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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Efficiency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Methods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Methods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pressure-retarded_osmosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pressure-retarded_osmosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Pressure-retarded osmosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pressure-retarded_osmosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reversed_electrodialysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reversed_electrodialysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Reversed electrodialysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reversed_electrodialysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Capacitive_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Capacitive_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Capacitive method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Capacitive_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vapor_pressure_differences:_open_cycle_and_absorption_refrigeration_cycle_(closed_cycle)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vapor_pressure_differences:_open_cycle_and_absorption_refrigeration_cycle_(closed_cycle)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Vapor pressure differences: open cycle and absorption refrigeration cycle (closed cycle)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vapor_pressure_differences:_open_cycle_and_absorption_refrigeration_cycle_(closed_cycle)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Open_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Open_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Open cycle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Open_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Absorption_refrigeration_cycle_(closed_cycle)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Absorption_refrigeration_cycle_(closed_cycle)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>Absorption refrigeration cycle (closed cycle)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Absorption_refrigeration_cycle_(closed_cycle)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solar_pond" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solar_pond"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Solar pond</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solar_pond-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Boron_nitride_nanotubes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boron_nitride_nanotubes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Boron nitride nanotubes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boron_nitride_nanotubes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Using_low_caloric_waste_energy_by_regenerate_a_high_solution_ammonium_bicarbonate_in_a_solution_with_a_low_salinity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Using_low_caloric_waste_energy_by_regenerate_a_high_solution_ammonium_bicarbonate_in_a_solution_with_a_low_salinity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Using low caloric waste energy by regenerate a high solution ammonium bicarbonate in a solution with a low salinity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Using_low_caloric_waste_energy_by_regenerate_a_high_solution_ammonium_bicarbonate_in_a_solution_with_a_low_salinity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possible_negative_environmental_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_negative_environmental_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Possible negative environmental impact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_negative_environmental_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Osmotic power</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blou_energie" title="Blou energie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Blou energie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B6%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="طاقة تناضحية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="طاقة تناضحية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Осмотическа енергия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Осмотическа енергия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltkraft" title="Saltkraft – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Saltkraft" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmosekraftwerk" title="Osmosekraftwerk – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Osmosekraftwerk" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinine_energia" title="Sinine energia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sinine energia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%89%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1" title="Ωσμωτική ενέργεια – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ωσμωτική ενέργεια" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energ%C3%ADa_azul" title="Energía azul – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Energía azul" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_osmotiko" title="Energia osmotiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Energia osmotiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="توان اسمزی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="توان اسمزی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89nergie_osmotique" title="Énergie osmotique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Énergie osmotique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enerx%C3%ADa_azul" title="Enerxía azul – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Enerxía azul" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%BC%ED%88%AC_%EC%A0%84%EB%A0%A5" title="삼투 전력 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="삼투 전력" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%95%D5%BD%D5%B4%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF_%D5%A7%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Օսմոտիկ էլեկտրակայան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Օսմոտիկ էլեկտրակայան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobivanje_energije_osmozom" title="Dobivanje energije osmozom – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Dobivanje energije osmozom" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumber_energi_osmosis_air" title="Sumber energi osmosis air – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sumber energi osmosis air" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_a_gradiente_salino" title="Energia a gradiente salino – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Energia a gradiente salino" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blauwe_energie" title="Blauwe energie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Blauwe energie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A1%A9%E5%88%86%E6%BF%83%E5%BA%A6%E5%B7%AE%E7%99%BA%E9%9B%BB" title="塩分濃度差発電 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="塩分濃度差発電" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltkraft" title="Saltkraft – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Saltkraft" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltenergi" title="Saltenergi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Saltenergi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_azul" title="Energia azul – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Energia azul" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energie_poten%C8%9Bial%C4%83_osmotic%C4%83" title="Energie potențială osmotică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Energie potențială osmotică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Осмотическая электростанция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Осмотическая электростанция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmoosivoima" title="Osmoosivoima – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Osmoosivoima" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltkraft" title="Saltkraft – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Saltkraft" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%94%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96" title="Гідроенергетика градієнта солоності – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гідроенергетика градієнта солоності" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E6%B0%B4%E9%B9%BD%E5%B7%AE%E8%83%BD" title="海水鹽差能 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="海水鹽差能" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg/120px-Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg/180px-Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg/240px-Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogas" title="Biogas">Biogas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-neutral_fuel" title="Carbon-neutral fuel">Carbon-neutral fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crosswind_kite_power" title="Crosswind kite power">Crosswind kite power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_heating" title="Geothermal heating">Geothermal heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Run-of-the-river_hydroelectricity" title="Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity">Run-of-the-river</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydropower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micro_hydro" title="Micro hydro">Micro hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pico_hydro" title="Pico hydro">Pico hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_hydro" title="Small hydro">Small hydro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_current_power" title="Marine current power">Marine current power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Osmotic power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_biofuel" title="Sustainable biofuel">Sustainable biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_stream_generator" title="Tidal stream generator">Tidal stream generator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind power</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_proposed_as_renewable_energy" title="Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy">Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_topics_by_country_and_territory" title="List of renewable energy topics by country and territory">Topics by country and territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Marketing and policy trends</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Renewable_energy_sources" title="Template:Renewable energy sources"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Renewable_energy_sources" title="Template talk:Renewable energy sources"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Renewable_energy_sources" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Renewable energy sources"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Osmotic power</b>, <b>salinity gradient power</b> or <b>blue energy</b> is the energy available from the difference in the salt concentration between <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">river water</a>. Two practical methods for this are <a href="/wiki/Reverse_electrodialysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse electrodialysis">reverse electrodialysis</a> (RED) and <a href="/wiki/Pressure_retarded_osmosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure retarded osmosis">pressure retarded osmosis</a> (PRO). Both processes rely on <a href="/wiki/Osmosis" title="Osmosis">osmosis</a> with <a href="/wiki/Artificial_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial membrane">membranes</a>. The key waste product is <a href="/wiki/Brackish_water" title="Brackish water">brackish water</a>. This byproduct is the result of natural forces that are being harnessed: the flow of fresh water into seas that are made up of salt water. </p><p>In 1954, Pattle<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggested that there was an untapped source of power when a river mixes with the sea, in terms of the lost osmotic pressure, however it was not until the mid ‘70s where a practical method of harnessing it using selectively permeable membranes by Loeb <sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was outlined. </p><p>The method of generating power by pressure retarded osmosis was invented by Prof. <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Loeb" title="Sidney Loeb">Sidney Loeb</a> in 1973 at the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beersheba, Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea came to Prof. Loeb, in part, as he observed the Jordan River flowing into the Dead Sea. He wanted to harvest the energy of mixing of the two aqueous solutions (the Jordan River being one and the Dead Sea being the other) that was going to waste in this natural mixing process.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1977 Prof. Loeb invented a method of producing power by a reverse electrodialysis heat engine.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The technologies have been confirmed in laboratory conditions. They are being developed into commercial use in the Netherlands (RED) and Norway (PRO). The cost of the membrane has been an obstacle. A new, lower cost membrane, based on an electrically modified <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylene</a> plastic, made it fit for potential commercial use.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other methods have been proposed and are currently under development. Among them, a method based on <a href="/wiki/Electric_double-layer_capacitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric double-layer capacitor">electric double-layer capacitor</a> technology<sup id="cite_ref-Brogioli_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brogioli-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a method based on <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">vapor pressure</a> difference.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Basics_of_salinity_gradient_power">Basics of salinity gradient power</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmotic_power&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Basics of salinity gradient power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blue_energy_mechanism.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Blue_energy_mechanism.svg/220px-Blue_energy_mechanism.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Blue_energy_mechanism.svg/330px-Blue_energy_mechanism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Blue_energy_mechanism.svg/440px-Blue_energy_mechanism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="310" /></a><figcaption>Pressure-retarded osmosis</figcaption></figure> <p>Salinity gradient power is a specific <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> alternative that creates renewable and sustainable power by using naturally occurring processes. This practice does not contaminate or release <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sub>2</sub>) emissions (vapor pressure methods will release dissolved air containing CO<sub>2</sub> at low pressures—these non-condensable gases can be re-dissolved of course, but with an energy penalty). Also as stated by Jones and Finley within their article “Recent Development in Salinity Gradient Power”, there is basically no fuel cost. </p><p>Salinity gradient energy is based on using the resources of “osmotic pressure difference between fresh water and sea water.”<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All energy that is proposed to use salinity gradient technology relies on the evaporation to separate water from salt. Osmotic pressure is the "chemical potential of concentrated and dilute solutions of salt".<sup id="cite_ref-Brauns_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brauns-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When looking at relations between high osmotic pressure and low, solutions with higher concentrations of salt have higher pressure. </p><p>Differing salinity gradient power generations exist but one of the most commonly discussed is <a href="/wiki/Pressure-retarded_osmosis" title="Pressure-retarded osmosis">pressure-retarded osmosis</a> (PRO). Within PRO seawater is pumped into a pressure chamber where the pressure is lower than the difference between fresh and salt water pressure. Fresh water moves in a semipermeable membrane and increases its volume in the chamber. As the pressure in the chamber is compensated a turbine spins to generate electricity. In Braun's article he states that this process is easy to understand in a more broken down manner. Two solutions, A being salt water and B being fresh water are separated by a membrane. He states "only water molecules can pass the semipermeable membrane. As a result of the osmotic pressure difference between both solutions, the water from solution B thus will diffuse through the membrane in order to dilute solution A".<sup id="cite_ref-Brauns_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brauns-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pressure drives the turbines and power the generator that produces the electrical energy. Osmosis might be used directly to "pump" fresh water out of The Netherlands into the sea. This is currently done using electric pumps. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Efficiency">Efficiency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmotic_power&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Efficiency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2012 study on efficiency from Yale University concluded that the highest extractable work in constant-pressure PRO with a seawater draw solution and river water feed solution is 0.75 kWh/m<sup>3</sup> (2.7 kJ/L) while the free energy of mixing is 0.81 kWh/m<sup>3</sup> (2.9 kJ/L) — a thermodynamic extraction efficiency of 91.0%.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmotic_power&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the mechanics and concepts of salinity gradient power are still being studied, the power source has been implemented in several different locations. Most of these are experimental, but thus far they have been predominantly successful. The various companies that have utilized this power have also done so in many different ways as there are several concepts and processes that harness the power from salinity gradient. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pressure-retarded_osmosis">Pressure-retarded osmosis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmotic_power&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pressure-retarded osmosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simplistic_pressure_retarded_osmosis_power_generation_diagram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Simplistic_pressure_retarded_osmosis_power_generation_diagram.jpg/220px-Simplistic_pressure_retarded_osmosis_power_generation_diagram.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Simplistic_pressure_retarded_osmosis_power_generation_diagram.jpg/330px-Simplistic_pressure_retarded_osmosis_power_generation_diagram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Simplistic_pressure_retarded_osmosis_power_generation_diagram.jpg/440px-Simplistic_pressure_retarded_osmosis_power_generation_diagram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9738" data-file-height="6788" /></a><figcaption>Simple PRO power generation scheme</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hurum_osmosis_power_02.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Hurum_osmosis_power_02.JPG/220px-Hurum_osmosis_power_02.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Hurum_osmosis_power_02.JPG/330px-Hurum_osmosis_power_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Hurum_osmosis_power_02.JPG/440px-Hurum_osmosis_power_02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Osmotic Power Prototype at Tofte (Hurum), Norway</figcaption></figure> <p>One method to utilize salinity gradient energy is called <a href="/wiki/Pressure-retarded_osmosis" title="Pressure-retarded osmosis">pressure-retarded osmosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this method, seawater is pumped into a pressure chamber that is at a pressure lower than the difference between the pressures of saline water and fresh water. Freshwater is also pumped into the pressure chamber through a membrane, which increase both the volume and pressure of the chamber. As the pressure differences are compensated, a turbine is spun, providing kinetic energy. This method is being specifically studied by the <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norwegian</a> <a href="/wiki/Public_utility" title="Public utility">utility</a> <a href="/wiki/Statkraft" title="Statkraft">Statkraft</a>, which has calculated that up to 2.85 GW would be available from this process in Norway.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Statkraft has built the world's first <a href="/wiki/Statkraft_osmotic_power_prototype_in_Hurum" title="Statkraft osmotic power prototype in Hurum">prototype PRO power plant</a> on the Oslo fjord which was opened by <a href="/wiki/Mette-Marit,_Crown_Princess_of_Norway" title="Mette-Marit, Crown Princess of Norway">Princess Mette-Marit of Norway</a><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on November 24, 2009. It aimed to produce enough electricity to light and heat a small town within five years by osmosis. At first, it did produce a minuscule 4 kilowatts – enough to heat a large electric kettle, but by 2015 the target was 25 megawatts – the same as a small wind farm.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In January 2014 however Statkraft announced not to continue this pilot.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Statkraft found that with existing technology, the salt gradient was not high enough to be economic, which other studies have agreed on.<sup id="cite_ref-Straub_Deshmukh_Elimelech_2016_pp._31–48_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Straub_Deshmukh_Elimelech_2016_pp._31–48-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Higher salt gradients can be found in geothermal brines and desalination plant brines,<sup id="cite_ref-Chung_Swaminathan_Banchik_Lienhard_2018_pp._13–20_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chung_Swaminathan_Banchik_Lienhard_2018_pp._13–20-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and SaltPower, a Danish company, is now building its first commercial plant with high salinity brine.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is perhaps more potential in integrating Pressure Retarded Osmosis as an operating mode of reverse osmosis, rather than a stand-alone technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Rao_Li_Wrede_Coan_2021_p=115088_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rao_Li_Wrede_Coan_2021_p=115088-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reversed_electrodialysis">Reversed electrodialysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmotic_power&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reversed electrodialysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RED-proefinstallatie_afsluitdijk.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/RED-proefinstallatie_afsluitdijk.JPG/220px-RED-proefinstallatie_afsluitdijk.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/RED-proefinstallatie_afsluitdijk.JPG/330px-RED-proefinstallatie_afsluitdijk.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/RED-proefinstallatie_afsluitdijk.JPG/440px-RED-proefinstallatie_afsluitdijk.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>RED-prototype of <a href="/w/index.php?title=REDstack&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="REDstack (page does not exist)">REDstack</a> at the Afsluitdijk in The Netherlands</figcaption></figure> <p>A second method being developed and studied is <a href="/wiki/Reversed_electrodialysis" title="Reversed electrodialysis">reversed electrodialysis</a> or reverse dialysis, which is essentially the creation of a salt battery. This method was described by Weinstein and Leitz as “an array of alternating anion and cation exchange membranes can be used to generate electric power from the free energy of river and sea water.” </p><p>The technology related to this type of power is still in its infant stages, even though the principle was discovered in the 1950s. Standards and a complete understanding of all the ways salinity gradients can be utilized are important goals to strive for in order to make this clean energy source more viable in the future. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Capacitive_method">Capacitive method</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmotic_power&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Capacitive method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A third method is <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doriano_Brogioli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doriano Brogioli (page does not exist)">Doriano Brogioli</a>'s<sup id="cite_ref-Brogioli_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brogioli-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> capacitive method, which is relatively new and has so far only been tested on lab scale. With this method energy can be extracted out of the mixing of saline water and freshwater by cyclically charging up <a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrodes</a> in contact with saline water, followed by a discharge in freshwater. Since the amount of electrical energy which is needed during the charging step is less than one gets out during the discharge step, each completed cycle effectively produces energy. An intuitive explanation of this effect is that the great number of <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> in the saline water efficiently neutralizes the charge on each electrode by forming a thin layer of opposite charge very close to the electrode surface, known as an <a href="/wiki/Double_layer_(interfacial)" class="mw-redirect" title="Double layer (interfacial)">electric double layer</a>. Therefore, the <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a> over the electrodes remains low during the charge step and charging is relatively easy. In between the charge and discharge step, the electrodes are brought in contact with freshwater. After this, there are less ions available to neutralize the charge on each electrode such that the voltage over the electrodes increases. The discharge step which follows is therefore able to deliver a relatively high amount of energy. A physical explanation is that on an electrically charged capacitor, there is a mutually attractive <a href="/wiki/Electric_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric force">electric force</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a> on the electrode, and the ionic charge in the liquid. In order to pull ions away from the charged electrode, osmotic pressure must do <a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">work</a>. This work done increases the electrical potential energy in the capacitor. An electronic explanation is that <a href="/wiki/Capacitance" title="Capacitance">capacitance</a> is a function of ion density. By introducing a salinity gradient and allowing some of the ions to diffuse out of the capacitor, this reduces the capacitance, and so the voltage must increase, since the voltage equals the ratio of charge to capacitance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vapor_pressure_differences:_open_cycle_and_absorption_refrigeration_cycle_(closed_cycle)"><span id="Vapor_pressure_differences:_open_cycle_and_absorption_refrigeration_cycle_.28closed_cycle.29"></span>Vapor pressure differences: open cycle and absorption refrigeration cycle (closed cycle)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmotic_power&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Vapor pressure differences: open cycle and absorption refrigeration cycle (closed cycle)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both of these methods do not rely on membranes, so filtration requirements are not as important as they are in the PRO & RED schemes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Open_cycle">Open cycle</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmotic_power&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Open cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Similar to the open cycle in ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC). The disadvantage of this cycle is the cumbersome problem of a large diameter turbine (75 meters +) operating at below atmospheric pressure to extract the power between the water with less salinity & the water with greater salinity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Absorption_refrigeration_cycle_(closed_cycle)"><span id="Absorption_refrigeration_cycle_.28closed_cycle.29"></span>Absorption refrigeration cycle (closed cycle)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmotic_power&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Absorption refrigeration cycle (closed cycle)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For the purpose of dehumidifying air, in a <a href="/wiki/Absorption_refrigerator#Water_spray_absorption_refrigeration" title="Absorption refrigerator">water-spray absorption refrigeration</a> system, water vapor is dissolved into a <a href="/wiki/Deliquescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Deliquescent">deliquescent</a> salt water mixture using osmotic power as an intermediary. The primary power source originates from a thermal difference, as part of a <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Heat_engine" title="Heat engine">heat engine</a> cycle. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solar_pond">Solar pond</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmotic_power&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Solar pond"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the Eddy Potash Mine in New Mexico, a technology called "salinity gradient <a href="/wiki/Solar_pond" title="Solar pond">solar pond</a>" (SGSP) is being utilized to provide the energy needed by the mine. <b>This method does not harness osmotic power</b>, only solar power (see: <a href="/wiki/Solar_pond" title="Solar pond">solar pond</a>). Sunlight reaching the bottom of the saltwater pond is absorbed as heat. The effect of <a href="/wiki/Natural_convection" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural convection">natural convection</a>, wherein "heat rises", is blocked using density differences between the three layers that make up the pond, in order to trap heat. The upper convection zone is the uppermost zone, followed by the stable gradient zone, then the bottom thermal zone. The stable gradient zone is the most important. The saltwater in this layer can not rise to the higher zone because the saltwater above has lower salinity and is therefore less-dense and more buoyant; and it can not sink to the lower level because that saltwater is denser. This middle zone, the stable gradient zone, effectively becomes an "insulator" for the bottom layer (although the main purpose is to block natural convection, since water is a poor insulator). This water from the lower layer, the storage zone, is pumped out and the heat is used to produce energy, usually by turbine in an <a href="/wiki/Organic_Rankine_cycle" title="Organic Rankine cycle">organic Rankine cycle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In theory a solar pond <i>could</i> be used to generate osmotic power if evaporation from solar heat is used to create a salinity gradient, <i>and</i> the potential energy in this salinity gradient is <i>harnessed directly</i> using one of the first three methods above, such as the capacitive method. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boron_nitride_nanotubes">Boron nitride nanotubes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmotic_power&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Boron nitride nanotubes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A research team built an experimental system using boron nitride that produced much greater power than the Statkraft prototype. It used an impermeable and electrically insulating membrane that was pierced by a single boron nitride nanotube with an external diameter of a few dozen nanometers. With this membrane separating a salt water reservoir and a fresh water reservoir, the team measured the electric current passing through the membrane using two electrodes immersed in the fluid either side of the nanotube. </p><p>The results showed the device was able to generate an electric current on the order of a nanoampere. The researchers claim this is 1,000 times the yield of other known techniques for harvesting osmotic energy and makes boron nitride nanotubes an extremely efficient solution for harvesting the energy of salinity gradients for usable electrical power. </p><p>The team claimed that a 1 square metre (11 sq ft) membrane could generate around 4 kW and be capable of generating up to 30 MWh per year.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the 2019 fall meeting of the Materials Research Society a team from <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University" title="Rutgers University">Rutgers University</a> reported creating a membrane that contained around 10 million BNNTs per cubic centimeter.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Using_low_caloric_waste_energy_by_regenerate_a_high_solution_ammonium_bicarbonate_in_a_solution_with_a_low_salinity">Using low caloric waste energy by regenerate a high solution ammonium bicarbonate in a solution with a low salinity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmotic_power&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Using low caloric waste energy by regenerate a high solution ammonium bicarbonate in a solution with a low salinity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At Pennsylvania State University, Dr. Logan tries to use waste heat with low calority using the fact that <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_bicarbonate" title="Ammonium bicarbonate">ammonium bicarbonate</a> decomposes into NH<sub>3</sub> and CO<sub>2</sub> in warm water to form ammonium bicarbonate again in cold water. So in a RED energy producing closed system the two different gradients of salinity are kept.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Possible_negative_environmental_impact">Possible negative environmental impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmotic_power&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Possible negative environmental impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Marine and river environments have obvious differences in water quality, namely salinity. Each species of aquatic plant and animal is adapted to survive in either marine, brackish, or freshwater environments. There are species that can tolerate both, but these species usually thrive best in a specific water environment. The main waste product of salinity gradient technology is brackish water. The discharge of brackish water into the surrounding waters, if done in large quantities and with any regularity, will cause salinity fluctuations. While some variation in salinity is usual, particularly where fresh water (rivers) empties into an ocean or sea anyway, these variations become less important for both bodies of water with the addition of brackish waste waters. Extreme salinity changes in an aquatic environment may result in findings of low densities of both animals and plants due to intolerance of sudden severe salinity drops or spikes.<sup id="cite_ref-Montague_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montague-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the prevailing environmentalist opinions, the possibility of these negative effects should be considered by the operators of future large blue energy establishments. </p><p>The impact of brackish water on ecosystems can be minimized by pumping it out to sea and releasing it into the mid-layer, away from the surface and bottom ecosystems. </p><p>Impingement and entrainment at intake structures are a concern due to large volumes of both river and sea water utilized in both PRO and RED schemes. Intake construction permits must meet strict environmental regulations and desalination plants and power plants that utilize surface water are sometimes involved with various local, state and federal agencies to obtain permission that can take upwards to 18 months. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Tethys_(database)" title="Tethys (database)">Tethys database</a> provides access to scientific literature and general information on the potential environmental effects of salinity gradient power.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmotic_power&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_energy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/29px-Crystal_energy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/44px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/59px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="124" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Energy portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wind-turbine-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/28px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" 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href="/wiki/Forward_osmosis" title="Forward osmosis">Forward osmosis</a> – Water purification process</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrodialysis_reversal" title="Electrodialysis reversal">Electrodialysis reversal</a> (<abbr>EDR</abbr>) – Technique of separating salts from water</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversed_electrodialysis" title="Reversed electrodialysis">Reversed electrodialysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_osmosis" title="Reverse osmosis">Reverse osmosis</a> – Water purification process</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semipermeable_membrane" title="Semipermeable membrane">Semipermeable membrane</a> – Membrane which will allow certain molecules or ions to pass through it by diffusion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a> – Energy available from oceans</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Green energy">Green energy</a> – Energy that responsibly meets social, economic, and environmental needs<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a> – Energy collected from renewable resources</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugacity" title="Fugacity">Fugacity</a> – Effective partial pressure</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_cell" title="Concentration cell">Concentration cell</a> – galvanic cell that generates a voltage from differing concentrations of the same material<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_pond" title="Solar pond">Solar pond</a> – Solar thermal energy</li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmotic_power&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFR.E._Pattle1954" class="citation journal cs1">R.E. Pattle (2 October 1954). "Production of electric power by mixing fresh and salt water in the hydroelectric pile". <i>Nature</i>. <b>174</b> (4431): 660. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1954Natur.174..660P">1954Natur.174..660P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F174660a0">10.1038/174660a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4144672">4144672</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Production+of+electric+power+by+mixing+fresh+and+salt+water+in+the+hydroelectric+pile&rft.volume=174&rft.issue=4431&rft.pages=660&rft.date=1954-10-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4144672%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F174660a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1954Natur.174..660P&rft.au=R.E.+Pattle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOsmotic+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS._Loeb1975" class="citation journal cs1">S. Loeb (22 August 1975). "Osmotic power plants". <i>Science</i>. <b>189</b> (4203): <span class="nowrap">654–</span>655. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975Sci...189..654L">1975Sci...189..654L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.189.4203.654">10.1126/science.189.4203.654</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17838753">17838753</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Osmotic+power+plants&rft.volume=189&rft.issue=4203&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E654-%3C%2Fspan%3E655&rft.date=1975-08-22&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17838753&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.189.4203.654&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1975Sci...189..654L&rft.au=S.+Loeb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOsmotic+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">^ Israel Patent Application 42658 of July 3, 1973. (see also <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation patent"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US3906250">US 3906250</a></span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&rft.number=3906250&rft.cc=US&rft.title="><span style="display: none;"> </span></span> Erroneously shows Israel priority as 1974 instead of 1973 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation patent"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US3906250">US 3906250</a></span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&rft.number=3906250&rft.cc=US&rft.title="><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">^ Weintraub, Bob. "Sidney Loeb," Bulletin of the Israel Chemical Society, Dec. 2001, issue 8, page 8-9. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1hpgY6dd0Qtb4M6xnNXhutP4pMxidq_jqG962VzWt_W7-hssGnSxSzjTY8RvW/edit">https://drive.google.com/file/d/1hpgY6dd0Qtb4M6xnNXhutP4pMxidq_jqG962VzWt_W7-hssGnSxSzjTY8RvW/edit</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US4171409?oq=4%2C171%2C409">United States Patent US4171409 </a> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/*/www.statkraft.com/Images/Faktaark%20OSMOTIC%20ENG_tcm4-7797.pdf">History of osmotic power (PDF) at archive.org</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brogioli-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brogioli_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brogioli_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrogioli2009" class="citation journal cs1">Brogioli, Doriano (2009-07-29). "Extracting Renewable Energy from a Salinity Difference Using a Capacitor". <i>Physical Review Letters</i>. <b>103</b> (5). American Physical Society (APS): 058501. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PhRvL.103e8501B">2009PhRvL.103e8501B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrevlett.103.058501">10.1103/physrevlett.103.058501</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9007">0031-9007</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19792539">19792539</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Extracting+Renewable+Energy+from+a+Salinity+Difference+Using+a+Capacitor&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=058501&rft.date=2009-07-29&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2Fphysrevlett.103.058501&rft.issn=0031-9007&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19792539&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009PhRvL.103e8501B&rft.aulast=Brogioli&rft.aufirst=Doriano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOsmotic+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlssonWickIsaacs1979" class="citation journal cs1">Olsson, M.; Wick, G. L.; Isaacs, J. D. (1979-10-26). "Salinity Gradient Power: Utilizing Vapor Pressure Differences". <i>Science</i>. <b>206</b> (4417). 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PNNL.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tethys&rft.atitle=Tethys&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftethys.pnnl.gov%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOsmotic+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmotic_power&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.euronews.net/2009/12/10/dutch-water-plan-to-turn-green-energy-blue/">Dutch water plan to turn green energy blue</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091224213330/http://www.euronews.net/2009/12/10/dutch-water-plan-to-turn-green-energy-blue/">Archived</a> 2009-12-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121130070722/http://climatetechwiki.org/technology/jiqweb-ro">ClimateTechWiki: Ocean Energy: Salinity gradient for electricity generation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openei.org/wiki/PRIMRE">Portal and Repository for Information on Marine Renewable Energy</a> A network of databases providing broad access to marine energy information.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openei.org/wiki/PRIMRE/Basics/Salinity_Gradient">Marine Energy Basics: Salinity Gradient Energy</a> Basic information about salinity gradient energy.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openei.org/wiki/PRIMRE/Databases/Projects_Database">Marine Energy Projects Database</a> A database that provides up-to-date information on marine energy deployments in the U.S. and around the world.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tethys.pnnl.gov">Tethys Database</a> A database of information on potential environmental effects of marine energy and offshore wind energy development.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tethys-engineering.pnnl.gov">Tethys Engineering Database</a> A database of information on technical design and engineering of marine energy devices.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mhkdr.openei.org/">Marine and Hydrokinetic Data Repository</a> A database for all data collected by marine energy research and development projects funded by the U.S. Department of Energy.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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