1% under controlled operation conditions from a micrometric <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC target material.</div><div class='html-p'>In contrast to stable beam tests, radioactive ion beams (as with laser ionized Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>) were only observed above temperatures of 1500 °C. This exposed the first main limitation of <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti-foil use as ISOL target material—a relatively low melting/sublimation point (1668 °C). Diffusion of radionuclides out of the target material and their effusion as well as adsorption/desorption on target-unit structures is a thermally activated process. Therefore, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V metal or carbon stabilized <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC with higher melting points were more suitable for mass separation. Another advantage of <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC powder was its high specific surface area compared to metallic foils; <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti or <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V powders could also be used; however, sintering effects should be addressed to re-use the target units for multiple batches and to sustain the release over long-term operations.</div><div class='html-p'>Another observed limitation of all the tested target materials for mass separation is the target-material reactivity towards the halogenating agent and the release of impurities at elevated temperatures, especially for <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC. A MEDICIS mass separator together with a VADIS ion source is preferably operated up to a 10 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>A beam range with a capacity of around 50 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>A; therefore, even mg-amount impurities in the target material can cause delays in isotope collection for days, due to unsatisfactory ion-beam purity. The main impurity in V foils was Al, which reacted with fluorine and formed volatile <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>A-range intensity AlF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math> (X = 1–3) beams, suppressing the Sc fluoride molecule formation. After several days of operations, the reduction of Al release was not definitively observed. TiC, on the other hand, was releasing a few-hundred nA-range Cr<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> beam at temperatures above 1800 °C, which was delaying further heating and increase of the Sc collection rate. In contrast to Al in V, the Cr-beam intensity reduced over time.</div><div class='html-p'>Mass scans of fluorinated <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V foils at various operating temperatures with indicated main chemical species in total beam up to amu 120 are shown in <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f011" class="html-fig">Figure 11</a> and <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f012" class="html-fig">Figure 12</a>. Occasionally, mass scans up to 260 amu (at Offline-1) and 230 amu (at MEDICIS) were also taken, to monitor tantalum, tantalum oxide, tantalum fluoride, and tantalum oxyfluoride beams, which also act as a probe for fluorination and fluorine saturation within the target unit. The beam intensities between the two mass scans at <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f011" class="html-fig">Figure 11</a> and <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f012" class="html-fig">Figure 12</a> have a noticable difference and are not comparable, due to each being taken with different target units, different target-container temperatures, ion source parameters, ionization efficiencies, and amounts of applied CF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> gas. Nevertheless, they provide an understanding of the main chemical species present in the total beam. The total beam composition for <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti is similar to <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC, due to Ti, TiO<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>, and stable TiC reactivity towards the halogenating gases at elevated temperatures. Also, the intense Cr beam is absent with <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti-foil target materials and more intense titanium oxyfluoride beams are present, due to the native oxide layer on metallic Ti foil. The Cr absence can be attributed to the lower operated temperatures of the <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti-foil target materials. For <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V target material, the background of the Sc molecular-beam mass region is significantly lower than <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti or <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC as no vanadium fluoride or oxyfluoride side bands are overlapping the ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math>. This suggests <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V as more suitable for reduced isobaric background Sc molecular-beam collection and also presents the potential for high-melting-point-VC or VB investigation as target materials. Ti or V isotopes from the collection final product can be removed with chemical separation methods, such as ion-exchange column chromatography.</div></section></section><section id='sec6-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type='discussion'><h2 data-nested='1'> 6. Discussion</h2><div class='html-p'>The production cross sections of Sc radionuclides from <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V target material irradiated with high-energy protons (>1 GeV) are in the same 10–25 mb range as the ones achievable with medium-energy cyclotrons. Although the beam intensity used for medical-isotope production of the CERN PSB is lower than a typical cyclotron, the production yield at MEDICIS is compensated with the target charge thickness, due to the available high-proton energy. Because of proton-beam straggling that travels through the ISOLDE UC<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> target charge, the radionuclide production yield could benefit from larger diameter and volume target containers in the case of indirect irradiation. A larger-diameter target-container prototype was proposed and is being developed at MEDICIS [<a href="#B54-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">54</a>]. With the combination of efficient release and sufficient irradiation times, MEDICIS can achieve clinical doses of Sc radionuclides comparable to the ones that can be achieved by medium-energy cyclotrons in medical or research centers (see <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t004" class="html-table">Table 4</a>). Furthermore, MEDICIS has the potential to produce and deliver high molar activity and isotopic-purity Sc radionuclides, thanks to the mass separation technique and parallel-collection possibility for simultaneous <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> <mo>/</mo> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc/<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc collection from a single batch. An increase in cyclotron target charge thickness and irradiation times can increase the yield; however, Sc isotope contaminant buildup is inevitable. The dissolution of metallic Ti foils, TiO<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>, or TiC after irradiation is extremely difficult, whereas mass separation would omit this step as well. Therefore, Sc production from economically feasible target materials should include a mass separation step to reach a purity level high enough for medical applications. In contrast to higher isotopic enrichment for cyclotron targets, mass separation requires higher-chemical-purity materials for better release, mass separation conditions, and mass separator longevity.</div><div class='html-p'>For Sc production with cyclotrons and mass separation, irradiated high-activity samples can be transferred into the target units in a hot cell or by designing upcoming mass separator facilities with a dedicated beamline for an online-isotope-production approach. In the latter case, the target unit and charge could be conditioned in a vacuum and outgassed just before irradiation and mass separation, irradiated in a vacuum, and a higher amount of short-lived Sc radionuclides mass separated. The MEDICIS mode of operation at present has certain limitations for experiment preparation as well as for the isotope collection, by requiring a few hours to reach operational conditions (temperature, pressure, extraction voltage) and allowing for other volatile species to outgas from the irradiated target material. The batch-mode production also allows for only a few parameter investigations during a single experiment.</div><div class='html-p'>Laser ionization is the best way to create very pure Sc ion beams and presents huge potential, as it is element-selective and in combination with mass separation could save a lot of time that is required for chemical post-purification. However, the obtained collection efficiency is too low for significant activity collections. The low efficiency could be explained by Sc molecule formation with target-unit structures, target-material impurities, and molecule stability in high temperatures. Without further understanding of Sc release from target materials and ISOL target units, lasers are not the preferred ion source. To achieve a higher collection efficiency, the target container has to be heated above 2000 °C, but at such temperatures only B- or C-stabilized materials such as TiC or TiB could be used. However, without the target-material fluorination, Sc would be instead stabilized as, e.g., ScC and very little or no mono-atomic Sc eventually released [<a href="#B20-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">20</a>,<a href="#B28-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">28</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>The observed mono-atomic Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> ions from stable-beam experiments show a chemical reduction and dissociation of the oxide molecule in the Ta environment, even though the <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>45</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>O<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> with low vapor pressure and a high melting point is a stable molecule even at high temperatures and reacts with Ta only at 2250 °C. Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>O<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> can undergo a reduction in the presence of C or CO, which are found in the target units either from impurities in Ta structures (for surface source targets) or VADIS ion source support and assembly, as shown in <a href="#pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f006" class="html-fig">Figure 6</a>b. ScO is, in fact, the most stable diatomic gaseous scandium molecule known, with a dissociation energy of 674 kJ/mol (6.99 eV) [<a href="#B72-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">72</a>]; therefore, dissociation by surface interaction is not expected.</div><div class='html-p'>Even though laser ionization has a huge potential, thus far the best method of Sc extraction from target units is through volatile molecule formation. For volatile scandium-molecule formation, fluorine is the preferred choice to maximize the collection yield, because of its stable fluoride mono-isotopic nature. Chlorine, on the other hand, has two stable naturally occurring isotopes of amu 35 and 37. The double-collection possibility at MEDICIS offers to solve this issue, since the mass difference is only 2 amu. However, Cl<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> is not suitable in order to maximize on <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> <mo>/</mo> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc collection as, therefore, isobaric contaminants of <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>35</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Cl<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> interfere with <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> <mo>/</mo> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>37</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Cl<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> collection at 81 amu sideband. The ionization efficiency of molecules is another limiting factor, especially in high-total-beam-current conditions. For this reason, too-rapid release from the target material is not desired and, rather, extended collection would be preferred. To explain Sc release from target units, further investigations in molecular-beam formation mechanisms and dynamics are required. Since target materials as well as target-unit structures are always accompanied by native oxides, Sc release in an oxidative environment must be better understood. Also, more control over temperature in the transfer line for VADIS VD-5 target units could be beneficial, by having the ability to condense unwanted species before they reach the ion source. Although the mass separator is capable of delivering isotopically pure radionuclides, certain isobars from the target material and target units are also collected. To obtain high-molar-activity Sc radionuclides a radiochemical separation step is still performed afterwards [<a href="#B73-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">73</a>,<a href="#B74-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">74</a>]; however, this is a subject for another study.</div><div class='html-p'>The preferred target material was <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC, in terms of operation at high temperatures and providing the highest yield of mass separated Sc radionuclides in this study. Even though the TTY for <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC target charge was lower, the better results could be explained by the carbon stabilization, restricting too-rapid release and, at the same time, CF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> etching of the material, as well as the higher specific surface in comparison to metallic foils. Nanoscale <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC can reach a few-orders-of-magnitude-higher specific surface area [<a href="#B23-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">23</a>]. Counterintuitive to ScC stabilisation, nanoscale <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC and carbon- or boron-stabilized vanadium target materials with a molecular-beam approach for mass separation should be investigated in future studies.</div></section><section id='sec7-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' type='conclusions'><h2 data-nested='1'> 7. Conclusions</h2><div class='html-p'>Cyclotron-suitable target materials for medical Sc radionuclide production—such as <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V metallic foils, and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC target materials—were used at CERN-MEDICIS for the first time. An Sc-radionuclide-production thick-target yield with 1.4 GeV protons at MEDICIS is equivalent to a medium-energy-cyclotron production, high enough to achieve clinical doses and benefit from the mass separation of <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc and<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc.</div><div class='html-p'>Mono-atomic Sc isotopes were obtained at MEDICIS for the first time with a new two-step laser resonance ionization scheme; however, the estimated collection efficiency (0.06%) is lower than with the molecular beam approach. The target container and materials must be heated to temperatures above the metallic <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti- and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V-foil melting points to obtain feasible collection efficiencies. Laser resonance was not observed with a pre-fluorinated target material, suggesting that fluorine presence prevents Sc release from the target unit in a mono-atomic form. Nevertheless, laser ionization could serve as a control tool to verify and study Sc radionuclide release from metallic-foil target materials before molecular-beam formation.</div><div class='html-p'>Sc release and mass separation at MEDICIS is most suitable with target materials that could be operated above 1530 °C. In terms of radionuclide production, high operating temperatures, and stability, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC is the most suitable target material for molecular-Sc-beam mass separation. The sustained and controlled release of Sc radionuclides from fluorinated high-specific-surface-area <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC target material shows potential in nanoscale-target-material investigations. More selective and temperature-controlled target and ion source unit designs are necessary to reduce isobaric impurities, promote the desired molecule formation, and transfer to the ion source during mass separation.</div><div class='html-p'>High molar activity and radiochemical purity <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> <mo>/</mo> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc radionuclides were successfully extracted and mass separated at CERN-MEDICIS as molecular difluoride ion beams with collection efficiencies of more than 1% from micrometric <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC. Stable and sustainable operation conditions to produce medically important Sc by mass separation were obtained. Mono-atomic Sc adsorption on the Ta target-unit structures was found not to be the limiting release cause, suggesting possible interdiffusion (chemical diffusion) effects that will be investigated in further studies. The conditions of Sc radionuclide release from metallic <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti foils and molecular-beam formation mechanisms also have to be further investigated. The achieved collection efficiency, yield, purity, and radiochemical separation will be the subject of another article.</div></section> </div> <div class="html-back"> <section class='html-notes'><h2 >Author Contributions</h2><div class='html-p'>Conceptualization, E.M., C.D., S.R. and T.S.; methodology, E.M., C.D., C.B., V.M.G., S.R. and T.S.; investigation, E.M., C.D., V.B., C.B., M.B., E.C., B.C., V.M.G., F.W., K.W., R.H., R.M.H., J.D.J., P.K., A.K., L.L., R.E.R., S.R., J.T., R.J.Z. and T.S.; data curation, E.M., T.S. and C.D.; writing—original draft preparation, E.M., C.D., C.B. and J.D.J.; writing—review and editing, E.M., C.D., T.S., P.K., V.B., R.H. and R.J.Z.; visualization, E.M., C.D., C.B., R.M.H. and J.D.J.; supervision, T.S., C.D. and E.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2>Funding</h2><div class='html-p'>This work was supported by the Latvian Council of Science, grant number lzp-2021/1-0539 “Novel and efficient approach of medical <sup>43</sup>Sc, <sup>44</sup>Sc and <sup>47</sup>Sc radionuclide separation and purification from irradiated metallic targets towards radiopharmaceutical development for theranostics”, and it has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No. 101008571 (PRISMAP—the European medical radionuclides programme). This document reflects only the view of the authors. The funding agencies are not responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Institutional Review Board Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>Not applicable.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Informed Consent Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>Not applicable.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Data Availability Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.</div></section><section id='html-ack' class='html-ack'><h2 >Acknowledgments</h2><div class='html-p'>The authors would like to thank the following: everyone from the CERN SY-STI-RBS team for support and advice throughout this study; Mia Au and Simon Stegemann for discussions on molecular beams and target units; the CERN BE-CEM-MRO team for robot operations; the CERN HSE-RP-AS team for supervision, guidance, and support in handling radioactive samples and target units; CERN HSE-RP-CS for support with <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>γ</mi> </semantics></math>-spectroscopy measurements and related analysis; and Christian Theis for FLUKA visualization graphics and valuable advice.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Conflicts of Interest</h2><div class='html-p'>The authors declare no conflicts of interest.</div></section><section id='html-glossary'><h2 >Abbreviations</h2><div class='html-p'>The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript: <table class='html-array_table'><tbody ><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >CERN</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >The European Organization for Nuclear Research</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >MEDICIS</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Medical Isotopes Collected from ISOLDE</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >ISOLDE</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Isotope Separation On-Line DEvice</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >MWCNT</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Multi-Walled Carbon NanoTubes</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >ISOL</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Isotope Separation On-Line</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >CNT</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Carbon NanoTubes</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >CB</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Carbon Black</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >CZT</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Cadmium Zinc Telluride</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >MELISSA</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >MEDICIS Laser Ion Source Setup</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >IP</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Ionization Potential</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >AIS</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Auto-Ionization State</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >FEBIAD</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Forced-Electron-Beam-Induced Arc Discharge</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >VADIS</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Versatile-Arc-Discharge Ion Source</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >PSB</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Proton Synchrotron Booster</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >HRS</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >High-Resolution Separator</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >GPS</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >General-Purpose Separator</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >ISIS</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >ISolde Irradiation Station</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >FLUKA</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >FLUktuierende KAskade</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >HPGe</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >High-Purity Germanium</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >MCNP</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Monte Carlo N-Particle Transport</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >EOB</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >End Of Beam</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >TTY</td><td align='left' valign='middle' class='html-align-left' >Thick-Target Yield</td></tr></tbody></table></div></section><section id='html-references_list'><h2>References</h2><ol class='html-xx'><li id='B1-pharmaceuticals-17-00390' class='html-x' data-content='1.'>Dadgar, H.; 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Adapted from [<a href="#B37-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">37</a>].  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f002"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 2.</b> MEDICIS mass separator beamline schematics. Adapted from [<a href="#B37-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">37</a>].</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g002.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g002.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g002" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g002.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f003"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f003"> <img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g003.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g003.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g003" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g003-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f003"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 3.</b> Particle fluences for MEDICIS <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti foil target charge irradiation with 1.4 GeV protons.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f003"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 3.</b> Particle fluences for MEDICIS <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti foil target charge irradiation with 1.4 GeV protons.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g003.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g003.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g003" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g003.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f004"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f004"> <img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g004.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g004.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g004" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g004-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f004"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 4.</b> VADIS VD-5 target unit schematic on mass separator front-end without aluminium vessel.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f004"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 4.</b> VADIS VD-5 target unit schematic on mass separator front-end without aluminium vessel.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g004.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g004.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g004" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g004.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f005"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f005"> <img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g005.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g005.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g005" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g005-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f005"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 5.</b> Mono-atomic Sc laser ionization scheme and power-saturation curve: (<b>a</b>) Two-step Sc laser ionization scheme used at MELISSA. (<b>b</b>) Laser power saturation for Sc ionization. Data were fit with <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mfrac> <mi>I</mi> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mn>0</mn> </msub> </mfrac> <mo>=</mo> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>P</mi> <mo>/</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mi>P</mi> <mo>/</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </semantics></math>. X-axis: Power as a fraction of the nominal operating power during the efficiency tests.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f005"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 5.</b> Mono-atomic Sc laser ionization scheme and power-saturation curve: (<b>a</b>) Two-step Sc laser ionization scheme used at MELISSA. (<b>b</b>) Laser power saturation for Sc ionization. Data were fit with <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mfrac> <mi>I</mi> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mn>0</mn> </msub> </mfrac> <mo>=</mo> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>P</mi> <mo>/</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mi>P</mi> <mo>/</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </semantics></math>. X-axis: Power as a fraction of the nominal operating power during the efficiency tests.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g005.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g005.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g005" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g005.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f006"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f006"> <img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g006.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g006.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g006" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g006-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f006"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 6.</b> Gas-leak and BN-insulator Cu cooling structure for target unit: (<b>a</b>) Gas-leak cooling structure components. (<b>b</b>) Target unit with installed gas-leak cooling structure.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f006"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 6.</b> Gas-leak and BN-insulator Cu cooling structure for target unit: (<b>a</b>) Gas-leak cooling structure components. (<b>b</b>) Target unit with installed gas-leak cooling structure.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g006.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g006.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g006" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g006.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f007"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f007"> <img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g007.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g007.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g007" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g007-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f007"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 7.</b> Target container and ion source cathode covered with metallic foils: (<b>a</b>) V lining in the target container. (<b>b</b>) VADIS cathode covered with W.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f007"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 7.</b> Target container and ion source cathode covered with metallic foils: (<b>a</b>) V lining in the target container. (<b>b</b>) VADIS cathode covered with W.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g007.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g007.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g007" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g007.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f008"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f008"> <img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g008.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g008.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g008" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g008-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f008"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 8.</b> Heat screen placement on an ISOLDE/MEDICIS target container: (<b>a</b>) Prototype heat screen assembly. (<b>b</b>) Standard heat screen assembly.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f008"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 8.</b> Heat screen placement on an ISOLDE/MEDICIS target container: (<b>a</b>) Prototype heat screen assembly. (<b>b</b>) Standard heat screen assembly.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g008.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g008.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g008" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g008.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f009"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f009"> <img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g009.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g009.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g009" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g009-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f009"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 9.</b> Embossed <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V metallic foils and pressed <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC pills used for target charges: (<b>a</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti double-foil roll. (<b>b</b>) Embossed metallic <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V foil. (<b>c</b>) Pressed <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC pill.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f009"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 9.</b> Embossed <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V metallic foils and pressed <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC pills used for target charges: (<b>a</b>) <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti double-foil roll. (<b>b</b>) Embossed metallic <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V foil. (<b>c</b>) Pressed <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC pill.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g009.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g009.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g009" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g009.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f010"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f010"> <img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g010.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g010.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g010" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g010-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f010"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 10.</b> Carbon sleeve and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC pellet dimensions used for target charge production.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f010"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 10.</b> Carbon sleeve and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC pellet dimensions used for target charge production.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g010.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g010.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g010" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g010.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f011"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f011"> <img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g011.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g011.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g011" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g011-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f011"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 11.</b> Mass scan of irradiated and fluorinated <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC target material with ion source at 2000 °C and target container at 2000 °C.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f011"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 11.</b> Mass scan of irradiated and fluorinated <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC target material with ion source at 2000 °C and target container at 2000 °C.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g011.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g011.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g011" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g011.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f012"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f012"> <img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g012.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g012.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g012" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g012-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f012"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 12.</b> Mass scan of irradiated and fluorinated <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V target material with ion source at 2000 °C and target container at 1725 °C.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-f012"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 12.</b> Mass scan of irradiated and fluorinated <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V target material with ion source at 2000 °C and target container at 1725 °C.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g012.png" data-original="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g012.png" alt="Pharmaceuticals 17 00390 g012" data-lsrc="/pharmaceuticals/pharmaceuticals-17-00390/article_deploy/html/images/pharmaceuticals-17-00390-g012.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t001"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href='#table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t001'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t001"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 1.</b> Most common production reactions of medical Sc radionuclides. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t001"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 1.</b> Most common production reactions of medical Sc radionuclides.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Radionuclide</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Reaction</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Max Cross Section</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Sc Isotope Impurities</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Mass Separation</th><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Note</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>43</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>43</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca(p,n)<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>43</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >300 mb</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Not needed</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' ><0.14% <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>43</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca in <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca, max enrichment 90% [<a href="#B8-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">8</a>,<a href="#B11-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">11</a>,<a href="#B12-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">12</a>].</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>44</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca(p,2n)<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>43</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >170 mb</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Needed</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc cannot be avoided [<a href="#B8-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">8</a>,<a href="#B13-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">13</a>].</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti(p,<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>α</mi> </semantics></math>)<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>43</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >45 mb</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Preferred</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >[<a href="#B13-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">13</a>,<a href="#B14-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">14</a>].</td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='5' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca(p,n)<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >10 mb</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>43</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc *, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>48</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc *</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Needed</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >[<a href="#B8-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">8</a>,<a href="#B13-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">13</a>].</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>44</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca(p,n)<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >700 mb</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Not needed</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc can be minimized with lower proton energy, but not avoided. Enrichment of <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>44</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca > 99%. Very expensive [<a href="#B5-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti(p,<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>α</mi> </semantics></math>)<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >70 mb</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>43</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Needed</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >[<a href="#B13-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">13</a>,<a href="#B15-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">15</a>].</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>44</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca(d,2n)<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >540 mb</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>43</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc, <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Needed</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Require deuterons up to 20 MeV.</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>45</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc(p,2n)<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>44</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti/<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >45 mb</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >-</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Not needed</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>44</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti (T<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>/</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 60 y). Expensive production.</td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='4' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti(n,p)<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >250 mb</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Needed</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Requires fast neutrons (>1 MeV).</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca(n,<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>γ</mi> </semantics></math>)<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca/<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >700 mb</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >-</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Not needed</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca (T<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>/</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 4.5 days) as <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc generator [<a href="#B6-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">6</a>,<a href="#B7-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">7</a>,<a href="#B16-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">16</a>]. 0.004% <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca in <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca, max enrichment 30% [<a href="#B17-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">17</a>]. Very expensive.</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>48</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti(p,2p)<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >35 mb</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Needed</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Requires up to 30 MeV energy proton cyclotrons. Max enrichment is 96%. <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc cannot be avoided [<a href="#B18-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">18</a>].</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>48</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca(p,2n)<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >800 mb</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>48</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Needed</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >0.19% <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>48</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca in <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca, max enrichment 97 % [<a href="#B17-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">17</a>].</td></tr></tbody> </table> <div class='html-table_foot html-p'><div class='html-p' style='text-indent:0em;'><span class='html-fn-content'>* <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc (T<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>/</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 83.79 d, E<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mi>γ</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>= 889; keV 1120 keV) and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>48</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc (T<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>/</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 43.71 h, E<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mi>γ</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>= 983 keV; 1037 keV; 1312 keV).</span></div><div style='clear:both;'></div></div> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t002"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href='#table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t002'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t002"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 2.</b> Sc radionuclide release from target materials used at ISOLDE. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t002"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 2.</b> Sc radionuclide release from target materials used at ISOLDE.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Target Material</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Operated Temperature, °C</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Release Conditions</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti metallic foils</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >>1600</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >W surface ion source. Fluorination with CF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>. Only Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> and ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> observed and target molten after mass separation [<a href="#B36-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">36</a>].</td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC (1–50 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>m)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1900</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Slow release that did not increase by fluorination with CF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> [<a href="#B28-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">28</a>].</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2300</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >No Sc released [<a href="#B31-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">31</a>].</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC-CNT (nanometric)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1500</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >No Sc released. [<a href="#B20-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">20</a>].</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC-CB (nanometric)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1500–1740</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Re surface source. No Sc was released. [<a href="#B20-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">20</a>].</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V powder</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1800</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >No Sc released [<a href="#B31-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">31</a>].</td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>VC (1–50 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>m)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1900</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Slow release that did not increase by fluorination with CF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> [<a href="#B28-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">28</a>].</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2300</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >No Sc released. Higher other radionuclide release rates than from <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC [<a href="#B31-pharmaceuticals-17-00390" class="html-bibr">31</a>].</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t003"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href='#table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t003'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t003"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 3.</b> In-target Sc radionuclide production yields from FLUKA. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t003"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 3.</b> In-target Sc radionuclide production yields from FLUKA.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Radionuclide</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Target Material *</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Direct HRS, Nuclei/g/Primary</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Indirect HRS Nuclei/g/Primary</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Indirect GPS ISIS Nuclei/g/Primary</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>43</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.97 ± 0.05 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.45 ± 0.15 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.6 ± 0.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.81 ± 0.03 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.5 ± 0.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.19 ± 0.15 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >TiC</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2.37 ± 0.03 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.9 ± 0.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2.9 ± 0.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.91 ± 0.09 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.2 ± 0.3 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >7.8 ± 0.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.67 ± 0.02 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.0 ± 0.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4.67 ± 0.19 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >TiC</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >4.52 ± 0.07 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >3.51 ± 0.19 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >5.70 ± 0.18 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.91 ± 0.09 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.2 ± 0.3 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >7.8 ± 0.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.67 ± 0.02 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.0 ± 0.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4.67 ± 0.19 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >TiC</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >4.52 ± 0.07 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >3.51 ± 0.19 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >5.70 ± 0.18 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >7.00 ± 0.11 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.83 ± 0.12 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9.1 ± 0.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4.22 ± 0.08 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.5 ± 0.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.8 ± 0.3 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >TiC</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >5.407 ± 0.016 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >4.22 ± 0.14 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >7.22 ± 0.15 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.72 ± 0.02 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.37 ± 0.07 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.10 ± 0.05 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.89 ± 0.14 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4.4 ± 0.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >6.7 ± 0.6 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >TiC</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.296 ± 0.013 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.03 ± 0.04 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.69 ± 0.06 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>44</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.85 ± 0.06 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.21 ± 0.08 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.2 ± 0.3 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9.1 ± 0.6 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >8.9 ± 0.9 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>7</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.41 ± 0.18 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >TiC</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.39 ± 0.06 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.35 ± 0.18 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.68 ± 0.14 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.4 ± 0.3 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.1 ± 0.9 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>7</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.0 ± 0.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>7</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.5 ± 0.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.5 ± 0.6 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>7</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.5 ± 0.4 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>7</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >TiC</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >8.9 ± 1.5 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>7</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6 ± 3 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>8</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >7 ± 4 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>8</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr></tbody> </table> <div class='html-table_foot html-p'><div class='html-p' style='text-indent:0em;'><span class='html-fn-content'>* Target charge density of 1.5 g/cm<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msup> </semantics></math> for <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti and <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V, and of 2.7 g/cm<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msup> </semantics></math> for <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC was considered.</span></div><div style='clear:both;'></div></div> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t004"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href='#table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t004'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t004"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 4.</b> Thick-target yields for typical MEDICIS and cyclotron targets. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t004"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 4.</b> Thick-target yields for typical MEDICIS and cyclotron targets.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Radionuclide</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Target Material</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >MEDICIS, <br><math display='inline'><semantics> <mstyle mathvariant="bold"> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="bold">Bq</mi> <mo>/</mo> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> <mi mathvariant="bold">Ah</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </semantics></math></th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >30 MeV Cyclotron, <math display='inline'><semantics> <mstyle mathvariant="bold"> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="bold">Bq</mi> <mo>/</mo> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> <mi mathvariant="bold">Ah</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </semantics></math></th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >70 MeV Cyclotron, <math display='inline'><semantics> <mstyle mathvariant="bold"> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="bold">Bq</mi> <mo>/</mo> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> <mi mathvariant="bold">Ah</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </semantics></math></th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>43</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.0 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>9</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.5 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>7</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4.9 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>7</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.9 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>9</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >-</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.3 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >TiC</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.6 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>9</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >7.3 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2.3 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>7</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >6.0 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>9</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.0 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>8</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.3 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>8</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.7 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>9</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >-</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.4 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>7</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >TiC</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >3.0 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>9</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.1 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>8</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.1 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>8</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>44</mn> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4.4 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>8</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >7.5 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.7 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>8</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >-</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.8 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >TiC</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>8</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2.3 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >3.6 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>46</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.0 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>7</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.1 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>5</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.7 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>5</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.8 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>7</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.4 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.6 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>5</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >TiC</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.5 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>7</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6.3 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>4</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2.7 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>5</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>8</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.6 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >6.9 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>8</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.5 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.9 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >TiC</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >4.5 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>8</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >3.0 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >3.3 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>48</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.6 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>8</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.6 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>5</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.1 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.5 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>8</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >-</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.7 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >TiC</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >8.4 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>7</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.4 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>5</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >5.1 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>5</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>44</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.5 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>4</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.9 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>1</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.5 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >7.5 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>3</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >-</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.7 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>1</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >TiC</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >7.5 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>3</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.3 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>1</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.2 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>47</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Ca</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.7 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >7.5 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.3 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>4</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.8 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >-</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >7.7 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>3</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >TiC</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2.3 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>6</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2.6 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6.1 <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo> </mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>3</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math></td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t005"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href='#table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t005'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t005"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 5.</b> Target units with their configurations used in this study. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t005"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 5.</b> Target units with their configurations used in this study.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Target Unit Nr.</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Ion Source</th><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Configuration</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >685 M</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Re surface</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Standard. <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>45</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc sample.</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >686 M</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >W surface</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Standard. <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>45</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Sc sample.</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >702 M</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >VADIS</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Standard VD-5. <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC target charge.</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >723 M</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >VADIS</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Standard VD-5. <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti-foil target charge.</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >741 M</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >VADIS</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Standard VD-5. Gas-leak cooling structure with a thermocouple. <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti-foil target charge.</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >766 M</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >VADIS</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Standard VD-5. Gas-leak cooling structure. <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V-foil target charge.</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >790 M</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >VADIS</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >W lining for VADIS cathode and transfer line. V foil lining inside target container. <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V-foil target charge.</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >805 M</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >VADIS</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Target container with transfer line heating from back. Standard ion source. Prototype heat screen assembly. <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V-foil target charge.</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t006"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href='#table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t006'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t006"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 6.</b> Target material and charge details for Sc production and release. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t006"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 6.</b> Target material and charge details for Sc production and release.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Material</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Category</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Melting Point, °C</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Target Unit Nr.</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Purity, %</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Rolls or Pellets in Full Charge</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Charge Mass, g</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Charge Surface Area, m<math display='inline'><semantics> <mstyle mathvariant="bold"> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mstyle> </semantics></math></th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Charge Density <sup>1</sup>, g/cm<math display='inline'><semantics> <mstyle mathvariant="bold"> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msup> </mstyle> </semantics></math></th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td rowspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti</td><td rowspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Metallic foils</td><td rowspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1668</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >723M</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >99.6</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >12</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >74.8</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.11</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.19</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >741M</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >99.6</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >12</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >96.3</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.43</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.53</td></tr><tr ><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V</td><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Metallic foils</td><td rowspan='3' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1910</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >766M</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >99.8 <sup>2</sup></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >11</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >44.8</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.59</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.71</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >790M</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >99.8</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >10</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >61.7</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.81</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.98</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >805M</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >>99.8</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >10</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >34.3</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.45</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.55</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Carbides</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >3160</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >702M</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >99.5</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >69</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >29.2</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >72.4 <sup>3</sup></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2.73</td></tr></tbody> </table> <div class='html-table_foot html-p'><div class='html-p' style='text-indent:0em;'><span class='html-fn-content'><sup>1</sup> Rolled-foil charge density is considered as target material mass against the whole target-container volume; <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC charge density is considered as <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC pellet mass against internal-carbon-sleeve volume. <sup>2</sup> The foil surface was oxidized. <sup>3</sup> Measured and calculated for raw <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC pill, outgassed at 300 °C for 19 h (2.48 m<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>g<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>).</span></div><div style='clear:both;'></div></div> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t007"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href='#table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t007'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/17/3/390/display" href="#table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t007"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 7.</b> Stable isotope and target material samples used for molecular beam studies. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_pharmaceuticals-17-00390-t007"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 7.</b> Stable isotope and target material samples used for molecular beam studies.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Sample</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Reactive or Buffer Gas</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Observed Species of Interest</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin;border-top:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Temperature of Observation, °C</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti foil</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >NF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>, CF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Ti<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; TiF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; TIF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math>; TIF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math>; TiO<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; TIO<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math>; TIOF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; TIOF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >450</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>Ti foil</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Cl<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Ti<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; TiO<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1100</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V foil</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >CF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >V<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; VF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; VF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math>; VO<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; VOF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >890</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>V foil</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Cl<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >V<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; VCl<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; VCl<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math>; VO<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; VO<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math>; VOF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; CaCl<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1250 <sup>1</sup></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math>TiC</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >CF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Ti<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; TiF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; TIF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math>; TIF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math>; TiO<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; TIO<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math>; TIOF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; TIOF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >730–780</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>O<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> in 5% HNO<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >NF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1340–1420</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>O<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> in 5% HNO<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >CF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1100–1160</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >CF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>, Ar</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Sc<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>; ScF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msubsup> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </msubsup> </semantics></math></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >350–400 <sup>2</sup></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >ScCl<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> in 0.1M HCl</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >CF<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>, Ar</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Not observed</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >-</td></tr></tbody> </table> <div class='html-table_foot html-p'><div class='html-p' style='text-indent:0em;'><span class='html-fn-content'><sup>1</sup> Cl<math display='inline'><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mspace width="-2.pt"/> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </semantics></math> gas was first injected only at the indicated temperature. <sup>2</sup> Noticeable increase in beam intensity from pA to nA range was gained at 600–1000 °C.</span></div><div style='clear:both;'></div></div> </div> </section><section class='html-fn_group'><table><tr id=''><td></td><td><div class='html-p'><b>Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note:</b> The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). 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Target Development towards First Production of High-Molar- Activity 44gSc and 47Sc by Mass Separation at CERN-MEDICIS