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margin: .1em .5em;"><b>[<span class="plainlinks plainlinksneverexpand"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Conjunction_(grammar)&action=edit&section=0"><font size="2">edit intro</font></a></span>]</b></div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div style="border:1px #bbb solid; background-color:#eee; padding:0.5em; margin:0.5em 0"><i>This article is about <b>the grammatical term</b>. For other uses of the term <b>Conjunction</b>, please see <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(disambiguation)" title="Conjunction (disambiguation)">Conjunction (disambiguation)</a>.</i></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> and the study of <a href="/wiki/Grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, a <b>conjunction</b> is an item that connects units such as <a href="/wiki/Word_(language)" title="Word (language)">words</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Phrase&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phrase (page does not exist)">phrases</a>, or <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clause (page does not exist)">clauses</a>. An example is <i>and</i> in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <i>salt and pepper</i>, but conjunctions can comprise multiple words, and need not even be adjacent: <i>neither... nor</i> for instance. Typically, <i>co-ordinating</i> and <i>subordinating</i> conjunctions are distinguished in English, with the former linking items that are seen as <a href="/wiki/Semantics_(linguistics)" title="Semantics (linguistics)">semantically</a> equal (such as <i>and</i>; <i>or</i>), while the latter refers to those of a different grammatical status (for example, <i>because</i> and <i>unless</i>). Modern grammarians often refer to <i>co-ordinators</i> and <i>subordinators</i> instead of co-ordinating and subordinating conjunctions; the latter are more numerous and have a wider range of uses.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> </p> <div style="float:right; clear:right; margin:0 0 0.5em 0.3em; padding:0.5em 0 0.8em 1.4em;"><div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Types_of_conjunctions"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Types of conjunctions</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Co-ordinators"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Co-ordinators</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Subordinators"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Subordinators</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Distinction_between_conjunctions_and_relative_pronouns"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Distinction between conjunctions and relative pronouns</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Syntax"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Syntax</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Other_languages"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Other languages</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Conjuncts"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Conjuncts</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Footnotes"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Footnotes</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Types_of_conjunctions">Types of conjunctions</span></h2> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Co-ordinators">Co-ordinators</span></h3> <p>The units which are joined by a conjunction could be <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">nouns</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Adjective&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adjective (page does not exist)">adjectives</a> or <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clause (page does not exist)">clauses</a>: </p> <dl><dd>1. Bill saw Fred <i>and</i> Mary.</dd></dl> <dl><dd>2. The coat was damp <i>and</i> dirty.</dd></dl> <dl><dd>3. Fred went to New York <i>and</i> Mary went to New Jersey.</dd></dl> <p>Conjunctions also operate as paired words (<i>correlatives</i>): </p> <dl><dd>4. Bill saw <i>both</i> Fred <i>and</i> Mary.</dd></dl> <dl><dd>5. Bill saw <i>neither</i> Fred <i>nor</i> Mary.</dd></dl> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Subordinators">Subordinators</span></h3> <p>The following are examples of <i>simple</i>, <i>complex</i> and <i>correlative</i> subordinators: </p> <dl><dd>6. Bill arrived <i>while</i> Mary was out.</dd></dl> <dl><dd>7. Bill would have paid, <i>except that</i> he had no money.</dd></dl> <dl><dd>8. <i>Scarcely</i> had Bill arrived <i>when</i> Mary walked in.</dd></dl> <p>Although units such as <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">nouns</a> or phrases linked by a conjunction are often equivalent in English and so can appear in either order (<i>I ride a bike and I drive a car</i>; <i>or</i> <i>I drive a car and I ride a bike</i>), <i>and</i> can also be used to express a result, so the order here is fixed, e.g. <i>Mary stood up and left</i>. The latter case may be taken as <i>Mary stood up and then left</i>, i.e. the complex subordinator <i>and then</i> with partial <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Ellipsis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ellipsis (page does not exist)">ellipsis</a> (item deletion). </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Distinction_between_conjunctions_and_relative_pronouns">Distinction between conjunctions and relative pronouns</span></h3> <p>Confusion between conjunctions and relative pronouns may arise because <i>that</i> can be a subordinating conjunction (<i>Mary thinks that Bill is wrong</i>), or a <i>relative <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronoun</a></i> (as in <i>Mary found the book that Bill needed</i>). English <i>wh-</i> words (including <i>that</i>!) introduce a <i>relative clause</i> and refer to an <i>antecedent</i> that they replace. The test is to see if there is a relationship between the clauses, e.g. Mary found the book, and Bill needed the <i>same</i> book, so <i>who</i> is a relative pronoun in <i>Mary found the book that Bill needed</i>. No such relationship exists in <i>Mary thinks that Bill is wrong</i>. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Syntax">Syntax</span></h3> <p>Co-ordinating conjunctions join together items which can be taken as semantically equal or equivalent, but when looking at word arrangement alone, <a href="/wiki/Syntax_(linguistics)" title="Syntax (linguistics)">syntactically</a> this is not the case. Consider the following examples: </p> <dl><dd>9a. Mary saw Bill and Fred.</dd></dl> <dl><dd>9b. Mary saw who and Fred?</dd></dl> <dl><dd>9c. Mary saw Bill and who?</dd></dl> <dl><dd>9d. Who did Mary see and Fred?</dd></dl> <dl><dd>9e. *Who did Mary see Bill and?<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Although either item can be replaced by <i>who</i>, only the first one can be moved to the head of the sentence. This suggests that the two items occupy different positions in a syntactic structure, with the second one subordinate. Syntacticians model this restriction by allowing a conjunction to form the 'head' of a <i>conjunction phrase</i> (<i>ConjP</i>), with the second element more deeply embedded inside it, meaning that it cannot be moved: </p> <dl><dd>10. Mary saw <sup>ConjP</sup>[ [Bill] <sup>Conj'</sup>[ <sup>Conj</sup>[and] [Fred] ] ].</dd></dl> <p>In this structure, the head and <i>Fred</i> form an incomplete structure <i>and Fred</i> that is not a phrase, represented as <i>Conj'</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> Items outside this may be moved, but those within may not be, showing that syntax and semantcs do not necessarily align. This <i><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=X-bar_theory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="X-bar theory (page does not exist)">X-bar theory</a></i> is standard in modern syntactic study and also applies to every other type of phrase and sentence. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_languages">Other languages</span></h2> <p>Other <a href="/wiki/Language_(general)" title="Language (general)">languages</a> also employ conjunctions: in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>, for instance, と <i>to</i> and や <i>ya</i> are co-ordinating conjunctions, with <i>to</i> linking a full set of items while <i>ya</i> is used for an open-ended list: </p><p><br /> </p> <dl><dd>11. ペンと鉛筆 <dl><dd><i>Pen to enpitsu</i></dd> <dd>'Pen(s) and pencil(s) [and nothing else]'</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>12. ペンや鉛筆 <dl><dd><i>Pen ya enpitsu</i></dd> <dd>'Pen(s) and pencil(s) [and so on/suchlike/something else]'</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p><br /> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Conjuncts">Conjuncts</span></h2> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Conjunct" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjunct">conjunct</a> is a type of <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Adverbial&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adverbial (page does not exist)">adverbial</a>, i.e. an element which introduces extra information about how, when or how often events took place; conjunct adverbials specifically link otherwise-independent clauses, sentences, or (in <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a>) <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Paragraph&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paragraph (page does not exist)">paragraphs</a>. These can be used to list, summarise or contrast information, among other uses (<i>Firstly</i>; <i>to conclude</i>; <i>however</i>). Conjunctions, by contrast, are words that are an essential part of the <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentence</a> itself and mark a relationship of co-ordination or subordination that expresses a complete idea. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Footnotes">Footnotes</span></h2> <span style="font-size: 85%;"><div class="references" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"><div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Crystal, D. (2004). <i>Rediscover Grammar</i>. 3rd edition. Harlow, Essex: Pearson.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">'*' indicates unacceptability to native or fluent users of the language.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pronounced 'Conj-bar'.</span> </li> </ol></div></div></span>  </div> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Conjunction_(grammar)&oldid=777961">https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Conjunction_(grammar)&oldid=777961</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Special:Categories" title="Special:Categories">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CZ_Live" title="Category:CZ Live">CZ Live</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistics_Workgroup" title="Category:Linguistics Workgroup">Linguistics Workgroup</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_written_in_British_English" title="Category:Articles written in British English">Articles written in British English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Content" title="Category:All Content">All Content</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistics_Content" title="Category:Linguistics Content">Linguistics Content</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden category: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistics_tag" title="Category:Linguistics tag">Linguistics tag</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </div> <div id="mw-navigation"> <h2>Navigation menu</h2> <div id="mw-head"> <nav id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal vector-user-menu-legacy" aria-labelledby="p-personal-label" role="navigation" > <h3 id="p-personal-label" class="vector-menu-heading " > <span class="vector-menu-heading-label">Personal tools</span> </h3> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"><li id="pt-login" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Conjunction+%28grammar%29" title="To edit pages, [[Special:RequestAccount|get a contributor account]]. 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