CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>History of Harvard University - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"04afed2d-dfc9-4d8f-b3a8-ba2e3e35716e","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"History_of_Harvard_University","wgTitle":"History of Harvard University","wgCurRevisionId":1256971152,"wgRevisionId":1256971152,"wgArticleId":4484508,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with Project Gutenberg links","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from April 2017","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use mdy dates from December 2020","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from December 2023","Articles with unsourced statements from July 2022", "Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2014","History of Harvard University","History of Cambridge, Massachusetts"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"History_of_Harvard_University","wgRelevantArticleId":4484508,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":60000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition": "interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q16844120","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES =["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Harvard_Yard_at_Night_03.jpg/1200px-Harvard_Yard_at_Night_03.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="801"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Harvard_Yard_at_Night_03.jpg/800px-Harvard_Yard_at_Night_03.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="534"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Harvard_Yard_at_Night_03.jpg/640px-Harvard_Yard_at_Night_03.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="427"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="History of Harvard University - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Harvard_University"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Harvard_University"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-History_of_Harvard_University rootpage-History_of_Harvard_University skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+Harvard+University" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+Harvard+University" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+Harvard+University" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+Harvard+University" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-17th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#17th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>17th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-17th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>18th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 19th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Unitarians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unitarians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Unitarians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unitarians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elitism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elitism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Elitism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elitism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eliot" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eliot"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Eliot</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eliot-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Sports</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_language_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_language_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Modern language studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_language_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>20th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 20th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Meritocracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meritocracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Meritocracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meritocracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Women</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minorities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minorities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Minorities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minorities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Graduate_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Graduate_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Graduate schools</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Graduate_schools-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Graduate schools subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Graduate_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Harvard_Business_School" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Harvard_Business_School"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Harvard Business School</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Harvard_Business_School-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Arts_and_Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Arts_and_Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Arts_and_Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Harvard_Kennedy_School" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Harvard_Kennedy_School"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Harvard Kennedy School</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Harvard_Kennedy_School-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Harvard_Law_School" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Harvard_Law_School"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Harvard Law School</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Harvard_Law_School-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Harvard_Medical_School" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Harvard_Medical_School"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Harvard Medical School</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Harvard_Medical_School-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Harvard University</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 2 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-2" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">2 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Universitas_Harvard" title="Sejarah Universitas Harvard – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Universitas Harvard" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_%C3%9Cniversitesi_tarihi" title="Harvard Üniversitesi tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Harvard Üniversitesi tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q16844120#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Harvard_University" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_Harvard_University" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Harvard_University"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Harvard_University"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/History_of_Harvard_University" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/History_of_Harvard_University" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&oldid=1256971152" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=History_of_Harvard_University&id=1256971152&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_Harvard_University"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_Harvard_University"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=History_of_Harvard_University&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q16844120" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harvard_Yard_at_Night_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Harvard_Yard_at_Night_03.jpg/220px-Harvard_Yard_at_Night_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Harvard_Yard_at_Night_03.jpg/330px-Harvard_Yard_at_Night_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Harvard_Yard_at_Night_03.jpg/440px-Harvard_Yard_at_Night_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5366" data-file-height="3582" /></a><figcaption>An aerial view of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> campus at night in July 2017</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>history of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a></b> begins in 1636, when <a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a> was founded in New Towne, a settlement founded six years earlier in colonial-era <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a>, one of the original <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a>. Two years later, in 1638, New Towne's name was changed to <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge</a>, in honor of <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, England, where many of the Colony's settlers had attended the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>. Harvard University is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States. </p><p>In the late 18th century, as Harvard began granting graduate and doctorate-level degrees, it began to be called Harvard University, with Harvard College referring exclusively to its undergraduate program. The stature of the university grew nationally and ultimately globally as a dozen graduate and professional schools were formed to augment the nucleus of the undergraduate College. The university's historically influential schools include its schools of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Medical_School" title="Harvard Medical School">medicine</a> (1782), <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">law</a> (1817), <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Business_School" title="Harvard Business School">business</a> (1908), and <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Arts_and_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences">Graduate Arts and Sciences</a> (1890). </p><p>For centuries, Harvard graduates dominated Massachusetts' clerical and civil ranks.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Since the late 19th century, Harvard has been one of the most prestigious schools in the world, with the largest library system and financial endowment. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="17th_century">17th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: 17th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Eaton" title="Nathaniel Eaton">Nathaniel Eaton</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Harvard_(clergyman)" title="John Harvard (clergyman)">John Harvard (clergyman)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Dunster" title="Henry Dunster">Henry Dunster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Increase_Mather" title="Increase Mather">Increase Mather</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Allin_(Puritan_minister)" title="John Allin (Puritan minister)">John Allin (Puritan minister)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harvard_Old_College.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Harvard_Old_College.jpg/220px-Harvard_Old_College.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Harvard_Old_College.jpg/330px-Harvard_Old_College.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Harvard_Old_College.jpg/440px-Harvard_Old_College.jpg 2x" data-file-width="785" data-file-height="591" /></a><figcaption>The original <a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a> building (1638–1670) as imagined by historian <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Eliot_Morison" title="Samuel Eliot Morison">Samuel Eliot Morison</a> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HarvardCollegeCharter.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/HarvardCollegeCharter.jpeg/220px-HarvardCollegeCharter.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/HarvardCollegeCharter.jpeg/330px-HarvardCollegeCharter.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/HarvardCollegeCharter.jpeg/440px-HarvardCollegeCharter.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1077" data-file-height="817" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard Corporation">Harvard Corporation</a>'s charter was granted in 1650 by Governor <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dudley" title="Thomas Dudley">Thomas Dudley</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Harvard_statue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/John_Harvard_statue.jpg/220px-John_Harvard_statue.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/John_Harvard_statue.jpg/330px-John_Harvard_statue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/John_Harvard_statue.jpg/440px-John_Harvard_statue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1622" data-file-height="1809" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/John_Harvard_statue" class="mw-redirect" title="John Harvard statue">John Harvard statue</a> in <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Yard" title="Harvard Yard">Harvard Yard</a>. On his death in 1638, <a href="/wiki/John_Harvard_(clergyman)" title="John Harvard (clergyman)">John Harvard</a> left 779 <a href="/wiki/Pounds_sterling" class="mw-redirect" title="Pounds sterling">pounds sterling</a>, and his library of some 400 books, to the Colony's new school.</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1636, some 17,000 <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a> had migrated to <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>, and Harvard was founded in anticipation of the need for training clergy for the new commonwealth, a "church in the wilderness". Harvard was established that year by vote of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_General_Court" title="Massachusetts General Court">Great and General Court</a>, the governing legislative body of <a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">colonial</a>-era <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a>, one of the original <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Eaton" title="Nathaniel Eaton">Nathaniel Eaton</a> oversaw the college under various titles between 1637 and 1639. In 1638, it received a printing press – the first in North America – and it received a second press in 1659.<sup id="cite_ref-FirstPrintingPress_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FirstPrintingPress-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-UHullMHSC_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UHullMHSC-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On March 13, 1639, the college was named <a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a> in honor of the <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritan</a> clergyman <a href="/wiki/John_Harvard_(clergyman)" title="John Harvard (clergyman)">John Harvard</a>, a <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> alumnus who willed the new school <a href="/wiki/Pound_sign" title="Pound sign">£</a>779 <a href="/wiki/Pounds_sterling" class="mw-redirect" title="Pounds sterling">pounds sterling</a> and his library of some 400 books.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JH_facts_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JH_facts-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1640s, Harvard College established the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Indian_College" title="Harvard Indian College">Harvard Indian College</a>, which educated Native American students. It was only attended by a handful of students, only one of whom graduated. </p><p>The colony charter creating the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard Corporation">Harvard Corporation</a> was granted in 1650 at the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/English_Interregnum" class="mw-redirect" title="English Interregnum">English Interregnum</a>. When <a href="/wiki/Henry_Dunster" title="Henry Dunster">Henry Dunster</a>, the university's second <a href="/wiki/President_of_Harvard_University" title="President of Harvard University">president</a> from 1640 to 1654, abandoned Puritanism in favor of the English <a href="/wiki/Baptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptist">Baptist</a> faith in 1654, he provoked a controversy that highlighted two distinct approaches to dealing with dissent in the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a>. The colony's Puritan leaders, whose own religion was born of dissent from the mainstream Church of England, generally worked for reconciliation with members who questioned matters of Puritan theology, but responded much more harshly to outright rejection of Puritanism. </p><p>Dunster's conflict with the colony's magistrates began when he failed to have his infant son baptized, believing as an adherent of the <a href="/wiki/Believers_baptism" class="mw-redirect" title="Believers baptism">Believers baptism</a> of English Baptists and/or <a href="/wiki/Anabaptists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptists">Anabaptists</a> that only adults should be baptized. Efforts to restore Dunster to Puritan orthodoxy failed and his apostasy proved untenable to colony leaders who had entrusted him in his job as Harvard's president to uphold the colony's religious mission, thus he represented a threat to the stability of society. Dunster exiled himself in 1654 and moved to nearby <a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Colony" title="Plymouth Colony">Plymouth Colony</a>, where he died in 1658.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because it had been illegal for the colony to establish a college, <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a> rescinded the Massachusetts Bay Colony charter in 1684 by writ of <a href="/wiki/Scire_facias" title="Scire facias">scire facias</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1692, the leading Puritan divine <a href="/wiki/Increase_Mather" title="Increase Mather">Increase Mather</a> became Harvard's sixth president. He replaced pagan classics with books by Christian authors in ethics classes and maintained discipline in the college. The Harvard "Lawes" of 1642 and the "Harvard College Laws of 1700" testify to its original high level of discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Students were required to observe rules of pious decorum inconceivable in the 19th century, and ultimately to prove their fitness for the bachelor's degree by showing that they could "read the original of the Old and New Testament into the Latin tongue, and resolve them logically".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Harvard's leadership and alumni, including Increase Mather and his son Cotton Mather, played central roles in the <a href="/wiki/Salem_Witch_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Salem Witch Trials">Salem Witch Trials</a> in 1692–1693. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Dedham,_Massachusetts" title="Dedham, Massachusetts">town of Dedham</a> was founded in 1636, the same year as the college. The first minister of the <a href="/wiki/First_Church_and_Parish_in_Dedham" title="First Church and Parish in Dedham">First Church and Parish in Dedham</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Allin_(Puritan_minister)" title="John Allin (Puritan minister)">John Allin</a>, served as an overseer, and every minister through 1861 was connected to the university.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith193667_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith193667-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given its population and modest means, the support the community provided to the college was generous.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith193667_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith193667-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Allen donated two cows, presumably to provide milk for the president and tutors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith193667_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith193667-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During Harvard's early years, the town of Cambridge maintained order on campus and provided economic support, as the local <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritan</a> minister had direct oversight of Harvard and ensured the orthodoxy of its leadership. By 1700, Harvard was strong enough to regulate and discipline its own people and to a large extent the direction in which support and assistance flowed was reversed, Harvard now providing financial support for local economic expansion, improvements to public health and construction of local roads, <a href="/wiki/Colonial_meeting_house" title="Colonial meeting house">meetinghouses</a> and schools.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:708px;max-width:708px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:352px;max-width:352px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:New_England%27s_First_Fruits_plaque,_Harvard_University_-_IMG_8969.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/New_England%27s_First_Fruits_plaque%2C_Harvard_University_-_IMG_8969.JPG/350px-New_England%27s_First_Fruits_plaque%2C_Harvard_University_-_IMG_8969.JPG" decoding="async" width="350" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/New_England%27s_First_Fruits_plaque%2C_Harvard_University_-_IMG_8969.JPG/525px-New_England%27s_First_Fruits_plaque%2C_Harvard_University_-_IMG_8969.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/New_England%27s_First_Fruits_plaque%2C_Harvard_University_-_IMG_8969.JPG/700px-New_England%27s_First_Fruits_plaque%2C_Harvard_University_-_IMG_8969.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2811" data-file-height="1820" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:352px;max-width:352px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Harvard_Colledge_plaque,_Harvard_University_-_IMG_8970.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Harvard_Colledge_plaque%2C_Harvard_University_-_IMG_8970.JPG/350px-Harvard_Colledge_plaque%2C_Harvard_University_-_IMG_8970.JPG" decoding="async" width="350" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Harvard_Colledge_plaque%2C_Harvard_University_-_IMG_8970.JPG/525px-Harvard_Colledge_plaque%2C_Harvard_University_-_IMG_8970.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Harvard_Colledge_plaque%2C_Harvard_University_-_IMG_8970.JPG/700px-Harvard_Colledge_plaque%2C_Harvard_University_-_IMG_8970.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2811" data-file-height="1820" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center">Tablets outside Harvard Yard's <a href="/wiki/Johnston_Gate" class="mw-redirect" title="Johnston Gate">Johnston Gate</a>. The tablet on the left (above) quotes from a longer history which continues, "And as we were thinking and consulting how to effect this great work, it pleased God to stir up the heart of one Mr. Harvard (a godly gentleman and a lover of learning, there living among us) to give the one-half of his estate (it being in all about 1700<span class="nowrap"> </span>£) toward the erecting of a college, and all his library. After him, another gave 300<span class="nowrap"> </span>£; others after them cast in more; and the <span class="nowrap">public hand of the state added the rest."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </span></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="18th_century">18th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 18th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The early motto of Harvard was <i>Veritas Christo et Ecclesiae</i>, meaning "Truth for Christ and the Church". In the early classes, half the graduates became ministers, which diminished to 15% by the 1760s, and ten of Harvard's first twelve presidents were ministers. Systematic theological instruction was inaugurated in 1721. By 1827, Harvard became a nucleus of theological teaching in <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The end of Mather's presidency in 1701 marked the start of a long struggle at Harvard between orthodoxy and liberalism. In 1708, <a href="/wiki/John_Leverett_the_Younger" title="John Leverett the Younger">John Leverett</a>, Harvard's first secular president, was appointed as Harvard's seventh president. Leverett left the curriculum largely intact, but sought to keep the college independent of the overwhelming influence of any single <a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Christian denomination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Harvard alumni were enormously supportive of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> with <a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">Patriot</a> alumni exceeding <a href="/wiki/Loyalist_(American_Revolution)" title="Loyalist (American Revolution)">Loyalists</a> seven to one. During the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a>, seven alumni were killed in their service of the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="19th_century">19th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin-left:1em; font-size:90%; line-height:1.4em; width:14em;"> <tbody><tr> <td><b>College/school</b></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Year founded</b></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1636</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Medical_School" title="Harvard Medical School">Medicine</a></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1782</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Divinity_School" title="Harvard Divinity School">Divinity</a></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1816</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Law</a></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1817</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Harvard_School_of_Dental_Medicine" title="Harvard School of Dental Medicine">Dental Medicine</a></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1867</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Arts_and_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences">Arts and Sciences</a></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1872</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Business_School" title="Harvard Business School">Business</a></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1908</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Extension_School" title="Harvard Extension School">Extension</a></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1910</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Design" title="Harvard Graduate School of Design">Design</a></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1914</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Education" title="Harvard Graduate School of Education">Education</a></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1920</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Harvard_School_of_Public_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard School of Public Health">Public Health</a></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1922</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Kennedy_School" title="Harvard Kennedy School">Government</a></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1936</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Harvard_School_of_Engineering_and_Applied_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences">Engineering<span class="nowrap"> </span>& Applied Sciences</a></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">2007</div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unitarians">Unitarians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Unitarians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> ideas of the power of reason and free will became widespread among <a href="/wiki/Congregationalism_in_the_United_States" title="Congregationalism in the United States">Congregational</a> ministers, putting those ministers and their congregations in tension with more traditionalist, <a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Calvinist</a> parties.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorrien_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorrien-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1–4">: 1–4 </span></sup> </p><p>Following the death of <a href="/wiki/Hollis_Chair_of_Divinity" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollis Chair of Divinity">Hollis Professor of Divinity</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Tappan" title="David Tappan">David Tappan</a> in 1803 and that of Harvard president <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Willard" title="Joseph Willard">Joseph Willard</a> a year later, a struggle broke out over their replacements. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ware_(Unitarian)" title="Henry Ware (Unitarian)">Henry Ware</a> was elected to the chair in 1805, and the liberal <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Webber" title="Samuel Webber">Samuel Webber</a> was appointed Harvard president two years later, signaling a changing of the tide from the dominance of traditional ideas at Harvard to the dominance of liberal, <a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminian</a> ideas, defined by traditionalists as <a href="/wiki/Unitarian-Universalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Unitarian-Universalism">Unitarian</a> ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorrien_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorrien-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4–5">: 4–5 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 24">: 24 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science">Science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1846, the natural history lectures of <a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a> were acclaimed both in New York and on his campus at Harvard College. Agassiz's approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans' "participation in the Divine Nature" and the possibility of understanding "intellectual existences". Agassiz's perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that one can grasp the "divine plan" in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on a presumed archetype for his evidence. This dual view of knowledge was in concert with the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Common_Sense_Realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Sense Realism">Common Sense Realism</a> derived from Scottish philosophers <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Dugald Stewart</a>, whose works were part of the Harvard curriculum at the time. The popularity of Agassiz's efforts to "soar with Plato" probably also derived from other writings to which Harvard students were exposed, including Platonic treatises by Ralph Cudworth, John Norris and in a Romantic vein <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Coleridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Coleridge">Samuel Coleridge</a>. The library records at Harvard reveal that the writings of Plato and his early modern and Romantic followers were almost as regularly read during the 19th century as those of the "official philosophy" of the more empirical and more deistic Scottish school.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elitism">Elitism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Elitism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HarvardElizaSusanQuincy1836.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/HarvardElizaSusanQuincy1836.jpg/410px-HarvardElizaSusanQuincy1836.jpg" decoding="async" width="410" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/HarvardElizaSusanQuincy1836.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="577" data-file-height="311" /></a><figcaption>Procession of Harvard alumni (1836), drawn by Eliza Susan Quincy (daughter of Harvard President <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Quincy_III" title="Josiah Quincy III">Josiah Quincy</a>). Left to right: <a href="/wiki/Stoughton_Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoughton Hall">Stoughton Hall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holden_Chapel" title="Holden Chapel">Holden Chapel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hollis_Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollis Hall">Hollis Hall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Hall" title="Harvard Hall">Harvard Hall</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_Hall_(Harvard_University)" title="University Hall (Harvard University)">University Hall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Hall_(Harvard_University)" title="Massachusetts Hall (Harvard University)">Massachusetts Hall</a>, unidentified building, <a href="/wiki/First_Parish_in_Cambridge" title="First Parish in Cambridge">First Parish</a> Meeting House. </figcaption></figure> <p>Between 1830 and 1870, Harvard became "privatized".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalists</a> controlled state government, Harvard had prospered and the 1824 defeat of the Federalist Party in Massachusetts allowed the renascent <a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic-Republican Party (United States)">Democratic-Republicans</a> to block state funding of private universities. By 1870, the politicians and ministers that heretofore had made up the university's board of overseers had been replaced by Harvard alumni drawn from Boston's upper-class business and professional community and funded by private endowment.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During this period, Harvard experienced unparalleled growth that securely placed it financially in a league of its own among American colleges. Ronald Story notes that in 1850, Harvard's total assets were "five times that of Amherst and Williams combined, and three times that of Yale".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Story also notes that "all the evidence... points to the four decades from 1815 to 1855 as the era when parents, in Henry Adams's words, began 'sending their children to Harvard College for the sake of its social advantages'".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under President Eliot's tenure, Harvard earned a reputation for being more liberal and democratic than either <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton</a> or <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale</a> in regard to bigotry against Jews and other ethnic minorities.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1870, one year into Eliot's term, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Theodore_Greener" title="Richard Theodore Greener">Richard Theodore Greener</a> became the first African-American to graduate from Harvard College. Seven years later, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</a>, the first Jewish justice on the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a>, graduated from Harvard Law School. Nevertheless, Harvard became the bastion of a distinctly Protestant élite – the so-called <a href="/wiki/Boston_Brahmin" title="Boston Brahmin">Boston Brahmin</a> class – and continued to be so well into the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HarvardUniversityPresidents1829-1862.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/HarvardUniversityPresidents1829-1862.jpg/220px-HarvardUniversityPresidents1829-1862.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/HarvardUniversityPresidents1829-1862.jpg/330px-HarvardUniversityPresidents1829-1862.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/HarvardUniversityPresidents1829-1862.jpg/440px-HarvardUniversityPresidents1829-1862.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1027" data-file-height="876" /></a><figcaption>Five <a href="/wiki/President_of_Harvard_University" title="President of Harvard University">Harvard University Presidents</a> sitting in order of their service, including (left to right): <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Quincy_III" title="Josiah Quincy III">Josiah Quincy III</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Everett" title="Edward Everett">Edward Everett</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jared_Sparks" title="Jared Sparks">Jared Sparks</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Walker_(Harvard)" title="James Walker (Harvard)">James Walker</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Conway_Felton" title="Cornelius Conway Felton">Cornelius Conway Felton</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The annual undergraduate tuition was $300 in the 1930s and $400 in the 1940s. By 1953, it doubled to $800. It increased further to $2,600 in 1970 and $22,700 in 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_UP_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_UP-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eliot">Eliot</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Eliot"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Eliot" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles W. Eliot">Charles W. Eliot</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Eliot" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles W. Eliot">Charles W. Eliot</a>, the university's president from 1869 to 1909, eliminated the favored position of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, but by transcendentalist Unitarian convictions. Derived from <a href="/wiki/William_Ellery_Channing" title="William Ellery Channing">William Ellery Channing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a>, these convictions were focused on the dignity and worth of human nature, the right and ability of each person to perceive truth and the indwelling God in each person.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sports">Sports</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sports"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Crimson" title="Harvard Crimson">Harvard Crimson</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Crimson_football" title="Harvard Crimson football">Harvard Crimson football</a> program was originally organized by students as an extracurricular activity, and was banned twice by the university, who then saw the sport as brutal and dangerous. By the 1880s, however, football became a dominant force at the college as alumni became more involved in the sport. </p><p>In 1882, the faculty formed a three-member athletic committee to oversee all intercollegiate athletics, but due to increasing student and alumni pressure the committee was expanded in 1885 to include three student and three alumni members. The alumni's role in the rise and commercialization of football, the leading moneymaker for athletics by the 1880s, was evident in the fundraising for the first steel-reinforced concrete stadium. The class of 1879 donated $100,000 – nearly one-third of the cost – to the construction of the 35,000-seat stadium, which was completed in 1903, with the remainder to be collected from future ticket sales.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_language_studies">Modern language studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Modern language studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Programs in the study of <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> languages began in 1816 with <a href="/wiki/George_Ticknor" title="George Ticknor">George Ticknor</a> as its first professor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_century">20th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Harvard_Extension_School" title="History of Harvard Extension School">History of Harvard Extension School</a></div> <p>During the 20th century, Harvard's international reputation for scholarship grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the university's scope. Explosive growth in the student population continued with the addition of new graduate schools and the expansion of the undergraduate program. It built the largest and finest academic library in the world and built up the labs and clinics needed to establish the reputation of its science departments and the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Medical_School" title="Harvard Medical School">Medical School</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Law School</a> vied with Yale Law for preeminence, while the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Business_School" title="Harvard Business School">Business School</a> combined a large-scale research program with a special appeal to entrepreneurs rather than accountants. The different schools are financially independent and maintain their separate endowments, which are very large in the case of the college/Faculty of Arts and Sciences, and the Business, Law and Medical Schools, but quite modest for the Divinity and Education schools.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Radcliffe_College" title="Radcliffe College">Radcliffe College</a>, established in 1879 as a sister school of Harvard College, became one of the most prominent schools for women in the United States. In the 1920s, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Harkness" title="Edward Harkness">Edward Harkness</a> (1874–1940), a Yale man with oil wealth, was ignored by his alma mater, leading him to give $12,000,000 to Harvard to establish a house system like that of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> in England. Yale later took his money and set up a similar system. </p><p>In addition to the usual departments, specialized research centers proliferated, especially to enable interdisciplinary research projects that could not be handled at the department level. However, the departments kept jealous control of the awarding of tenure; typically tenured professorships went to outsiders, and not as promotions to assistant professors. Older research centers include the East Asian Research Center, the Center for International Affairs, the Center for Eastern Studies, the Russian Research Center, the Charles Warren Center for Studies in American History and the Joint Center for Urban Studies (with <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>). The Centers raised their own money, sometimes from endowments, but most often from federal and foundation grants, making them increasingly independent entities.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Harvard was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the <a href="/wiki/V-12_Navy_College_Training_Program" title="V-12 Navy College Training Program">V-12 Navy College Training Program</a> which offered students a path to a Navy commission.<sup id="cite_ref-navalyearbooks-v-12_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-navalyearbooks-v-12-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The annual undergraduate tuition was $300 in the 1920s and $400 in the 1930s, doubling to $800 in 1953. It reached $2,600 in 1970 and $22,700 in 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_UP_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_UP-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Meritocracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/James_Bryant_Conant" class="mw-redirect" title="James Bryant Conant">James Bryant Conant</a>, the university's president from 1933 to 1953, pledged to reinvigorate creative scholarship at Harvard and reestablish its preeminence among research institutions. Viewing higher education as a vehicle of opportunity for the talented rather than an entitlement for the wealthy, Conant devised programs to identify, recruit, and support talented youth. In 1943, Conant decided that Harvard's undergraduate curriculum needed to be revised so as to place more emphasis on general education and called on the faculty make a definitive statement about what general education ought to be at the secondary as well as the college level. The resulting <i>Report</i>, published in 1945, was one of the most influential manifestos in the history of American education in the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the decades following the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Harvard reformed its admissions policies as it sought students from a more diverse applicant pool. Harvard undergraduates had traditionally been largely upper-class alumni from select <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> preparatory schools, including <a href="/wiki/Phillips_Exeter_Academy" title="Phillips Exeter Academy">Phillips Exeter Academy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hotchkiss_School" title="Hotchkiss School">Hotchkiss School</a>, <a href="/wiki/Choate_Rosemary_Hall" title="Choate Rosemary Hall">Choate Rosemary Hall</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Milton_Academy" title="Milton Academy">Milton Academy</a>, increasing numbers of international, minority and working-class students had by the late 1960s altered the ethnic and socio-economic makeup of the college.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The university's faculty also became more diverse, especially in its willingness to hire <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholics</a>, and foreign scholars. The History Department was among the first to hire Jews. <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Handlin" title="Oscar Handlin">Oscar Handlin</a>, one of the most influential professors in this period, trained hundreds of graduate students, and later served as head of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Library" title="Harvard Library">Harvard Library</a>, which is now the largest <a href="/wiki/Academic_library" title="Academic library">academic library</a> in the world with over 20 million holdings.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 20th century, Harvard's international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the university's scope. Explosive growth in the student population continued with the addition of new graduate schools and the expansion of the undergraduate program. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women">Women</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Women"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1945, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Medical_School" title="Harvard Medical School">Harvard Medical School</a> admitted its first class of women after a special committee concluded that male students would benefit from learning to view women as equals, that the lower-paid specialties typically shunned by men would benefit from the talents of women doctors and that the weakest third of each entering class of men could be replaced by a superior group of women.<sup id="cite_ref-First_class_of_women_admitted_to_Harvard_Medical_School,_1945_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-First_class_of_women_admitted_to_Harvard_Medical_School,_1945-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For its first 50 years, <a href="/wiki/Radcliffe_College" title="Radcliffe College">Radcliffe College</a>, established in 1879 as the "Harvard Annex for Women",<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> paid Harvard faculty to repeat their lectures for a female audience. During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, male and female undergraduates attended classes together for the first time, though it was many decades<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (April 2014)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> before the population of Radcliffe College reached parity with that of Harvard.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1970s, two agreements between Harvard and Radcliffe made Harvard responsible for essentially all undergraduate matters for women – including admissions, advising, instruction, housing, student life and athletics – though women were still formally admitted to and graduated from Radcliffe until a final merger in 1979 made Radcliffe a part of Harvard, at the same time creating the <a href="/wiki/Radcliffe_Institute_for_Advanced_Study" class="mw-redirect" title="Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study">Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1984, Harvard severed ties with undergraduate "<a href="/wiki/Final_clubs" class="mw-redirect" title="Final clubs">final clubs</a>" because of their refusal to admit women. As of 2016, Harvard bars members of single-sex organizations (such as final clubs, fraternities and sororities) from campus leadership positions such as team captaincies and from receiving recommendation letters from Harvard requisite for scholarships and fellowships such as the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Scholarship" title="Marshall Scholarship">Marshall Scholarship</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhodes_Scholarship" title="Rhodes Scholarship">Rhodes Scholarship</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT2016_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT2016-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the Supreme Court ruled in <a href="/wiki/Bostock_v._Clayton_County" title="Bostock v. Clayton County">Bostock v. Clayton County</a> in June 2020, Harvard independently reversed the sanctions policy.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2006, <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers">Lawrence Summers</a> resigned his presidency after suggesting that women's underrepresentation in top science positions could be due to differences in "intrinsic aptitude". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minorities">Minorities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Minorities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harvard_square_harvard_yard.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Harvard_square_harvard_yard.JPG/220px-Harvard_square_harvard_yard.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Harvard_square_harvard_yard.JPG/330px-Harvard_square_harvard_yard.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Harvard_square_harvard_yard.JPG/440px-Harvard_square_harvard_yard.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5015" data-file-height="2454" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Yard" title="Harvard Yard">Harvard Yard</a> as seen from <a href="/wiki/Holyoke_Center_(Harvard_University)" class="mw-redirect" title="Holyoke Center (Harvard University)">Holyoke Center</a> in September 2010</figcaption></figure> <p>While Harvard ended required chapel in the mid-1880s, the school remained culturally Protestant and fears of dilution grew as enrollment of immigrants, Catholics and Jews surged at the turn of the 20th century. By 1908, Catholics made up nine percent of the freshman class and between 1906 and 1922 Jewish enrollment at Harvard increased from 6% to 25%. President <a href="/wiki/A._Lawrence_Lowell" title="A. Lawrence Lowell">A. Lawrence Lowell</a> tried to impose a 12% quota on Jews, but the faculty rejected it even though he managed to cut the numbers in half anyway. By the end of World War II, the quotas and most of the latent antisemitism had faded away.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Policies of exclusion were not limited to religious minorities. In 1920, "Harvard University maliciously persecuted and harassed" those it believed to be gay via a "<a href="/wiki/Secret_Court_of_1920_(Harvard)" class="mw-redirect" title="Secret Court of 1920 (Harvard)">Secret Court</a>" led by President Lowell. Summoned at the behest of a wealthy alumnus, the inquisitions and expulsions carried out by this tribunal, in conjunction with the "vindictive tenacity of the university in ensuring that the stigmatization of the expelled students would persist throughout their productive lives" led to two suicides. Harvard President <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers">Lawrence Summers</a> characterized the 1920 episode as "part of a past that we have rightly left behind" and "abhorrent and an affront to the values of our university".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As late as the 1950s, Wilbur Bender, then the dean of admissions for Harvard College, was seeking better ways to "detect homosexual tendencies and serious psychiatric problems" in prospective students.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="21st_century">21st century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inauguration_of_Claudine_Gay_as_President_of_Harvard_University_(2)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Inauguration_of_Claudine_Gay_as_President_of_Harvard_University_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Inauguration_of_Claudine_Gay_as_President_of_Harvard_University_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Inauguration_of_Claudine_Gay_as_President_of_Harvard_University_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Inauguration_of_Claudine_Gay_as_President_of_Harvard_University_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Inauguration_of_Claudine_Gay_as_President_of_Harvard_University_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="417" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Claudine_Gay" title="Claudine Gay">Claudine Gay</a>, Harvard's 30th president, who resigned in January 2024 amidst allegations of <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> and plagiarism</figcaption></figure> <p>In October 2023, following the <a href="/wiki/2023_Hamas-led_attack_on_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel">Hamas-led attack on Israel</a>, several Harvard undergraduate student groups signed a letter condemning <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, contending that the "Israeli regime entirely responsible for all unfolding violence".<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The letter from Harvard University student groups blaming Israel drew backlash from several prominent alumni and former Harvard president <a href="/wiki/Larry_Summers" class="mw-redirect" title="Larry Summers">Larry Summers</a>, who said that he was "sickened" by it.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC-1010_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-1010-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequently, a number of donors said they would no longer donate to Harvard, due to its poor response against <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">anti-semitism</a>, and billionaire <a href="/wiki/Idan_Ofer" title="Idan Ofer">Idan Ofer</a> and his wife Batia quit Harvard's executive board.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In December 2023, following <a href="/wiki/2023_United_States_Congress_hearing_on_antisemitism" title="2023 United States Congress hearing on antisemitism">Congressional hearing on antisemitism</a>, Harvard's president <a href="/wiki/Claudine_Gay" title="Claudine Gay">Claudine Gay</a> was condemned by the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a>, and Gay released a new statement noting that some “have confused a right to free expression with the idea that Harvard will condone calls for violence against Jewish students.”<sup id="cite_ref-NBC1206_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NBC1206-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Reuters-1207_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reuters-1207-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the hearing, Gay had expressed the view that calls for the <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> of Jewish people did not necessarily violate Harvard's code of conduct, "depending on the context."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In January 2024, after just six months as Harvard president, Gay resigned in January 2024 after the plagiarism investigation, and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Alan_Garber" title="Alan Garber">Alan Garber</a>, the university's president, who was appointed interim president. In August 2024, <a href="/wiki/President_and_Fellows_of_Harvard_College" title="President and Fellows of Harvard College">Harvard Corporation</a> announced his appointment as the university's 31st president through the end of the 2026-27 academic year. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Graduate_schools">Graduate schools</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Graduate schools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Harvard_Business_School">Harvard Business School</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Harvard Business School"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Business_School" title="Harvard Business School">Harvard Business School</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_of_the_Harvard_Business_School_campus.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Aerial_of_the_Harvard_Business_School_campus.jpeg/220px-Aerial_of_the_Harvard_Business_School_campus.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Aerial_of_the_Harvard_Business_School_campus.jpeg/330px-Aerial_of_the_Harvard_Business_School_campus.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Aerial_of_the_Harvard_Business_School_campus.jpeg/440px-Aerial_of_the_Harvard_Business_School_campus.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1196" /></a><figcaption>Aerial view of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Business_School" title="Harvard Business School">Harvard Business School</a></figcaption></figure> <p>From its founding in 1908, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Business_School" title="Harvard Business School">Harvard Business School</a> has had a close relationship with the corporate world. Within a few years of its founding, many business leaders were its alumni and were hiring other alumni for starting positions in their firms.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The School used Rockefeller funding in the 1920s to launch a major research program under <a href="/wiki/Elton_Mayo" title="Elton Mayo">Elton Mayo</a> (1926–1947) for his "Harvard human relations group". Its findings revolutionized human relations in business and raised the reputation of the Business School from its initial "low status as a trainer of money grabbers into a high prestige educator of socially-conscientious administrators".<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting in 1935, the school began weekend and short-term leadership training workshops for executives of major corporations that further expanded its national role.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1949, nearly half of all the holders of the <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Business_Administration" title="Master of Business Administration">MBA</a> degree in the U.S. were alumni of Harvard Business School, and it was considered "the most influential graduate school of business".<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Arts_and_Science">Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Arts_and_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences">Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences</a></div> <p>As the college modernized in the late 19th century, the faculty was organized into departments and began to add graduate programs, including the PhD. <a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Eliot" title="Charles William Eliot">Charles William Eliot</a>, president from 1869 to 1909, was a chemist who had spent two years in Germany studying their universities. Thousands of Americans, mostly Harvard and Yale alumni, had attended German universities, especially Berlin and Göttingen.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eliot used the German model to set up graduate programs at Harvard and he formed a graduate department in 1872, which granted its first Ph.D. degrees in 1873 to <a href="/wiki/William_Elwood_Byerly" title="William Elwood Byerly">William Byerly</a> in mathematics and Charles Whitney in history. Eliot set up the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences with its own dean and budget in 1890, which dealt with graduate students and funded research programs.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 2004, there were 3,200 graduate students in 53 separate programs and forty former or current professors had won a Nobel Prize, most of them scientists or economists based in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Harvard_Kennedy_School">Harvard Kennedy School</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Harvard Kennedy School"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Kennedy_School" title="Harvard Kennedy School">Harvard Kennedy School</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harvard_Kennedy_School_Littauer_Building.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Harvard_Kennedy_School_Littauer_Building.jpg/220px-Harvard_Kennedy_School_Littauer_Building.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Harvard_Kennedy_School_Littauer_Building.jpg/330px-Harvard_Kennedy_School_Littauer_Building.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Harvard_Kennedy_School_Littauer_Building.jpg/440px-Harvard_Kennedy_School_Littauer_Building.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>The Littauer Building at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Kennedy_School" title="Harvard Kennedy School">Harvard Kennedy School</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1936, Harvard University founded the Harvard Graduate School of Public Administration, later renamed <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Kennedy_School" title="Harvard Kennedy School">Harvard Kennedy School</a> in honor of former <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">U.S. President</a> and 1940 <a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a> alumnus <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>. The Kennedy School has an endowment of $1.7 billion as of 2021 and is routinely ranked at the top of the world's graduate schools in public policy, social policy, international affairs, and government.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ivorytower2012_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ivorytower2012-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tripsurvey_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tripsurvey-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its alumni include 17 <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">heads of state</a> or <a href="/wiki/Head_of_government" title="Head of government">government</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ivorytower2012_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ivorytower2012-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tripsurvey_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tripsurvey-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Harvard_Law_School">Harvard Law School</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Harvard Law School"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law School</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Langdell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Langdell.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="160" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus_Langdell" title="Christopher Columbus Langdell">Christopher Columbus Langdell</a>, an influential dean of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law School</a> from 1875 to 1890</figcaption></figure> <p>The establishment of Harvard Law School in 1817 was made possible by a 1779 bequest from <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Royall_Jr." title="Isaac Royall Jr.">Isaac Royall Jr.</a>; it is the oldest continuously operating law school in the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-Gershman_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gershman-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was a small operation and grew slowly. By 1827, it was down to one faculty member. <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Dane" title="Nathan Dane">Nathan Dane</a>, a prominent alumnus, endowed the Dane Professorship of Law and insisting that it be given to then Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Joseph Story</a>. For a while, the school was called Dane Law School.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Story's belief in the need for an elite law school based on merit and dedicated to public service helped build the school's reputation at the time. Enrollment remained low as academic legal education was considered to be of little added benefit to apprenticeships in legal practice. </p><p>Radical reform came in the 1870s, under Dean <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus_Langdell" title="Christopher Columbus Langdell">Christopher Columbus Langdell</a> (1826–1906).<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its new curriculum set the national standard and was copied widely in the United States. Langdell developed the <a href="/wiki/Casebook_method" title="Casebook method">case method</a> of teaching law, based on his belief that law could be studied as a "science" gave university legal education a reason for being distinct from vocational preparation. The school introduced a first-year curriculum that was widely imitated, based on classes in <a href="/wiki/Contracts" class="mw-redirect" title="Contracts">contracts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a>, <a href="/wiki/Torts" class="mw-redirect" title="Torts">torts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">civil procedure</a>. </p><p>Critics bemoaned abandonment of the more traditional lecture method, because of its efficiency and the lower workloads it placed on faculty and students. Advocates of the case method had a sounder theoretical basis in scientific research and the inductive method. Langdell's graduates became leading professors at other law schools where they introduced the case method. From its founding in 1900, the Association of American Law Schools promoted the case method in law schools that sought accreditation.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Harvard_Medical_School">Harvard Medical School</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Harvard Medical School"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Medical_School" title="Harvard Medical School">Harvard Medical School</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hms-quad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Hms-quad.jpg/220px-Hms-quad.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Hms-quad.jpg/330px-Hms-quad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Hms-quad.jpg/440px-Hms-quad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Medical_School" title="Harvard Medical School">Harvard Medical School</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Medical_School" title="Harvard Medical School">Harvard Medical School</a>, the third-oldest medical school in the United States, was founded in 1782 as Massachusetts Medical College by <a href="/wiki/John_Warren_(surgeon,_born_1753)" title="John Warren (surgeon, born 1753)">John Warren</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Waterhouse" title="Benjamin Waterhouse">Benjamin Waterhouse</a>, and Aaron Dexter. In 1810, Harvard Medical School relocated across the <a href="/wiki/Charles_River" title="Charles River">Charles River</a> from <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge</a> to <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>. The medical school was tied to the rest of the university "only by the tenuous thread of degrees", but its strong faculty gave it a national reputation by the early 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The medical school moved to its current location on Longwood Avenue in 1906, where the "Great White Quadrangle" or HMS Quad with its five white marble buildings was established.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Harvard Medical School's reputation continued to grow into the 20th century, especially in terms of scientific research and support from regional and national elites. Fifteen scientists won the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> for work done at the Medical School.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its four major flagship teaching hospitals are <a href="/wiki/Beth_Israel_Deaconess_Medical_Center" title="Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center">Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brigham_and_Women%27s_Hospital" title="Brigham and Women's Hospital">Brigham and Women's Hospital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boston_Children%27s_Hospital" title="Boston Children's Hospital">Boston Children's Hospital</a> and <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_General_Hospital" title="Massachusetts General Hospital">Massachusetts General Hospital</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_and_traditions_of_Harvard_commencements" title="History and traditions of Harvard commencements">History and traditions of Harvard commencements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_and_the_Vietnam_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard University and the Vietnam War">Harvard University and the Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_United_States_Congress_hearings_on_antisemitism" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 United States Congress hearings on antisemitism">2023 United States Congress hearings on antisemitism</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FirstPrintingPress-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FirstPrintingPress_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2012/03/harvard's-first-impressions/">"The instrument behind New England's first literary flowering"</a>. Harvard University. March 8, 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200214002714/https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2012/03/harvard%27s-first-impressions/">Archived</a> from the original on February 14, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 18,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+instrument+behind+New+England%27s+first+literary+flowering&rft.pub=Harvard+University&rft.date=2012-03-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.harvard.edu%2Fgazette%2Fstory%2F2012%2F03%2Fharvard%27s-first-impressions%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UHullMHSC-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UHullMHSC_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130123223546/http://www.hull.ac.uk/mhsc/FarHorizons/Documents/EzekielRogers.pdf">"Rowley and Ezekiel Rogers, The First North American Printing Press"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Maritime Historical Studies Centre, University of Hull. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hull.ac.uk/mhsc/FarHorizons/Documents/EzekielRogers.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on January 23, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 18,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rowley+and+Ezekiel+Rogers%2C+The+First+North+American+Printing+Press&rft.pub=Maritime+Historical+Studies+Centre%2C+University+of+Hull&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hull.ac.uk%2Fmhsc%2FFarHorizons%2FDocuments%2FEzekielRogers.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorison1995" class="citation book cs1">Morison, Samuel Eliot (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PQMdzhnfaSwC&q=%22harvard+college%22+march+13&pg=PA221"><i>The Founding of Harvard College</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-31451-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-31451-1"><bdi>978-0-674-31451-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220129215729/https://books.google.com/books?id=PQMdzhnfaSwC&q=%22harvard+college%22+march+13&pg=PA221">Archived</a> from the original on January 29, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 16,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Founding+of+Harvard+College&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-674-31451-1&rft.aulast=Morison&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Eliot&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPQMdzhnfaSwC%26q%3D%2522harvard%2Bcollege%2522%2Bmarch%2B13%26pg%3DPA221&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JH_facts-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JH_facts_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/John_Harvard.aspx">"John Harvard Facts, Information"</a>. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090715230532/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/John_Harvard.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on July 15, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 17,</span> 2009</span>. <q>He bequeathed £780 (half his estate) and his library of 320 volumes to the new established college at Cambridge, Mass., which was named in his honor.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Harvard+Facts%2C+Information.&rft.pub=The+Columbia+Encyclopedia%2C+Sixth+Edition.+2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Ftopic%2FJohn_Harvard.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Timothy L. Wood, "'I Spake the Truth in the Feare of God': the Puritan Management of Dissent During the Henry Dunster Controversy," <i>Historical Journal of Massachusetts</i> 2005 33(1): 1-19,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker,_J._H.2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Baker_(legal_historian)" title="John Baker (legal historian)">Baker, J. H.</a> (2002). <i>An Introduction to English Legal History</i> (4th ed.). London: Butterworths. p. <i>p.</i>145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-406-93053-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-406-93053-8"><bdi>978-0-406-93053-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+English+Legal+History&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%27%27p.%27%27145&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Butterworths&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-406-93053-8&rft.au=Baker%2C+J.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.peacebyjesus.com/HARVARD_LAWES.HTML">Laws and Statutes for Students of Harvard College</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303190843/http://www.peacebyjesus.com/HARVARD_LAWES.HTML">Archived</a> March 3, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barrett Wendell, <i>Cotton Mather, the Puritan priest</i> (1897) p 35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith193667-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith193667_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith193667_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith193667_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith1936">Smith 1936</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Daniel Burton, <i>Puritan Town and Gown: Harvard College and Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1636–1800.</i> PhD dissertation, College of William and Mary, 1996. 314 pp. DAI 1997 58(2): 560-A. DA9720973</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/NewEnglandsFirstFruitsInRespectFirstOfTheCounversionOfSome/New_Englands_First_Fruits#page/n21/mode/2up"><i>New England's First Fruits</i> (1643)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Samuel Eliot Morison, <i>The Founding of Harvard College</i> (1935) p. 300</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.president.harvard.edu/history/07_leverett.php">John Leverett - History - Office of the President</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100612033858/http://www.president.harvard.edu/history/07_leverett.php">Archived</a> June 12, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jack P. Greene, "Harvard Men in a Changing World," <i>Massachusetts Historical Review</i> 2007 9: 166-176,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dorrien-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dorrien_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dorrien_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gary J. Dorrien. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingofamerican0000dorr">The Making of American Liberal Theology: Imagining Progressive Religion, 1805–1900, Volume 1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160806095236/https://books.google.com/books?id=L50mveyi6WoC">Archived</a> August 6, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Westminster John Knox Press, 2001</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter S. Field <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HXHbEWJacwwC">Ralph Waldo Emerson: The Making of a Democratic Intellectual</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160806041936/https://books.google.com/books?id=HXHbEWJacwwC">Archived</a> August 6, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Rowman & Littlefield, 2003 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0847688425" title="Special:BookSources/978-0847688425">978-0847688425</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David K. Nartonis, "Louis Agassiz and the Platonist Story of Creation at Harvard, 1795–1846," <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i> 2005 66(3): 437-449, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3654189">in JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161031010118/http://www.jstor.org/stable/3654189">Archived</a> October 31, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald Story <i>The Forging of an Aristocracy: Harvard and the Boston Upper Class, 1800–1870</i>, (1980),</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Story, R. (1980). <i>The Forging of an Aristocracy: Harvard and the Boston Upper Class, 1800–1870</i>. Wesleyan University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8195-5044-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8195-5044-2">0-8195-5044-2</a> (p. 50: Harvard's explosive growth from 1800 to 1850 separate it from other colleges)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Story, R. (1980). op. cit. p. 97, (1815–1855 as the era when Harvard began to be perceived as socially advantageous)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steinberg, S. (2001). <i>The Ethnic Myth</i>. Beacon Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8070-4153-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8070-4153-X">0-8070-4153-X</a>. (Harvard most democratic of the Big Three under Eliot, p. 234)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWister1914" class="citation book cs1">Wister, Owen (1914). <i>Philosophy 4</i>. The Macmillan Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+4&rft.pub=The+Macmillan+Company&rft.date=1914&rft.aulast=Wister&rft.aufirst=Owen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 23: "had colonial names;" p. 36, "Bertie's and Billy's parents owned town and country houses in New York. The parents of Oscar had come over in the steerage. Money filled the pockets of Bertie and Billy; therefore were their heads empty of money and full of less cramping thoughts. Oscar had fallen upon the reverse of this fate. Calculation was his second nature." <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation gutenberg"> <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/862"></a></i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/862">Philosophy 4<i>, by Owen Wister</i></a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_UP-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_UP_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_UP_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorton_KellerPhyllis_Keller2001" class="citation book cs1">Morton Keller; Phyllis Keller (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingharvardmod0000kell"><i>Making Harvard Modern: The Rise of America's University</i></a></span>. Oxford UP. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingharvardmod0000kell/page/143">143</a>–44, 357. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198033011" title="Special:BookSources/9780198033011"><bdi>9780198033011</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Harvard+Modern%3A+The+Rise+of+America%27s+University&rft.pages=143-44%2C+357&rft.pub=Oxford+UP&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780198033011&rft.au=Morton+Keller&rft.au=Phyllis+Keller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmakingharvardmod0000kell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen P. Shoemaker, "The Theological Roots of Charles W. Eliot's Educational Reforms," <i>Journal of Unitarian Universalist History</i> 2006–2007 31: 30-45,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald A. Smith, "Commercialized Intercollegiate Athletics and the 1903 Harvard Stadium," <i>New England Quarterly</i>, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Mar., 2005), pp. 26-48 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1559707">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.harvardmagazine.com/2004/05/harvard-a-to-z-html">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2002/10/24/harvard-explained-where-does-the-phrase/">[2]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, <i>University Finances: Accounting and Budgeting Principles for Higher Education</i> Johns Hopkins Press, 2019. Page 197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morton Keller and Phyllis Keller. <i>Making Harvard Modern: The Rise of America's University</i> (2002)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-navalyearbooks-v-12-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-navalyearbooks-v-12_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060709093742/http://www.history.navy.mil/library/guides/yearbooks.htm">"Naval Training and Education Yearbooks in the Navy Department Library"</a>. Department of the Navy. 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.navy.mil/library/guides/yearbooks.htm">the original</a> on July 9, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 25,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Naval+Training+and+Education+Yearbooks+in+the+Navy+Department+Library&rft.pub=Department+of+the+Navy&rft.date=2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.navy.mil%2Flibrary%2Fguides%2Fyearbooks.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anita Fay Kravitz, "The Harvard Report of 1945: An historical ethnography", Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1994, 367 pages; AAT 9427558</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Malka A. Older. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=217911">Preparatory schools and the admissions process</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090911160531/http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=217911">Archived</a> September 11, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Harvard_Crimson" title="The Harvard Crimson">The Harvard Crimson</a>, January 24, 1996</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Palmer, " Gentlemen and Scholars: Harvard's History Department and the Path to Professionalism, 1920–1950," <i>Historical Journal of Massachusetts,</i> Spring 2009, Vol. 37 Issue 1, pp 107-121</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-First_class_of_women_admitted_to_Harvard_Medical_School,_1945-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-First_class_of_women_admitted_to_Harvard_Medical_School,_1945_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160623235357/http://repository.countway.harvard.edu/xmlui/handle/10473/1782">First class of women admitted to Harvard Medical School, 1945</a> (Report). Countway Repository, Harvard University Library. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repository.countway.harvard.edu/xmlui/handle/10473/1782">the original</a> on June 23, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 2,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=First+class+of+women+admitted+to+Harvard+Medical+School%2C+1945&rft.pub=Countway+Repository%2C+Harvard+University+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frepository.countway.harvard.edu%2Fxmlui%2Fhandle%2F10473%2F1782&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwager2004" class="citation book cs1">Schwager, Sally (2004). "Taking up the Challenge: The Origins of Radcliffe". In Laurel Thatcher Ulrich (ed.). <i>Yards and Gates: Gender in Harvard and Radcliffe History</i>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 87–115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6098-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6098-6"><bdi>978-1-4039-6098-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Taking+up+the+Challenge%3A+The+Origins+of+Radcliffe&rft.btitle=Yards+and+Gates%3A+Gender+in+Harvard+and+Radcliffe+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=87-115&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-6098-6&rft.aulast=Schwager&rft.aufirst=Sally&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Associated Press. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2004/04/01/in_first_harvard_admits_more_women_than_men_as_undergraduates?mode=PF">In first, Harvard admits more women than men as undergraduates</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2017">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>. <a href="/wiki/The_Boston_Globe" title="The Boston Globe">The Boston Globe</a>, April 1, 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1999/4/21/radcliffe-enters-historic-merger-with-harvard">Radcliffe Enters Historic Merger With Harvard</a> (Report). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011031437/http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1999/4/21/radcliffe-enters-historic-merger-with-harvard/">Archived</a> from the original on October 11, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 6,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Radcliffe+Enters+Historic+Merger+With+Harvard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thecrimson.com%2Farticle%2F1999%2F4%2F21%2Fradcliffe-enters-historic-merger-with-harvard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT2016-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT2016_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephanie Saul. (2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/07/us/harvard-restrictions-could-reshape-exclusive-student-clubs.html?_r=0">Harvard Restrictions Could Reshape Exclusive Student Clubs</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160509081633/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/07/us/harvard-restrictions-could-reshape-exclusive-student-clubs.html?_r=0">Archived</a> May 9, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The New York Times, May 6, 2016</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2020/6/30/harvard-ends-social-group-sanctions/">"Harvard Drops Social Group Sanctions Following Supreme Court Sex Discrimination Decision | News | The Harvard Crimson"</a>. <i>www.thecrimson.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 15,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.thecrimson.com&rft.atitle=Harvard+Drops+Social+Group+Sanctions+Following+Supreme+Court+Sex+Discrimination+Decision+%7C+News+%7C+The+Harvard+Crimson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thecrimson.com%2Farticle%2F2020%2F6%2F30%2Fharvard-ends-social-group-sanctions%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morton Keller and Phyllis Keller, <i>Making Harvard Modern: The Rise of America's University</i> (2001) p. 48-51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSynnott2004" class="citation book cs1">Synnott, Marcia G. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:4669676">"The Changing 'Harvard Student': Ethnicity, Race, and Gender"</a>. In Laurel Ulrich (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:4662764"><i>Yards and Gates: Gender in Harvard and Radcliffe History</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. pp. 195–214. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781403960986" title="Special:BookSources/9781403960986"><bdi>9781403960986</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220129215734/https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/4662764">Archived</a> from the original on January 29, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 14,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Changing+%27Harvard+Student%27%3A+Ethnicity%2C+Race%2C+and+Gender&rft.btitle=Yards+and+Gates%3A+Gender+in+Harvard+and+Radcliffe+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=195-214&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781403960986&rft.aulast=Synnott&rft.aufirst=Marcia+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnrs.harvard.edu%2Furn-3%3AHUL.InstRepos%3A4669676&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/William_Wright_(author)" title="William Wright (author)">Wright, W.</a> (2005). <i>Harvard's Secret Court: The Savage 1920 Purge of Campus Homosexuals</i>, St. Martin's Press, New York. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-32271-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-32271-2">0-312-32271-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Malcolm Gladwell. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/critics/atlarge/articles/051010crat_atlarge">Getting In</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140423020447/http://www.newyorker.com/critics/atlarge/articles/051010crat_atlarge">Archived</a> April 23, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a>, October 10, 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.the-independent.com/news/world/americas/us-politics/harvard-letter-war-israel-hamas-b2427497.html">"Letter from Harvard group holding Israel 'responsible' for war with Hamas sparks backlash"</a>. Independent<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 17,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Letter+from+Harvard+group+holding+Israel+%27responsible%27+for+war+with+Hamas+sparks+backlash&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-independent.com%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Famericas%2Fus-politics%2Fharvard-letter-war-israel-hamas-b2427497.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edition.cnn.com/2023/10/11/business/harvard-israel-hamas-ceos-students/index.html">"Harvard student groups issued an anti-Israel statement. CEOs want them blacklisted"</a>. CNN<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 17,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Harvard+student+groups+issued+an+anti-Israel+statement.+CEOs+want+them+blacklisted&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2F2023%2F10%2F11%2Fbusiness%2Fharvard-israel-hamas-ceos-students%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC-1010-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BBC-1010_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-67067565">"Growing backlash over Harvard students' pro-Palestine letter"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. October 10, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 7,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Growing+backlash+over+Harvard+students%27+pro-Palestine+letter&rft.date=2023-10-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-us-canada-67067565&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2023/10/17/harvard-israel-gaza-hamas-wexner/">"Donors are latest to punish Harvard over response to students' Israel critique"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 17,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Donors+are+latest+to+punish+Harvard+over+response+to+students%27+Israel+critique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Feducation%2F2023%2F10%2F17%2Fharvard-israel-gaza-hamas-wexner%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NBC1206-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NBC1206_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/white-house/white-house-condemns-university-presidents-contentious-congressional-h-rcna128373">"White House condemns university presidents after contentious congressional hearing on antisemitism"</a>. <i>NBC News</i>. December 6, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 7,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NBC+News&rft.atitle=White+House+condemns+university+presidents+after+contentious+congressional+hearing+on+antisemitism&rft.date=2023-12-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fpolitics%2Fwhite-house%2Fwhite-house-condemns-university-presidents-contentious-congressional-h-rcna128373&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reuters-1207-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Reuters-1207_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/world/us/us-house-committee-opens-investigation-into-harvard-penn-mit-after-antisemitism-2023-12-07/">"US House committee opens probe into Harvard, Penn, MIT after antisemitism hearing"</a>. <i>Reuters</i>. December 7, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 7,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=US+House+committee+opens+probe+into+Harvard%2C+Penn%2C+MIT+after+antisemitism+hearing&rft.date=2023-12-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fworld%2Fus%2Fus-house-committee-opens-investigation-into-harvard-penn-mit-after-antisemitism-2023-12-07%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimChappellNadworny2023" class="citation news cs1">Kim, Juliana; Chappell, Bill; Nadworny, Elissa (December 12, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231212181417/https://www.npr.org/2023/12/12/1218514457/harvard-president-claudine-gay-antisemitism">"Harvard affirms President Claudine Gay will not step down over antisemitism testimony"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2023/12/12/1218514457/harvard-president-claudine-gay-antisemitism">the original</a> on December 12, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 12,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Harvard+affirms+President+Claudine+Gay+will+not+step+down+over+antisemitism+testimony&rft.date=2023-12-12&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Juliana&rft.au=Chappell%2C+Bill&rft.au=Nadworny%2C+Elissa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2023%2F12%2F12%2F1218514457%2Fharvard-president-claudine-gay-antisemitism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Esther Yogev, "Corporate Hand in Academic Glove: The New Management's Struggle for Academic Recognition--The Case of the Harvard Group in the 1920s," <i>American Studies International</i> (2001) 39#1 online</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Melvin T. Copeland, <i>And Mark an Era: The Story of the Harvard Business School</i> (1958)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert M. Smith, <i>The American Business System: The Theory and Practice of Social Science, the Case of the Harvard Business School, 1920–1945</i> (Garland Publishers, 1986)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgen_WitzelMalcolm_Warner2013" class="citation book cs1">Morgen Witzel; Malcolm Warner (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlFoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA96"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Management Theorists</i></a>. Oxford UP. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191645365" title="Special:BookSources/9780191645365"><bdi>9780191645365</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140704164451/http://books.google.com/books?id=ZlFoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA96">Archived</a> from the original on July 4, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 11,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Management+Theorists&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Oxford+UP&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780191645365&rft.au=Morgen+Witzel&rft.au=Malcolm+Warner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZlFoAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzelWarner2013" class="citation book cs1">Witzel; Warner (February 28, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlFoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA97"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Management Theorists</i></a>. p. 97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191645365" title="Special:BookSources/9780191645365"><bdi>9780191645365</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140704170836/http://books.google.com/books?id=ZlFoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA97">Archived</a> from the original on July 4, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 11,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Management+Theorists&rft.pages=97&rft.date=2013-02-28&rft.isbn=9780191645365&rft.au=Witzel&rft.au=Warner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZlFoAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_HarveyGeoffrey_Jones2013" class="citation book cs1">Charles Harvey; Geoffrey Jones (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=el7hAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT178"><i>Organisational Capability and Competitive Advantage</i></a>. Routledge. p. 178. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135192785" title="Special:BookSources/9781135192785"><bdi>9781135192785</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140704170223/http://books.google.com/books?id=el7hAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT178">Archived</a> from the original on July 4, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 11,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Organisational+Capability+and+Competitive+Advantage&rft.pages=178&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781135192785&rft.au=Charles+Harvey&rft.au=Geoffrey+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Del7hAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carl Diehl, <i>Americans and Germans Scholarship, 1770–1870</i> (1978)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hugh Hawkins, <i>Between Harvard and America: The Educational Leadership of Charles W. Eliot</i> (1972)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_T._BethellRichard_M._HuntRobert_Shenton2009" class="citation book cs1">John T. Bethell; Richard M. Hunt; Robert Shenton (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WGrBJFRw1GsC&pg=PA267"><i>Harvard A to Z</i></a>. Harvard UP. pp. 142, 171–74, 267. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674020894" title="Special:BookSources/9780674020894"><bdi>9780674020894</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140704165919/http://books.google.com/books?id=WGrBJFRw1GsC&pg=PA267">Archived</a> from the original on July 4, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 11,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harvard+A+to+Z&rft.pages=142%2C+171-74%2C+267&rft.pub=Harvard+UP&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780674020894&rft.au=John+T.+Bethell&rft.au=Richard+M.+Hunt&rft.au=Robert+Shenton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWGrBJFRw1GsC%26pg%3DPA267&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160402213222/http://grad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-public-affairs-schools/harvard-university-166027">"Harvard University | Best Public Affairs School | US News"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://grad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-public-affairs-schools/harvard-university-166027">the original</a> on April 2, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 4,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Harvard+University+%26%23124%3B+Best+Public+Affairs+School+%26%23124%3B+US+News&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgrad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com%2Fbest-graduate-schools%2Ftop-public-affairs-schools%2Fharvard-university-166027&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110101052808/http://grad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-public-affairs-schools/rankings/">"Rankings - Public Affairs - Graduate Schools - Education - US News"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://grad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-public-affairs-schools/rankings">the original</a> on January 1, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 25,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rankings+-+Public+Affairs+-+Graduate+Schools+-+Education+-+US+News&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgrad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com%2Fbest-graduate-schools%2Ftop-public-affairs-schools%2Frankings&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ivorytower2012-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ivorytower2012_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ivorytower2012_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAvey2012" class="citation news cs1">Avey; et al. (January–February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foreignpolicy.com/ivory_tower">"Ivory Tower"</a>. <i>Foreign Policy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 6,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Policy&rft.atitle=Ivory+Tower&rft.date=2012-01%2F2012-02&rft.au=Avey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforeignpolicy.com%2Fivory_tower&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tripsurvey-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tripsurvey_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tripsurvey_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foreignpolicy.com/ivory_tower">"TRIP Around the World: Teaching, Research, and Policy Views of International Relations Faculty in 20 Countries"</a>. <i>Institute for the Theory and Practice of International Relations</i>. College of William & Mary<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 6,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Institute+for+the+Theory+and+Practice+of+International+Relations&rft.atitle=TRIP+Around+the+World%3A+Teaching%2C+Research%2C+and+Policy+Views+of+International+Relations+Faculty+in+20+Countries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforeignpolicy.com%2Fivory_tower&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160402213222/http://grad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-public-affairs-schools/harvard-university-166027">"Harvard University | Best Public Affairs School | US News"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://grad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-public-affairs-schools/harvard-university-166027">the original</a> on April 2, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 4,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Harvard+University+%26%23124%3B+Best+Public+Affairs+School+%26%23124%3B+US+News&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgrad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com%2Fbest-graduate-schools%2Ftop-public-affairs-schools%2Fharvard-university-166027&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110101052808/http://grad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-public-affairs-schools/rankings/">"Rankings - Public Affairs - Graduate Schools - Education - US News"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://grad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-public-affairs-schools/rankings">the original</a> on January 1, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 25,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rankings+-+Public+Affairs+-+Graduate+Schools+-+Education+-+US+News&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgrad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com%2Fbest-graduate-schools%2Ftop-public-affairs-schools%2Frankings&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gershman-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gershman_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGershman2015" class="citation news cs1">Gershman, Jacob (November 5, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/harvard-law-students-urge-removal-of-slaveholder-reference-from-school-seal-1446596231">"Harvard Law Students Urge Removal of Slaveholder Reference From School Seal"</a>. <i>Wall Street Journal</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210902104908/https://www.wsj.com/articles/harvard-law-students-urge-removal-of-slaveholder-reference-from-school-seal-1446596231">Archived</a> from the original on September 2, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 2,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Harvard+Law+Students+Urge+Removal+of+Slaveholder+Reference+From+School+Seal&rft.date=2015-11-05&rft.aulast=Gershman&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fharvard-law-students-urge-removal-of-slaveholder-reference-from-school-seal-1446596231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1930/1/23/law-school-has-fine-portrait-collection/">"Law School Has Fine Portrait Collection"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303182518/http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1930/1/23/law-school-has-fine-portrait-collection/">Archived</a> March 3, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Harvard Crimson</i> (1930-01-23).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthony Chase. "The Birth Of The Modern Law School," <i>American Journal of Legal History</i> (1979) 23#4 pp 329-348</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruce A. Kimball, "The Proliferation of Case Method Teaching in American Law Schools: Mr. Langdell's Emblematic 'Abomination,' 1890–1915," <i>History of Education Quarterly</i> (2006) 46#2 pp 192-240 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160602225646/http://www.jstor.org/stable/20462057">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuel_Eliot_Morison1936" class="citation book cs1">Samuel Eliot Morison (1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUUf7ssp1u4C&pg=PA224"><i>Three Centuries of Harvard, 1636–1936</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674888913" title="Special:BookSources/9780674888913"><bdi>9780674888913</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140704174625/http://books.google.com/books?id=ZUUf7ssp1u4C&pg=PA224">Archived</a> from the original on July 4, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 11,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Three+Centuries+of+Harvard%2C+1636%E2%80%931936&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1936&rft.isbn=9780674888913&rft.au=Samuel+Eliot+Morison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZUUf7ssp1u4C%26pg%3DPA224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070505174638/http://hms.harvard.edu/public/history/history.html">"Harvard Medical School — History"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hms.harvard.edu/public/history/history.html">the original</a> on May 5, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 25,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Harvard+Medical+School+%E2%80%94+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhms.harvard.edu%2Fpublic%2Fhistory%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060901175511/http://www.countway.harvard.edu/archives/historyNotes.shtml">"Countway Medical Library — Records Management — Historical Notes"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.countway.harvard.edu/archives/historyNotes.shtml">the original</a> on September 1, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 25,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Countway+Medical+Library+%E2%80%94+Records+Management+%E2%80%94+Historical+Notes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.countway.harvard.edu%2Farchives%2FhistoryNotes.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hms.harvard.edu/about-hms/history-hms">"The History of HMS"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160821205116/http://hms.harvard.edu/about-hms/history-hms">Archived</a> August 21, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._Richard_Brown1979" class="citation book cs1">E. Richard Brown (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rockefellermedic00browrich"><i>Rockefeller Medicine Men: Medicine and Capitalism in America</i></a>. U. of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rockefellermedic00browrich/page/167">167</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520042698" title="Special:BookSources/9780520042698"><bdi>9780520042698</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rockefeller+Medicine+Men%3A+Medicine+and+Capitalism+in+America&rft.pages=167&rft.pub=U.+of+California+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=9780520042698&rft.au=E.+Richard+Brown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frockefellermedic00browrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hms.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/deans_report_2007.pdf">"The Dean's Report"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Harvard Medical Dean's Report 2007–2008</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140101193539/http://hms.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/deans_report_2007.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on January 1, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 9,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Medical+Dean%27s+Report+2007%E2%80%932008&rft.atitle=The+Dean%27s+Report&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdeans_report_2007.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1936" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Frank (1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O8EMAAAAYAAJ"><i>A History of Dedham, Massachusetts</i></a>. Transcript Press, Incorporated<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 18,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Dedham%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Transcript+Press%2C+Incorporated&rft.date=1936&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO8EMAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Abelmann, Walter H., ed. <i>The Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology: The First 25 Years, 1970–1995</i> (2004). 346 pp.</li> <li>Bailyn, Bernard, et al. <i>Glimpses of the Harvard Past</i> (1986). 149 pp.</li> <li>Beecher, Henry K. and Altschule, Mark D. <i>Medicine at Harvard: The First 300 Years</i> (1977). 569 pp.</li> <li>Bentinck-Smith, William, ed. <i>The Harvard Book: Selections from Three Centuries</i> (2d ed.1982). 499 pp.</li> <li>Bentinck-Smith, William. <i>Building a Great Library: The Coolidge Years at Harvard</i> (1976). 218 pp.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBethellHuntShenton2004" class="citation book cs1">Bethell, John T.; Hunt, Richard M.; Shenton, Robert (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/harvardtoz0000beth"><i>Harvard A to Z</i></a></span>. Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674012887" title="Special:BookSources/0674012887"><bdi>0674012887</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harvard+A+to+Z&rft.pub=Cambridge%2C+MA+%3A+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0674012887&rft.aulast=Bethell&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rft.au=Hunt%2C+Richard+M.&rft.au=Shenton%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fharvardtoz0000beth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bethell, John T. <i>Harvard Observed: An Illustrated History of the University in the Twentieth Century</i>, Harvard University Press, 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-37733-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-37733-8">0-674-37733-8</a></li> <li>Bunting, Bainbridge. <i>Harvard: An Architectural History</i> (1985). 350 pp.</li> <li>Carpenter, Kenneth E. <i>The First 350 Years of the Harvard University Library: Description of an Exhibition</i> (1986). 216 pp.</li> <li>Cruikshank, Jeffrey L. <i>A Delicate Experiment: The Harvard Business School. 1908–1945</i> (1987). 303 pp.</li> <li>Cuno, James et al. <i>Harvard's Art Museums: 100 Years of Collecting</i> (1996). 364 pp.</li> <li>Elliott, Clark A. and Rossiter, Margaret W., eds. <i>Science at Harvard University: Historical Perspectives</i> (1992). 380 pp.</li> <li>Hall, Max. <i>Harvard University Press: A History</i> (1986). 257 pp.</li> <li>Harvard U. <i>Education, Bricks and Mortar: Harvard Buildings and Their Contribution to the Advancement of Learning</i> (1949) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/59261318?title=Education%2c%20Bricks%20and%20Mortar%3a%20Harvard%20Buildings%20and%20Their%20Contribution%20to%20the%20Advancement%20of%20Learning">online edition</a></li> <li>Hawkins, Hugh. <i>Between Harvard and America: The Educational Leadership of Charles W. Eliot</i> (1972). 404 pp.</li> <li>Hay, Ida. <i>Science in the Pleasure Ground: A History of the Arnold Arboretum</i> (1995). 349 pp.</li> <li>Hoerr, John, <i>We Can't Eat Prestige: The Women Who Organized Harvard;</i> <a href="/wiki/Temple_University_Press" title="Temple University Press">Temple University Press</a>, 1997, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56639-535-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-56639-535-6">1-56639-535-6</a></li> <li>Howells, Dorothy Elia. <i>A Century to Celebrate: Radcliffe College, 1879–1979</i> (1978). 152 pp.</li> <li>James, Henry. <i>Charles W. Eliot: President of Harvard University, 1869–1909</i> (1930) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/1107046?title=Charles%20W.%20Eliot%3a%20President%20of%20Harvard%20University%2c%201869-1909">online edition</a></li> <li>Keller, Morton, and Phyllis Keller. <i>Making Harvard Modern: The Rise of America's University</i> (2001), major history covers 1933 to 2002 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/106186126?title=Making%20Harvard%20Modern%3a%20%20The%20Rise%20of%20America%27s%20University">online edition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120702220422/https://www.questia.com/read/106186126?title=Making%20Harvard%20Modern%3a%20%20The%20Rise%20of%20America%27s%20University">Archived</a> July 2, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_King" title="Moses King">King, Moses</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xAhwXaU5nwoC"><i>Harvard and its surroundings</i></a>, Cambridge, Massachusetts : Moses King, 1884</li> <li>Kuklick, Bruce. <i>The Rise of American Philosophy: Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1860–1930</i> (1977). 674 pp.</li> <li>LaPiana, William P. <i>Logic and Experience: The Origin of Modern American Legal Education</i>, (1994). 254 pp. on reforms by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus_Langdell" title="Christopher Columbus Langdell">Christopher Columbus Langdell</a>, at the law school</li> <li>Lawless, Greg. <i>The Harvard Crimson Anthology: 100 Years at Harvard</i> (1980).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_R._Lewis" title="Harry R. Lewis">Lewis, Harry R.</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Excellence_Without_a_Soul" title="Excellence Without a Soul">Excellence Without a Soul: How a Great University Forgot Education</a></i> (2006) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58648-393-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-58648-393-5">1-58648-393-5</a></li> <li>Lipset, Seymour Martin and Riesman, David. <i>Education and Politics at Harvard</i> (1975). 440 pp.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorison1986" class="citation cs2">Morison, Samuel Eliot (1986) [1936], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUUf7ssp1u4C"><i>Three Centuries of Harvard, 1636–1936</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674888913" title="Special:BookSources/9780674888913"><bdi>9780674888913</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Three+Centuries+of+Harvard%2C+1636%E2%80%931936&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=9780674888913&rft.aulast=Morison&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Eliot&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZUUf7ssp1u4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Harvard+University" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Powell, Arthur G. <i>The Uncertain Profession: Harvard and the Search for Educational Authority</i> (1980). 341 pp.</li> <li>Reid, Robert. <i>Year One: An Intimate Look inside Harvard Business School</i> (1994). 331 pp.</li> <li>Rosenblatt, Roger. <i>Coming Apart: A Memoir of the Harvard Wars of 1969</i> (1997). 234 pp. student unrest</li> <li>Rosovsky, Nitza. <i>The Jewish Experience at Harvard and Radcliffe</i> (1986). 108 pp.</li> <li>Seligman, Joel. <i>The High Citadel: The Influence of Harvard Law School</i> (1978). 262 pp.</li> <li>Shipton, Clifford K. <i>Sibley's Harvard Graduates: Biographical Sketches of Those Who Attended Harvard College.</i> (1999) 19 vol to the class of 1774</li> <li>Sollors, Werner; Titcomb, Caldwell; and Underwood, Thomas A., eds. <i>Blacks at Harvard: A Documentary History of African-American Experience at Harvard and Radcliffe</i> (1993). 548 pp.</li> <li>Story, R. <i>The Forging of an Aristocracy: Harvard and the Boston Upper Class, 1800–1870</i>, Middletown, Connecticut: <a href="/wiki/Wesleyan_University_Press" title="Wesleyan University Press">Wesleyan University Press</a>, 1981</li> <li>Townsend, Kim. <i>Manhood at Harvard: William James and Others</i> (1996). 318 pp.</li> <li><span id="Trumpbour">Trumpbour, John, ed.</span>, <i>How Harvard Rules. Reason in the Service of Empire</i>, Boston: South End Press, 1989, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89608-283-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-89608-283-0">0-89608-283-0</a></li> <li>Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher, ed. <i>Yards and Gates: Gender in Harvard and Radcliffe History</i> (2004). 337 pp.</li> <li>Whitehead, John S. <i>The Separation of College and State: Columbia, Dartmouth, Harvard, and Yale, 1776–1876</i> (1973). 262 pp.</li> <li>Winsor, Mary P. <i>Reading the Shape of Nature: Comparative Zoology at the Agassiz Museum</i> (1991). 324 pp.</li> <li>Wright, Conrad Edick. <i>Revolutionary Generation: Harvard Men and the Consequences of Independence</i> (2005). 298 pp.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Harvard_University" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Harvard_University" title="Template:Harvard University"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Harvard_University" title="Template talk:Harvard University"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Harvard_University" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Harvard University"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Harvard_University" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Harvard University</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;"><div> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">History</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Harvard_(clergyman)" title="John Harvard (clergyman)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">John Harvard</span></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_John_Harvard" title="Statue of John Harvard"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">statue</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Harvard_University" title="President of Harvard University"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">President</span></a> <a href="/wiki/Alan_Garber" title="Alan Garber"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Alan Garber</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Board_of_Overseers" title="Harvard Board of Overseers"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Board of Overseers</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_and_Fellows_of_Harvard_College" title="President and Fellows of Harvard College"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">President and Fellows</span></a></li> <li><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Provost</span> <a href="/wiki/John_F._Manning" title="John F. Manning"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">John Manning</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Library" title="Harvard Library"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Library</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Faculty_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences"><span style="color:white">Arts and<br /> Sciences</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Dean <a href="/wiki/Hopi_Hoekstra" title="Hopi Hoekstra">Hopi Hoekstra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College"><span style="color:white">College</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Dean <a href="/wiki/Rakesh_Khurana" title="Rakesh Khurana">Rakesh Khurana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radcliffe_College" title="Radcliffe College">Radcliffe College</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Harvard_College_freshman_dormitories" title="List of Harvard College freshman dormitories">Freshman dormitories</a></li> <li>Upperclass houses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adams_House_(Harvard_College)" title="Adams House (Harvard College)">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabot_House" title="Cabot House">Cabot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Currier_House_(Harvard_College)" title="Currier House (Harvard College)">Currier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dudley_Community" title="Dudley Community">Dudley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunster_House" title="Dunster House">Dunster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliot_House_(Harvard_College)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eliot House (Harvard College)">Eliot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirkland_House" title="Kirkland House">Kirkland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leverett_House" title="Leverett House">Leverett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowell_House" title="Lowell House">Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mather_House_(Harvard_College)" title="Mather House (Harvard College)">Mather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pforzheimer_House" title="Pforzheimer House">Pforzheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quincy_House_(Harvard_College)" title="Quincy House (Harvard College)">Quincy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winthrop_House" title="Winthrop House">Winthrop</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Harvard_College_undergraduate_organizations" title="List of Harvard College undergraduate organizations">Undergraduate organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasty_Pudding_Theatricals" title="Hasty Pudding Theatricals">Hasty Pudding Theatricals</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Harvard_Advocate" title="The Harvard Advocate">The Harvard Advocate</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Harvard_Crimson" title="The Harvard Crimson">The Harvard Crimson</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Harvard_Independent" title="The Harvard Independent">The Harvard Independent</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Harvard_Lampoon" title="The Harvard Lampoon">The Harvard Lampoon</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Crimson" title="Harvard Crimson">Athletics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Crimson_baseball" title="Harvard Crimson baseball">Baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Crimson_men%27s_basketball" title="Harvard Crimson men's basketball">Men's basketball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Crimson_women%27s_basketball" title="Harvard Crimson women's basketball">Women's basketball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Crimson_fencing" title="Harvard Crimson fencing">Fencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Crimson_football" title="Harvard Crimson football">Football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Crimson_men%27s_ice_hockey" title="Harvard Crimson men's ice hockey">Men's ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Crimson_women%27s_ice_hockey" title="Harvard Crimson women's ice hockey">Women's ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Crimson_men%27s_lacrosse" title="Harvard Crimson men's lacrosse">Men's lacrosse‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_rugby" title="Harvard rugby">Men's rugby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_women%27s_rugby" title="Harvard women's rugby">Women's rugby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Crimson_men%27s_soccer" title="Harvard Crimson men's soccer">Men's soccer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Crimson_women%27s_soccer" title="Harvard Crimson women's soccer">Women's soccer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Crimson_men%27s_squash" title="Harvard Crimson men's squash">Men's squash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Crimson_men%27s_volleyball" title="Harvard Crimson men's volleyball">Men's volleyball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Crimson_women%27s_volleyball" title="Harvard Crimson women's volleyball">Women's volleyball</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivy_League" title="Ivy League">Ivy League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornell%E2%80%93Harvard_hockey_rivalry" title="Cornell–Harvard hockey rivalry">Cornell hockey rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard%E2%80%93Yale_football_rivalry" title="Harvard–Yale football rivalry">Yale football rivalry</a></li> <li>Stadiums and arenas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beanpot_(ice_hockey)" title="Beanpot (ice hockey)">Beanpot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bright-Landry_Hockey_Center" title="Bright-Landry Hockey Center">Bright-Landry Hockey Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Stadium" title="Harvard Stadium">Harvard Stadium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan_Field" title="Jordan Field">Jordan Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavietes_Pavilion" title="Lavietes Pavilion">Lavietes Pavilion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohiri_Field" title="Ohiri Field">Ohiri Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malkin_Athletic_Center" title="Malkin Athletic Center">Malkin Athletic Center</a></li></ul></li> <li>Boathouses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newell_Boathouse" title="Newell Boathouse">Newell Boathouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weld_Boathouse" title="Weld Boathouse">Weld Boathouse</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Division_of_Continuing_Education" title="Harvard Division of Continuing Education"><span style="color:white">Continuing Education</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Dean Nancy Coleman</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Extension_School" title="Harvard Extension School">Extension School</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Harvard_Extension_School" title="History of Harvard Extension School">Extension School history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Summer_School" title="Harvard Summer School">Summer School</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_John_A._Paulson_School_of_Engineering_and_Applied_Sciences" title="Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences"><span style="color:white">Engineering and<br />Applied Sciences</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Dean <a href="/wiki/David_C._Parkes" title="David C. Parkes">David C. Parkes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyman_Laboratory_of_Physics" title="Lyman Laboratory of Physics">Lyman Laboratory of Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Arts_and_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences"><span style="color:white">Graduate School</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Dean <a href="/wiki/Emma_Dench" title="Emma Dench">Emma Dench</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%">Libraries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabot_Science_Library" title="Cabot Science Library">Cabot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard%E2%80%93Yenching_Library" title="Harvard–Yenching Library">Harvard-Yenching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houghton_Library" title="Houghton Library">Houghton</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Review" title="Harvard Review">Harvard Review</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamont_Library" title="Lamont Library">Lamont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pusey_Library" title="Pusey Library">Pusey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Widener_Library" title="Widener Library">Widener</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Elkins_Widener" title="Harry Elkins Widener">Harry Elkins Widener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Elkins_Widener" title="Eleanor Elkins Widener">Eleanor Elkins Widener</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grossman_Library" title="Grossman Library">Grossman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%">Centers, institutes,<br />and societies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Asia_Center" title="Harvard University Asia Center">Asia Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutchins_Center_for_African_and_African_American_Research" title="Hutchins Center for African and African American Research">Center for African and African American Research</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Research_Institute" title="W. E. B. Du Bois Research Institute">Du Bois Institute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard%E2%80%93Smithsonian_Center_for_Astrophysics" title="Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics">Center for Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairbank_Center_for_Chinese_Studies" title="Fairbank Center for Chinese Studies">Center for Chinese Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minda_de_Gunzburg_Center_for_European_Studies" title="Minda de Gunzburg Center for European Studies">Center for European Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpenter_Center_for_the_Visual_Arts" title="Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts">Center for Visual Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Hellenic_Studies" title="Center for Hellenic Studies">Center for Hellenic Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dumbarton_Oaks" title="Dumbarton Oaks">Dumbarton Oaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Forest" title="Harvard Forest">Harvard Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Rowland_Institute_at_Harvard" title="The Rowland Institute at Harvard">Rowland Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Ukrainian_Research_Institute" title="Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute">Ukrainian Research Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Business_School" title="Harvard Business School"><span style="color:white">Business</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Dean <a href="/wiki/Srikant_Datar" title="Srikant Datar">Srikant Datar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baker_Library/Bloomberg_Center" title="Baker Library/Bloomberg Center">Baker Library/Bloomberg Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Business_Publishing" title="Harvard Business Publishing">Harvard Business Publishing</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Business_Review" title="Harvard Business Review">Harvard Business Review</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Business_School_RFC" title="Harvard Business School RFC">Harvard Business School RFC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spangler_Center" title="Spangler Center">Spangler Center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Design" title="Harvard Graduate School of Design"><span style="color:white">Design</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Dean <a href="/wiki/Sarah_Whiting" title="Sarah Whiting">Sarah Whiting</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Design_Magazine" title="Harvard Design Magazine">Harvard Design Magazine</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Center_for_Housing_Studies" title="Joint Center for Housing Studies">Center for Housing Studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Divinity_School" title="Harvard Divinity School"><span style="color:white">Divinity</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Dean <a href="/wiki/David_N._Hempton" title="David N. Hempton">David N. Hempton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Education" title="Harvard Graduate School of Education"><span style="color:white">Education</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Dean <a href="/wiki/Bridget_Terry_Long" title="Bridget Terry Long">Bridget Terry Long</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Kennedy_School" title="Harvard Kennedy School"><span style="color:white">Government</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Dean Jeremy M. Weinstein</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ash_Center_for_Democratic_Governance_and_Innovation" title="Ash Center for Democratic Governance and Innovation">Ash Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belfer_Center_for_Science_and_International_Affairs" title="Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs">Belfer Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carr_Center_for_Human_Rights_Policy" title="Carr Center for Human Rights Policy">Carr Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmond_%26_Lily_Safra_Center_for_Ethics" title="Edmond & Lily Safra Center for Ethics">Center for Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Center_for_Housing_Studies" title="Joint Center for Housing Studies">Center for Housing Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hauser_Center_for_Nonprofit_Organizations" title="Hauser Center for Nonprofit Organizations">Center for Nonprofit Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Public_Leadership" title="Center for Public Leadership">Center for Public Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Institute_of_Politics" title="Harvard Institute of Politics">Institute of Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rappaport_Institute_for_Greater_Boston" title="Rappaport Institute for Greater Boston">Rappaport Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shorenstein_Center_on_Media,_Politics_and_Public_Policy" title="Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy">Shorenstein Center</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Journalist%27s_Resource" title="The Journalist's Resource">The Journalist's Resource</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School"><span style="color:white">Law</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Dean <a href="/wiki/John_F._Manning" title="John F. Manning">John F. Manning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berkman_Klein_Center_for_Internet_%26_Society" title="Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society">Berkman Klein Center</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Civil_Rights%E2%80%93Civil_Liberties_Law_Review" title="Harvard Civil Rights–Civil Liberties Law Review">Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_International_Law_Journal" title="Harvard International Law Journal">International Law Journal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Journal_of_Law_%26_Technology" title="Harvard Journal of Law & Technology">Journal of Law & Technology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Journal_on_Legislation" title="Harvard Journal on Legislation">Journal on Legislation</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Record" title="Harvard Law Record">Law Record</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Law Review</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Medical_School" title="Harvard Medical School"><span style="color:white">Medicine</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Dean <a href="/wiki/George_Q._Daley" title="George Q. Daley">George Q. Daley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broad_Institute" title="Broad Institute">Broad Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Medical_Library" title="Boston Medical Library">Medical Library</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warren_Anatomical_Museum" title="Warren Anatomical Museum">Anatomical Museum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard%E2%80%93MIT_Program_in_Health_Sciences_and_Technology" title="Harvard–MIT Program in Health Sciences and Technology">Program in Health Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_School_of_Dental_Medicine" title="Harvard School of Dental Medicine">School of Dental Medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_T.H._Chan_School_of_Public_Health" title="Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health"><span style="color:white">Public Health</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Dean <a href="/wiki/Michelle_Ann_Williams" title="Michelle Ann Williams">Michelle Ann Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%">Museums and<br /> arboretum</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Arboretum" title="Arnold Arboretum">Arnold Arboretum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Art_Museums" title="Harvard Art Museums">Harvard Art Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peabody_Museum_of_Archaeology_and_Ethnology" title="Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology">Archaeology and Ethnology Museum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Busch%E2%80%93Reisinger_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Busch–Reisinger Museum">Busch–Reisinger Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fogg_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Fogg Museum">Fogg Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Sackler_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur M. Sackler Museum">Sackler Museum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Collection_of_Historical_Scientific_Instruments" title="Harvard Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments">Collection of Scientific Instruments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glass_Flowers" title="Glass Flowers">Glass Flowers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mineralogical_Museum" title="Harvard Mineralogical Museum">Mineralogical Museum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Artemas_Ward_House" title="General Artemas Ward House">General Artemas Ward House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="Harvard Museum of Natural History">Natural History Museum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Comparative_Zoology" title="Museum of Comparative Zoology">Comparative Zoology Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Herbaria" title="Harvard University Herbaria">Herbaria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Museum_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" title="Harvard Museum of the Ancient Near East">Museum of the Ancient Near East</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%">Cambridge<br /> campus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boylston_Hall_(Harvard_University)" title="Boylston Hall (Harvard University)">Boylston Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Stow_Bradley_Jr._Memorial" title="Robert Stow Bradley Jr. Memorial">Bradley Memorial</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discobolus_(Harvard_University)" title="Discobolus (Harvard University)">Discobolus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gates_of_Harvard_Yard" title="Gates of Harvard Yard">Gates of Harvard Yard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_Center" title="Harvard Graduate Center">Graduate Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Hall" title="Harvard Hall">Harvard Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_Church_of_Harvard_University" title="Memorial Church of Harvard University">Memorial Church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Choir" title="Harvard University Choir">Choir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Yard" title="Harvard Yard">Harvard Yard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Hall_(Harvard_University)" title="Massachusetts Hall (Harvard University)">Massachusetts Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_Hall_(Harvard_University)" title="Memorial Hall (Harvard University)">Memorial Hall</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Night_Wall_I" title="Night Wall I">Night Wall I</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peabody_Terrace" title="Peabody Terrace">Peabody Terrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President%27s_House_(Harvard)" title="President's House (Harvard)">President's House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Science_Center" title="Harvard Science Center">Science Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith_Campus_Center" title="Smith Campus Center">Smith Campus Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_Hall_(Harvard_University)" title="University Hall (Harvard University)">University Hall</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%">Centers and<br /> institutes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Innovation_Labs" title="Harvard Innovation Labs">Harvard Innovation Labs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Green_High_Performance_Computing_Center" title="Massachusetts Green High Performance Computing Center">Computing Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Radcliffe_Institute" title="Harvard Radcliffe Institute">Harvard Radcliffe Institute</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schlesinger_Library" title="Schlesinger Library">Schlesinger Library</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Theater_Training" title="Institute for Advanced Theater Training">Institute for Advanced Theater Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nieman_Foundation_for_Journalism" title="Nieman Foundation for Journalism">Nieman Foundation for Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Colegio_Complutense" title="Real Colegio Complutense">Real Colegio Complutense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_I_Tatti" title="Villa I Tatti">Villa I Tatti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyss_Institute_for_Biologically_Inspired_Engineering" title="Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering">Wyss Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Harvard_University_people" title="List of Harvard University people">List of Harvard University people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Harvard_University_non-graduate_alumni" title="List of Harvard University non-graduate alumni">Non-graduate alumni</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;;width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fair_Harvard" title="Fair Harvard">Alma mater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_traditions_of_Harvard_commencements" title="History and traditions of Harvard commencements">Commencement traditions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_regalia_of_Harvard_University" title="Academic regalia of Harvard University">Academic regalia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_Students_Union" title="Harvard Graduate Students Union">Graduate Students Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraldry_of_Harvard_University" title="Heraldry of Harvard University">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Tercentenary_celebration" title="Harvard Tercentenary celebration">Tercentenary celebration</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Magazine" title="Harvard Magazine">Harvard Magazine</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_de_Jersey_Harvard" title="Lionel de Jersey Harvard">Lionel de Jersey Harvard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Math_55" title="Math 55">Math 55</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Society_of_Fellows" title="Harvard Society of Fellows">Society of Fellows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_University_Professors_at_Harvard_University" title="List of University Professors at Harvard University">University Professor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color:#A31F36;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #2C2A29, inset -2px -2px 0 #2C2A29;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Harvard_University" title="Category:Harvard University"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Category</span></a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Harvard_University" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Harvard University"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Commons</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&oldid=1256971152">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&oldid=1256971152</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Harvard_University" title="Category:History of Harvard University">History of Harvard University</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Category:History of Cambridge, Massachusetts">History of Cambridge, Massachusetts</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Project_Gutenberg_links" title="Category:Articles with Project Gutenberg links">Articles with Project Gutenberg links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_April_2017" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from April 2017">Articles with dead external links from April 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_December_2020" title="Category:Use mdy dates from December 2020">Use mdy dates from December 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_December_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from December 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2022" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2022">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_April_2014" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2014">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2014</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 12 November 2024, at 14:15<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Harvard_University&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-697b7966c5-2cpgh","wgBackendResponseTime":195,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.017","walltime":"1.292","ppvisitednodes":{"value":7246,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":177781,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":6250,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":20,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":199399,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1091.498 1 -total"," 37.68% 411.247 1 Template:Reflist"," 18.37% 200.494 2 Template:Navbox"," 15.91% 173.654 1 Template:Harvard"," 14.57% 159.007 16 Template:Cite_web"," 8.26% 90.172 1 Template:Short_description"," 8.01% 87.442 14 Template:Cite_book"," 4.95% 54.026 3 Template:Sfn"," 4.59% 50.053 3 Template:Fix"," 4.43% 48.398 2 Template:Cn"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.562","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":9061114,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAvey2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaker,_J._H.2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBethellHuntShenton2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharles_HarveyGeoffrey_Jones2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFE._Richard_Brown1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGershman2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_T._BethellRichard_M._HuntRobert_Shenton2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKimChappellNadworny2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgen_WitzelMalcolm_Warner2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorison1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorison1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorton_KellerPhyllis_Keller2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuel_Eliot_Morison1936\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwager2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1936\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSynnott2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWister1914\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzelWarner2013\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Center\"] = 14,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 14,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 16,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Cn\"] = 2,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:History Of Harvard University\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Gutenberg\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvard\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 8,\n [\"Main\"] = 6,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 3,\n [\"Ndash\"] = 1,\n [\"Nobr\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Refn\"] = 4,\n [\"Rp\"] = 3,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Seealso\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 3,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 2,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 11,\n [\"Zwsp\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b7f745dd4-xrpcw","timestamp":"20241125134412","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of Harvard University","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_Harvard_University","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q16844120","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q16844120","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2006-03-23T04:16:44Z","dateModified":"2024-11-12T14:15:19Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/4f\/Harvard_Yard_at_Night_03.jpg","headline":"aspect of history"}</script> </body> </html>