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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " 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Available in 61 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-61" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">61 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لغة بدائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغة بدائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protollingua" title="Protollingua – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Protollingua" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91e%27%E1%BA%BDte%27ypy" title="Ñe'ẽte'ypy – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ñe'ẽte'ypy" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protodil" title="Protodil – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Protodil" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_(%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0)" title="Прамова (мовазнаўства) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Прамова (мовазнаўства)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_(%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0)" title="Прамова (мовазнаўства) – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Прамова (мовазнаўства)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-tataramon" title="Proto-tataramon – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Proto-tataramon" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Праезик – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Праезик" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentyezh" title="Kentyezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kentyezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protollengua" title="Protollengua – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Protollengua" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%C4%83%D0%BA_%D1%87%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B5" title="Кăк чĕлхе – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Кăк чĕлхе" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prajazyk" title="Prajazyk – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Prajazyk" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grundsprog" title="Grundsprog – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Grundsprog" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursprache" title="Ursprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ursprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algkeel" title="Algkeel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Algkeel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%89%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Πρωτογλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πρωτογλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protolengua" title="Protolengua – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Protolengua" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pralingvo" title="Pralingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Pralingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aitzin-hizkuntza" title="Aitzin-hizkuntza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Aitzin-hizkuntza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="نیازبان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نیازبان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-langue" title="Proto-langue – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Proto-langue" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oertaal" title="Oertaal – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Oertaal" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protolingua" title="Protolingua – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Protolingua" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B0%EC%96%B4_(%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%ED%95%99)" title="조어 (언어학) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="조어 (언어학)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%A1%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%B8%D6%82" title="Նախալեզու – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նախալեզու" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_purba" title="Bahasa purba – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa purba" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frumm%C3%A1l" title="Frummál – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Frummál" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protolingua" title="Protolingua – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Protolingua" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%9D" title="שפה אם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שפה אם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%B2_%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ಮೂಲ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮೂಲ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AB%E1%83%94%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ფუძეენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფუძეენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-ziman" title="Proto-ziman – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Proto-ziman" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Баба тил – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Баба тил" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protolingua" title="Protolingua – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Protolingua" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirmvaloda" title="Pirmvaloda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Pirmvaloda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokalb%C4%97" title="Prokalbė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Prokalbė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alapnyelv_(t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9neti_nyelv%C3%A9szet)" title="Alapnyelv (történeti nyelvészet) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Alapnyelv (történeti nyelvészet)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_purba" title="Bahasa purba – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa purba" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vooroudertaal" title="Vooroudertaal – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vooroudertaal" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="आदिम भाषा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="आदिम भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%96%E8%AA%9E" title="祖語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="祖語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urspr%C3%A5k" title="Urspråk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Urspråk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urspr%C3%A5k" title="Urspråk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Urspråk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobo_til" title="Bobo til – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Bobo til" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%8B-%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਪਰੋਟੋ-ਭਾਸ਼ਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪਰੋਟੋ-ਭਾਸ਼ਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praj%C4%99zyk" title="Prajęzyk – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Prajęzyk" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protol%C3%ADngua" title="Protolíngua – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Protolíngua" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protolimb%C4%83" title="Protolimbă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Protolimbă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angluni_chhib" title="Angluni chhib – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Angluni chhib" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Romani čhib</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Праязык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Праязык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Proto-language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prajazyk" title="Prajazyk – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Prajazyk" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Прајезик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Прајезик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kantakieli" title="Kantakieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kantakieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urspr%C3%A5k" title="Urspråk – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Urspråk" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="முந்து மொழி – Tamil" lang="ta" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Proto-language_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Proto-language (disambiguation)">Proto-language (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Tree_model" title="Tree model">tree model</a> of <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a>, a <b>proto-language</b> is a postulated ancestral language from which a number of <a href="/wiki/Attested_language" title="Attested language">attested languages</a> are believed to have descended by evolution, forming a <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language family</a>. Proto-languages are usually unattested, or partially attested at best. They are reconstructed by way of the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the family tree metaphor, a proto-language can be called a mother language. Occasionally, the German term <i><span lang="de"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Ursprache#German" class="extiw" title="wikt:Ursprache">Ursprache</a></span></i> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">pronounced</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈuːɐ̯ʃpʁaːxə]</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/7\/71\/De-Ursprache.ogg\/De-Ursprache.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"De-Ursprache.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/71/De-Ursprache.ogg/De-Ursprache.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:De-Ursprache.ogg" title="File:De-Ursprache.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span>; from <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">ur-</i></span> 'primordial', 'original' + <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Sprache</i></span> 'language') is used instead. It is also sometimes called the <i>common</i> or <i>primitive</i> form of a language (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Common_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Germanic">Common Germanic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Primitive_Norse" class="mw-redirect" title="Primitive Norse">Primitive Norse</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the strict sense, a proto-language is the most recent common ancestor of a language family, immediately before the family started to diverge into the attested <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)"><i>daughter languages</i></a>. It is therefore equivalent with the <i>ancestral language</i> or <i>parental language</i> of a language family.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moreover, a group of <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">lects</a> that are not considered separate languages, such as the members of a <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect cluster</a>, may also be described as descending from a unitary proto-language. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_and_verification">Definition and verification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition and verification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Typically, the proto-language is not known directly. It is by definition a <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">linguistic reconstruction</a> formulated by applying the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a> to a group of languages featuring similar characteristics.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tree is a statement of similarity and a hypothesis that the similarity results from descent from a common language. </p><p>The comparative method, a process of <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deduction</a>, begins from a set of characteristics, or characters, found in the attested languages. If the entire set can be accounted for by descent from the proto-language, which must contain the proto-forms of them all, the tree, or phylogeny, is regarded as a complete explanation and by <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a>, is given credibility. More recently, such a tree has been termed "perfect" and the characters labelled "compatible". </p><p>No trees but the smallest branches are ever found to be perfect, in part because languages also evolve through horizontal transfer with their neighbours. Typically, credibility is given to the hypotheses of highest compatibility. The differences in compatibility must be explained by various applications of the <a href="/wiki/Wave_model" title="Wave model">wave model</a>. The level of completeness of the reconstruction achieved varies, depending on how complete the evidence is from the descendant languages and on the formulation of the characters by the linguists working on it. Not all characters are suitable for the comparative method. For example, lexical items that are loans from a different language do not reflect the phylogeny to be tested, and, if used, will detract from the compatibility. Getting the right dataset for the comparative method is a major task in historical linguistics. </p><p>Some universally accepted proto-languages are <a href="/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language" title="Proto-Afroasiatic language">Proto-Afroasiatic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Uralic_language" title="Proto-Uralic language">Proto-Uralic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Dravidian_language" title="Proto-Dravidian language">Proto-Dravidian</a>. </p><p>In a few fortuitous instances, which have been used to verify the method and the model (and probably ultimately inspired it<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>), a literary history exists from as early as a few millennia ago, allowing the descent to be traced in detail. The early daughter languages, and even the proto-language itself, may be <a href="/wiki/Attested_language" title="Attested language">attested</a> in surviving texts. For example, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> is the proto-language of the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a> language family, which includes such modern languages as French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Catalan and Spanish. Likewise, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Norse">Proto-Norse</a>, the ancestor of the modern <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">Scandinavian languages</a>, is attested, albeit in fragmentary form, in the <a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a>. Although there are no very early <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a> inscriptions, the Indo-Aryan languages of modern India all go back to <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a> (or dialects very closely related to it), which has been preserved in texts accurately handed down by parallel oral and written traditions for many centuries. </p><p>The first person to offer systematic reconstructions of an unattested proto-language was <a href="/wiki/August_Schleicher" title="August Schleicher">August Schleicher</a>; he did so for <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> in 1861.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proto-X_vs._Pre-X">Proto-X vs. Pre-X</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Proto-X vs. Pre-X"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Normally, the term "Proto-X" refers to the last common ancestor of a group of languages, occasionally attested but most commonly reconstructed through the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a>, as with <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a>. An earlier stage of a single language X, reconstructed through the method of <a href="/wiki/Internal_reconstruction" title="Internal reconstruction">internal reconstruction</a>, is termed "Pre-X", as in Pre–Old Japanese.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also possible to apply internal reconstruction to a proto-language, obtaining a pre-proto-language, such as Pre-Proto-Indo-European.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both prefixes are sometimes used for an unattested stage of a language without reference to comparative or internal reconstruction. "Pre-X" is sometimes also used for a postulated <a href="/wiki/Substratum_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substratum (linguistics)">substratum</a>, as in the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Indo-European_languages" title="Pre-Indo-European languages">Pre-Indo-European languages</a> believed to have been spoken in Europe and South Asia before the arrival there of Indo-European languages. </p><p>When multiple historical stages of a single language exist, the oldest attested stage is normally termed "Old X" (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Japanese" title="Old Japanese">Old Japanese</a>). In other cases, such as <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>, the term refers to the language of the oldest known significant texts. Each of these languages has an older stage (<a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Norse">Proto-Norse</a> respectively) that is attested only fragmentarily. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accuracy">Accuracy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Accuracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are no objective criteria for the evaluation of different reconstruction systems yielding different proto-languages. Many researchers concerned with linguistic reconstruction agree that the traditional <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a> is an "intuitive undertaking."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The bias of the researchers regarding the accumulated implicit knowledge can also lead to erroneous assumptions and excessive generalization. <a href="#CITEREFKortlandt1993">Kortlandt (1993)</a> offers several examples in where such general assumptions concerning "the nature of language" hindered research in historical linguistics. Linguists make personal judgements on how they consider "natural" for a language to change, and </p><blockquote><p>"[as] a result, our reconstructions tend to have a strong bias toward the average language type known to the investigator." </p></blockquote> <p>Such an investigator finds themselves blinkered by their own linguistic <a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">frame of reference</a>. </p><p>The advent of the <a href="/wiki/Wave_model" title="Wave model">wave model</a> raised new issues in the domain of linguistic reconstruction, causing the reevaluation of old reconstruction systems and depriving the proto-language of its "uniform character." This is evident in <a href="/wiki/Karl_Brugmann" title="Karl Brugmann">Karl Brugmann</a>'s skepticism that the reconstruction systems could ever reflect a linguistic reality.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a> would even express a more certain opinion, completely rejecting a positive specification of the sound values of reconstruction systems.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In general, the issue of the nature of proto-language remains unresolved, with linguists generally taking either the <i>realist</i> or the <i>abstractionist</i> position. Even the widely studied proto-languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a>, have drawn criticism for being outliers typologically with respect to the reconstructed <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemic inventory</a>. The alternatives such as <a href="/wiki/Glottalic_theory" title="Glottalic theory">glottalic theory</a>, despite representing a typologically less rare system, have not gained wider acceptance, and some researchers even suggest the use of indexes to represent the disputed series of plosives. On the other end of the spectrum, <a href="#CITEREFPulgram1959">Pulgram (1959</a>:424) suggests that Proto-Indo-European reconstructions are just "a set of reconstructed formulae" and "not representative of any reality". In the same vein, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Pokorny" title="Julius Pokorny">Julius Pokorny</a> in his study on <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European</a>, claims that the linguistic term <i>IE parent language</i> is merely an abstraction, which does not exist in reality and should be understood as consisting of dialects possibly dating back to the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">paleolithic era</a> in which those dialects formed the linguistic structure of the IE language group.<sup id="cite_ref-Pokorny_1953_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pokorny_1953-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his view, Indo-European is solely a system of <a href="/wiki/Isogloss" title="Isogloss">isoglosses</a> which bound together dialects which were operationalized by <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">various tribes</a>, from which the historically attested Indo-European languages emerged.<sup id="cite_ref-Pokorny_1953_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pokorny_1953-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Proto-languages evidently remain unattested. As <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicholas_Kazanas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicholas Kazanas (page does not exist)">Nicholas Kazanas</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Kazanas" class="extiw" title="de:Nicholas Kazanas">de</a>]</span> puts it: </p> <dl><dd>"The first fallacy is that the comparative method is 'scientific' and can offer predictions."</dd> <dd>[...]</dd> <dd>"Another fallacy is very subtle: it is the tacit assumption that the reconstructed forms are actual and experts in this imaginary field discuss and argue among themselves as if they are realities."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 40em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_proto-languages" title="List of proto-languages">List of proto-languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">Comparative method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_reconstruction" title="Internal reconstruction">Internal reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japhetic_theory" title="Japhetic theory">Japhetic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Human_language" title="Proto-Human language">Proto-Human language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_language" title="Universal language">Universal language</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2007" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Lyle (2007). <i>Glossary of Historical Linguistics</i>. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 158–159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-3019-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-3019-6"><bdi>978-0-7486-3019-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Glossary+of+Historical+Linguistics&rft.pages=158-159&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-3019-6&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Lyle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoweLevine2015" class="citation book cs1">Rowe, Bruce M.; Levine, Diane P. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ePQ5CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA340"><i>A Concise Introduction to Linguistics</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 340–341. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-34928-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-34928-0"><bdi>978-1-317-34928-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+Introduction+to+Linguistics&rft.pages=340-341&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-34928-0&rft.aulast=Rowe&rft.aufirst=Bruce+M.&rft.au=Levine%2C+Diane+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DePQ5CgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA340&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoerner1999" class="citation cs2">Koerner, E F K (1999), <i>Linguistic historiography: projects & prospects</i>, Amsterdam studies in the theory and history of linguistic science; Ser. 3, Studies in the history of the language sciences, Amsterdam [u.a.]: J. Benjamins, p. 109, <q>First, the historical linguist does not reconstruct a language (or part of the language) but a model which represents or is intended to represent the underlying system or systems of such a language.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linguistic+historiography%3A+projects+%26+prospects&rft.place=Amsterdam+%5Bu.a.%5D&rft.series=Amsterdam+studies+in+the+theory+and+history+of+linguistic+science%3B+Ser.+3%2C+Studies+in+the+history+of+the+language+sciences&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=J.+Benjamins&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Koerner&rft.aufirst=E+F+K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLehmann1993">Lehmann 1993</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lyle_Campbell" title="Lyle Campbell">Campbell, Lyle</a> (2013). <i>Historical Linguistics: An Introduction</i> (3rd ed.). Edinburgh University Press. p. 199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4601-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4601-2"><bdi>978-0-7486-4601-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Linguistics%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=199&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Lyle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Campbell (2013), p. 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schwink, Frederick W.: Linguistic Typology, Universality and the Realism of Reconstruction, Washington 1994. "Part of the process of 'becoming' a competent Indo-Europeanist has always been recognized as coming to grasp 'intuitively' concepts and types of changes in language so as to be able to pick and choose between alternative explanations for the history and development of specific features of the reconstructed language and its offspring."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrugmannDelbrück1904">Brugmann & Delbrück (1904</a>:25)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSaussure1969">Saussure (1969</a>:303)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pokorny_1953-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pokorny_1953_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pokorny_1953_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPokorny1953">Pokorny (1953</a>:79–80)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kazanas N. 2009 <i>Indo-Aryan Origins</i>… N. Delhi, Aditya Prakashan. 2015 <i>Vedic & Indo-European Studies</i> N. Delhi, Aditya Prakashan.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehmann1993" class="citation cs2">Lehmann, Winfred P. (1993), <i>Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics</i>, London, New York: Taylor & Francis Group (Routledge)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theoretical+Bases+of+Indo-European+Linguistics&rft.place=London%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis+Group+%28Routledge%29&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Lehmann&rft.aufirst=Winfred+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchleicher1861" class="citation cs2">Schleicher, August (1861–1862), <i>Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen: 2 volumes</i>, Weimar: H. Boehlau (Reprint: Minerva GmbH, Wissenschaftlicher Verlag), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8102-1071-4" title="Special:BookSources/3-8102-1071-4"><bdi>3-8102-1071-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Compendium+der+vergleichenden+Grammatik+der+indogermanischen+Sprachen%3A+2+volumes&rft.place=Weimar&rft.pub=H.+Boehlau+%28Reprint%3A+Minerva+GmbH%2C+Wissenschaftlicher+Verlag%29&rft.date=1861%2F1862&rft.isbn=3-8102-1071-4&rft.aulast=Schleicher&rft.aufirst=August&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKortlandt1993" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Frederik_Kortlandt" title="Frederik Kortlandt">Kortlandt, Frederik</a> (1993), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art130e.pdf"><i>General Linguistics and Indo-European Reconstruction</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+Linguistics+and+Indo-European+Reconstruction&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Kortlandt&rft.aufirst=Frederik&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kortlandt.nl%2Fpublications%2Fart130e.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-language" class="Z3988"></span> (revised text of a paper read at the Institute of general and applied linguistics, University of Copenhagen, on December 2, 1993)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrugmannDelbrück1904" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Brugmann" title="Karl Brugmann">Brugmann, Karl</a>; Delbrück, Berthold (1904), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kurzevergleichen00brug"><i>Kurze vergleichende Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen</i></a> (in German), Strassburg</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kurze+vergleichende+Grammatik+der+indogermanischen+Sprachen&rft.place=Strassburg&rft.date=1904&rft.aulast=Brugmann&rft.aufirst=Karl&rft.au=Delbr%C3%BCck%2C+Berthold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkurzevergleichen00brug&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-language" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaussure1969" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Saussure, Ferdinand de</a> (1969), <i>Cours de linguistique générale</i> [<i><a href="/wiki/Course_in_General_Linguistics" title="Course in General Linguistics">Course in General Linguistics</a></i>] (in French), Paris</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cours+de+linguistique+g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale&rft.place=Paris&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Saussure&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand+de&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-language" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulgram1959" class="citation cs2">Pulgram, Ernst (1959), "Proto-Indo-European Reality and Reconstruction", <i>Language</i>, <b>35</b> (Jul.–Sept): 421–426, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F411229">10.2307/411229</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/411229">411229</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=Proto-Indo-European+Reality+and+Reconstruction&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=Jul.%E2%80%93Sept&rft.pages=421-426&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F411229&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F411229%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Pulgram&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPokorny1953" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Pokorny" title="Julius Pokorny">Pokorny, Julius</a> (1953), <i>Allgemeine und Vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft – Indogermanistik</i> [<i>General and Comparative Linguistics - Indo-European Studies</i>], vol. 2, Bern: A. Francke AG Verlag, pp. 79–80</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Allgemeine+und+Vergleichende+Sprachwissenschaft+%E2%80%93+Indogermanistik&rft.place=Bern&rft.pages=79-80&rft.pub=A.+Francke+AG+Verlag&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Pokorny&rft.aufirst=Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-language" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Long-range_comparative_linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Long-range comparative linguistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Long-range_comparative_linguistics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Long-range <a href="/wiki/Comparative_linguistics" title="Comparative linguistics">comparative linguistics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">Comparative method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymological_dictionary" title="Etymological dictionary">Etymological dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">Glottochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicostatistics" title="Lexicostatistics">Lexicostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">Linguistic reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_reconstruction" title="Internal reconstruction">Internal reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_universal" title="Linguistic universal">Linguistic universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrofamily" title="Macrofamily">Macrofamily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_comparison" title="Mass comparison">Mass comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolinguistics" title="Paleolinguistics">Paleolinguistics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swadesh_list" title="Swadesh list">Swadesh list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolgopolsky_list" title="Dolgopolsky list">Dolgopolsky list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leipzig%E2%80%93Jakarta_list" title="Leipzig–Jakarta list">Leipzig–Jakarta list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Language families</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-human_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-human language">Proto-human</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borean_languages" title="Borean languages">Borean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amerind_languages" title="Amerind languages">Amerind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostratic_languages" title="Nostratic languages">Nostratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamo-Dravidian_languages" title="Elamo-Dravidian languages">Elamo-Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasiatic_languages" title="Eurasiatic languages">Eurasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural-Altaic_languages" title="Ural-Altaic languages">Ural-Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Uralic_languages" title="Indo-Uralic languages">Indo-Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Uralic_languages" title="Sino-Uralic languages">Sino-Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Den%C3%A9%E2%80%93Caucasian_languages" title="Dené–Caucasian languages">Dené–Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasian_languages" title="North Caucasian languages">North Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austric_languages" title="Austric languages">Austric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pacific_languages" title="Indo-Pacific languages">Indo-Pacific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Bengtson" title="John Bengtson">John Bengtson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Bla%C5%BEek" title="Václav Blažek">Václav Blažek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_R._Bomhard" title="Allan R. Bomhard">Allan R. Bomhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Burlak" title="Svetlana Burlak">Svetlana Burlak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aharon_Dolgopolsky" title="Aharon Dolgopolsky">Aharon Dolgopolsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Dybo" title="Vladimir Dybo">Vladimir Dybo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_C._Fleming" title="Harold C. Fleming">Harold C. Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Helimski" title="Eugene Helimski">Eugene Helimski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Murray Gell-Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladislav_Illich-Svitych" title="Vladislav Illich-Svitych">Vladislav Illich-Svitych</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederik_Kortlandt" title="Frederik Kortlandt">Frederik Kortlandt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Manaster_Ramer" title="Alexis Manaster Ramer">Alexis Manaster Ramer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Nikolaev_(linguist)" title="Sergei Nikolaev (linguist)">Sergei Nikolaev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorin_Paliga" title="Sorin Paliga">Sorin Paliga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holger_Pedersen_(linguist)" title="Holger Pedersen (linguist)">Holger Pedersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilia_Peiros" title="Ilia Peiros">Ilia Peiros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martine_Robbeets" title="Martine Robbeets">Martine Robbeets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merritt_Ruhlen" title="Merritt Ruhlen">Merritt Ruhlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Shevoroshkin" title="Vitaly Shevoroshkin">Vitaly Shevoroshkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgiy_Starostin" title="Georgiy Starostin">Georgiy Starostin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Starostin" title="Sergei Starostin">Sergei Starostin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_Trombetti" title="Alfredo Trombetti">Alfredo Trombetti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Language_Relationship" title="Journal of Language Relationship">Journal of Language Relationship</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mother_Tongue_(journal)" title="Mother Tongue (journal)">Mother Tongue</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Etymological_Dictionary_of_the_Altaic_Languages" title="Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages">Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Languages_of_Africa" title="The Languages of Africa">The Languages of Africa</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions and schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Human_Languages" title="Evolution of Human Languages">Evolution of Human Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Linguistics_of_the_Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences">Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_School_of_Comparative_Linguistics" title="Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics">Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_State_University_for_the_Humanities" title="Russian State University for the Humanities">Russian State University for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_Institute" title="Santa Fe Institute">Santa Fe Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 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