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mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Formal Ontology Components subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Formal_Ontology_Components-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Domain_ontology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domain_ontology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Domain ontology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domain_ontology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Upper_ontology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Upper_ontology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Upper ontology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Upper_ontology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hybrid_ontology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hybrid_ontology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Hybrid ontology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hybrid_ontology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visualization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visualization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Visualization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visualization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Engineering</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Engineering-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Engineering subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Editors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Editors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Editors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Editors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Published_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Published_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Published examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Published_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Libraries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Libraries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Libraries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Libraries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_of_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Examples of applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Ontology (information science)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A9_(%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA)" title="أنطولوجية (علم المعلومات) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أنطولوجية (علم المعلومات)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologiya_(informasiya_elmi)" title="Ontologiya (informasiya elmi) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ontologiya (informasiya elmi)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE" title="অভিধাব্যবস্থা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অভিধাব্যবস্থা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologia_(tecnologia_de_la_informaci%C3%B3)" title="Ontologia (tecnologia de la informació) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ontologia (tecnologia de la informació)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologie_(informatika)" title="Ontologie (informatika) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ontologie (informatika)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologi_(datalogi)" title="Ontologi (datalogi) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ontologi (datalogi)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologie_(Informatik)" title="Ontologie (Informatik) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ontologie (Informatik)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontoloogia_(informaatika)" title="Ontoloogia (informaatika) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ontoloogia (informaatika)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1_(%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE)" title="Οντολογία (πληροφορική) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Οντολογία (πληροφορική)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontolog%C3%ADa_(inform%C3%A1tica)" title="Ontología (informática) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ontología (informática)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologia_(informatika)" title="Ontologia (informatika) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ontologia (informatika)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_(%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA)" title="هستی‌شناسی (علم اطلاعات) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هستی‌شناسی (علم اطلاعات)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologie_(informatique)" title="Ontologie (informatique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ontologie (informatique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A8%ED%86%A8%EB%A1%9C%EC%A7%80" title="온톨로지 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="온톨로지" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologija_(informacijske_znanosti)" title="Ontologija (informacijske znanosti) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ontologija (informacijske znanosti)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologia_(informatica)" title="Ontologia (informatica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ontologia (informatica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94_(%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A2)" title="אונטולוגיה (מדעי המידע) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אונטולוגיה (מדעי המידע)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontol%C3%B3gia_(informatika)" title="Ontológia (informatika) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ontológia (informatika)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologie_(informatica)" title="Ontologie (informatica) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ontologie (informatica)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%83%B3%E3%83%88%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B8%E3%83%BC_(%E6%83%85%E5%A0%B1%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6)" title="オントロジー (情報科学) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オントロジー (情報科学)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologi_(informatikk)" title="Ontologi (informatikk) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ontologi (informatikk)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologia_(informatyka)" title="Ontologia (informatyka) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ontologia (informatyka)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologia_(ci%C3%AAncia_da_computa%C3%A7%C3%A3o)" title="Ontologia (ciência da computação) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ontologia (ciência da computação)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Онтология (информатика) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Онтология (информатика)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologija_(informatika)" title="Ontologija (informatika) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ontologija (informatika)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_(%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE)" title="Онтологија (рачунарство) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Онтологија (рачунарство)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologia_(tietojenk%C3%A4sittelytiede)" title="Ontologia (tietojenkäsittelytiede) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ontologia (tietojenkäsittelytiede)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_(%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D)" title="மெய்ப்பொருளியம் (தகவல் அறிவியல்) – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மெய்ப்பொருளியம் (தகவல் அறிவியல்)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2_(%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8)" title="ภววิทยา (วิทยาการสารสนเทศ) – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภววิทยา (วิทยาการสารสนเทศ)" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontoloji_(bilgi_bilimi)" title="Ontoloji (bilgi bilimi) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ontoloji (bilgi bilimi)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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title="Information behavior">Behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_management" title="Information management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">Retrieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_seeking" title="Information seeking">Seeking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_society" title="Information society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_organization" title="Knowledge organization">Knowledge organization</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy" title="Taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #CCC;"> Related fields and subfields</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">Categorization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_classification" title="Library classification">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Computer data storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_modeling" title="Data modeling">Data modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informatics" title="Informatics">Informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">Information technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_freedom" title="Intellectual freedom">Intellectual freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_and_information_science" title="Library and information science">Library and information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preservation_(library_and_archival_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Preservation (library and archival science)">Preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy" title="Privacy">Privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_information_science" title="Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Information_science" title="Template:Information science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Information_science" title="Template talk:Information science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Information_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Information science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">information science</a>, an <b>ontology</b> encompasses a representation, formal naming, and definitions of the categories, properties, and relations between the concepts, data, or entities that pertain to one, many, or all <a href="/wiki/Domain_of_discourse" title="Domain of discourse">domains of discourse</a>. More simply, an ontology is a way of showing the properties of a subject area and how they are related, by defining a set of terms and relational expressions that represent the entities in that subject area. The field which studies ontologies so conceived is sometimes referred to as <i>applied ontology</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Every <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">academic discipline</a> or field, in creating its terminology, thereby lays the groundwork for an ontology. Each uses ontological assumptions to frame explicit theories, research and applications. Improved ontologies may improve problem solving within that domain, <a href="/wiki/Interoperability" title="Interoperability">interoperability</a> of data systems, and discoverability of data. Translating research papers within every field is a problem made easier when experts from different countries maintain a <a href="/wiki/Controlled_vocabulary" title="Controlled vocabulary">controlled vocabulary</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jargon" title="Jargon">jargon</a> between each of their languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Budin2005_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budin2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics#Definition_and_ontology_of_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">definition and ontology of economics</a> is a primary concern in <a href="/wiki/Marxist_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist economics">Marxist economics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but also in other <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_economics#Branches_of_economics" title="Outline of economics">subfields of economics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of economics relying on information science occurs in cases where a simulation or model is intended to enable economic decisions, such as determining what <a href="/wiki/Capital_asset" title="Capital asset">capital assets</a> are at risk and by how much (see <a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">risk management</a>). </p><p>What ontologies in both <a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">information science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> have in common is the attempt to represent entities, including both objects and events, with all their interdependent properties and relations, according to a system of categories. In both fields, there is considerable work on problems of <a href="/wiki/Ontology_engineering" title="Ontology engineering">ontology engineering</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a> in philosophy, <a href="/wiki/John_F._Sowa" title="John F. Sowa">Sowa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicola_Guarino" title="Nicola Guarino">Guarino</a> in information science),<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and debates concerning to what extent <a href="/wiki/Normative" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative">normative</a> ontology is possible (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">foundationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">coherentism</a> in philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Basic_formal_ontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic formal ontology">BFO</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyc" title="Cyc">Cyc</a> in artificial intelligence). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Applied_ontology" title="Applied ontology">Applied ontology</a> is considered by some as a successor to prior work in philosophy. However many current efforts are more concerned with establishing <a href="/wiki/Controlled_vocabularies" class="mw-redirect" title="Controlled vocabularies">controlled vocabularies</a> of narrow domains than with philosophical <a href="/wiki/First_principles" class="mw-redirect" title="First principles">first principles</a>, or with questions such as the mode of existence of <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">fixed essences</a> or whether enduring objects (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Perdurantism" title="Perdurantism">perdurantism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Endurantism" title="Endurantism">endurantism</a>) may be ontologically more primary than <a href="/wiki/Process" title="Process">processes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a> has retained considerable attention regarding <a href="/wiki/Applied_ontology" title="Applied ontology">applied ontology</a> in subfields like <a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">natural language processing</a> within <a href="/wiki/Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">machine translation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge representation">knowledge representation</a>, but ontology editors are being used often in a range of fields, including biomedical informatics,<sup id="cite_ref-bioontology_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bioontology-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> industry.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such efforts often use ontology editing tools such as <a href="/wiki/Prot%C3%A9g%C3%A9_(software)" title="Protégé (software)">Protégé</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ontology_in_Philosophy">Ontology in Philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Ontology in Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics#History" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics § History</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a> is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> and intersects areas such as <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a>, as it considers how knowledge, language, and perception relate to the nature of reality. <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a> deals with questions like "what exists?" and "what is the nature of reality?". One of five traditional branches of philosophy, metaphysics is concerned with exploring existence through properties, entities and relations such as those between <a href="/wiki/Particular" title="Particular">particulars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">universals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_properties_(philosophy)" title="Intrinsic and extrinsic properties (philosophy)">intrinsic and extrinsic properties</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a>. Metaphysics has been an ongoing topic of discussion since recorded history. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ontology#Etymology" title="Ontology">Ontology § Etymology</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Compound_(linguistics)" title="Compound (linguistics)">compound</a> word <i>ontology</i> combines <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/onto-" class="extiw" title="wikt:onto-">onto</a>-</i>, from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BD%A4%CE%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:ὤν">ὄν</a>, <i>on</i> (<a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">gen.</a> ὄντος, <i>ontos</i>), i.e. "being; that which is", which is the <a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">present</a> <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">participle</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B5%E1%BC%B0%CE%BC%CE%AF" class="extiw" title="wikt:εἰμί">εἰμί</a>, <i>eimí</i>, i.e. "to be, I am", and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:-λογία">-λογία</a>, <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-logia" class="extiw" title="wikt:-logia">-logia</a></i>, i.e. "logical discourse", see <a href="/wiki/Classical_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical compound">classical compounds</a> for this type of word formation.<sup id="cite_ref-OnlineEtDict_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OnlineEtDict-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LSJ_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LSJ-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a> is Greek, the oldest extant record of the word itself, the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a> form <i>ontologia</i>, appeared in 1606 in the work <i><a href="/wiki/Ogdoas_Scholastica" class="mw-redirect" title="Ogdoas Scholastica">Ogdoas Scholastica</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Lorhard" title="Jacob Lorhard">Jacob Lorhard</a> (<i>Lorhardus</i>) and in 1613 in the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexicon_philosophicum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lexicon philosophicum (page does not exist)">Lexicon philosophicum</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_G%C3%B6ckel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolf Göckel">Rudolf Göckel</a> (<i>Goclenius</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first occurrence in English of <i>ontology</i> as recorded by the <i>OED</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>, online edition, 2008) came in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Archeologia_Philosophica_Nova&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Archeologia Philosophica Nova (page does not exist)">Archeologia Philosophica Nova</a></i> or <i>New Principles of Philosophy</i> by <a href="/wiki/Gideon_Harvey" title="Gideon Harvey">Gideon Harvey</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formal_Ontology">Formal Ontology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Formal Ontology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Formal_Ontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal Ontology">Formal Ontology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence#History" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence § History</a></div> <p>Since the mid-1970s, researchers in the field of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> (AI) have recognized that <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_engineering" title="Knowledge engineering">knowledge engineering</a> is the key to building large and powerful AI systems<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. AI researchers argued that they could create new ontologies as <a href="/wiki/Computational_model" title="Computational model">computational models</a> that enable certain kinds of <a href="/wiki/Automated_reasoning" title="Automated reasoning">automated reasoning</a>, which was only <a href="/wiki/AI_winter" title="AI winter">marginally successful</a>. In the 1980s, the AI community began to use the term <i>ontology</i> to refer to both a theory of a modeled world and a component of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge-based_systems" title="Knowledge-based systems">knowledge-based systems</a>. In particular, David Powers introduced the word <i>ontology</i> to AI to refer to real world or robotic grounding,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> publishing in 1990 literature reviews emphasizing grounded ontology in association with the call for papers for a AAAI Summer Symposium Machine Learning of Natural Language and Ontology, with an expanded version published in SIGART Bulletin and included as a preface to the proceedings.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some researchers, drawing inspiration from philosophical ontologies, viewed computational ontology as a kind of applied philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-TG08_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TG08-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In 1993, the widely cited web page and paper "Toward Principles for the Design of Ontologies Used for Knowledge Sharing" by <a href="/wiki/Tom_Gruber" title="Tom Gruber">Tom Gruber</a><sup id="cite_ref-TRG95_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TRG95-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> used <i>ontology</i> as a technical term in <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> closely related to earlier idea of <a href="/wiki/Semantic_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic networks">semantic networks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomies</a>. Gruber introduced the term as <i>a specification of a conceptualization</i>: </p><blockquote><p>An ontology is a description (like a formal specification of a program) of the concepts and relationships that can formally exist for an agent or a community of agents. This definition is consistent with the usage of ontology as set of concept definitions, but more general. And it is a different sense of the word than its use in philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-TRG01_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TRG01-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> Attempting to distance ontologies from taxonomies and similar efforts in <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_modeling" title="Knowledge modeling">knowledge modeling</a> that rely on <a href="/wiki/Class_(computer_programming)" title="Class (computer programming)">classes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">inheritance</a>, Gruber stated (1993): </p><blockquote><p>Ontologies are often equated with taxonomic hierarchies of classes, class definitions, and the <a href="/wiki/Subsumption_relation" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsumption relation">subsumption relation</a>, but ontologies need not be limited to these forms. Ontologies are also not limited to <a href="/wiki/Conservative_extension" title="Conservative extension">conservative definitions</a> – that is, definitions in the traditional logic sense that only introduce terminology and do not add any knowledge about the world.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To specify a conceptualization, one needs to state <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a> that do constrain the possible interpretations for the defined terms.<sup id="cite_ref-TRG93_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TRG93-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>As refinement of Gruber's definition Feilmayr and Wöß (2016) stated: "An ontology is a formal, explicit specification of a shared conceptualization that is characterized by high semantic expressiveness required for increased complexity."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formal_Ontology_Components">Formal Ontology Components</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Formal Ontology Components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ontology_components" title="Ontology components">Ontology components</a></div> <p>Contemporary ontologies share many structural similarities, regardless of the language in which they are expressed. Most ontologies describe individuals (instances), classes (concepts), attributes and relations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types">Types</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Domain_ontology">Domain ontology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Domain ontology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A domain ontology (or domain-specific ontology) represents concepts which belong to a realm of the world, such as biology or politics. Each domain ontology typically models domain-specific definitions of terms. For example, the word <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/card" class="extiw" title="wikt:card">card</a></i> has many different meanings. An ontology about the domain of <a href="/wiki/Poker" title="Poker">poker</a> would model the "<a href="/wiki/Playing_card" title="Playing card">playing card</a>" meaning of the word, while an ontology about the domain of <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">computer hardware</a> would model the "<a href="/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card">punched card</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Video_card" class="mw-redirect" title="Video card">video card</a>" meanings. </p><p>Since domain ontologies are written by different people, they represent concepts in very specific and unique ways, and are often incompatible within the same project. As systems that rely on domain ontologies expand, they often need to merge domain ontologies by hand-tuning each entity or using a combination of software merging and hand-tuning. This presents a challenge to the ontology designer. Different ontologies in the same domain arise due to different languages, different intended usage of the ontologies, and different perceptions of the domain (based on cultural background, education, ideology, etc.)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p><p>At present, merging ontologies that are not developed from a common <a href="/wiki/Upper_ontology" title="Upper ontology">upper ontology</a> is a largely manual process and therefore time-consuming and expensive. Domain ontologies that use the same upper ontology to provide a set of basic elements with which to specify the meanings of the domain ontology entities can be merged with less effort. There are studies on generalized techniques for merging ontologies,<sup id="cite_ref-Dynamic_Ontology_Repair_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dynamic_Ontology_Repair-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this area of research is still ongoing, and it is a recent event to see the issue sidestepped by having multiple domain ontologies using the same upper ontology like the <a href="/wiki/OBO_Foundry" title="OBO Foundry">OBO Foundry</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Upper_ontology">Upper ontology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Upper ontology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Upper_ontology" title="Upper ontology">Upper ontology</a></div> <p>An upper ontology (or foundation ontology) is a model of the commonly shared relations and objects that are generally applicable across a wide range of domain ontologies. It usually employs a <a href="/wiki/Core_glossary" class="mw-redirect" title="Core glossary">core glossary</a> that overarches the terms and associated object descriptions as they are used in various relevant domain ontologies. </p><p>Standardized upper ontologies available for use include <a href="/wiki/Basic_Formal_Ontology" title="Basic Formal Ontology">BFO</a>, <a href="/wiki/BORO_method" class="mw-redirect" title="BORO method">BORO method</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dublin_Core" title="Dublin Core">Dublin Core</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_Formal_Ontology" class="mw-redirect" title="General Formal Ontology">GFO</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyc" title="Cyc">Cyc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suggested_Upper_Merged_Ontology" title="Suggested Upper Merged Ontology">SUMO</a>, <a href="/wiki/UMBEL" title="UMBEL">UMBEL</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Upper_ontology#DOLCE" title="Upper ontology">DOLCE</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DOLCE_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DOLCE-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DOLCE-OWL_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DOLCE-OWL-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/WordNet" title="WordNet">WordNet</a> has been considered an upper ontology by some and has been used as a linguistic tool for learning domain ontologies.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hybrid_ontology">Hybrid ontology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Hybrid ontology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Gellish" title="Gellish">Gellish</a> ontology is an example of a combination of an upper and a domain ontology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Visualization">Visualization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Visualization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Detail_of_Tree_of_Knowledge_after_Diderot_%26_d%27Alembert%27s_Encyclop%C3%A9die,_by_Chr%C3%A9tien_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Guillaume_Roth.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="detail of a Tree of Knowledge after Diderot & d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, by Chrétien Frédéric Guillaume Roth"><img alt="detail of a Tree of Knowledge after Diderot & d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, by Chrétien Frédéric Guillaume Roth" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Detail_of_Tree_of_Knowledge_after_Diderot_%26_d%27Alembert%27s_Encyclop%C3%A9die%2C_by_Chr%C3%A9tien_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Guillaume_Roth.jpg/250px-Detail_of_Tree_of_Knowledge_after_Diderot_%26_d%27Alembert%27s_Encyclop%C3%A9die%2C_by_Chr%C3%A9tien_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Guillaume_Roth.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Detail_of_Tree_of_Knowledge_after_Diderot_%26_d%27Alembert%27s_Encyclop%C3%A9die%2C_by_Chr%C3%A9tien_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Guillaume_Roth.jpg/375px-Detail_of_Tree_of_Knowledge_after_Diderot_%26_d%27Alembert%27s_Encyclop%C3%A9die%2C_by_Chr%C3%A9tien_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Guillaume_Roth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Detail_of_Tree_of_Knowledge_after_Diderot_%26_d%27Alembert%27s_Encyclop%C3%A9die%2C_by_Chr%C3%A9tien_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Guillaume_Roth.jpg/500px-Detail_of_Tree_of_Knowledge_after_Diderot_%26_d%27Alembert%27s_Encyclop%C3%A9die%2C_by_Chr%C3%A9tien_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Guillaume_Roth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1590" data-file-height="771" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title">Information mapping</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;"> Topics and fields</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.9em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_decision_mapping" title="Business decision mapping">Business decision mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_and_information_visualization" title="Data and information visualization">Data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphic_communication" title="Graphic communication">Graphic communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infographic" title="Infographic">Infographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_design" title="Information design">Information design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge visualization">Knowledge visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_model" title="Mental model">Mental model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphological_analysis_(problem-solving)" title="Morphological analysis (problem-solving)">Morphological analysis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ontology (information science)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schema_(psychology)" title="Schema (psychology)">Schema (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_analytics" title="Visual analytics">Visual analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_language" title="Visual language">Visual language</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;"> Node–link approaches</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.9em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_map" title="Argument map">Argument map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_map" title="Cognitive map">Cognitive map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept_lattice" class="mw-redirect" title="Concept lattice">Concept lattice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept_map" title="Concept map">Concept map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_graph" title="Conceptual graph">Conceptual graph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_tree" title="Decision tree">Decision tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrogram" title="Dendrogram">Dendrogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_drawing" title="Graph drawing">Graph drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic_tree" title="Hyperbolic tree">Hyperbolic tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertext" title="Hypertext">Hypertext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issue-based_information_system" title="Issue-based information system">Issue map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issue_tree" title="Issue tree">Issue tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Layered_graph_drawing" title="Layered graph drawing">Layered graph drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind_map" title="Mind map">Mind map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object-role_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Object-role modeling">Object-role modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_chart" title="Organizational chart">Organizational chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathfinder_network" title="Pathfinder network">Pathfinder network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radial_tree" title="Radial tree">Radial tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_network" title="Semantic network">Semantic network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociogram" title="Sociogram">Sociogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline" title="Timeline">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topic_map" title="Topic map">Topic map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_structure" title="Tree structure">Tree structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZigZag_(software)" title="ZigZag (software)">ZigZag</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;"> See also</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.9em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_rationale" title="Design rationale">Design rationale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diagrammatic_reasoning" title="Diagrammatic reasoning">Diagrammatic reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entity%E2%80%93relationship_model" title="Entity–relationship model">Entity–relationship model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_concept-_and_mind-mapping_software" title="List of concept- and mind-mapping software">List of concept- and mind-mapping software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olog" title="Olog">Olog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_structuring_methods" title="Problem structuring methods">Problem structuring methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treemapping" title="Treemapping">Treemapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wicked_problem" title="Wicked problem">Wicked problem</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:InfoMaps" title="Template:InfoMaps"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:InfoMaps" title="Template talk:InfoMaps"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:InfoMaps" title="Special:EditPage/Template:InfoMaps"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A survey of ontology visualization methods is presented by Katifori et al.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An updated survey of ontology visualization methods and tools was published by Dudás et al.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most established ontology visualization methods, namely indented tree and graph visualization are evaluated by Fu et al.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A visual language for ontologies represented in <a href="/wiki/Web_Ontology_Language" title="Web Ontology Language">OWL</a> is specified by the <i>Visual Notation for OWL Ontologies (VOWL)</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Engineering">Engineering</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ontology_engineering" title="Ontology engineering">Ontology engineering</a></div> <p>Ontology engineering (also called ontology building) is a set of tasks related to the development of ontologies for a particular domain.<sup id="cite_ref-PIS00_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PIS00-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a subfield of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_engineering" title="Knowledge engineering">knowledge engineering</a> that studies the ontology development process, the ontology life cycle, the methods and methodologies for building ontologies, and the tools and languages that support them.<sup id="cite_ref-PFC04_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PFC04-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DMN_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DMN-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ontology engineering aims to make explicit the knowledge contained in software applications, and organizational procedures for a particular domain. Ontology engineering offers a direction for overcoming semantic obstacles, such as those related to the definitions of business terms and software classes. Known challenges with ontology engineering include: </p> <ol><li>Ensuring the ontology is <i>current</i> with <a href="/wiki/Domain_knowledge" title="Domain knowledge">domain knowledge</a> and term use</li> <li>Providing <i>sufficient specificity and concept coverage</i> for the domain of interest, thus minimizing the <a href="/wiki/Content_completeness_problem" title="Content completeness problem">content completeness problem</a></li> <li>Ensuring the ontology can support its use cases</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Editors">Editors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Editors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Ontology editors</b> are applications designed to assist in the creation or manipulation of ontologies. It is common for ontology editors to use one or more <a href="/wiki/Ontology_language_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontology language (computer science)">ontology languages</a>. </p><p>Aspects of ontology editors include: visual navigation possibilities within the <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge model">knowledge model</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inference_engine" title="Inference engine">inference engines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Information_extraction" title="Information extraction">information extraction</a>; support for modules; the import and export of foreign <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge representation">knowledge representation</a> languages for <a href="/wiki/Ontology_matching" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontology matching">ontology matching</a>; and the support of meta-ontologies such as <a href="/wiki/OWL-S" title="OWL-S">OWL-S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dublin_Core" title="Dublin Core">Dublin Core</a>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Learning">Learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ontology_learning" title="Ontology learning">Ontology learning</a></div> <p>Ontology learning is the automatic or semi-automatic creation of ontologies, including extracting a domain's terms from natural language text. As building ontologies manually is extremely labor-intensive and time-consuming, there is great motivation to automate the process. Information extraction and <a href="/wiki/Text_mining" title="Text mining">text mining</a> have been explored to automatically link ontologies to documents, for example in the context of the BioCreative challenges.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research">Research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div> <p>Epistemological assumptions, which in research asks "What do you know? or "How do you know it?", creates the foundation researchers use when approaching a certain topic or area for potential research. As epistemology is directly linked to knowledge and how we come about accepting certain truths, individuals conducting academic research must understand what allows them to begin theory building. Simply, epistemological assumptions force researchers to question how they arrive at the knowledge they have.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Languages">Languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ontology_language" title="Ontology language">Ontology language</a></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Ontology_language" title="Ontology language">ontology language</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">formal language</a> used to encode an ontology. There are a number of such languages for ontologies, both proprietary and standards-based: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_Algebraic_Specification_Language" title="Common Algebraic Specification Language">Common Algebraic Specification Language</a> is a general logic-based specification language developed within the IFIP working group 1.3 "Foundations of System Specifications" and is a <i>de facto</i> standard language for software specifications. It is now being applied to ontology specifications in order to provide modularity and structuring mechanisms.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Common logic">Common logic</a> is ISO standard 24707, a specification of a family of ontology languages that can be accurately translated into each other.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Cyc" title="Cyc">Cyc</a> project has its own ontology language called <a href="/wiki/CycL" title="CycL">CycL</a>, based on <a href="/wiki/First-order_predicate_calculus" class="mw-redirect" title="First-order predicate calculus">first-order predicate calculus</a> with some higher-order extensions.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DOGMA" title="DOGMA">DOGMA</a> (Developing Ontology-Grounded Methods and Applications) adopts the fact-oriented modeling approach to provide a higher level of semantic stability.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Gellish" title="Gellish">Gellish</a> language includes rules for its own extension and thus integrates an ontology with an ontology language.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/IDEF5" title="IDEF5">IDEF5</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a> method to develop and maintain usable, accurate, domain ontologies.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_Interchange_Format" title="Knowledge Interchange Format">KIF</a> is a syntax for <a href="/wiki/First-order_logic" title="First-order logic">first-order logic</a> that is based on <a href="/wiki/S-expression" title="S-expression">S-expressions</a>. SUO-KIF is a derivative version supporting the <a href="/wiki/Suggested_Upper_Merged_Ontology" title="Suggested Upper Merged Ontology">Suggested Upper Merged Ontology</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-Object_Facility" title="Meta-Object Facility">MOF</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unified_Modeling_Language" title="Unified Modeling Language">UML</a> are standards of the <a href="/wiki/Object_Management_Group" title="Object Management Group">OMG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olog" title="Olog">Olog</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Category_theory" title="Category theory">category theoretic</a> approach to ontologies, emphasizing translations between ontologies using <a href="/wiki/Functor" title="Functor">functors</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Biomedical_Ontologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Biomedical Ontologies">OBO</a>, a language used for biological and biomedical ontologies.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OntoUML" title="OntoUML">OntoUML</a> is an ontologically well-founded profile of UML for conceptual modeling of domain ontologies.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_Ontology_Language" title="Web Ontology Language">OWL</a> is a language for making ontological statements, developed as a follow-on from <a href="/wiki/Resource_Description_Framework" title="Resource Description Framework">RDF</a> and <a href="/wiki/RDFS" class="mw-redirect" title="RDFS">RDFS</a>, as well as earlier ontology language projects including <a href="/wiki/Ontology_Inference_Layer" title="Ontology Inference Layer">OIL</a>, <a href="/wiki/DARPA_Agent_Markup_Language" title="DARPA Agent Markup Language">DAML</a>, and <a href="/wiki/DAMLplusOIL" class="mw-redirect" title="DAMLplusOIL">DAML+OIL</a>. OWL is intended to be used over the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>, and all its elements (classes, properties and individuals) are defined as RDF <a href="/wiki/Web_resource" title="Web resource">resources</a>, and identified by <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Identifier" title="Uniform Resource Identifier">URIs</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_Interchange_Format" title="Rule Interchange Format">Rule Interchange Format</a> (RIF) and <a href="/wiki/F-Logic" class="mw-redirect" title="F-Logic">F-Logic</a> combine ontologies and rules.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_Application_Design_Language" title="Semantic Application Design Language">Semantic Application Design Language</a> (SADL)<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> captures a subset of the expressiveness of <a href="/wiki/Web_Ontology_Language" title="Web Ontology Language">OWL</a>, using an English-like language entered via an <a href="/wiki/Eclipse_(software)" title="Eclipse (software)">Eclipse</a> Plug-in.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SBVR" class="mw-redirect" title="SBVR">SBVR</a> (Semantics of Business Vocabularies and Rules) is an OMG standard adopted in industry to build ontologies.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/TOVE_Project" title="TOVE Project">TOVE Project</a>, TOronto Virtual Enterprise project</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Published_examples">Published examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Published examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Ontology" title="Arabic Ontology">Arabic Ontology</a>, a linguistic ontology for Arabic, which can be used as an Arabic Wordnet but with ontologically-clean content.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>AURUM – Information Security Ontology,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An ontology for <a href="/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">information security</a> knowledge sharing, enabling users to collaboratively understand and extend the domain knowledge body. It may serve as a basis for automated information security risk and compliance management.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/BabelNet" title="BabelNet">BabelNet</a>, a very large multilingual semantic network and ontology, lexicalized in many languages</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_Formal_Ontology" title="Basic Formal Ontology">Basic Formal Ontology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a formal upper ontology designed to support scientific research</li> <li>BioPAX,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an ontology for the exchange and interoperability of biological pathway (cellular processes) data</li> <li>BMO,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an e-Business Model Ontology based on a review of enterprise ontologies and business model literature</li> <li>SSBMO,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a Strongly Sustainable Business Model Ontology based on a review of the systems based natural and social science literature (including business). Includes critique of and significant extensions to the Business Model Ontology (BMO).</li> <li>CCO and GexKB,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Application Ontologies (APO) that integrate diverse types of knowledge with the Cell Cycle Ontology (CCO) and the Gene Expression Knowledge Base (GexKB)</li> <li>CContology (Customer Complaint Ontology),<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an e-business ontology to support online customer complaint management</li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIDOC_Conceptual_Reference_Model" title="CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model">CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model</a>, an ontology for <a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">cultural heritage</a><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>COSMO,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a Foundation Ontology (current version in OWL) that is designed to contain representations of all of the primitive concepts needed to logically specify the meanings of any domain entity. It is intended to serve as a basic ontology that can be used to translate among the representations in other ontologies or databases. It started as a merger of the basic elements of the OpenCyc and SUMO ontologies, and has been supplemented with other ontology elements (types, relations) so as to include representations of all of the words in the <a href="/wiki/Longman_Dictionary_of_Contemporary_English" title="Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English">Longman dictionary</a> <a href="/wiki/Defining_vocabulary" title="Defining vocabulary">defining vocabulary</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_Science_Ontology" title="Computer Science Ontology">Computer Science Ontology</a>, an automatically generated ontology of research topics in the field of <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyc" title="Cyc">Cyc</a>, a large Foundation Ontology for formal representation of the universe of discourse</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_Ontology" title="Disease Ontology">Disease Ontology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> designed to facilitate the mapping of diseases and associated conditions to particular medical codes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_ontology#DOLCE" title="Upper ontology">DOLCE</a>, a Descriptive Ontology for Linguistic and Cognitive Engineering<sup id="cite_ref-DOLCE_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DOLCE-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DOLCE-OWL_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DOLCE-OWL-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Drammar, ontology of drama<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dublin_Core" title="Dublin Core">Dublin Core</a>, a simple ontology for documents and publishing</li> <li>Financial Industry Business Ontology (FIBO), a business conceptual ontology for the financial industry<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Foundational, Core and Linguistic Ontologies<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">Foundational Model of Anatomy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an ontology for human anatomy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FOAF_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="FOAF (software)">Friend of a Friend</a>, an ontology for describing persons, their activities and their relations to other people and objects</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_Ontology" title="Gene Ontology">Gene Ontology</a> for <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gellish_English_dictionary" title="Gellish English dictionary">Gellish English dictionary</a>, an ontology that includes a dictionary and taxonomy that includes an upper ontology and a lower ontology that focuses on industrial and business applications in engineering, technology and procurement.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitical_ontology" title="Geopolitical ontology">Geopolitical ontology</a>, an ontology describing geopolitical information created by <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a>(FAO). The geopolitical ontology includes names in multiple languages (English, French, Spanish, Arabic, Chinese, Russian and Italian); maps standard coding systems (UN, ISO, FAOSTAT, AGROVOC, etc.); provides relations among territories (land borders, group membership, etc.); and tracks historical changes. In addition, FAO provides web services of geopolitical ontology and a module maker to download modules of the geopolitical ontology into different formats (RDF, XML, and EXCEL). See more information at <a href="/wiki/FAO_Country_Profiles" title="FAO Country Profiles">FAO Country Profiles</a>.</li> <li>GAO (General Automotive Ontology) – an ontology for the automotive industry that includes 'car' extensions<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>GOLD,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> General Ontology for <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive linguistics">Linguistic Description</a></li> <li>GUM (Generalized Upper Model),<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a linguistically motivated ontology for mediating between clients systems and natural language technology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/IDEAS_Group" title="IDEAS Group">IDEAS Group</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a formal ontology for enterprise architecture being developed by the Australian, Canadian, UK and U.S. Defence Depts.</li> <li>Linkbase,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a formal representation of the biomedical domain, founded upon Basic Formal Ontology.</li> <li>LPL, Landmark Pattern Language<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>NCBO Bioportal,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> biological and biomedical ontologies and associated tools to search, browse and visualise</li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIFSTD" class="mw-redirect" title="NIFSTD">NIFSTD</a> Ontologies from the <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_Information_Framework" title="Neuroscience Information Framework">Neuroscience Information Framework</a>: a modular set of ontologies for the neuroscience domain.</li> <li>OBO-Edit,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an ontology browser for most of the Open Biological and Biomedical Ontologies</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OBO_Foundry" title="OBO Foundry">OBO Foundry</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-obofoundry_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-obofoundry-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a suite of interoperable reference ontologies in biology and biomedicine</li> <li>OMNIBUS Ontology,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an ontology of learning, instruction, and instructional design</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology_for_Biomedical_Investigations" title="Ontology for Biomedical Investigations">Ontology for Biomedical Investigations</a>, an open-access, integrated ontology of biological and clinical investigations</li> <li>ONSTR,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ontology for Newborn Screening Follow-up and Translational Research, Newborn Screening Follow-up Data Integration Collaborative, Emory University, Atlanta.</li> <li>Plant Ontology<sup id="cite_ref-Plant_Ontology_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plant_Ontology-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for plant structures and growth/development stages, etc.</li> <li>POPE, Purdue Ontology for Pharmaceutical Engineering</li> <li>PRO,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Protein Ontology of the Protein Information Resource, Georgetown University</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ProbOnto" title="ProbOnto">ProbOnto</a>, knowledge base and ontology of <a href="/wiki/Probability_distribution" title="Probability distribution">probability distributions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Program abstraction taxonomy<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Protein Ontology<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for <a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RXNO_Ontology" title="RXNO Ontology">RXNO Ontology</a>, for <a href="/wiki/Name_reaction" title="Name reaction">name reactions</a> in chemistry</li> <li>SCDO, the Sickle Cell Disease Ontology,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> facilitates data sharing and collaborations within the SDC community, amongst other applications (see list on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scdontology.h3abionet.org/">SCDO website</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schema.org" title="Schema.org">Schema.org</a>, for embedding structured data into web pages, primarily for the benefit of search engines</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequence_Ontology" title="Sequence Ontology">Sequence Ontology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for representing genomic feature types found on <a href="/wiki/Sequence_(biology)" title="Sequence (biology)">biological sequences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SNOMED_CT" title="SNOMED CT">SNOMED CT</a> (Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine – Clinical Terms)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suggested_Upper_Merged_Ontology" title="Suggested Upper Merged Ontology">Suggested Upper Merged Ontology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a formal upper ontology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_Biology_Ontology" title="Systems Biology Ontology">Systems Biology Ontology</a> (SBO), for computational models in biology</li> <li>SWEET,<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Semantic Web for Earth and Environmental Terminology</li> <li>SSN/SOSA,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Semantic Sensor Network Ontology (SSN) and Sensor, Observation, Sample, and Actuator Ontology (SOSA) are W3C Recommendation and OGC Standards for describing sensors and their observations.</li> <li>ThoughtTreasure ontology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/TIME-ITEM" title="TIME-ITEM">TIME-ITEM</a>, Topics for Indexing Medical Education</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uberon" title="Uberon">Uberon</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> representing <a href="/wiki/Metazoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Metazoa">animal</a> anatomical structures</li> <li><a href="/wiki/UMBEL" title="UMBEL">UMBEL</a>, a lightweight reference structure of 20,000 subject concept classes and their relationships derived from <a href="/wiki/Opencyc" class="mw-redirect" title="Opencyc">OpenCyc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WordNet" title="WordNet">WordNet</a>, a lexical reference system</li> <li>YAMATO,<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet Another More Advanced Top-level Ontology</li> <li>YSO – General Finnish Ontology</li></ul> <p>The W3C <a href="/wiki/Linked_data#Linking_Open_Data_community_project" title="Linked data">Linking Open Data community project</a> coordinates attempts to converge different ontologies into worldwide <a href="/wiki/Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Libraries">Libraries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Libraries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The development of ontologies has led to the emergence of services providing lists or directories of ontologies called ontology libraries. </p><p>The following are libraries of human-selected ontologies. </p> <ul><li>COLORE<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an open repository of first-order ontologies in <a href="/wiki/Common_Logic" title="Common Logic">Common Logic</a> with formal links between ontologies in the repository.</li> <li>DAML Ontology Library<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> maintains a legacy of ontologies in DAML.</li> <li>Ontology Design Patterns portal<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a wiki repository of reusable components and practices for ontology design, and also maintains a list of <i>exemplary ontologies</i>.</li> <li>Protégé Ontology Library<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> contains a set of OWL, Frame-based and other format ontologies.</li> <li>SchemaWeb<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a directory of RDF schemata expressed in RDFS, OWL and DAML+OIL.</li></ul> <p>The following are both directories and search engines. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/OBO_Foundry" title="OBO Foundry">OBO Foundry</a> is a suite of interoperable reference ontologies in biology and biomedicine.<sup id="cite_ref-obofoundry_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-obofoundry-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid17989687_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17989687-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Bioportal (ontology repository of NCBO)<sup id="cite_ref-bioontology_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bioontology-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lov.linkeddata.es/dataset/lov">Linked Open Vocabularies</a></li> <li>OntoSelect<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ontology Library offers similar services for RDF/S, DAML and OWL ontologies.</li> <li>Ontaria<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a "searchable and browsable directory of semantic web data" with a focus on RDF vocabularies with OWL ontologies. (NB Project "on hold" since 2004).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swoogle" title="Swoogle">Swoogle</a> is a directory and search engine for all RDF resources available on the Web, including ontologies.</li> <li>Open Ontology Repository initiative<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>ROMULUS is a foundational ontology repository aimed at improving semantic interoperability. Currently there are three foundational ontologies in the repository: <a href="/wiki/Upper_ontology#DOLCE" title="Upper ontology">DOLCE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basic_Formal_Ontology" title="Basic Formal Ontology">BFO</a> and <a href="/wiki/General_formal_ontology" title="General formal ontology">GFO</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples_of_applications">Examples of applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Examples of applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In general, ontologies can be used beneficially in several fields. </p> <ul><li>Enterprise applications.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A more concrete example is <a href="/wiki/SAPPHIRE_(Health_care)" class="mw-redirect" title="SAPPHIRE (Health care)">SAPPHIRE (Health care)</a> or <i>Situational Awareness and Preparedness for Public Health Incidences and Reasoning Engines</i> which is a <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Health_information_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Health information system">health information system</a> capable of tracking and evaluating situations and occurrences that may affect <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic information systems">Geographic information systems</a> bring together data from different sources and benefit therefore from ontological metadata which helps to connect the semantics of the data.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Domain-specific ontologies are extremely important in biomedical research, which requires named entity disambiguation of various biomedical terms and abbreviations that have the same string of characters but represent different biomedical concepts. For example, CSF can represent Colony Stimulating Factor or Cerebral Spinal Fluid, both of which are represented by the same term, CSF, in biomedical literature.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is why a large number of public ontologies are related to the life sciences. Life science data science tools that fail to implement these types of biomedical ontologies will not be able to accurately determine causal relationships between concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commonsense_knowledge_bases" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonsense knowledge bases">Commonsense knowledge bases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept_map" title="Concept map">Concept map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlled_vocabulary" title="Controlled vocabulary">Controlled vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classification_scheme_(information_science)" title="Classification scheme (information science)">Classification scheme (information science)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folksonomy" title="Folksonomy">Folksonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_concept_analysis" title="Formal concept analysis">Formal concept analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_ontology" title="Formal ontology">Formal ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Concept_Lattice" title="General Concept Lattice">General Concept Lattice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_graph" title="Knowledge graph">Knowledge graph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lattice_(order)" title="Lattice (order)">Lattice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology_alignment" title="Ontology alignment">Ontology alignment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology_chart" title="Ontology chart">Ontology chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Semantic_Framework" title="Open Semantic Framework">Open Semantic Framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_technology" title="Semantic technology">Semantic technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_ontology" title="Soft ontology">Soft ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_extraction" title="Terminology extraction">Terminology extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weak_ontology" title="Weak ontology">Weak ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_Ontology_Language" title="Web Ontology Language">Web Ontology Language</a></li></ul> </div> <dl><dt>Related philosophical concepts</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet_of_human_thought" title="Alphabet of human thought">Alphabet of human thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Characteristica_universalis" title="Characteristica universalis">Characteristica universalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interoperability" title="Interoperability">Interoperability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Level_of_measurement" title="Level of measurement">Level of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_semantic_metalanguage" title="Natural semantic metalanguage">Natural semantic metalanguage</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDale_Jacquette2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dale_Jacquette" title="Dale Jacquette">Dale Jacquette</a> (2002-11-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VLI1GfOcJbYC&pg=PA4"><i>Ontology</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/McGill%E2%80%93Queen%27s_University_Press" title="McGill–Queen's University Press">McGill–Queen's University Press</a>. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780773582675" title="Special:BookSources/9780773582675"><bdi>9780773582675</bdi></a>. <q>Applied ontology, as discipline or domain, is scientific in that it applies the definition of being to determine the ontological commitments of other disciplines, notably but not exclusively in the natural sciences, in much the same way that applied mathematics in engineering is related to pure mathematics.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ontology&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=McGill%E2%80%93Queen%27s+University+Press&rft.date=2002-11-26&rft.isbn=9780773582675&rft.au=Dale+Jacquette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVLI1GfOcJbYC%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOntology+%28information+science%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Budin2005-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Budin2005_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span 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Dam (ed.), <i>Knowledge Systems and Translation</i>, Jan Engberg, Heidrun Gerzymisch-Arbogast, Walter de Gruyter, p. 113, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018297-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018297-2"><bdi>978-3-11-018297-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ontology-driven+translation+management&rft.btitle=Knowledge+Systems+and+Translation&rft.pages=113&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-3-11-018297-2&rft.au=G+Budin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIL2E9xuJLAAC%26pg%3DPA113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOntology+%28information+science%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalermo2007" class="citation journal cs1">Palermo, Giulio (10 January 2007). "The ontology of economic power in capitalism: mainstream economics and Marx". <i>Cambridge Journal of Economics</i>. <b>31</b> (4): 539–561. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcje%2Fbel036">10.1093/cje/bel036</a> – via Oxford Journals.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Journal+of+Economics&rft.atitle=The+ontology+of+economic+power+in+capitalism%3A+mainstream+economics+and+Marx&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=539-561&rft.date=2007-01-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fcje%2Fbel036&rft.aulast=Palermo&rft.aufirst=Giulio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOntology+%28information+science%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuniga,_Gloria_L.1999" class="citation journal cs1">Zuniga, Gloria L. (1999-02-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ideas.repec.org/p/pra/mprapa/5566.html">"An Ontology Of Economic Objects"</a>. <i>Mpra Paper</i>. Research Division of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mpra+Paper&rft.atitle=An+Ontology+Of+Economic+Objects&rft.date=1999-02-02&rft.au=Zuniga%2C+Gloria+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fideas.repec.org%2Fp%2Fpra%2Fmprapa%2F5566.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOntology+%28information+science%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSowa1995" class="citation journal cs1">Sowa, J. F. (1995). "Top-level ontological categories". <i>International Journal of Human-Computer Studies</i>. <b>43</b> (5–6 (November/December)): 669–85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fijhc.1995.1068">10.1006/ijhc.1995.1068</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Human-Computer+Studies&rft.atitle=Top-level+ontological+categories&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=5%E2%80%936+%28November%2FDecember%29&rft.pages=669-85&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fijhc.1995.1068&rft.aulast=Sowa&rft.aufirst=J.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOntology+%28information+science%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bioontology-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bioontology_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bioontology_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">{<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org">Bioportal</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.industrialontologies.org/">Industrial Ontologies Foundry</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMusen2015" class="citation journal cs1">Musen, Mark (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4883684">"The Protégé Project: A Look Back and a Look Forward"</a>. <i>AI Matters</i>. <b>1</b> (4): 4–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2757001.2757003">10.1145/2757001.2757003</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4883684">4883684</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27239556">27239556</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AI+Matters&rft.atitle=The+Prot%C3%A9g%C3%A9+Project%3A+A+Look+Back+and+a+Look+Forward&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=4-12&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4883684%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27239556&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F2757001.2757003&rft.aulast=Musen&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4883684&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOntology+%28information+science%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OnlineEtDict-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OnlineEtDict_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/ontology">"ontology"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=ontology&rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Fword%2Fontology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOntology+%28information+science%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LSJ-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LSJ_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=ei)mi/1"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">εἰμί</span></span></a>. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Liddell" title="Henry Liddell">Liddell, Henry George</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Scott, Robert</a>; <i><a href="/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">A Greek–English Lexicon</a></i> at the <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2022" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Barry (2022). 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Springer. pp. 448–452. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.86.7079">10.1.1.86.7079</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F11527886_62">10.1007/11527886_62</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-31878-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-31878-1"><bdi>978-3-540-31878-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Towards+User+Modeling+Meta-ontology&rft.btitle=User+Modeling+2005&rft.series=Lecture+Notes+in+Computer+Science&rft.pages=448-452&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.86.7079%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F11527886_62&rft.isbn=978-3-540-31878-1&rft.aulast=Yudelson&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Gavrilova%2C+T.&rft.au=Brusilovsky%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOntology+%28information+science%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMovshovitz-AttiasCohen2012" class="citation book cs1">Movshovitz-Attias, Dana; Cohen, William W. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~dmovshov/papers/dma_bioNELL_bioNLP2012.pdf">"Bootstrapping Biomedical Ontologies for Scientific Text using NELL"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the 2012 Workshop on Biomedical Natural Language Processing</i>. Association for Computational Linguistics. pp. 11–19. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.376.2874">10.1.1.376.2874</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bootstrapping+Biomedical+Ontologies+for+Scientific+Text+using+NELL&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+2012+Workshop+on+Biomedical+Natural+Language+Processing&rft.pages=11-19&rft.pub=Association+for+Computational+Linguistics&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.376.2874%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft.aulast=Movshovitz-Attias&rft.aufirst=Dana&rft.au=Cohen%2C+William+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.cmu.edu%2F~dmovshov%2Fpapers%2Fdma_bioNELL_bioNLP2012.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOntology+%28information+science%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology_(information_science)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ontolog.cim3.net/forum/ontolog-forum/">Ontolog Forum</a>") - an Open, International, Virtual Community of Practice on Ontology, Ontological Engineering and Semantic Technology</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://trimc-nlp.blogspot.com/2013/08/nlp-driven-ontology-modeling-for.html">Use of Ontologies in Natural Language Processing</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ontolog.cim3.net/cgi-bin/wiki.pl?OntologySummit">Ontology Summit</a> - an annual series of events (first started in 2006) that involves the ontology community and communities related to each year's theme chosen for the summit.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kore-nordmann.de/talks/09_04_standardization_of_ontologies_paper.pdf">Standardization of Ontologies</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_set_theory" title="Constructive set theory">Constructive set theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Degree_of_truth" title="Degree of truth">Degree of truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_rule" title="Fuzzy rule">Fuzzy rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_set" title="Fuzzy set">Fuzzy set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_finite_element" title="Fuzzy finite element">Fuzzy finite element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_set_operations" title="Fuzzy set operations">Fuzzy set operations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Substructural_logic" title="Substructural logic">Substructural</a></th><td 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style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ontology_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontology (computer science)">Ontology (computer science)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology_language" title="Ontology language">Ontology language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Many-valued_logic" title="Many-valued logic">Many-valued</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three-valued_logic" title="Three-valued logic">Three-valued</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-valued_logic" title="Four-valued logic">Four-valued</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%81ukasiewicz_logic" title="Łukasiewicz logic">Łukasiewicz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Logic_synthesis" title="Logic synthesis">Digital logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three-state_logic" title="Three-state logic">Three-state logic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tri-state_buffer" class="mw-redirect" title="Tri-state buffer">Tri-state buffer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-valued_logic" title="Four-valued logic">Four-valued</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Verilog" title="Verilog">Verilog</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IEEE_1164" title="IEEE 1164">IEEE 1164</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VHDL" title="VHDL">VHDL</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_logic" title="Intermediate logic">Intermediate logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-monotonic_logic" title="Non-monotonic logic">Non-monotonic logic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Semantic_Web" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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href="/wiki/Ontology_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontology (computer science)">Ontologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_network" title="Semantic network">Semantic networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sub-topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dataspaces" class="mw-redirect" title="Dataspaces">Dataspaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperdata" title="Hyperdata">Hyperdata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linked_data" title="Linked data">Linked data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule-based_system" title="Rule-based system">Rule-based systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_analytics" title="Semantic analytics">Semantic analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_broker" title="Semantic broker">Semantic broker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_computing" title="Semantic computing">Semantic computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_mapper" title="Semantic mapper">Semantic mapper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_matching" title="Semantic matching">Semantic matching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_publishing" title="Semantic publishing">Semantic publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_reasoner" title="Semantic reasoner">Semantic reasoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_search" title="Semantic search">Semantic search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_service-oriented_architecture" title="Semantic service-oriented architecture">Semantic service-oriented architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_wiki" title="Semantic wiki">Semantic wiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid_(web_decentralization_project)" title="Solid (web decentralization project)">Solid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Description_logic" title="Description logic">Description logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folksonomy" title="Folksonomy">Folksonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geotagging" title="Geotagging">Geotagging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_architecture" title="Information architecture">Information architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IXBRL" class="mw-redirect" title="IXBRL">iXBRL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_extraction" title="Knowledge extraction">Knowledge extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">Knowledge management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_2.0" title="Library 2.0">Library 2.0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_library" title="Digital library">Digital library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_humanities" title="Digital humanities">Digital humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metadata" title="Metadata">Metadata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reference_(computer_science)" title="Reference (computer science)">References</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topic_map" title="Topic map">Topic map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_2.0" title="Web 2.0">Web 2.0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_engineering" title="Web engineering">Web engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_Science_Trust" title="Web Science Trust">Web Science Trust</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Syntax and supporting technologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HTTP" title="HTTP">HTTP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalized_Resource_Identifier" title="Internationalized Resource Identifier">IRI</a> <ul><li><small><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Identifier" title="Uniform Resource Identifier">URI</a></small></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_Description_Framework" title="Resource Description Framework">RDF</a> <ul><li><small><a href="/wiki/Semantic_triple" title="Semantic triple">triples</a></small></li> <li><small><a href="/wiki/RDF/XML" title="RDF/XML">RDF/XML</a></small></li> <li><small><a href="/wiki/JSON-LD" title="JSON-LD">JSON-LD</a></small></li> <li><small><a href="/wiki/Turtle_(syntax)" title="Turtle (syntax)">Turtle</a></small></li> <li><small><a href="/wiki/TriG_(syntax)" title="TriG (syntax)">TriG</a></small></li> <li><small><a href="/wiki/Notation3" title="Notation3">Notation3</a></small></li> <li><small><a href="/wiki/N-Triples" title="N-Triples">N-Triples</a></small></li> <li><small><a href="/wiki/TriX_(serialization_format)" title="TriX (serialization format)">TriX</a> (no W3C standard)</small></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_Resource_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Research Resource Identifier">RRID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPARQL" title="SPARQL">SPARQL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XML" title="XML">XML</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_HTML" title="Semantic HTML">Semantic HTML</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schemas, ontologies and rules</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_Logic" title="Common Logic">Common Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_Ontology_Language" title="Web Ontology Language">OWL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RDF_Schema" title="RDF Schema">RDFS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_Interchange_Format" title="Rule Interchange Format">Rule Interchange Format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_Web_Rule_Language" title="Semantic Web Rule Language">Semantic Web Rule Language</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Application-Level_Profile_Semantics_(ALPS)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Application-Level Profile Semantics (ALPS) (page does not exist)">ALPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SHACL" title="SHACL">SHACL</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Semantic annotation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_RDF" title="Embedded RDF">eRDF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GRDDL" title="GRDDL">GRDDL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microdata_(HTML)" title="Microdata (HTML)">Microdata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microformat" title="Microformat">Microformats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RDFa" title="RDFa">RDFa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SAWSDL" title="SAWSDL">SAWSDL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facebook_Platform" title="Facebook Platform">Facebook Platform</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Common vocabularies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DOAP" title="DOAP">DOAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dublin_Core" title="Dublin Core">Dublin Core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FOAF" title="FOAF">FOAF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schema.org" title="Schema.org">Schema.org</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantically_Interlinked_Online_Communities" title="Semantically Interlinked Online Communities">SIOC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_Knowledge_Organization_System" title="Simple Knowledge Organization System">SKOS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Microformat vocabularies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HAtom" title="HAtom">hAtom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HCalendar" title="HCalendar">hCalendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HCard" title="HCard">hCard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HProduct" title="HProduct">hProduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HRecipe" title="HRecipe">hRecipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HReview" title="HReview">hReview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Software_engineering" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Software_engineering" title="Template:Software engineering"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li 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engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_software_engineering" title="Experimental software engineering">Experimental software engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Requirements_engineering" title="Requirements engineering">Requirements engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search-based_software_engineering" title="Search-based software engineering">Search-based software engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Site_reliability_engineering" title="Site reliability engineering">Site reliability engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_software_engineering" title="Social software engineering">Social software engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">Software deployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">Software maintenance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_testing" title="Software testing">Software testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">Systems analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstraction_(computer_science)" title="Abstraction (computer science)">Abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Component-based_software_engineering" title="Component-based software engineering">Component-based software engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_compatibility" title="Computer compatibility">Software compatibility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backward_compatibility" title="Backward compatibility">Backward compatibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compatibility_layer" title="Compatibility layer">Compatibility layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compatibility_mode" title="Compatibility mode">Compatibility mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_compatibility" title="Forward compatibility">Forward compatibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_incompatibility" title="Software incompatibility">Software incompatibility</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_modeling" title="Data modeling">Data modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_architecture" title="Enterprise architecture">Enterprise architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_specification" title="Functional specification">Functional specification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">Software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_archaeology" title="Software archaeology">Software archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_architecture" title="Software architecture">Software architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_development_process" title="Software development process">Software development process/methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_quality_assurance" title="Software quality assurance">Software quality assurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_verification_and_validation" title="Software verification and validation">Software verification and validation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_system" title="Software system">Software system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structured_analysis" title="Structured analysis">Structured analysis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Essential_systems_analysis" title="Essential systems analysis">Essential analysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CI/CD" title="CI/CD">CI/CD</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Orientations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agile_software_development" title="Agile software development">Agile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspect-oriented_programming" title="Aspect-oriented programming">Aspect-oriented</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object orientation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service-oriented_architecture" title="Service-oriented architecture">Service orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_development_life_cycle" title="Systems development life cycle">SDLC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Developmental</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agile_software_development" title="Agile software development">Agile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_unified_process" title="Enterprise unified process">EUP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executable_UML" title="Executable UML">Executable UML</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incremental_build_model" title="Incremental build model">Incremental model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iterative_and_incremental_development" title="Iterative and incremental development">Iterative model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_prototyping" title="Software prototyping">Prototype model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_application_development" title="Rapid application development">RAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Process" class="mw-redirect" title="Unified Process">UP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scrum_(software_development)" title="Scrum (software development)">Scrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_model" title="Spiral model">Spiral model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V-model_(software_development)" title="V-model (software development)">V-model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterfall_model" title="Waterfall model">Waterfall model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_programming" title="Extreme programming">XP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-driven_engineering" title="Model-driven engineering">Model-driven engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round-trip_engineering" title="Round-trip engineering">Round-trip engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_15504" title="ISO/IEC 15504">SPICE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capability_Maturity_Model_Integration" title="Capability Maturity Model Integration">CMMI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_model" title="Data model">Data model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entity%E2%80%93relationship_model" title="Entity–relationship model">ER model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_model" title="Function model">Function model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_model" title="Information model">Information model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamodeling" title="Metamodeling">Metamodeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_model" title="Object model">Object model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_modeling" title="Systems modeling">Systems model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/View_model" title="View model">View model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th 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