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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scrape"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Scrape</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scrape-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mound" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mound"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Mound</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mound-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burrow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burrow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Burrow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burrow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cavity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cavity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Cavity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cavity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cup" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cup"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Cup</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cup-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saucer_or_plate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saucer_or_plate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Saucer or plate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saucer_or_plate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Platform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Platform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Platform</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Platform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pendent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pendent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Pendent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pendent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sphere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sphere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Sphere</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sphere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nest_protection_and_sanitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nest_protection_and_sanitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Nest protection and sanitation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nest_protection_and_sanitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonial_nesting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_nesting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Colonial nesting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_nesting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecological_importance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecological_importance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Ecological importance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecological_importance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_human_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_human_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>In human culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_human_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artificial_bird_nests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artificial_bird_nests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Artificial bird nests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artificial_bird_nests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cited_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cited_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Cited texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cited_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Bird nest</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">27 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niu_d%27ocell" title="Niu d'ocell – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Niu d'ocell" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pta%C4%8D%C3%AD_hn%C3%ADzdo" title="Ptačí hnízdo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ptačí hnízdo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuglerede" title="Fuglerede – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fuglerede" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vogelnest" title="Vogelnest – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vogelnest" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnupesa" title="Linnupesa – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Linnupesa" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nido_de_aves" title="Nido de aves – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Nido de aves" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birdonesto" title="Birdonesto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Birdonesto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="آشیانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آشیانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nid_d%27oiseau" title="Nid d'oiseau – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Nid d'oiseau" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BBgeln%C3%AAst" title="Fûgelnêst – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Fûgelnêst" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%88%EC%9D%98_%EB%91%A5%EC%A7%80" title="새의 둥지 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="새의 둥지" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D2%B1%D1%81_%D2%B1%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Құс ұясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Құс ұясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D1%98%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Птичје гнездо – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Птичје гнездо" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vogelnest" title="Vogelnest – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vogelnest" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuglerede" title="Fuglerede – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fuglerede" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuglereir" title="Fuglereir – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fuglereir" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nidifica%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Nidificação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Nidificação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuib" title="Cuib – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cuib" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B" title="Гнездо птицы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гнездо птицы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%AA%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%AC%E1%B1%AE_%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%A9%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9" title="ᱪᱮᱬᱮ ᱛᱩᱠᱟᱹ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱪᱮᱬᱮ ᱛᱩᱠᱟᱹ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_nest" title="Bird nest – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Bird nest" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnunpes%C3%A4" title="Linnunpesä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Linnunpesä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="பறவைக் கூடு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பறவைக் கூடு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B7%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%81" title="పక్షిగూడు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పక్షిగూడు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku%C5%9F_yuvas%C4%B1" title="Kuş yuvası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kuş yuvası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Пташине гніздо – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Пташине гніздо" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%80%E5%B7%A2" title="雀巢 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="雀巢" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">Place where a bird broods its eggs</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For animal nests in general, see <a href="/wiki/Nest" title="Nest">Nest</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Bird%27s_nest_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bird's nest (disambiguation)">Bird's nest</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Acrocephalus_arundinaceus_nest_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Acrocephalus_arundinaceus_nest_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Acrocephalus_arundinaceus_nest_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Acrocephalus_arundinaceus_nest_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Acrocephalus_arundinaceus_nest_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Acrocephalus_arundinaceus_nest_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Acrocephalus_arundinaceus_nest_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="961" data-file-height="1159" /></a><figcaption>Deep cup nest of the <a href="/wiki/Great_reed-warbler" class="mw-redirect" title="Great reed-warbler">great reed-warbler</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>bird nest</b> is the spot in which a bird lays and <a href="/wiki/Avian_incubation" class="mw-redirect" title="Avian incubation">incubates</a> its <a href="/wiki/Bird_egg" title="Bird egg">eggs</a> and raises its young. Although the term popularly refers to a specific <a href="/wiki/Structures_built_by_animals" title="Structures built by animals">structure</a> made by the bird itself—such as the grassy cup nest of the <a href="/wiki/American_robin" title="American robin">American robin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_blackbird" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurasian blackbird">Eurasian blackbird</a>, or the elaborately woven hanging nest of the <a href="/wiki/Montezuma_oropendola" title="Montezuma oropendola">Montezuma oropendola</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Village_weaver" title="Village weaver">village weaver</a>—that is too restrictive a definition. For some species, a nest is simply a shallow depression made in sand; for others, it is the knot-hole left by a broken branch, a burrow dug into the ground, a chamber drilled into a tree, an enormous rotting pile of vegetation and earth, a shelf made of dried saliva or a mud dome with an entrance tunnel. The smallest bird nests are those of some <a href="/wiki/Hummingbird" title="Hummingbird">hummingbirds</a>, tiny cups which can be a mere 2 cm (0.8 in) across and 2–3 cm (0.8–1.2 in) high.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell386_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell386-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the other extreme, some nest mounds built by the <a href="/wiki/Dusky_scrubfowl" class="mw-redirect" title="Dusky scrubfowl">dusky scrubfowl</a> measure more than 11 m (36 ft) in diameter and stand nearly 5 m (16 ft) tall.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study of birds' nests is known as <i>caliology</i>. </p><p>Not all bird species build nests. Some species lay their eggs directly on the ground or rocky ledges, while <a href="/wiki/Brood_parasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Brood parasites">brood parasites</a> lay theirs in the nests of other birds, letting unwitting "foster parents" do the work of rearing the young. Although nests are primarily used for breeding, they may also be reused in the non-breeding season for roosting and some species build special <i>dormitory nests</i> or <i>roost nests</i> (or <i>winter-nest</i>) that are used only for roosting.<sup id="cite_ref-skutch_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skutch-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most birds build a new nest each year, though some refurbish their old nests.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The large <b>eyries</b> (or <b>aeries</b>) of some eagles are platform nests that have been used and refurbished for several years. </p><p>In the majority of nest-building species the female does most or all of the nest construction, in others both partners contribute; sometimes the male builds the nest and the hen lines it.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some <a href="/wiki/Polygyny_in_animals" title="Polygyny in animals">polygynous</a> species, however, the male does most or all of the nest building. The nest may also form a part of the courtship display such as in <a href="/wiki/Ploceidae" title="Ploceidae">weaver birds</a>. The ability to choose and maintain good nest sites and build high quality nests may be selected for by females in these species. In some species the young from previous broods may also act as <a href="/wiki/Helpers_at_the_nest" title="Helpers at the nest">helpers</a> for the adults. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Type">Type</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Type"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nests.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Nests.svg/440px-Nests.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Nests.svg/660px-Nests.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Nests.svg/880px-Nests.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="17492" data-file-height="6187" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>Not every bird species builds or uses a nest. Some <a href="/wiki/Auk" title="Auk">auks</a>, for instance—including <a href="/wiki/Common_murre" title="Common murre">common murre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thick-billed_murre" title="Thick-billed murre">thick-billed murre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Razorbill" title="Razorbill">razorbill</a>—lay their eggs directly onto the narrow rocky ledges they use as breeding sites.<sup id="cite_ref-Handbook_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handbook-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The eggs of these species are dramatically pointed at one end, so that they roll in a circle when disturbed. This is critical for the survival of the developing eggs, as there are no nests to keep them from rolling off the side of the cliff. Presumably because of the vulnerability of their unprotected eggs, parent birds of these auk species rarely leave them unattended.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nest location and architecture is strongly influenced by local topography and other abiotic factors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHogan2010_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogan2010-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/King_penguin" title="King penguin">King penguins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emperor_penguin" title="Emperor penguin">emperor penguins</a> also do not build nests; instead, they tuck their eggs and chicks between their feet and folds of skin on their lower bellies. They are thus able to move about while incubating, though in practice only the emperor penguin regularly does so. Emperor penguins breed during the harshest months of the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a> winter, and their mobility allows them to form huge huddled masses which help them to withstand the extremely high winds and low temperatures of the season. Without the ability to share body heat (temperatures in the centre of tight groups can be as much as 10C above the ambient air temperature), the penguins would expend far more energy trying to stay warm, and breeding attempts would probably fail.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some crevice-nesting species, including <a href="/wiki/Ashy_storm-petrel" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashy storm-petrel">ashy storm-petrel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pigeon_guillemot" title="Pigeon guillemot">pigeon guillemot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_eagle-owl" title="Eurasian eagle-owl">Eurasian eagle-owl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hume%27s_tawny_owl" class="mw-redirect" title="Hume's tawny owl">Hume's tawny owl</a>, lay their eggs in the relative shelter of a crevice in the rocks or a gap between boulders, but provide no additional nest material.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Potoo" title="Potoo">Potoos</a> lay their single egg directly atop a broken stump, or into a shallow depression on a branch—typically where an upward-pointing branch died and fell off, leaving a small scar or knot-hole.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Brood_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Brood parasite">Brood parasites</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> <a href="/wiki/Cowbird" title="Cowbird">cowbirds</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Honeyguide" title="Honeyguide">honeyguides</a>, and many of the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australasia" title="Australasia">Australasian</a> <a href="/wiki/Cuckoo" title="Cuckoo">cuckoos</a>, lay their eggs in the active nests of other species.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Scrapes"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scrape">Scrape</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Scrape"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gniazdo_sieweczki_RB.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Three eggs, bluish with black speckling, sit atop a layer of white mollusc shells pieces, surrounded by sandy ground and small bits of bluish stone." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Gniazdo_sieweczki_RB.JPG/220px-Gniazdo_sieweczki_RB.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Gniazdo_sieweczki_RB.JPG/330px-Gniazdo_sieweczki_RB.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Gniazdo_sieweczki_RB.JPG/440px-Gniazdo_sieweczki_RB.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Some nest linings, such as the shell fragments in this <i><a href="/wiki/Charadrius" title="Charadrius">Charadrius</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Plover" title="Plover">plover</a> scrape, may help to prevent the eggs from sinking into muddy or sandy soil.</figcaption></figure> <p>The simplest nest construction is the <i>scrape</i>, which is merely a shallow depression in soil or vegetation.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This nest type, which typically has a rim deep enough to keep the eggs from rolling away, is sometimes lined with bits of vegetation, small <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">stones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seashell" title="Seashell">shell</a> fragments or <a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">feathers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These materials may help to camouflage the eggs or may provide some level of insulation; they may also help to keep the eggs in place, and prevent them from sinking into muddy or sandy soil if the nest is accidentally flooded.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ostriches, most <a href="/wiki/Tinamou" title="Tinamou">tinamous</a>, many ducks, most <a href="/wiki/Shorebird" class="mw-redirect" title="Shorebird">shorebirds</a>, most <a href="/wiki/Tern" title="Tern">terns</a>, some <a href="/wiki/Falcon" title="Falcon">falcons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pheasant" title="Pheasant">pheasants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quail" title="Quail">quail</a>, <a href="/wiki/Partridge" title="Partridge">partridges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bustard" title="Bustard">bustards</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sandgrouse" title="Sandgrouse">sandgrouse</a> are among the species that build scrape nests. </p><p>Eggs and young in scrape nests, and the adults that brood them, are more exposed to <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predators</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">elements</a> than those in more sheltered nests; they are on the ground and typically in the open, with little to hide them. The eggs of most ground-nesting birds (including those that use scrape nests) are cryptically coloured to help camouflage them when the adult is not covering them; the actual colour generally corresponds to the substrate on which they are laid.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brooding adults also tend to be well camouflaged, and may be difficult to flush from the nest. Most ground-nesting species have well-developed <a href="/wiki/Distraction_display" title="Distraction display">distraction displays</a>, which are used to draw (or drive) potential predators from the area around the nest.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most species with this type of nest have <a href="/wiki/Precocial" class="mw-redirect" title="Precocial">precocial</a> young, which quickly leave the nest upon hatching.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Peregrine_falcon_nest-scraping%2C_Derby_Cathedral.webm/220px--Peregrine_falcon_nest-scraping%2C_Derby_Cathedral.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="17" data-mwtitle="Peregrine_falcon_nest-scraping,_Derby_Cathedral.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Peregrine_falcon_nest-scraping,_Derby_Cathedral.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2c/Peregrine_falcon_nest-scraping%2C_Derby_Cathedral.webm/Peregrine_falcon_nest-scraping%2C_Derby_Cathedral.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Peregrine_falcon_nest-scraping%2C_Derby_Cathedral.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2c/Peregrine_falcon_nest-scraping%2C_Derby_Cathedral.webm/Peregrine_falcon_nest-scraping%2C_Derby_Cathedral.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2c/Peregrine_falcon_nest-scraping%2C_Derby_Cathedral.webm/Peregrine_falcon_nest-scraping%2C_Derby_Cathedral.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2c/Peregrine_falcon_nest-scraping%2C_Derby_Cathedral.webm/Peregrine_falcon_nest-scraping%2C_Derby_Cathedral.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2c/Peregrine_falcon_nest-scraping%2C_Derby_Cathedral.webm/Peregrine_falcon_nest-scraping%2C_Derby_Cathedral.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Female <a href="/wiki/Peregrine_falcon" title="Peregrine falcon">peregrine falcon</a> nest-scraping on artificial ledge on <a href="/wiki/Derby_Cathedral" title="Derby Cathedral">Derby Cathedral</a>. Both sexes contribute to the creation of a bare, shallow depression in soil or gravel.</figcaption></figure> <p>In cool climates (such as in the high <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> or at high elevations), the depth of a scrape nest can be critical to both the survival of developing eggs and the fitness of the parent bird incubating them. The scrape must be deep enough that eggs are protected from the <a href="/wiki/Convective" class="mw-redirect" title="Convective">convective</a> cooling caused by cold winds, but shallow enough that they and the parent bird are not too exposed to the cooling influences of ground temperatures, particularly where the <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a> layer rises to mere centimeters below the nest. Studies have shown that an egg within a scrape nest loses heat 9% more slowly than an egg placed on the ground beside the nest; in such a nest lined with natural vegetation, heat loss is reduced by an additional 25%.<sup id="cite_ref-Reid_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reid-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The insulating factor of nest lining is apparently so critical to egg survival that some species, including <a href="/wiki/Kentish_plover" title="Kentish plover">Kentish plovers</a>, will restore experimentally altered levels of insulation to their pre-adjustment levels (adding or subtracting material as necessary) within 24 hours.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pluvialis_dominica_eggs_and_nest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Four beige eggs, heavily speckled with black, sit in a shallow depression lined with pale greenish-white lichen." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Pluvialis_dominica_eggs_and_nest.jpg/220px-Pluvialis_dominica_eggs_and_nest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Pluvialis_dominica_eggs_and_nest.jpg/330px-Pluvialis_dominica_eggs_and_nest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Pluvialis_dominica_eggs_and_nest.jpg/440px-Pluvialis_dominica_eggs_and_nest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>Other nest linings, like the <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichen</a> in this <a href="/wiki/American_golden-plover" class="mw-redirect" title="American golden-plover">American golden-plover</a> scrape, may provide some level of insulation for the eggs, or may help to camouflage them.</figcaption></figure> <p>In warm climates, such as <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">deserts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salt_pan_(geology)" title="Salt pan (geology)">salt flats</a>, heat rather than cold can kill the developing embryos. In such places, scrapes are shallower and tend to be lined with non-vegetative material (including shells, feathers, sticks and soil),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrant198211_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant198211-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which allows convective cooling to occur as air moves over the eggs. Some species, such as the <a href="/wiki/Lesser_nighthawk" title="Lesser nighthawk">lesser nighthawk</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Red-tailed_tropicbird" title="Red-tailed tropicbird">red-tailed tropicbird</a>, help reduce the nest's temperature by placing it in partial or full shade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrant198260_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant198260-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others, including some shorebirds, cast shade with their bodies as they stand over their eggs. Some shorebirds also soak their breast feathers with water and then sit on the eggs, providing moisture to enable <a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Evaporative cooling">evaporative cooling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrant198261_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant198261-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parent birds keep from overheating themselves by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gular_panting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gular panting (page does not exist)">gular panting</a> while they are incubating, frequently exchanging incubation duties, and standing in water when they are not incubating.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrant198262_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant198262-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The technique used to construct a scrape nest varies slightly depending on the species. Beach-nesting terns, for instance, fashion their nests by rocking their bodies on the <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a> in the place they have chosen to site their nest,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Skimmer_(bird)" class="mw-redirect" title="Skimmer (bird)">skimmers</a> build their scrapes with their feet, kicking sand backwards while resting on their bellies and turning slowly in circles.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ostrich also scratches out its scrape with its feet, though it stands while doing so.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many tinamous lay their eggs on a shallow mat of dead <a href="/wiki/Leaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaves">leaves</a> they have collected and placed under <a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">bushes</a> or between the <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">root</a> buttresses of trees,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Kagu" title="Kagu">kagus</a> lay theirs on a pile of dead leaves against a log, tree trunk or vegetation.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Marbled_godwit" title="Marbled godwit">Marbled godwits</a> stomp a grassy area flat with their feet, then lay their eggs, while other grass-nesting waders bend vegetation over their nests so as to avoid detection from above.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many female ducks, particularly in the northern <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitudes</a>, line their shallow scrape nests with <a href="/wiki/Down_feather" title="Down feather">down feathers</a> plucked from their own breasts, as well as with small amounts of vegetation.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among scrape-nesting birds, the <a href="/wiki/Three-banded_courser" title="Three-banded courser">three-banded courser</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_plover" title="Egyptian plover">Egyptian plover</a> are unique in their habit of partially burying their eggs in the sand of their scrapes.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mound">Mound</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mound"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malleefowl_mound.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large pile of bare earth stands amidst pale tree trunks, bleached grass and fallen sticks." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Malleefowl_mound.jpg/220px-Malleefowl_mound.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Malleefowl_mound.jpg/330px-Malleefowl_mound.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Malleefowl_mound.jpg/440px-Malleefowl_mound.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>The huge mound nest of the <a href="/wiki/Malleefowl" title="Malleefowl">malleefowl</a> acts like a compost heap, warming and incubating the eggs as it rots around them.</figcaption></figure> <p>Burying eggs as a form of incubation reaches its zenith with the <a href="/wiki/Australasia" title="Australasia">Australasian</a> <a href="/wiki/Megapode" title="Megapode">megapodes</a>. Several megapode species construct enormous <i>mound</i> nests made of soil, branches, sticks, twigs and leaves, and lay their eggs within the rotting mass. The heat generated by these mounds, which are in effect giant <a href="/wiki/Compost_heap" class="mw-redirect" title="Compost heap">compost heaps</a>, warms and incubates the eggs.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell386_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell386-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The nest heat results from the respiration of thermophilic fungi and other <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HBW2-287_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HBW2-287-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The size of some of these mounds can be truly staggering; several of the largest—which contain more than 100 cubic metres (130 cu yd) of material, and probably weigh more than 50 tons (45,000 kg)<sup id="cite_ref-HBW2-287_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HBW2-287-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—were initially thought to be <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">Aboriginal</a> middens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansell20009_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansell20009-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In most mound-building species, males do most or all of the nest construction and maintenance. Using his strong legs and feet, the male scrapes together material from the area around his chosen nest site, gradually building a <a href="/wiki/Cone_(geometry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cone (geometry)">conical</a> or bell-shaped pile. This process can take five to seven hours a day for more than a month. While mounds are typically reused for multiple breeding seasons, new material must be added each year to generate the appropriate amount of heat. A female will begin to lay eggs in the nest only when the mound's temperature has reached an optimal level.<sup id="cite_ref-HBW2-288_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HBW2-288-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slimbridge.chilean.flamingo.arp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two long-legged, long-necked pink birds stand atop cylindrical piles of mud, with water in the background." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Slimbridge.chilean.flamingo.arp.jpg/170px-Slimbridge.chilean.flamingo.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Slimbridge.chilean.flamingo.arp.jpg/255px-Slimbridge.chilean.flamingo.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Slimbridge.chilean.flamingo.arp.jpg/340px-Slimbridge.chilean.flamingo.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1125" data-file-height="1575" /></a><figcaption>The mound nests of flamingos, like these <a href="/wiki/Chilean_flamingo" title="Chilean flamingo">Chilean flamingos</a>, help to protect their eggs from fluctuating water levels.</figcaption></figure> <p>Both the temperature and the moisture content of the mound are critical to the survival and development of the eggs, so both are carefully regulated for the entire length of the breeding season (which may last for as long as eight months), principally by the male.<sup id="cite_ref-HBW2-287_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HBW2-287-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ornithologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ornithologist">Ornithologists</a> believe that megapodes may use sensitive areas in their mouths to assess mound temperatures; each day during the breeding season, the male digs a pit into his mound and sticks his head in.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the mound's core temperature is a bit low, he adds fresh moist material to the mound, and stirs it in; if it is too high, he opens the top of the mound to allow some of the excess heat to escape. This regular monitoring also keeps the mound's material from becoming compacted, which would inhibit oxygen diffusion to the eggs and make it more difficult for the chicks to emerge after hatching.<sup id="cite_ref-HBW2-288_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HBW2-288-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Malleefowl" title="Malleefowl">malleefowl</a>, which lives in more open forest than do other megapodes, uses the sun to help warm its nest as well—opening the mound at midday during the cool spring and autumn months to expose the plentiful sand incorporated into the nest to the sun's warming rays, then using that warm sand to insulate the eggs during the cold nights. During hot summer months, the malleefowl opens its nest mound only in the cool early morning hours, allowing excess heat to escape before recovering the mound completely.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One recent study showed that the sex ratio of <a href="/wiki/Australian_brushturkey" title="Australian brushturkey">Australian brushturkey</a> hatchlings correlated strongly with mound temperatures; females hatched from eggs incubated at higher mean temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Flamingo" title="Flamingo">Flamingos</a> make a different type of mound nest. Using their <a href="/wiki/Beak" title="Beak">beaks</a> to pull material towards them,<sup id="cite_ref-delHoyo516_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-delHoyo516-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they fashion a cone-shaped pile of mud between 15–46 cm (6–18 in) tall, with a small depression in the top to house their single egg.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The height of the nest varies with the substrate upon which it is built; those on <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> sites are taller on average than those on dry or sandy sites.<sup id="cite_ref-delHoyo516_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-delHoyo516-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The height of the nest and the circular, often water-filled trench which surrounds it (the result of the removal of material for the nest) help to protect the egg from fluctuating water levels and excessive heat at ground level. In East Africa, for example, temperatures at the top of the nest mound average some 20 °C (36 °F) cooler than those of the surrounding ground.<sup id="cite_ref-delHoyo516_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-delHoyo516-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The base of the <a href="/wiki/Horned_coot" title="Horned coot">horned coot</a>'s enormous nest is a mound built of stones, gathered one at a time by the pair, using their beaks. These stones, which may weigh as much as 450 g (about a pound) each, are dropped into the shallow water of a lake, making a <a href="/wiki/Cone_(geometry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cone (geometry)">cone</a>-shaped pile which can measure as much as 4 m<sup>2</sup> (43 sq ft) at the bottom and 1 m<sup>2</sup> (11 sq ft) at the top, and 0.6 m (2.0 ft) in height. The total combined weight of the mound's stones may approach 1.5 tons (1,400 kg). Once the mound has been completed, a sizable platform of aquatic vegetation is constructed on top. The entire structure is typically reused for many years.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Burrow">Burrow</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Burrow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Riparia_riparia-Oeverzwaluw.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Riparia_riparia-Oeverzwaluw.jpg/220px-Riparia_riparia-Oeverzwaluw.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Riparia_riparia-Oeverzwaluw.jpg/330px-Riparia_riparia-Oeverzwaluw.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Riparia_riparia-Oeverzwaluw.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Like most burrow-nesting species, <a href="/wiki/Sand_martin" title="Sand martin">sand martins</a> dig a horizontal tunnel into a vertical dirt cliff.</figcaption></figure> <p>Soil plays a different role in the <i>burrow</i> nest; here, the eggs and young—and in most cases the incubating parent bird—are sheltered under the earth. Most burrow-nesting birds excavate their own burrows, but some use those excavated by other species and are known as secondary nesters; <a href="/wiki/Burrowing_owl" title="Burrowing owl">burrowing owls</a>, for example, sometimes use the burrows of <a href="/wiki/Prairie_dog" title="Prairie dog">prairie dogs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ground_squirrel" title="Ground squirrel">ground squirrels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Badger" title="Badger">badgers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tortoise" title="Tortoise">tortoises</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> China's endemic <a href="/wiki/White-browed_tit" title="White-browed tit">white-browed tits</a> use the holes of ground-nesting rodents<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Common_kingfisher" title="Common kingfisher">common kingfishers</a> occasionally nest in rabbit burrows.<sup id="cite_ref-HBW6-169_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HBW6-169-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Burrow nests are particularly common among seabirds at high latitudes, as they provide protection against both cold temperatures and predators.<sup id="cite_ref-LowTemp_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LowTemp-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Puffin" title="Puffin">Puffins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shearwater" title="Shearwater">shearwaters</a>, some megapodes, <a href="/wiki/Motmot" title="Motmot">motmots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tody" title="Tody">todies</a>, most <a href="/wiki/Kingfisher" title="Kingfisher">kingfishers</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Crab_plover" class="mw-redirect" title="Crab plover">crab plover</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geositta" title="Geositta">miners</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sclerurus" title="Sclerurus">leaftossers</a> are among the species which use burrow nests. </p><p>Most burrow nesting species dig a horizontal tunnel into a vertical (or nearly vertical) dirt cliff, with a chamber at the tunnel's end to house the eggs.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The length of the tunnel varies depending on the substrate and the species; <a href="/wiki/Sand_martins" class="mw-redirect" title="Sand martins">sand martins</a> make relatively short tunnels ranging from 50–90 cm (20–35 in),<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example, while those of the <a href="/wiki/Burrowing_parakeet" class="mw-redirect" title="Burrowing parakeet">burrowing parakeet</a> can extend for more than three meters (nearly 10 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some species, including the ground-nesting <a href="/wiki/Puffbird" title="Puffbird">puffbirds</a>, prefer flat or gently sloping land, digging their entrance tunnels into the ground at an angle.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a more extreme example, the <a href="/wiki/D%27Arnaud%27s_barbet" title="D'Arnaud's barbet">D'Arnaud's barbet</a> digs a vertical tunnel shaft more than a meter (39 in) deep, with its nest chamber excavated off to the side at some height above the shaft's bottom; this arrangement helps to keep the nest from being flooded during heavy rain.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Buff-breasted_paradise-kingfisher" class="mw-redirect" title="Buff-breasted paradise-kingfisher">Buff-breasted paradise-kingfishers</a> dig their nests into the compacted mud of active termite mounds, either on the ground or in trees.<sup id="cite_ref-HBW6-169_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HBW6-169-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specific soil types may favour certain species and it is speculated that several species of bee-eater favor <a href="/wiki/Loess" title="Loess">loess</a> soils which are easy to penetrate.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Merops_apiaster_burrows.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Merops_apiaster_burrows.jpg/220px-Merops_apiaster_burrows.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Merops_apiaster_burrows.jpg/330px-Merops_apiaster_burrows.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Merops_apiaster_burrows.jpg/440px-Merops_apiaster_burrows.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="885" /></a><figcaption>Increased vulnerability to predators may have led some burrow-nesting species, like the <a href="/wiki/European_bee-eater" title="European bee-eater">European bee-eater</a>, to become colonial breeders.</figcaption></figure> <p>Birds use a combination of their beaks and feet to excavate burrow nests. The tunnel is started with the beak; the bird either probes at the ground to create a depression, or flies toward its chosen nest site on a cliff wall and hits it with its bill. The latter method is not without its dangers; there are reports of kingfishers being fatally injured in such attempts.<sup id="cite_ref-HBW6-169_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HBW6-169-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some birds remove tunnel material with their bills, while others use their bodies or shovel the dirt out with one or both feet. Female paradise-kingfishers are known to use their long tails to clear the loose soil.<sup id="cite_ref-HBW6-169_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HBW6-169-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Crepuscular" class="mw-redirect" title="Crepuscular">crepuscular</a> <a href="/wiki/Petrel" title="Petrel">petrels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prion_(bird)" title="Prion (bird)">prions</a> are able to identify their own burrows within dense colonies by smell.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sand martins learn the location of their nest within a colony, and will accept any chick put into that nest until right before the young fledge.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Not all burrow-nesting species incubate their young directly. Some megapode species bury their eggs in sandy pits dug where sunlight, subterranean volcanic activity, or decaying tree roots will warm the eggs.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell386_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell386-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HBW2-287_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HBW2-287-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The crab plover also uses a burrow nest, the warmth of which allows it to leave the eggs unattended for as long as 58 hours.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Predation levels on some burrow-nesting species can be quite high; on <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>'s Wooded Islands, for example, <a href="/wiki/North_American_river_otter" title="North American river otter">river otters</a> munched their way through some 23 percent of the island's <a href="/wiki/Fork-tailed_storm-petrel" class="mw-redirect" title="Fork-tailed storm-petrel">fork-tailed storm-petrel</a> population during a single breeding season in 1977.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is some evidence that increased vulnerability may lead some burrow-nesting species to form colonies, or to nest closer to rival pairs in areas of high predation than they might otherwise do.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cavity">Cavity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cavity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forpus_xanthopterygius_-tree_hole_-Brazil-8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Forpus_xanthopterygius_-tree_hole_-Brazil-8.jpg/220px-Forpus_xanthopterygius_-tree_hole_-Brazil-8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Forpus_xanthopterygius_-tree_hole_-Brazil-8.jpg/330px-Forpus_xanthopterygius_-tree_hole_-Brazil-8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Forpus_xanthopterygius_-tree_hole_-Brazil-8.jpg/440px-Forpus_xanthopterygius_-tree_hole_-Brazil-8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2214" data-file-height="1512" /></a><figcaption>"Secondary cavity nesters", like this <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-rumped_parrotlet" title="Cobalt-rumped parrotlet">cobalt-rumped parrotlet</a>, use natural cavities or holes excavated by other species.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <i>cavity</i> nest is a chamber, typically in living or dead wood, but sometimes in the trunks of <a href="/wiki/Tree_fern" title="Tree fern">tree ferns</a><sup id="cite_ref-HBW6-94_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HBW6-94-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or large <a href="/wiki/Cactus" title="Cactus">cacti</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Carnegiea" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnegiea">saguaro</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HBW6-94_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HBW6-94-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WP_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WP-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In tropical areas, cavities are sometimes excavated in arboreal insect nests.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HBW6-96_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HBW6-96-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A relatively small number of species, including <a href="/wiki/Woodpecker" title="Woodpecker">woodpeckers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trogon" title="Trogon">trogons</a>, some <a href="/wiki/Nuthatch" title="Nuthatch">nuthatches</a> and many <a href="/wiki/Ramphastides" title="Ramphastides">barbets</a>, can excavate their own cavities. Far more species—including parrots, <a href="/wiki/Paridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Paridae">tits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bluebird" title="Bluebird">bluebirds</a>, most <a href="/wiki/Hornbill" title="Hornbill">hornbills</a>, some kingfishers, some <a href="/wiki/True_owl" class="mw-redirect" title="True owl">owls</a>, some ducks and some flycatchers—use natural cavities, or those abandoned by species able to excavate them; they also sometimes usurp cavity nests from their excavating owners. Those species that excavate their own cavities are known as "primary cavity nesters", while those that use natural cavities or those excavated by other species are called "secondary cavity nesters". Both primary and secondary cavity nesters can be enticed to use <a href="/wiki/Nest_box" title="Nest box">nest boxes</a> (also known as bird houses); these mimic natural cavities, and can be critical to the survival of species in areas where natural cavities are lacking.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Woodpeckers use their chisel-like bills to excavate their cavity nests, a process which takes, on average, about two weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-WP_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WP-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cavities are normally excavated on the downward-facing side of a branch, presumably to make it more difficult for predators to access the nest, and to reduce the chance that rain floods the nest.<sup id="cite_ref-Conner_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conner-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also some evidence that fungal rot may make the wood on the underside of leaning trunks and branches easier to excavate.<sup id="cite_ref-Conner_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conner-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most woodpeckers use a cavity for only a single year. The endangered <a href="/wiki/Red-cockaded_woodpecker" title="Red-cockaded woodpecker">red-cockaded woodpecker</a> is an exception; it takes far longer—up to two years—to excavate its nest cavity, and may reuse it for more than two decades.<sup id="cite_ref-WP_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WP-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The typical woodpecker nest has a short horizontal tunnel which leads to a vertical chamber within the trunk. The size and shape of the chamber depends on species, and the entrance hole is typically only as large as is needed to allow access for the adult birds. While wood chips are removed during the excavation process, most species line the floor of the cavity with a fresh bed of them before laying their eggs. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BlackWoods.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/BlackWoods.jpg/220px-BlackWoods.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/BlackWoods.jpg/330px-BlackWoods.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/BlackWoods.jpg/440px-BlackWoods.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Only a relatively small number of species, including the woodpeckers, are capable of excavating their own cavity nests.</figcaption></figure> <p>Trogons excavate their nests by chewing cavities into very soft dead wood; some species make completely enclosed chambers (accessed by upward-slanting entrance tunnels), while others—like the extravagantly plumed <a href="/wiki/Resplendent_quetzal" title="Resplendent quetzal">resplendent quetzal</a>—construct more open niches.<sup id="cite_ref-HBW6-96_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HBW6-96-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In most trogon species, both sexes help with nest construction. The process may take several months, and a single pair may start several excavations before finding a tree or stump with wood of the right consistency. </p><p>Species which use natural cavities or old woodpecker nests sometimes line the cavity with soft material such as grass, moss, lichen, feathers or fur. Though a number of studies have attempted to determine whether secondary cavity nesters preferentially choose cavities with entrance holes facing certain directions, the results remain inconclusive.<sup id="cite_ref-Rendell_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rendell-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While some species appear to preferentially choose holes with certain orientations, studies (to date) have not shown consistent differences in fledging rates between nests oriented in different directions.<sup id="cite_ref-Rendell_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rendell-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cavity-dwelling species have to contend with the danger of predators accessing their nest, catching them and their young inside and unable to get out.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have a variety of methods for decreasing the likelihood of this happening. Red-cockaded woodpeckers peel bark around the entrance, and drill wells above and below the hole; since they nest in live trees, the resulting flow of resin forms a barrier that prevents snakes from reaching the nests.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Red-breasted_nuthatch" title="Red-breasted nuthatch">Red-breasted nuthatches</a> smear sap around the entrance holes to their nests, while <a href="/wiki/White-breasted_nuthatch" title="White-breasted nuthatch">white-breasted nuthatches</a> rub foul-smelling insects around theirs.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_nuthatch" title="Eurasian nuthatch">Eurasian nuthatches</a> wall up part of their entrance holes with mud, decreasing the size and sometimes extending the tunnel part of the chamber. Most female hornbills seal themselves into their cavity nests, using a combination of mud (in some species brought by their mates), food remains and their own droppings to reduce the entrance hole to a narrow slit.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A few birds are known to use the nests of insects within which they create a cavity in which they lay their eggs. These include the <a href="/wiki/Rufous_woodpecker" title="Rufous woodpecker">rufous woodpecker</a> which nests in the arboreal nests of <i><a href="/wiki/Crematogaster" title="Crematogaster">Crematogaster</a></i> ants and the <a href="/wiki/Collared_kingfisher" title="Collared kingfisher">collared kingfisher</a> which uses termite nests.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cup">Cup</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Cup"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heliothryx_barroti_on_nest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Heliothryx_barroti_on_nest.jpg/220px-Heliothryx_barroti_on_nest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Heliothryx_barroti_on_nest.jpg/330px-Heliothryx_barroti_on_nest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Heliothryx_barroti_on_nest.jpg/440px-Heliothryx_barroti_on_nest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2395" data-file-height="1779" /></a><figcaption>Like many small birds, the <a href="/wiki/Purple-crowned_fairy" title="Purple-crowned fairy">purple-crowned fairy</a> uses considerable amounts of <a href="/wiki/Spider_silk" title="Spider silk">spider silk</a> in its cup nest.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <i>cup</i> nest is smoothly hemispherical inside, with a deep depression to house the eggs. Most are made of pliable materials—including grasses—though a small number are made of <a href="/wiki/Mud" title="Mud">mud</a> or <a href="/wiki/Saliva" title="Saliva">saliva</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansell2000[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbirdnestsconstru0000hanspage280_280]_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansell2000[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbirdnestsconstru0000hanspage280_280]-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many <a href="/wiki/Passerine" title="Passerine">passerines</a> and a few non-passerines, including some <a href="/wiki/Hummingbird" title="Hummingbird">hummingbirds</a> and some swifts, build this type of nest. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turdus_merula_Nesting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Turdus_merula_Nesting.jpg/220px-Turdus_merula_Nesting.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Turdus_merula_Nesting.jpg/330px-Turdus_merula_Nesting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Turdus_merula_Nesting.jpg/440px-Turdus_merula_Nesting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2003" data-file-height="1424" /></a><figcaption>Cup nest of a <a href="/wiki/Common_blackbird" title="Common blackbird">common blackbird</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Small bird species in more than 20 passerine families, and a few non-passerines—including most hummingbirds, kinglets and crests in the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Regulus_(bird)" title="Regulus (bird)">Regulus</a></i>, some <a href="/wiki/Tyrant_flycatcher" title="Tyrant flycatcher">tyrant flycatchers</a> and several <a href="/wiki/New_World_warbler" title="New World warbler">New World warblers</a>—use considerable amounts of <a href="/wiki/Spider_silk" title="Spider silk">spider silk</a> in the construction of their nests.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Erickson_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erickson-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lightweight material is strong and extremely flexible, allowing the nest to mold to the adult during incubation (reducing heat loss), then to stretch to accommodate the growing nestlings; as it is sticky, it also helps to bind the nest to the branch or <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaf</a> to which it is attached.<sup id="cite_ref-Erickson_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erickson-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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.trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:121px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blue_gray_gnatcatcher_nest,_side_2016-01-07-17.24_(24438660975).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Blue_gray_gnatcatcher_nest%2C_side_2016-01-07-17.24_%2824438660975%29.jpg/170px-Blue_gray_gnatcatcher_nest%2C_side_2016-01-07-17.24_%2824438660975%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="122" class="mw-file-element" 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width="164" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Blue_gray_gnatcatcher_nest%2C_top_2016-01-07-17.39_%2824330333612%29.jpg/246px-Blue_gray_gnatcatcher_nest%2C_top_2016-01-07-17.39_%2824330333612%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Blue_gray_gnatcatcher_nest%2C_top_2016-01-07-17.39_%2824330333612%29.jpg/328px-Blue_gray_gnatcatcher_nest%2C_top_2016-01-07-17.39_%2824330333612%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5248" data-file-height="3904" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Museum specimen of a <a href="/wiki/Blue-grey_gnatcatcher" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue-grey gnatcatcher">blue-grey gnatcatcher</a> cup nest, made with lichens, hair, and spiderwebs.</div></div></div></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bird_nest_on_a_tree.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Bird_nest_on_a_tree.jpg/278px-Bird_nest_on_a_tree.jpg" decoding="async" width="278" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Bird_nest_on_a_tree.jpg/417px-Bird_nest_on_a_tree.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Bird_nest_on_a_tree.jpg/556px-Bird_nest_on_a_tree.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>A bed nest on a tree</figcaption></figure> <p>Many swifts and some hummingbirds<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGouldGould2007200_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGouldGould2007200-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> use thick, quick-drying saliva to anchor their nests. The <a href="/wiki/Chimney_swift" title="Chimney swift">chimney swift</a> starts by dabbing two globs of saliva onto the wall of a chimney or tree trunk. In flight, it breaks a small twig from a tree and presses it into the saliva, angling the twig downwards so that the central part of the nest is the lowest. It continues adding globs of saliva and twigs until it has made a crescent-shaped cup.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGouldGould2007196_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGouldGould2007196-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cup-shaped nest insulation has been found to be related to nest mass,<sup id="cite_ref-Kern_1984_455–466_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kern_1984_455–466-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heenan_2011_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heenan_2011-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nest wall thickness,<sup id="cite_ref-Heenan_2011_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heenan_2011-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Skowron_1980_816–824_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skowron_1980_816–824-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nest depth,<sup id="cite_ref-Kern_1984_455–466_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kern_1984_455–466-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heenan_2011_81-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heenan_2011-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nest weave density/porosity,<sup id="cite_ref-Kern_1984_455–466_80-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kern_1984_455–466-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Skowron_1980_816–824_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skowron_1980_816–824-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kern_1984_443–454_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kern_1984_443–454-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> surface area,<sup id="cite_ref-Heenan_2011_81-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heenan_2011-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> height above ground<sup id="cite_ref-Kern_1984_455–466_80-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kern_1984_455–466-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and elevation above sea level.<sup id="cite_ref-Kern_1984_443–454_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kern_1984_443–454-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0.WebM/220px--%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0.WebM.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="142" data-mwtitle="Процесс_строительства_гнезда.WebM" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0.WebM"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2d/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0.WebM/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0.WebM.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; 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codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2d/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0.WebM/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0.WebM.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>A pair of <a href="/wiki/Long-tailed_tit" title="Long-tailed tit">long-tailed tits</a> in the process of building a nest</figcaption></figure> <p>More recently, nest insulation has been found to be related to the mass of the incubating parent.<sup id="cite_ref-Heenan_2011_81-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heenan_2011-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is known as an <a href="/wiki/Allometric" class="mw-redirect" title="Allometric">allometric</a> relationship. Nest walls are constructed with an adequate quantity of nesting material so that the nest will be capable of supporting the contents of the nest. Nest thickness, nest mass and nest dimensions therefore correlate with the mass of the adult bird.<sup id="cite_ref-Heenan_2011_81-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heenan_2011-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The flow-on consequence of this is that nest insulation is also related to parent mass.<sup id="cite_ref-Heenan_2011_81-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heenan_2011-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nest_013.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Nest_013.jpg/220px-Nest_013.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Nest_013.jpg/330px-Nest_013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Nest_013.jpg/440px-Nest_013.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4016" data-file-height="6016" /></a><figcaption>Hanging bird nest</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saucer_or_plate">Saucer or plate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Saucer or plate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>saucer</i> or <i>plate</i> nest, though superficially similar to a cup nest, has at most only a shallow depression to house the eggs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Platform">Platform</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Platform"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Osprey_landing_in_the_nest_at_Camp_Echockotee.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Osprey_landing_in_the_nest_at_Camp_Echockotee.JPG/220px-Osprey_landing_in_the_nest_at_Camp_Echockotee.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Osprey_landing_in_the_nest_at_Camp_Echockotee.JPG/330px-Osprey_landing_in_the_nest_at_Camp_Echockotee.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Osprey_landing_in_the_nest_at_Camp_Echockotee.JPG/440px-Osprey_landing_in_the_nest_at_Camp_Echockotee.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2266" data-file-height="2090" /></a><figcaption>Many raptors, like the <a href="/wiki/Osprey" title="Osprey">osprey</a>, use the same huge platform nest for years, adding new material each season.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grebecoveringeggs4502.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Grebecoveringeggs4502.jpg/220px-Grebecoveringeggs4502.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Grebecoveringeggs4502.jpg/330px-Grebecoveringeggs4502.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Grebecoveringeggs4502.jpg/440px-Grebecoveringeggs4502.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Some waterbirds, including the <a href="/wiki/Grebe" title="Grebe">grebes</a>, build floating platform nests.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <i>platform</i> nest is a large structure, often many times the size of the (typically large) bird which has built it. Depending on the species, these nests can be on the ground or elevated.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of raptor nests, or <i>eyries</i> (also spelled <i>aerie</i>), these are often used for many years, with new material added each breeding season. In some cases, the nests grow large enough to cause structural damage to the tree itself, particularly during bad storms where the weight of the nest can cause additional stress on wind-tossed branches. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pendent">Pendent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Pendent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taveta_Golden-weaver_nest.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Taveta_Golden-weaver_nest.JPG/220px-Taveta_Golden-weaver_nest.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Taveta_Golden-weaver_nest.JPG/330px-Taveta_Golden-weaver_nest.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Taveta_Golden-weaver_nest.JPG/440px-Taveta_Golden-weaver_nest.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Taveta_golden_weaver" class="mw-redirect" title="Taveta golden weaver">Taveta golden weaver</a> building pendent nest.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <i>pendent</i> nest is an elongated sac woven of pliable materials such as grasses and plant fibers and suspended from a branch. <a href="/wiki/Oropendola" title="Oropendola">Oropendolas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cacique_(bird)" title="Cacique (bird)">caciques</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_World_oriole" title="Old World oriole">orioles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ploceidae" title="Ploceidae">weavers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sunbird" title="Sunbird">sunbirds</a> are among the species that weave pendent nests. In weaver birds, this is pendant, suspended from a single point hanging from branch while many other birds incorporate more than one branch to support the nest. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sphere">Sphere</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sphere"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>sphere</i> nest is a roundish structure; it is completely enclosed, except for a small opening which allows access. Most spherical nests are woven out of plant material. Spider webs are also frequently used, upon which other material such as lichens may be stuck for camouflage. The <a href="/wiki/Cape_penduline_tit" title="Cape penduline tit">cape penduline tit</a> incorporates false entrances, the parent bird carefully making sure to close the actual entrance when leaving the nest. The entrances are lined with spider webs which help seal the openings.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nest_protection_and_sanitation">Nest protection and sanitation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Nest protection and sanitation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many species of bird conceal their nests to protect them from predators. Some species may choose nest sites that are inaccessible or build the nest so as to deter predators.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudolphKyleConner1990_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudolphKyleConner1990-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bird nests can also act as habitats for other <a href="/wiki/Inquiline" title="Inquiline">inquiline</a> species which may not affect the bird directly. Birds have also evolved nest sanitation measures to reduce the effects of parasites and pathogens on nestlings. </p><p>Some aquatic species such as <a href="/wiki/Grebe" title="Grebe">grebes</a> are very careful when approaching and leaving the nest so as not to reveal the location. Some species will use leaves to cover up the nest prior to leaving. </p><p>Ground birds such as plovers may use <i>broken wing</i> or <i>rodent run</i> displays to distract predators from nests.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many species attack predators or apparent predators near their nests. <a href="/wiki/Kingbird" title="Kingbird">Kingbirds</a> attack other birds that come too close. In North America, <a href="/wiki/Northern_mockingbird" title="Northern mockingbird">northern mockingbirds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blue_jay" title="Blue jay">blue jays</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arctic_tern" title="Arctic tern">Arctic terns</a> can peck hard enough to draw blood.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Australia, a bird attacking a person near its nest is said to <i>swoop</i> the person. The <a href="/wiki/Australian_magpie" title="Australian magpie">Australian magpie</a> is particularly well known for this behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nests can become home to many other organisms including parasites and pathogens.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The excreta of the fledglings also pose a problem. In most passerines, the adults actively dispose the <a href="/wiki/Fecal_sac" title="Fecal sac">fecal sacs</a> of young at a distance or consume them. This is believed to help prevent ground predators from detecting nests.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Young birds of prey however usually void their excreta beyond the rims of their nests.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Calliphoridae" title="Calliphoridae">Blowflies</a> of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Protocalliphora" title="Protocalliphora">Protocalliphora</a></i> have specialized to become obligate nest parasites with the maggots feeding on the blood of nestlings.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some birds have been shown to choose aromatic green plant material for constructing nests that may have insecticidal properties,<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while others may use materials such as carnivore scat to repel smaller predators.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some urban birds, house sparrows and house finches in Mexico, have adopted the use of cigarette butts which contain nicotine and other toxic substances that repel ticks and other ectoparasites.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some birds use pieces of snake slough in their nests.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been suggested that these may deter some nest predators such as squirrels.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Colonial_nesting">Colonial nesting</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Colonial nesting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PMontezumaNests03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/PMontezumaNests03.jpg/220px-PMontezumaNests03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/PMontezumaNests03.jpg/330px-PMontezumaNests03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/PMontezumaNests03.jpg/440px-PMontezumaNests03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="748" /></a><figcaption>Nesting colony of <a href="/wiki/Montezuma_oropendola" title="Montezuma oropendola">Montezuma oropendolas</a></figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bird_colony" title="Bird colony">Bird colony</a></div> <p>Though most birds nest individually, some species—including <a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">seabirds</a>, penguins, flamingos, many <a href="/wiki/Heron" title="Heron">herons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gull" title="Gull">gulls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tern" title="Tern">terns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ploceidae" title="Ploceidae">weaver</a>, some <a href="/wiki/Corvid" class="mw-redirect" title="Corvid">corvids</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Old_World_sparrow" title="Old World sparrow">sparrows</a>—gather together in sizeable colonies. Birds that nest colonially may benefit from increased protection against predation. They may also be able to better use food supplies, by following more successful foragers to their foraging sites.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecological_importance">Ecological importance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ecological importance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bird-nest_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two bird nest close to each other" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Bird-nest_%282%29.jpg/220px-Bird-nest_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Bird-nest_%282%29.jpg/330px-Bird-nest_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Bird-nest_%282%29.jpg/440px-Bird-nest_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2052" data-file-height="2537" /></a><figcaption>Two expired bird nest.</figcaption></figure> <p>In constructing nests, birds act as <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">ecosystem engineers</a> by providing a sheltered microclimate and concentrated food sources for invertebrates.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A global checklist lists eighteen invertebrate orders that occur in bird nests.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_human_culture">In human culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: In human culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ciconia_ciconia_juv_small.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Three long-legged, long-billed black and white birds stand on a huge pile of sticks atop an artificial platform on a pole." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Ciconia_ciconia_juv_small.jpg/220px-Ciconia_ciconia_juv_small.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Ciconia_ciconia_juv_small.jpg/330px-Ciconia_ciconia_juv_small.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Ciconia_ciconia_juv_small.jpg/440px-Ciconia_ciconia_juv_small.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="647" /></a><figcaption>A human-made nest platform in Poland built as a conservation measure and to prevent storks disrupting electricity supplies through nesting on pylons. Three young <a href="/wiki/White_stork" title="White stork">white storks</a> are on the top of the nest and two <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_tree_sparrow" title="Eurasian tree sparrow">Eurasian tree sparrows</a> are perching on the side of the nest.</figcaption></figure> <p>Many birds may nest close to human habitations. In addition to <a href="/wiki/Nest_box" title="Nest box">nest boxes</a> which are often used to encourage cavity nesting birds (see below), other species have been specially encouraged : for example nesting <a href="/wiki/White_stork" title="White stork">white storks</a> have been protected and held in reverence in many cultures,<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the nesting of <a href="/wiki/Peregrine_falcon" title="Peregrine falcon">peregrine falcons</a> on tall modern or historical buildings has captured popular interest.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Colonial breeders produce <a href="/wiki/Guano" title="Guano">guano</a> in and around their nesting sites, which is a valuable fertilizer from the Andean Pacific coast and other areas. </p><p>The saliva nest of the <a href="/wiki/Edible-nest_swiftlet" title="Edible-nest swiftlet">edible-nest swiftlet</a> is used to make <a href="/wiki/Edible_bird%27s_nest" title="Edible bird's nest">bird's nest soup</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Couzens_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Couzens-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> long considered a delicacy in China.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Collection of the swiftlet nests is big business: in one year, more than 3.5 million nests were exported from Borneo to China,<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the industry was estimated at $1 billion US per year (and increasing) in 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-Couzens_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Couzens-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the collection is regulated in some areas (at the <a href="/wiki/Gomantong_Caves" title="Gomantong Caves">Gomantong Caves</a>, for example, where nests can be collected only from February to April or July to September), it is not in others, and the swiftlets are declining in areas where the harvest reaches unsustainable levels.<sup id="cite_ref-Couzens_107-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Couzens-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some species of birds are considered nuisances when they nest in the proximity of human habitations. <a href="/wiki/Feral_pigeons" class="mw-redirect" title="Feral pigeons">Feral pigeons</a> are often unwelcome and sometimes also considered as a health risk.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Beijing_National_Stadium" title="Beijing National Stadium">Beijing National Stadium</a>, principal venue of the <a href="/wiki/2008_Summer_Olympics" title="2008 Summer Olympics">2008 Summer Olympics</a>, has been nicknamed "The Bird Nest" because of its architectural design, which its designers likened to a bird's woven nest.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 19th and early 20th centuries, <a href="/wiki/Naturalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalist">naturalists</a> often collected bird's eggs and their nests. The practice of egg-collecting or <a href="/wiki/Oology" title="Oology">oology</a> is now illegal in many jurisdictions worldwide; the study of bird nests is called <b><a href="/wiki/Caliology" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliology">caliology</a></b>.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Artificial_bird_nests">Artificial bird nests</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Artificial bird nests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Duck_tube_aka_artificial_nest_tube_at_Peter_Pond,_Emsworth_(P1020415).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Duck_tube_aka_artificial_nest_tube_at_Peter_Pond%2C_Emsworth_%28P1020415%29.jpg/220px-Duck_tube_aka_artificial_nest_tube_at_Peter_Pond%2C_Emsworth_%28P1020415%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Duck_tube_aka_artificial_nest_tube_at_Peter_Pond%2C_Emsworth_%28P1020415%29.jpg/330px-Duck_tube_aka_artificial_nest_tube_at_Peter_Pond%2C_Emsworth_%28P1020415%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Duck_tube_aka_artificial_nest_tube_at_Peter_Pond%2C_Emsworth_%28P1020415%29.jpg/440px-Duck_tube_aka_artificial_nest_tube_at_Peter_Pond%2C_Emsworth_%28P1020415%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4896" data-file-height="3672" /></a><figcaption>Artificial duck nest</figcaption></figure> <p>Bird nests are also built by humans to help in the conservation of certain birds (such as <a href="/wiki/Swallow" title="Swallow">swallows</a>). Swallow nests are generally built with plaster, wood, terracotta or stucco.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Artificial nests, such as <a href="/wiki/Nest_box" title="Nest box">nest boxes</a>, are an important conservation tool for many species, however nest box programs rarely compare their effectiveness with individuals not using nest boxes. Red-footed falcons using nest boxes in heavily managed landscapes produced fewer fledglings than those nesting in natural nests, but also than pairs nesting in nest boxes in more natural habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Campbell386-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell386_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell386_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell386_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCampbellLack1985">Campbell & Lack 1985</a>, p. 386</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCampbellLack1985">Campbell & Lack 1985</a>, p. 345</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-skutch-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-skutch_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSkutch1960" class="citation cs2">Skutch, Alexander F (1960), "The nest as a dormitory", <i>Ibis</i>, <b>103</b> (1): 50–70, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1474-919X.1961.tb02420.x">10.1111/j.1474-919X.1961.tb02420.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ibis&rft.atitle=The+nest+as+a+dormitory&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=50-70&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1474-919X.1961.tb02420.x&rft.aulast=Skutch&rft.aufirst=Alexander+F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+nest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://smithsonianscience.org/2015/04/bird-nests-variety-is-key-for-avian-architects">smithsonianscience.org 2015-04-20 Bird nests: Variety is Key for the world's avian Architects</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170103173244/http://insider.si.edu/2015/04/bird-nests-variety-is-key-for-avian-architects/">Archived</a> 3 January 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCampbellLack1985">Campbell & Lack 1985</a>, p. 387</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFelix1973" class="citation book cs1">Felix, Jiri (1973). <i>Garden and Field Birds</i>. 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D (2002), "Nest scrape design and clutch heat loss in the Pectoral Sandpiper (<i>Calidris melanotos</i>)", <i>Functional Ecology</i>, <b>16</b> (3): 305–316, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-2435.2002.00632.x">10.1046/j.1365-2435.2002.00632.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Functional+Ecology&rft.atitle=Nest+scrape+design+and+clutch+heat+loss+in+the+Pectoral+Sandpiper+%28Calidris+melanotos%29&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=305-316&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1365-2435.2002.00632.x&rft.aulast=Reid&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rft.au=Cresswell%2C+W.&rft.au=Holt%2C+S.&rft.au=Mellanby%2C+R.+J.&rft.au=Whitby%2C+D.+P.&rft.au=Ruxton%2C+G.+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+nest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzentirmaiSzékely2002" class="citation cs2">Szentirmai, István; Székely, Tamás (2002), "Do Kentish plovers regulate the amount of their nest material? An Experimental Test", <i>Behaviour</i>, <b>139</b> (6): 847–859, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156853902320262844">10.1163/156853902320262844</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4535956">4535956</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behaviour&rft.atitle=Do+Kentish+plovers+regulate+the+amount+of+their+nest+material%3F+An+Experimental+Test&rft.volume=139&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=847-859&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156853902320262844&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4535956%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Szentirmai&rft.aufirst=Istv%C3%A1n&rft.au=Sz%C3%A9kely%2C+Tam%C3%A1s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+nest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant198211-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrant198211_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrant1982">Grant 1982</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant198260-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrant198260_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrant1982">Grant 1982</a>, p. 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowellBartholomew1962" class="citation cs2">Howell, Thomas R.; Bartholomew, George A (1962), "Temperature Regulation in the Red-tailed Tropicbird and the Red-footed Booby", <i>The Condor</i>, <b>64</b> (1): 6–18, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1365438">10.2307/1365438</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1365438">1365438</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Condor&rft.atitle=Temperature+Regulation+in+the+Red-tailed+Tropicbird+and+the+Red-footed+Booby&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=6-18&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1365438&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1365438%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Howell&rft.aufirst=Thomas+R.&rft.au=Bartholomew%2C+George+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+nest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant198261-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrant198261_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span 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class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFdel_Hoyo1992">del Hoyo 1992</a>, p. 119</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFdel_HoyoElliottSargatal1996">del Hoyo, Elliott & Sargatal 1996</a>, p. 222</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFdel_HoyoElliottSargatal1996">del Hoyo, Elliott & Sargatal 1996</a>, p. 473</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFdel_Hoyo1992">del Hoyo 1992</a>, p. 558</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFdel_HoyoElliottSargatal1996">del 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(2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fDblIChi7KwC&pg=PA129"><i>Biology of Birds</i></a>, New Delhi, India: Discovery Publishing House, p. 129, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7141-933-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7141-933-3"><bdi>978-81-7141-933-3</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130603193145/http://books.google.com/books?id=fDblIChi7KwC&pg=PA129">archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2013</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology+of+Birds&rft.place=New+Delhi%2C+India&rft.pages=129&rft.pub=Discovery+Publishing+House&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-81-7141-933-3&rft.aulast=Khanna&rft.aufirst=D.+R.&rft.au=Yadav%2C+P.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfDblIChi7KwC%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+nest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaag-WackernagelMoch2004">Haag-Wackernagel & Moch 2004</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080220015738/http://www.bjghw.gov.cn/forNationalStadium/indexeng.asp#11">"Competition entries for design of Beijing National Stadium"</a>. Beijing Municipal Commission of Urban Planning. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bjghw.gov.cn/forNationalStadium/indexeng.asp#11">the original</a> on 20 February 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Competition+entries+for+design+of+Beijing+National+Stadium&rft.pub=Beijing+Municipal+Commission+of+Urban+Planning&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bjghw.gov.cn%2FforNationalStadium%2Findexeng.asp%2311&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+nest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixon1902" class="citation cs2">Dixon, Charles (1902), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924000206114"><i>Birds' nests</i></a>, New York: Frederick A Stokes, p. v</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Birds%27+nests&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=v&rft.pub=Frederick+A+Stokes&rft.date=1902&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924000206114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+nest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanartifacts.com/smma/per/nesttest.htm">Artificial swallow nests</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140317105512/http://www.americanartifacts.com/smma/per/nesttest.htm">Archived</a> 17 March 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shopping.rspb.org.uk/swallow-nest.html">Terracotta nests</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140317111246/http://shopping.rspb.org.uk/swallow-nest.html">Archived</a> 17 March 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBragin,_E._A.Bragin,_A._E.Katzner,_T._E.2017" class="citation journal cs1">Bragin, E. A.; Bragin, A. E.; Katzner, T. E. (2017). "Demographic consequences of nestbox use for Red-footed Falcons <i>Falco vespertinus</i> in Central Asia". <i>Ibis</i>. <b>159</b> (4): 841–853. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fibi.12503">10.1111/ibi.12503</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ibis&rft.atitle=Demographic+consequences+of+nestbox+use+for+Red-footed+Falcons+Falco+vespertinus+in+Central+Asia&rft.volume=159&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=841-853&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fibi.12503&rft.au=Bragin%2C+E.+A.&rft.au=Bragin%2C+A.+E.&rft.au=Katzner%2C+T.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+nest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cited_texts">Cited texts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Cited texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBehrstock2001" class="citation cs2">Behrstock, Robert A. (2001), "Typical Owls", in Elphick, Chris; Dunning, John B. Jr.; Sibley, David (eds.), <i>The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behaviour</i>, London: Christopher Helm, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7136-6250-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7136-6250-4"><bdi>978-0-7136-6250-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Typical+Owls&rft.btitle=The+Sibley+Guide+to+Bird+Life+%26+Behaviour&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Christopher+Helm&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7136-6250-4&rft.aulast=Behrstock&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+nest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByrktedal1989" class="citation cs2">Byrktedal, Ingvar (1989), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/wilson/v101n04/p0579-p0590.pdf">"Nest defense behavior of Lesser Golden-Plovers"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Wilson Bull.</i>, <b>101</b> (4): 579–590</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wilson+Bull.&rft.atitle=Nest+defense+behavior+of+Lesser+Golden-Plovers&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=579-590&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Byrktedal&rft.aufirst=Ingvar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsora.unm.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fjournals%2Fwilson%2Fv101n04%2Fp0579-p0590.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+nest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCadeBird1990" class="citation cs2">Cade, T.J.; Bird, D.M. (1990), "Peregrine Falcons (<i>Falco peregrinus</i>) nesting in an urban environment: a review", <i>Can. Field-Nat.</i>, <b>104</b> (2): 209–218, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5962%2Fp.356349">10.5962/p.356349</a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Can.+Field-Nat.&rft.atitle=Peregrine+Falcons+%28Falco+peregrinus%29+nesting+in+an+urban+environment%3A+a+review&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=209-218&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5962%2Fp.356349&rft.aulast=Cade&rft.aufirst=T.J.&rft.au=Bird%2C+D.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+nest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbellLack1985" class="citation cs2">Campbell, Bruce; Lack, Elizabeth, eds. (1985), <i>A Dictionary of Birds</i>, Carlton, England: T and A D Poyser, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85661-039-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85661-039-4"><bdi>978-0-85661-039-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Birds&rft.place=Carlton%2C+England&rft.pub=T+and+A+D+Poyser&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-85661-039-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+nest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarkMason1985" class="citation cs2">Clark, L.; Mason, J. Russell (1985), "Use of nest material as insecticidal and anti-pathogenic agents by the European Starling", <i>Oecologia</i>, <b>67</b> (2): 169–176, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985Oecol..67..169C">1985Oecol..67..169C</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00384280">10.1007/BF00384280</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28311305">28311305</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32307579">32307579</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oecologia&rft.atitle=Use+of+nest+material+as+insecticidal+and+anti-pathogenic+agents+by+the+European+Starling&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=169-176&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00384280&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32307579%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28311305&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985Oecol..67..169C&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Mason%2C+J.+Russell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+nest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohn-Haft1999" class="citation cs2">Cohn-Haft, Mario (1999), "Family Nyctibiidae (Potoos)", in del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi (eds.), <a href="/wiki/Handbook_of_Birds_of_the_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Handbook of Birds of the World"><i>Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 5: Barn-owls to Hummingbirds</i></a>, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-87334-25-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-87334-25-2"><bdi>978-84-87334-25-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Family+Nyctibiidae+%28Potoos%29&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Birds+of+the+World%2C+Volume+5%3A+Barn-owls+to+Hummingbirds&rft.place=Barcelona&rft.pub=Lynx+Edicions&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-84-87334-25-2&rft.aulast=Cohn-Haft&rft.aufirst=Mario&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+nest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollar2001" class="citation cs2">Collar, N. J. 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li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bird_nests" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Bird nests">Bird nests</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Nidification" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nidification">Nidification</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/birdnests.html">Lecture notes on bird nesting</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070808102521/http://dnr.state.il.us/lands/education/wild/birdnest.htm">Department of natural resources Illinois state</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earthlife.net/birds/nests.html">Earthlife site on bird nests</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prbo.org/cms/docs/edu/activity4.pdf">Point Reyes Bird Observatory Teacher Resource Packet—Activity 4: Building Bird Nests</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngersoll1920" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Ingersoll" title="Ernest Ingersoll">Ingersoll, Ernest</a> (1920). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Birds, Nests of"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1920)/Birds,_Nests_of">"Birds, Nests of" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana" title="Encyclopedia Americana">Encyclopedia Americana</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Birds%2C+Nests+of&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Americana&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Ingersoll&rft.aufirst=Ernest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+nest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Nidification"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Nidification">"Nidification" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a></i>. 1905.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nidification&rft.btitle=New+International+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+nest" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output 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0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beak" title="Beak">Beak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avian_brain" title="Avian brain">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crop_(anatomy)#Birds" title="Crop (anatomy)">Crop</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crop_milk" title="Crop milk">milk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dactyly#bird_digits" title="Dactyly">Dactyly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_egg" title="Bird egg">Eggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">Feathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_flight" title="Bird flight">Flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uropygial_gland" title="Uropygial gland">Preen gland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plumage" title="Plumage">Plumage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_vision" title="Bird vision">Vision</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bird_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Bird behaviour">Behaviour</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_vocalization" title="Bird vocalization">Singing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_intelligence" title="Bird intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_migration" title="Bird migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avian_foraging" title="Avian foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_birds" title="Sexual selection in birds">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lek_mating" title="Lek mating">Lek mating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird_breeding_behavior" title="Seabird breeding behavior">Seabird breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_incubation#Avian_incubation" title="Egg incubation">Incubation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brood_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Brood parasite">Brood parasites</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nesting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_hybrid" title="Bird hybrid">Hybrids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_colony" title="Bird colony">Colony</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">Origin of birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theropoda" title="Theropoda">Theropoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Origin of flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Evolution of birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_finches" title="Darwin's finches">Darwin's finches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">Seabirds</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_fossil_bird_genera" title="List of fossil bird genera">Fossil birds</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Archaeopteryx" title="Archaeopteryx">Archaeopteryx</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivoropterygidae" title="Omnivoropterygidae">Omnivoropterygiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeholornithidae" title="Jeholornithidae">Jeholornithidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confuciusornithiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Confuciusornithiformes">Confuciusornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantiornithes" title="Enantiornithes">Enantiornithes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaoyangiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaoyangiformes">Chaoyangiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patagopterygiformes" title="Patagopterygiformes">Patagopterygiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiortiformes" title="Ambiortiformes">Ambiortiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songlingornithiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Songlingornithiformes">Songlingornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongshanornithidae" title="Hongshanornithidae">Hongshanornithidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gansus" title="Gansus">Gansuiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyornithes" title="Ichthyornithes">Ichthyornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesperornithes" title="Hesperornithes">Hesperornithes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithornithidae" title="Lithornithidae">Lithornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moa" title="Moa">Dinornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_bird" title="Elephant bird">Aepyornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastornithiformes" title="Gastornithiformes">Gastornithiformes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_uses_of_birds" title="Human uses of birds">Human <br />interaction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_ringing" title="Bird ringing">Ringing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithomancy" title="Ornithomancy">Ornithomancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_collections" title="Bird collections">Bird collections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birdwatching" title="Birdwatching">Birdwatching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_year" title="Big year">big year</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_feeding" title="Bird feeding">Bird feeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_conservation" title="Bird conservation">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviculture" title="Aviculture">Aviculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterfowl_hunting" title="Waterfowl hunting">Waterfowl hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cockfight" class="mw-redirect" title="Cockfight">Cockfighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigeon_racing" title="Pigeon racing">Pigeon racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falconry" title="Falconry">Falconry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pheasantry" title="Pheasantry">Pheasantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imping" title="Imping">Imping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oology" title="Oology">Egg collecting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_birds" title="List of birds">Families and orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bird_genera" title="List of bird genera">Genera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_bird_terms" title="Glossary of bird terms">Glossary of bird terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_birds_by_population" title="List of birds by population">List by population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_birds_by_region" title="Lists of birds by region">Lists by region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinct_bird_species_since_1500" title="List of extinct bird species since 1500">Extinct species since 1500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Late_Quaternary_prehistoric_bird_species" title="List of Late Quaternary prehistoric bird species">Late Quaternary prehistoric birds</a></li> <li>Notable birds <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_birds" title="List of individual birds">individuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_birds" title="List of fictional birds">fictional</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Neornithes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Neornithes</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Palaeognathae" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Palaeognathae" title="Palaeognathae">Palaeognathae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Struthionidae" title="Struthionidae">Struthioniformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(ostriches)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheidae" title="Rheidae">Rheiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(rheas)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinamou" title="Tinamou">Tinamiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(tinamous)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiwi_(bird)" title="Kiwi (bird)">Apterygiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(kiwis)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuariiformes" title="Casuariiformes">Casuariiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(emus and cassowaries)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neognathae" title="Neognathae">N<br />e<br />o<br />g<br />n<br />a<br />t<br />h<br />a<br />e</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Galloanserae_(fowls)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Galloanserae" class="mw-redirect" title="Galloanserae">G<br />a<br />l<br />l<br />o<br />a<br />n<br />s<br />e<br />r<br />a<br />e</a> <br /> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Fowl" title="Fowl">fowls</a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anseriformes" title="Anseriformes">Anseriformes</a> <br /> <span style="font-size:85%;">(waterfowls)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anatidae" title="Anatidae">Anatidae</a> <br /> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Duck" title="Duck">ducks</a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatinae" title="Anatinae">Anatinae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_duck" title="Diving duck">Aythyini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mergini" title="Mergini">Mergini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxyurini" title="Oxyurini">Oxyurini</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anserinae" title="Anserinae">Anserinae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swan" title="Swan"><span style="font-size:85%;">swans</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goose" title="Goose"><span style="font-size:85%;">true geese</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistling_duck" title="Whistling duck">Dendrocygninae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freckled_duck" title="Freckled duck">Stictonettinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadorninae" title="Tadorninae">Tadorninae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anhimidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Anhimidae">Anhimidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Horned_screamer" title="Horned screamer">Anhima</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chauna" title="Chauna">Chauna</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anseranatidae" title="Anseranatidae">Anseranatidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Magpie_goose" title="Magpie goose">Anseranas</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Galliformes" title="Galliformes">Galliformes</a> <br /> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Landfowl" class="mw-redirect" title="Landfowl">landfowls</a>-</span> <br /> <span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Gamebirds" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamebirds">gamebirds</a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cracidae" title="Cracidae">Cracidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cracinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cracinae">Cracinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oreophasinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Oreophasinae">Oreophasinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penelopinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Penelopinae">Penelopinae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megapodidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Megapodidae">Megapodidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aepypodius" title="Aepypodius">Aepypodius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alectura" class="mw-redirect" title="Alectura">Alectura</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eulipoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Eulipoa">Eulipoa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leipoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Leipoa">Leipoa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Macrocephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrocephalon">Macrocephalon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Megapodius" class="mw-redirect" title="Megapodius">Megapodius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Talegalla" title="Talegalla">Talegalla</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Numididae" class="mw-redirect" title="Numididae">Numididae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Vulturine_guineafowl" title="Vulturine guineafowl">Acryllium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Agelastes" title="Agelastes">Agelastes</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guttera" title="Guttera">Guttera</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Numida" class="mw-redirect" title="Numida">Numida</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Odontophoridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Odontophoridae">Odontophoridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Callipepla" title="Callipepla">Callipepla</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Colinus" title="Colinus">Colinus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cyrtonyx" title="Cyrtonyx">Cyrtonyx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dactylortyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Dactylortyx">Dactylortyx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dendrortyx" title="Dendrortyx">Dendrortyx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Odontophorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Odontophorus">Odontophorus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oreortyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Oreortyx">Oreortyx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philortyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Philortyx">Philortyx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhynchortyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhynchortyx">Rhynchortyx</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phasianidae" title="Phasianidae">Phasianidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meleagridinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Meleagridinae">Meleagridinae <span style="font-size:85%;">(turkeys)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perdicinae" title="Perdicinae">Perdicinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phasianinae" title="Phasianinae">Phasianinae <span style="font-size:85%;">(pheasants and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grouse" title="Grouse">Tetraoninae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neoaves" title="Neoaves">Neoaves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Columbea" title="Columbea">Columbea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Columbimorphae" title="Columbimorphae">Columbimorphae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbidae" title="Columbidae">Columbiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(doves and pigeons)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesite" title="Mesite">Mesitornithiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(mesites)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandgrouse" title="Sandgrouse">Pterocliformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(sandgrouse)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mirandornithes" title="Mirandornithes">Mirandornithes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flamingo" title="Flamingo">Phoenicopteriformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(flamingos)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grebe" title="Grebe">Podicipediformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(grebes)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Passerea" title="Passerea">Passerea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Otidimorphae" title="Otidimorphae">Otidimorphae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuckoo" title="Cuckoo">Cuculiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(cuckoos)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turaco" title="Turaco">Musophagiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(turacos)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bustard" title="Bustard">Otidiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(bustards)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strisores" title="Strisores">Strisores</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caprimulgiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Caprimulgiformes">Caprimulgiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(nightjars and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steatornithiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Steatornithiformes">Steatornithiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(oilbirds)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyctibiiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyctibiiformes">Nyctibiiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(potoos)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podargiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Podargiformes">Podargiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(frogmouths)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegotheliformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Aegotheliformes">Aegotheliformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(owlet-nightjars)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apodiformes" title="Apodiformes">Apodiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(swifts and hummingbirds)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Opisthocomiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Opisthocomiformes">Opisthocomiformes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opisthocomidae" title="Opisthocomidae">Opisthocomiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(hoatzins)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cursorimorphae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cursorimorphae">Cursorimorphae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charadriiformes" title="Charadriiformes">Charadriiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(gulls and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gruiformes" title="Gruiformes">Gruiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(cranes and relatives)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phaethontimorphae" class="mw-redirect" title="Phaethontimorphae">Phaethontimorphae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tropicbird" title="Tropicbird">Phaethontiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(tropicbirds)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurypygiformes" title="Eurypygiformes">Eurypygiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(kagus and sunbitterns)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aequornithes" title="Aequornithes">Aequornithes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loon" title="Loon">Gaviiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(loons or divers)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penguin" title="Penguin">Sphenisciformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(penguins)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procellariiformes" title="Procellariiformes">Procellariiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(albatrosses and petrels)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stork" title="Stork">Ciconiiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(storks)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suliformes" title="Suliformes">Suliformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(cormorants and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelecaniformes" title="Pelecaniformes">Pelecaniformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(pelicans and relatives)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australaves" title="Australaves">Australaves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cariamiformes" title="Cariamiformes">Cariamiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(seriemas and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falconiformes" title="Falconiformes">Falconiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(falcons and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parrot" title="Parrot">Psittaciformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(parrots)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passerine" title="Passerine">Passeriformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(perching birds)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroaves" title="Afroaves">Afroaves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accipitriformes" title="Accipitriformes">Accipitriformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(raptors)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owl" title="Owl">Strigiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(owls)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousebird" title="Mousebird">Coliiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(mousebirds)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trogon" title="Trogon">Trogoniformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(trogons and quetzals)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuckoo-roller" title="Cuckoo-roller">Leptosomiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(cuckoo-rollers)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucerotiformes" title="Bucerotiformes">Bucerotiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(hornbills and hoopoes)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coraciiformes" title="Coraciiformes">Coraciiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(kingfishers and rollers)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piciformes" title="Piciformes">Piciformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(woodpeckers and relatives)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Birds" title="Category:Birds">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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