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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Slavery in the American Revolution and early republic</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Slavery_in_the_American_Revolution_and_early_republic-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Slavery in the American Revolution and early republic subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_the_American_Revolution_and_early_republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Slaves_and_free_blacks_who_supported_the_Continental_Army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slaves_and_free_blacks_who_supported_the_Continental_Army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Slaves and free blacks who supported the Continental Army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slaves_and_free_blacks_who_supported_the_Continental_Army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Black_Loyalists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_Loyalists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Black Loyalists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_Loyalists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_abolitionism_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_abolitionism_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Early abolitionism in the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_abolitionism_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitution_of_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitution_of_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Constitution of the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitution_of_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Three-fifths_Compromise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three-fifths_Compromise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Three-fifths Compromise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three-fifths_Compromise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_the_19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_the_19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Slavery in the 19th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Slavery_in_the_19th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Slavery in the 19th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_the_19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Justifications_in_the_South" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Justifications_in_the_South"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Justifications in the South</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Justifications_in_the_South-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-American_slavery_as_"a_necessary_evil"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_slavery_as_"a_necessary_evil""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>American slavery as "a necessary evil"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_slavery_as_"a_necessary_evil"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_slavery_as_"a_positive_good"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_slavery_as_"a_positive_good""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>American slavery as "a positive good"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_slavery_as_"a_positive_good"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proposed_expansion_of_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proposed_expansion_of_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Proposed expansion of slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proposed_expansion_of_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abolitionism_in_the_North" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abolitionism_in_the_North"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Abolitionism in the North</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abolitionism_in_the_North-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prohibiting_the_international_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prohibiting_the_international_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Prohibiting the international trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prohibiting_the_international_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_of_1812" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_of_1812"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>War of 1812</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_of_1812-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slave_rebellions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slave_rebellions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Slave rebellions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slave_rebellions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-revolution_Southern_manumissions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-revolution_Southern_manumissions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Post-revolution Southern manumissions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-revolution_Southern_manumissions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Female_slave_owners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Female_slave_owners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Female slave owners</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Female_slave_owners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Black_slave_owners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_slave_owners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Black slave owners</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_slave_owners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Native_American_slave_owners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Native_American_slave_owners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Native American slave owners</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Native_American_slave_owners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_demand_and_smuggling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_demand_and_smuggling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>High demand and smuggling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High_demand_and_smuggling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonization_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonization_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Colonization movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonization_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Domestic_slave_trade_and_forced_migration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic_slave_trade_and_forced_migration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12</span> <span>Domestic slave trade and forced migration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domestic_slave_trade_and_forced_migration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.13</span> <span>Treatment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commodification_of_human_tissue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commodification_of_human_tissue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.14</span> <span>Commodification of human tissue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commodification_of_human_tissue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_abuse,_reproductive_exploitation,_and_breeding_farms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_abuse,_reproductive_exploitation,_and_breeding_farms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.15</span> <span>Sexual abuse, reproductive exploitation, and breeding farms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_abuse,_reproductive_exploitation,_and_breeding_farms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slave_codes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slave_codes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.16</span> <span>Slave codes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slave_codes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.17</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mandatory_illiteracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mandatory_illiteracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.18</span> <span>Mandatory illiteracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mandatory_illiteracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freedom_suits_and_Dred_Scott" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freedom_suits_and_Dred_Scott"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.19</span> <span>Freedom suits and Dred Scott</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freedom_suits_and_Dred_Scott-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1850_to_the_firing_on_Fort_Sumter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1850_to_the_firing_on_Fort_Sumter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.20</span> <span>1850 to the firing on Fort Sumter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1850_to_the_firing_on_Fort_Sumter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_War_and_emancipation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_War_and_emancipation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Civil War and emancipation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Civil_War_and_emancipation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Civil War and emancipation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Civil_War_and_emancipation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-American_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>American Civil War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emancipation_Proclamation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emancipation_Proclamation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Emancipation Proclamation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emancipation_Proclamation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>End of slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reconstruction_to_the_present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reconstruction_to_the_present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Reconstruction to the present</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reconstruction_to_the_present-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reconstruction to the present subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reconstruction_to_the_present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Convict_leasing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Convict_leasing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Convict leasing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Convict_leasing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Educational_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Educational_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Educational issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Educational_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Apologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Apologies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Political legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Economics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Economics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Efficiency_of_slaves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efficiency_of_slaves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Efficiency of slaves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efficiency_of_slaves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prices_of_slaves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prices_of_slaves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Prices of slaves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prices_of_slaves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_Southern_economic_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_Southern_economic_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Effects on Southern economic development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_Southern_economic_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_economy_of_American_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_economy_of_American_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Sexual economy of American slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_economy_of_American_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography_and_demography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography_and_demography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Geography and demography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geography_and_demography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Geography and demography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Geography_and_demography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Slave_importation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slave_importation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Slave importation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slave_importation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins_of_American_slaves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_American_slaves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Origins of American slaves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_American_slaves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution_of_slaves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution_of_slaves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Distribution of slaves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distribution_of_slaves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution_of_slaveholders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution_of_slaveholders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Distribution of slaveholders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distribution_of_slaveholders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Histories_of_slavery_in_the_Western_Hemisphere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Histories_of_slavery_in_the_Western_Hemisphere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Histories of slavery in the Western Hemisphere</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Histories_of_slavery_in_the_Western_Hemisphere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-National_and_comparative_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_and_comparative_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>National and comparative studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_and_comparative_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Journal_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journal_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1.1</span> <span>Journal articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journal_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Videos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Videos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1.2</span> <span>Videos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Videos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_and_the_Constitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_and_the_Constitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Slavery and the Constitution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_and_the_Constitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Journal_articles_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journal_articles_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2.1</span> <span>Journal articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journal_articles_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_and_local_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_and_local_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>State and local studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_and_local_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Videos_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Videos_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3.1</span> <span>Videos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Videos_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography_and_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_and_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.4</span> <span>Historiography and memory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography_and_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.5</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholarly_books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholarly_books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.6</span> <span>Scholarly books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholarly_books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholarly_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholarly_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.7</span> <span>Scholarly articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholarly_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oral_histories_and_autobiographies_of_ex-slaves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oral_histories_and_autobiographies_of_ex-slaves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.8</span> <span>Oral histories and autobiographies of ex-slaves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oral_histories_and_autobiographies_of_ex-slaves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliographies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliographies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.9</span> <span>Bibliographies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliographies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discussions_by_foreigners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discussions_by_foreigners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.10</span> <span>Discussions by foreigners</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discussions_by_foreigners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literary_and_cultural_criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_and_cultural_criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.11</span> <span>Literary and cultural criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_and_cultural_criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Documentary_films" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Documentary_films"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.12</span> <span>Documentary films</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Documentary_films-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Slavery in the United States</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 36 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-36" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">36 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="العبودية في الولايات المتحدة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العبودية في الولايات المتحدة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/AB%C5%9E-d%C9%99_k%C3%B6l%C9%99lik" title="ABŞ-də köləlik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="ABŞ-də köləlik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esclavitud_als_Estats_Units" title="Esclavitud als Estats Units – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Esclavitud als Estats Units" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaveriet_i_USA" title="Slaveriet i USA – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Slaveriet i USA" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sklaverei_in_den_Vereinigten_Staaten" title="Sklaverei in den Vereinigten Staaten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sklaverei in den Vereinigten Staaten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%82_%CE%97%CE%A0%CE%91" title="Δουλεία στις ΗΠΑ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δουλεία στις ΗΠΑ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esclavitud_en_los_Estados_Unidos" title="Esclavitud en los Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Esclavitud en los Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="برده‌داری در ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="برده‌داری در ایالات متحده آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esclavage_aux_%C3%89tats-Unis" title="Esclavage aux États-Unis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Esclavage aux États-Unis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD%EC%9D%98_%EB%85%B8%EC%98%88%EC%A0%9C" title="미국의 노예제 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미국의 노예제" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A8_%D4%B1%D5%84%D5%86-%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Ստրկությունը ԱՄՆ-ում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ստրկությունը ԱՄՆ-ում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perbudakan_di_Amerika_Serikat" title="Perbudakan di Amerika Serikat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perbudakan di Amerika Serikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schiavit%C3%B9_negli_Stati_Uniti_d%27America" title="Schiavitù negli Stati Uniti d'America – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Schiavitù negli Stati Uniti d'America" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="עבדות בארצות הברית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עבדות בארצות הברית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xulamt%C3%AE_li_DYAy%C3%AA" title="Xulamtî li DYAyê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Xulamtî li DYAyê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdz%C4%ABba_ASV" title="Verdzība ASV – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Verdzība ASV" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%A1%D0%90%D0%94" title="Ропството во САД – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ропството во САД" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perhambaan_di_Amerika_Syarikat" title="Perhambaan di Amerika Syarikat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perhambaan di Amerika Syarikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavernij_in_de_Verenigde_Staten" title="Slavernij in de Verenigde Staten – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Slavernij in de Verenigde Staten" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E5%90%88%E8%A1%86%E5%9B%BD%E3%81%AE%E5%A5%B4%E9%9A%B7%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="アメリカ合衆国の奴隷制度の歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アメリカ合衆国の奴隷制度の歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaveri_i_USA" title="Slaveri i USA – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Slaveri i USA" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7_%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%BA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A" title="په امریکا کی غلامي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="په امریکا کی غلامي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niewolnictwo_w_Stanach_Zjednoczonych" title="Niewolnictwo w Stanach Zjednoczonych – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Niewolnictwo w Stanach Zjednoczonych" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escravid%C3%A3o_nos_Estados_Unidos" title="Escravidão nos Estados Unidos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Escravidão nos Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclavia_%C3%AEn_Statele_Unite_ale_Americii" title="Sclavia în Statele Unite ale Americii – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sclavia în Statele Unite ale Americii" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Рабство в США – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Рабство в США" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Slavery in the United States" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orjuus_Yhdysvalloissa" title="Orjuus Yhdysvalloissa – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Orjuus Yhdysvalloissa" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaveri_i_USA" title="Slaveri i USA – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" 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class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in the United States">History of slavery in the United States</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about slavery from the founding of the United States in 1776. For the colonial period, see <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the United States</a>. For modern illegal slavery, see <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking in the United States</a>. For modern legal forced labor, see <a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">Penal labor in the United States</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Peculiar institution" redirects here. 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class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:114px;max-width:114px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:172px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Torturing_American_citizens_page_129.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Torturing_American_citizens_page_129.jpg/112px-Torturing_American_citizens_page_129.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Torturing_American_citizens_page_129.jpg/168px-Torturing_American_citizens_page_129.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Torturing_American_citizens_page_129.jpg/224px-Torturing_American_citizens_page_129.jpg 2x" data-file-width="713" data-file-height="1096" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:174px;max-width:174px"><div 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height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Adam_Crosswhite.jpg/149px-Adam_Crosswhite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Adam_Crosswhite.jpg/198px-Adam_Crosswhite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="997" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:187px;max-width:187px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:128px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_and_Armfield_slave_prison_Alexandria_Virginia_1836.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Franklin_and_Armfield_slave_prison_Alexandria_Virginia_1836.png/185px-Franklin_and_Armfield_slave_prison_Alexandria_Virginia_1836.png" decoding="async" width="185" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Franklin_and_Armfield_slave_prison_Alexandria_Virginia_1836.png/278px-Franklin_and_Armfield_slave_prison_Alexandria_Virginia_1836.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Franklin_and_Armfield_slave_prison_Alexandria_Virginia_1836.png/370px-Franklin_and_Armfield_slave_prison_Alexandria_Virginia_1836.png 2x" data-file-width="1458" data-file-height="1013" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:173px;max-width:173px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:170px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Detail_of_Contrabands_Aboard_U.S._Ship_Vermont,_Port_Royal,_South_Carolina_MET_DP254888.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Detail_of_Contrabands_Aboard_U.S._Ship_Vermont%2C_Port_Royal%2C_South_Carolina_MET_DP254888.jpg/171px-Detail_of_Contrabands_Aboard_U.S._Ship_Vermont%2C_Port_Royal%2C_South_Carolina_MET_DP254888.jpg" decoding="async" width="171" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Detail_of_Contrabands_Aboard_U.S._Ship_Vermont%2C_Port_Royal%2C_South_Carolina_MET_DP254888.jpg/257px-Detail_of_Contrabands_Aboard_U.S._Ship_Vermont%2C_Port_Royal%2C_South_Carolina_MET_DP254888.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Detail_of_Contrabands_Aboard_U.S._Ship_Vermont%2C_Port_Royal%2C_South_Carolina_MET_DP254888.jpg/342px-Detail_of_Contrabands_Aboard_U.S._Ship_Vermont%2C_Port_Royal%2C_South_Carolina_MET_DP254888.jpg 2x" data-file-width="548" data-file-height="548" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:115px;max-width:115px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:170px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:DeliaGarlic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/DeliaGarlic.jpg/113px-DeliaGarlic.jpg" decoding="async" width="113" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/DeliaGarlic.jpg/170px-DeliaGarlic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/DeliaGarlic.jpg/226px-DeliaGarlic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="681" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:120px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:J_Allentharp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/J_Allentharp.jpg/180px-J_Allentharp.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/J_Allentharp.jpg/270px-J_Allentharp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/J_Allentharp.jpg/360px-J_Allentharp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="694" data-file-height="464" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:106px;max-width:106px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:120px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ezra_Greenleaf_Weld_(American_-_Fugitive_Slave_Law_Convention,_Cazenovia,_New_York_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Ezra_Greenleaf_Weld_%28American_-_Fugitive_Slave_Law_Convention%2C_Cazenovia%2C_New_York_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/104px-Ezra_Greenleaf_Weld_%28American_-_Fugitive_Slave_Law_Convention%2C_Cazenovia%2C_New_York_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="104" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Ezra_Greenleaf_Weld_%28American_-_Fugitive_Slave_Law_Convention%2C_Cazenovia%2C_New_York_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/156px-Ezra_Greenleaf_Weld_%28American_-_Fugitive_Slave_Law_Convention%2C_Cazenovia%2C_New_York_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Ezra_Greenleaf_Weld_%28American_-_Fugitive_Slave_Law_Convention%2C_Cazenovia%2C_New_York_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/208px-Ezra_Greenleaf_Weld_%28American_-_Fugitive_Slave_Law_Convention%2C_Cazenovia%2C_New_York_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3495" data-file-height="4031" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:87px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MS-Indianola-Bettersworth0001_DESTROYED_1960s_White_Gold_in_the_Delta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/MS-Indianola-Bettersworth0001_DESTROYED_1960s_White_Gold_in_the_Delta.jpg/288px-MS-Indianola-Bettersworth0001_DESTROYED_1960s_White_Gold_in_the_Delta.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/MS-Indianola-Bettersworth0001_DESTROYED_1960s_White_Gold_in_the_Delta.jpg/432px-MS-Indianola-Bettersworth0001_DESTROYED_1960s_White_Gold_in_the_Delta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/MS-Indianola-Bettersworth0001_DESTROYED_1960s_White_Gold_in_the_Delta.jpg/576px-MS-Indianola-Bettersworth0001_DESTROYED_1960s_White_Gold_in_the_Delta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1488" data-file-height="451" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Torture_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Torture of slaves in the United States">Whipping a slave</a>, wood-engraving made 1834; <a href="/wiki/Wilson_Chinn" title="Wilson Chinn">Wilson Chinn</a>, showing a slave collar and facial branding of the initials of his enslaver, Valsin B. Marmillion; slavery survivor <a href="/wiki/Adam_Crosswhite" title="Adam Crosswhite">Adam Crosswhite</a> photographed 1878; <a href="/wiki/Franklin_%26_Armfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin & Armfield">Franklin & Armfield</a>'s slave jail in the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a>, 1836; freedmen leaving South Carolina on the <a href="/wiki/USS_Vermont_(1848)" title="USS Vermont (1848)">USS <i>Vermont</i></a> in 1862; <a href="/wiki/Delia_Garlic" title="Delia Garlic">Delia Garlic</a> at age 100; 1818 Kentucky <a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">slave trader</a>'s ad; daguerreotype made at the 1850 <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Convention" title="Fugitive Slave Convention">Fugitive Slave Convention</a>; <i>White Gold in the Delta</i>, painted 1939 by Beulah Bettersworth for the <a href="/wiki/Indianola,_Mississippi" title="Indianola, Mississippi">Indianola, Mississippi</a> post office, mural destroyed 1960s</div></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery" title="Category:Slavery">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shackles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/125px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/188px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/250px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="272" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Contemporary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">Involuntary servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st-century jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Historical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Antiquity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law#Three_classes" title="Babylonian law">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Medieval Europe</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">Ancillae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">In Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim world</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">Slavery in al-Andalus</a> ‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Contract of manumission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_on_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Slavery on the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Concubinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_imperial_harem" title="Safavid imperial harem">Safavid imperial harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarya" title="Jarya">Jarya</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odalisque" title="Odalisque">Odalisque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">Umm al-walad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st century</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantes_slave_trade" title="Nantes slave trade">Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyarring" title="Panyarring">Panyarring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Thirteen colonies</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Topics and practice</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">House slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">Slave market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">Slave raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_children_in_the_military" title="History of children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Naval</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghaiing" title="Shanghaiing">Shanghaiing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By country or region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Chad" title="Human trafficking in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali slave trade">Somali slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">North and South America</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Pre-Columbian America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Americas indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">U.S. Natives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery in the United States">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">prison labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">interregional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Bahamas" title="Slavery in the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbados_Slave_Code" title="Barbados Slave Code">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Slavery in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Trinidad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Colombia" title="Slavery in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">Haiti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restavek" title="Restavek">Restavek</a></li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Asia" title="Slavery in Asia">East, Southeast, and South Asia</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Human trafficking in Southeast Asia">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukri_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukri System">Chukri System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwalliso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mongol Empire">Slavery in the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Thailand" title="Slavery in Thailand">Thailand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="United States military and prostitution in South Korea">Yankee princess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Vietnam" title="Slavery in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Oceania">Australia and Oceania</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding_in_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raiding in Easter Island">Slave raiding in Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding_in_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbirding in Polynesia">Blackbirding in Polynesia</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Europe and North Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Sex trafficking in Europe">Sex trafficking in Europe</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Penal labour in the United Kingdom">Penal Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_slave_trade" title="Danish slave trade">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Germany in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Sweden</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>North Africa and West Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking in the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iraq" title="Slavery in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Jordan" title="Slavery in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Lebanon" title="Slavery in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Palestine" title="Slavery in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Syria" title="Slavery in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and slavery">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Opposition and resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">Abolitionists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">Colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">Freedom suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">Slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_slave_trade_in_Persian_gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf (page does not exist)">Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AC_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="fa:ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس">fa</a>]</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Convention" title="Fugitive Slave Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_survivors_of_American_slavery" title="List of last survivors of American slavery">last survivors of American slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slavery-related_memorials_and_museums" title="List of slavery-related memorials and museums">List of slavery-related memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">Slave Route Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">J.Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Lincoln</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_iron_bit" title="Slave iron bit">Iron bit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Periods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_Revolutionary_War" title="African Americans in the Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Antebellum period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">military history</a> during the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_officeholders_during_Reconstruction" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American officeholders during Reconstruction">Politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Jim Crow era (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement (1954–1968)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Aspects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American history of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Belt_in_the_American_South" title="Black Belt in the American South">Black Belt in the American South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">Business history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment of the enslaved</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Migrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New Great Migration</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lifeways</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American cinema">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Schools</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_of_freed_people_during_the_Civil_War" title="Education of freed people during the Civil War">Education of freed people during the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">History of African-American education</a>, after the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_fraternities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American fraternities">Fraternities</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Academic study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Celebrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_History_Month" title="Black History Month">Black History Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Economic class</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">African-American businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Symbols and ideas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_beauty" title="African-American beauty">African-American beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_is_beautiful" title="Black is beautiful">Black is beautiful</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_pride" title="Black pride">Black pride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">African-American hair</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Good hair">Good hair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepping_(African-American)" title="Stepping (African-American)">Stepping</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Lift Every Voice and Sing</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Institutions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Theologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Non-Christian groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">African-American Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Louisiana Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">African Diaspora Religions</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus" title="Congressional Black Caucus">Congressional Black Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Center_for_Political_and_Economic_Studies" title="Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies">Joint Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Caucus_of_State_Legislators" title="National Black Caucus of State Legislators">National Black Caucus of State Legislators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conference_of_Black_Mayors" title="National Conference of Black Mayors">National Conference of Black Mayors</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Ideologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_liberalism" title="Black liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_patriotism" title="African-American patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Civic/economic groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African<br />American Life and History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conductors" title="Black conductors">Black conductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TransAfrica" title="TransAfrica">TransAfrica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">UNCF</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sports</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Athletic associations and conferences</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HBCU_Athletic_Conference" title="HBCU Athletic Conference">HBCU (HBCUAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sub-communities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Multiethnic</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Puerto_Ricans" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Puerto Ricans">Afro-Puerto Ricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mascogos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brass_Ankles" title="Brass Ankles">Brass Ankles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominickers" title="Dominickers">Dominickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen_(ethnic_group)" title="Freedmen (ethnic group)">Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carmel_Indians" title="Carmel Indians">Carmel Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbone_(ethnicity)" title="Redbone (ethnicity)">Redbone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Specific ancestries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Americo-Liberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Merikins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Samaná Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Sexual orientation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Dialects and languages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> English dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberian_English" title="Liberian English">Liberian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_English" title="Samaná English">Samaná English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutnese" title="Tutnese">Tutnese</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Languages and other dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Jersey Dutch">Negro Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Population</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US states</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">List of neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas-Fort_Worth" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Dallas-Fort Worth">Dallas-Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_the_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American historic places in the District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Florida" title="List of African-American historic places in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Georgia" title="List of African-American historic places in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Mississippi" title="List of African-American historic places in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Missouri" title="List of African-American historic places in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="List of African-American historic places in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_North_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_South_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Texas" title="List of African-American historic places in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_West_Virginia" title="List of African-American historic places in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Population count</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">US states and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">US metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_African-American_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations">US cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations">US communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States_with_African-American_plurality_populations" title="List of populated places in the United States with African-American plurality populations">Places by plurality of population</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Canada" title="African Americans in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Prejudice</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Racism</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States census">Race and ethnicity in the US census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism against Black Americans">Racism against Black Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery" title="Reparations for slavery">Reparations for slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unarmed_African_Americans_killed_by_law_enforcement_officers_in_the_United_States" title="List of unarmed African Americans killed by law enforcement officers in the United States">Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_African_Americans_in_media" title="Representation of African Americans in media">media depictions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackface" title="Blackface">Blackface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_stereotype_of_African_Americans" title="Criminal stereotype of African Americans">Criminal stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_representation_in_Hollywood" title="African-American representation in Hollywood">Hollywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_Negro" title="Magical Negro">Magical Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel_show" title="Minstrel show">Minstrel show</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border-top:none;font-size:97%;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_people" title="Category:African-American people">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template talk:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> in the United States</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0.7em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Native America"><img alt="Native America" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png/55px-Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png/83px-Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png/110px-Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="593" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_stage" title="Lithic stage">Lithic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic period in the Americas">Archaic period in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formative_stage" title="Formative stage">Formative stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide#Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American slaves">Slavery</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_slave_ownership" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American slave ownership">Native American slave ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Cultural assimilation of Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Racism against Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Integrity_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial Integrity Act">Racial Integrity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act_of_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reorganization Act of 1934">Indian Reorganization Act of 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_movement" title="Red Power movement">Red Power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American rights">Native American rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">Alcohol and Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_temperance_activists" title="Native American temperance activists">Native American temperance activists</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_cultures_in_the_United_States" title="Native American cultures in the United States">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam"> Hohokam culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_cuisine_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous cuisine of the Americas">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Pow wow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Film_and_Video_Festival" title="Native American Film and Video Festival">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples%27_Day_(United_States)" title="Indigenous Peoples' Day (United States)">Indigenous Peoples' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_literature" title="Mesoamerican literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_fashion" title="Native American fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal sovereignty">Tribal sovereignty</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">Wars</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Anglo-Powhatan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kieft%27s_War" title="Kieft's War">Kieft's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peach_Tree_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Peach Tree War">Peach Tree War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esopus_Wars" title="Esopus Wars">Esopus Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara_War" title="Arikara War">Arikara War</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Osage Indian War">Osage Indian War </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Wars" title="Comanche Wars">Comanche Wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_expedition" title="Antelope Hills expedition">(1858)|Antelope Hills expedition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Comanche Campaign">Comanche Campaign (1867–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_River_War" title="Red River War">Red River War (1874–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Hunters%27_War" title="Buffalo Hunters' War">Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars (1849–1924)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_War" title="Jicarilla War">Jicarilla War (1849–1855)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Chiricahua_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavapai War">Tonto War (1871–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Victorio%27s_War" title="Victorio's War">Victorio's War (1879–1880)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Geronimo's_War" title="Apache Wars">Geronimo's War (1881–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Post_1887_Apache_Wars_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Post 1887 Apache Wars period">Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuma_War" title="Yuma War">Yuma War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars(1850–1923)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_at_Fort_Utah" title="Battle at Fort Utah">Battle at Fort Utah (1850)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walkara#Walker_War" title="Walkara">Walker War (1853–1854)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tintic_War" title="Tintic War">Tintic War (1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%9372)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hawk War (1865–72)">Black Hawk War (1865–1872)</a> / <a href="/wiki/White_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="White River War">White River War (1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute War (1887)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bluff_War" title="Bluff War">Bluff War (1914–1915)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Bluff Skirmish (1921)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War (1923)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars" title="Sioux Wars">Sioux Wars (1854–1891)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars#First_Sioux_War" title="Sioux Wars">First Sioux War (1854-1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War (1862)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War (1863–1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition_(1865)" title="Powder River Expedition (1865)">Powder River War (1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War (1866–1868)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War (1876–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance_War" title="Ghost Dance War">Ghost Dance War (1890–1891)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakima_War" title="Yakima War">Yakima War (1855–1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_War" title="Puget Sound War">Puget Sound War (1855–1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_War" title="Coeur d'Alene War">Coeur d'Alene War (1858)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_War" title="Mohave War"> Mohave War(1858–1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Wars#American_period" title="Navajo Wars">Navajo Wars (1849–1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiute_War" title="Paiute War">Paiute War(1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars(1861–1875)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War (1864–1869)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualapai_War_(1865%E2%80%9370)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hualapai War (1865–70)">Hualapai War (1865–1870)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War (1872–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War (1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War (1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_War" title="Crow War">Crow War (1887)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War_of_1895" title="Bannock War of 1895">Bannock Uprising (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Uprising" title="Yaqui Uprising">Yaqui Uprising (1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sugar_Point" title="Battle of Sugar Point">Battle of Sugar Point (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek#Last_Massacre" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Last Massacre (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Battle of Kelley Creek (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bear_Valley" title="Battle of Bear Valley">Battle of Bear Valley (1918)</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Political movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_women_in_politics" title="Native American women in politics">Women in politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement (AIM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Power Movement">Red Power Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Alcatraz" title="Occupation of Alcatraz">Occupation of Alcatraz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Broken_Treaties" title="Trail of Broken Treaties">Trail of Broken Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Wounded_Knee" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Wounded Knee">Occupation of Wounded Knee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">MMIW</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red_handprint" title="Red handprint">Red handprint</a>)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Religion</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_Feather_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Eagle Feather law">Eagle Feather law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_people_and_Mormonism" title="Native American people and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Traditional religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">Midewiwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabunowin" title="Wabunowin">Wabunowin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wocekiye" title="Wocekiye">Wocekiye</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund (NARF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Youth_Council" title="National Indian Youth Council">National Indian Youth Council (NIYC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_All_Red_Nations" title="Women of All Red Nations">Women of All Red Nations (WARN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Indian_Treaty_Council" title="International Indian Treaty Council">The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC)</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Ethnic subdivisions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Languages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American languages</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Demographics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Societal statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reservation">Reservations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_disenrollment" title="Tribal disenrollment">Tribal disenrollment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_poverty" title="Reservation poverty">Reservation poverty</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Geography</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> by region</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Great_Basin" title="Indigenous peoples of the Great Basin">Great Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northeastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands">Northeastern Woodlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northwest_Plateau" title="Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau">Northwest Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast" title="Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast">Pacific Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">The Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Southeastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands">Southeastern Woodlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_North_American_Southwest" title="Indigenous peoples of the North American Southwest">Southwest</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> by state</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Arizona" title="Indigenous peoples of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Indigenous peoples of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_People_of_Colorado" title="Template:Indigenous People of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Florida" title="Indigenous peoples of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Iowa" title="Native American tribes in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Americans_in_Maryland" title="Template:Native Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Michigan" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Nebraska" title="Native American tribes in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_North_Carolina" title="Template:Native American Tribes in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Native American Tribes in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_peoples_of_Oregon" title="Native American peoples of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Virginia" title="Native American tribes in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Wisconsin" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_of_the_United_States" title="List of Native Americans of the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_artists" title="List of Native American artists">artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_actors" title="List of Native American actors">actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_leaders_of_the_Indian_Wars" title="List of Native American leaders of the Indian Wars">war leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_musicians" title="List of Native American musicians">musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Native Americans in the United States Congress">congressional politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients">Native American Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">List of federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">List of federally recognized tribes by state </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">List of Indian reservations in the United States</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template:Native American topics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Native American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_topics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The legal institution of human <a href="/wiki/Chattel_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel slavery">chattel slavery</a>, comprising the enslavement primarily of <a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa" title="List of ethnic groups of Africa">Africans</a> and <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a>, was prevalent in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">United States of America</a> from its founding in 1776 until 1865, predominantly in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</a>. Slavery was established throughout <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="European colonization in the Americas">European colonization in the Americas</a>. From 1526, during the early <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">colonial period</a>, it was practiced in what became <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">Britain's colonies</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> that formed the United States. Under the law, an enslaved person was treated as property that could be bought, sold, or given away. Slavery lasted in about half of <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">U.S. states</a> until <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">abolition</a> in 1865, and issues concerning slavery seeped into every aspect of national politics, economics, and social custom.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the decades after the end of <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction</a> in 1877, many of slavery's economic and social functions were continued through <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">segregation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">sharecropping</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Convict_leasing" title="Convict leasing">convict leasing</a>. Involuntary servitude as a punishment for crime is still legal in the United States. </p><p>By the time of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> (1775–1783), the status of enslaved people had been institutionalized as a racial <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a> associated with African ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During and immediately following the Revolution, <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolitionist</a> laws were passed in most <a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern states</a> and a movement developed to abolish slavery. The role of slavery under the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> (1789) was the most contentious issue during its drafting. The <a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-Fifths Clause</a> of the Constitution gave slave states disproportionate political power,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the Fugitive Slave Clause (<a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_3:_Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Article IV, Section 2, Clause 3</a>) provided that, if a slave escaped to another state, the other state could not prevent the return of the slave to the person claiming to be his or her owner. All Northern states had abolished slavery to some degree by 1805, sometimes with completion at a future date, sometimes with an intermediary status of unpaid indentured servant. </p><p>Abolition was in many cases a gradual process. Some slaveowners, primarily in the <a href="/wiki/Upland_South" title="Upland South">Upper South</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">freed</a> their slaves, and charitable groups bought and freed others. The <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> began to be outlawed by individual states during the American Revolution. The import trade was <a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">banned by Congress in 1808</a>, although smuggling was common thereafter,<sup id="cite_ref-Julia_Floyd_Smith_1973,_pp._44–46_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Julia_Floyd_Smith_1973,_pp._44–46-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at which point the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">U.S. Revenue Cutter Service</a> (Coast Guard) began enforcing the law on the high seas.<sup id="cite_ref-USCG1808_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USCG1808-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been estimated that before 1820 a majority of serving <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">congressmen</a> owned slaves, and that about 30 percent of congressmen who were born before 1840 (some of whom served into the 20th century) at some time in their lives, were owners of slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-WP-20220110_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WP-20220110-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rapid expansion of the <a href="/wiki/King_Cotton" title="King Cotton">cotton industry</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a> after the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a> greatly increased demand for slave labor, and the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern states</a> continued as slave societies. The U.S., divided into <a href="/wiki/Slave_and_free_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave and free states">slave and free states</a>, became ever more polarized over the issue of slavery. Driven by labor demands from new cotton <a href="/wiki/Plantations_in_the_Deep_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantations in the Deep South">plantations in the Deep South</a>, the Upper South sold more than a million slaves who were taken to the Deep South. The total slave population in the South eventually reached four million.<sup id="cite_ref-Stephen1999_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephen1999-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (July 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the U.S. expanded, the Southern states attempted to extend slavery into the new Western territories to allow <a href="/wiki/Proslavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Proslavery">proslavery</a> forces to maintain power in Congress. The new <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">territories</a> acquired by the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Cession" title="Mexican Cession">Mexican Cession</a> were the subject of major political crises and compromises.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_as_a_positive_good_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery as a positive good in the United States">Slavery was defended in the South as a "positive good"</a>, and the largest religious denominations split over the slavery issue into regional organizations of the North and South. </p><p>By 1850, the newly rich, cotton-growing South threatened to secede from the <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bloody fighting</a> broke out over slavery in the <a href="/wiki/Kansas_Territory" title="Kansas Territory">Kansas Territory</a>. When <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> won the <a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860 election</a> on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, slave states seceded to form the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederacy</a>. Shortly afterward, the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> began when Confederate forces attacked the U.S. Army's <a href="/wiki/Fort_Sumter" title="Fort Sumter">Fort Sumter</a> in Charleston, South Carolina. During the war some <a href="/wiki/End_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="End of slavery in the United States of America">jurisdictions abolished slavery</a> and, due to Union measures such as the <a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Acts" title="Confiscation Acts">Confiscation Acts</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a>, the war effectively ended slavery in most places. After the Union victory, the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> was ratified on December 6, 1865, prohibiting "slavery [and] involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery among Native Americans in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_unfree_labor_in_the_United_States" title="History of unfree labor in the United States">History of unfree labor in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>; <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">Slavery in New France</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_leading_to_the_American_Civil_War#Colonial_period,_1607–1775" title="Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War">Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War § Colonial period, 1607–1775</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the related topic of indentured servitude in the United States, see <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_British_America" title="Indentured servitude in British America">Indentured servitude in British America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_Pennsylvania" title="Indentured servitude in Pennsylvania">Indentured servitude in Pennsylvania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_Virginia" title="Indentured servitude in Virginia">Indentured servitude in Virginia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Engag%C3%A9_system_in_Louisiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Engagé system in Louisiana">Engagé system in Louisiana</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Virginia_Planters_Best_Tobacco,_18th_century_tobacco_production.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/The_Virginia_Planters_Best_Tobacco%2C_18th_century_tobacco_production.jpg/220px-The_Virginia_Planters_Best_Tobacco%2C_18th_century_tobacco_production.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/The_Virginia_Planters_Best_Tobacco%2C_18th_century_tobacco_production.jpg/330px-The_Virginia_Planters_Best_Tobacco%2C_18th_century_tobacco_production.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/The_Virginia_Planters_Best_Tobacco%2C_18th_century_tobacco_production.jpg/440px-The_Virginia_Planters_Best_Tobacco%2C_18th_century_tobacco_production.jpg 2x" data-file-width="594" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Image marketing 18th-century tobacco produced by enslaved laborers in the <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia" title="Colony of Virginia">Colony of Virginia</a> (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)</figcaption></figure> <p>During most of the British colonial period, slavery existed in all the colonies. People enslaved in <a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">the North</a> typically worked as house servants, artisans, laborers and craftsmen, with the greater number in cities. Many men worked on the docks and in shipping. In 1703, more than 42 percent of New York City households held enslaved people in bondage, the second-highest proportion of any city in the colonies, behind only <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charleston, South Carolina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nation_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nation-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enslaved people were also used as agricultural workers in farm communities, especially in <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">the South</a>, but also in <a href="/wiki/Upstate_New_York" title="Upstate New York">upstate New York</a> and <a href="/wiki/Long_Island" title="Long Island">Long Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Colony" title="Connecticut Colony">Connecticut</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_Jersey" title="Province of New Jersey">New Jersey</a>. By 1770, there were 397,924 blacks out of a population of 2.17 million in what would soon become the United States. The slaves of the colonial era were unevenly distributed: 14,867 lived in <a href="/wiki/New_England_Colonies" title="New England Colonies">New England</a>, where they were three percent of the population; 34,679 lived in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Colonies" title="Middle Colonies">mid-Atlantic colonies</a>, where they were six percent of the population; and 347,378 in the five <a href="/wiki/Southern_Colonies" title="Southern Colonies">Southern Colonies</a>, where they were 31 percent of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The South developed an <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_economics" title="Agricultural economics">agricultural economy</a> dependent on <a href="/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">commodity crops</a>. Its planters rapidly acquired a significantly higher number and proportion of enslaved people in the population overall, as its commodity crops were labor-intensive.<sup id="cite_ref-usnews.com_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usnews.com-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early on, enslaved people in <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">the South</a> worked primarily on farms and plantations growing <a href="/wiki/Indigofera" title="Indigofera">indigo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> did not become a major crop until after the 1790s). In 1720, about 65 percent of <a href="/wiki/Province_of_South_Carolina" title="Province of South Carolina">South Carolina's</a> population was enslaved.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Planters (defined by historians in the Upper South as those who held 20 or more slaves) used enslaved workers to cultivate commodity crops. They also worked in the artisanal trades on large plantations and in many Southern port cities. The later wave of settlers in the 18th century who settled along the <a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian Mountains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Backcountry_(historical_region)" title="Backcountry (historical region)">backcountry</a> were backwoods <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture" title="Subsistence agriculture">subsistence farmers</a>, and they seldom held enslaved people. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Historic_American_Buildings_Survey_John_O._Brostrup,_Photographer_April_20,_1937_2-50_P.M._DETAIL_OF_BRICKWORK._-_St._Barnabas_Church,_14705_Oak_Grove_Road,_Leeland,_Prince_George_HABS_MD,17-LELD,1-13.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Historic_American_Buildings_Survey_John_O._Brostrup%2C_Photographer_April_20%2C_1937_2-50_P.M._DETAIL_OF_BRICKWORK._-_St._Barnabas_Church%2C_14705_Oak_Grove_Road%2C_Leeland%2C_Prince_George_HABS_MD%2C17-LELD%2C1-13.tif/lossy-page1-220px-thumbnail.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Historic_American_Buildings_Survey_John_O._Brostrup%2C_Photographer_April_20%2C_1937_2-50_P.M._DETAIL_OF_BRICKWORK._-_St._Barnabas_Church%2C_14705_Oak_Grove_Road%2C_Leeland%2C_Prince_George_HABS_MD%2C17-LELD%2C1-13.tif/lossy-page1-330px-thumbnail.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Historic_American_Buildings_Survey_John_O._Brostrup%2C_Photographer_April_20%2C_1937_2-50_P.M._DETAIL_OF_BRICKWORK._-_St._Barnabas_Church%2C_14705_Oak_Grove_Road%2C_Leeland%2C_Prince_George_HABS_MD%2C17-LELD%2C1-13.tif/lossy-page1-440px-thumbnail.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5000" data-file-height="3578" /></a><figcaption>Detail of the brickwork of a colonial-era church in Maryland; the brickmakers of Baltimore were predominantly black and often enslaved<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Beginning in the second half of the 18th century, a debate emerged over the continued importation of African slaves to the American colonies. Many in the colonies, including the Southern <a href="/wiki/Slavocracy" title="Slavocracy">slavocracy</a>, opposed further importation of slaves due to fears that it would destabilize colonies and lead to further <a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">slave rebellions</a>. In 1772, prominent Virginians submitted a petition to <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">the Crown</a>, requesting that the slave trade to Virginia be abolished; it was rejected.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Rhode_Island_and_Providence_Plantations" title="Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations">Rhode Island</a> forbade the importation of slaves in 1774. The influential revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Fairfax_Resolves" title="Fairfax Resolves">Fairfax Resolves</a> called for an end to the "wicked, cruel and unnatural" Atlantic slave trade.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of the colonies banned slave importations during the Revolutionary War.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_in_the_American_Revolution_and_early_republic">Slavery in the American Revolution and early republic</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_Revolutionary_War" title="African Americans in the Revolutionary War">African Americans in the Revolutionary War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Slavery and the United States Constitution">Slavery and the United States Constitution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_leading_to_the_American_Civil_War#American_Revolution_and_Confederation_period,_1776–1787" title="Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War">Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War § American Revolution and Confederation period, 1776–1787</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_leading_to_the_American_Civil_War#Early_Constitutional_period,_1787–1811" title="Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War">Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War § Early Constitutional period, 1787–1811</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slave_dance_to_banjo,_1780s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Slave_dance_to_banjo%2C_1780s.jpg/220px-Slave_dance_to_banjo%2C_1780s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Slave_dance_to_banjo%2C_1780s.jpg/330px-Slave_dance_to_banjo%2C_1780s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Slave_dance_to_banjo%2C_1780s.jpg/440px-Slave_dance_to_banjo%2C_1780s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="982" data-file-height="651" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Old_Plantation" title="The Old Plantation">The Old Plantation</a></i>, watercolor attributed to John Rose, possibly painted 1785–1795 in the <a href="/wiki/Beaufort_District" title="Beaufort District">Beaufort District</a> of South Carolina (<a href="/wiki/Abby_Aldrich_Rockefeller_Folk_Art_Museum" title="Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Museum">Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Museum</a>) </figcaption></figure> <p>Slavery had existed for thousands of years, all around the world. In the United States and many parts of the world it was a legal practise and had become entrenched socially and economically in many societies. The ideals and principles promoted in the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> and the American Revolution helped to put slavery and the desire for its <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">abolition</a> on the political agenda. As historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_L._Brown&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christopher L. Brown (page does not exist)">Christopher L. Brown</a> put it, slavery "had never been on the agenda in a serious way before", but the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> "forced it to be a public question from there forward".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the new country's independence was secure, slavery was a topic of contention at the 1787 <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Constitutional Convention</a>. Many of <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a> were plantation owners who owned large numbers of enslaved laborers; the original Constitution preserved their right to own slaves, and they further gained a political advantage in owning slaves. Although the enslaved of the early Republic were considered sentient property, were not permitted to vote, and had no rights to speak of, they were to be enumerated in population censuses and counted as <a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">three-fifths</a> of a person for the purposes of representation in the national legislature, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">U.S. Congress</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slaves_and_free_blacks_who_supported_the_Continental_Army">Slaves and free blacks who supported the Continental Army</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Black_Patriot" title="Black Patriot">Black Patriot</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Salem_Poor_stamp_1975.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Salem_Poor_stamp_1975.jpg/200px-Salem_Poor_stamp_1975.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Salem_Poor_stamp_1975.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="252" data-file-height="160" /></a><figcaption>This postage stamp, which was created at the time of the Bicentennial, honors <a href="/wiki/Salem_Poor" title="Salem Poor">Salem Poor</a>, who was an enslaved African-American man who purchased his freedom, became a soldier, and rose to fame as a war hero during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bunker_Hill" title="Battle of Bunker Hill">Battle of Bunker Hill</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hubbard_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hubbard-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The rebels began to offer freedom as an incentive to motivate slaves to fight on their side. Washington authorized slaves to be freed who fought with the American <a href="/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a>. Rhode Island started enlisting slaves in 1778, and promised compensation to owners whose slaves enlisted and survived to gain freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the course of the war, about one-fifth of the Northern army was black.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1781, Baron Closen, a <a href="/wiki/Germans_in_the_American_Revolution" title="Germans in the American Revolution">German officer</a> in the French <a href="/wiki/Royal_Deux-Ponts_Regiment" title="Royal Deux-Ponts Regiment">Royal Deux-Ponts Regiment</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yorktown_(1781)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Yorktown (1781)">Battle of Yorktown</a>, estimated the American army to be about one-quarter black.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These men included both former slaves and free-born blacks. Thousands of free blacks in the Northern states fought in the state militias and Continental Army. In the South, both sides offered freedom to slaves who would perform military service. Roughly 20,000 slaves fought in the American Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Hubbard_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hubbard-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Black_Loyalists">Black Loyalists</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Black_Loyalist" title="Black Loyalist">Black Loyalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dunmore%27s_Proclamation" title="Dunmore's Proclamation">Dunmore's Proclamation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Negroes" title="Book of Negroes">Book of Negroes</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethiopian_Regiment_Liberty_To_Slaves_Smock.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a9/Ethiopian_Regiment_Liberty_To_Slaves_Smock.jpg/220px-Ethiopian_Regiment_Liberty_To_Slaves_Smock.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="438" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a9/Ethiopian_Regiment_Liberty_To_Slaves_Smock.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="297" data-file-height="591" /></a><figcaption>A smock similar to those worn by <a href="/wiki/Black_Loyalist" title="Black Loyalist">Black Loyalists</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Regiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Regiment">Ethiopian Regiment</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the Revolutionary War broke out, the British realized they lacked the manpower necessary to prosecute the war. In response, British commanders began issuing proclamations to Patriot-owned slaves, offering freedom if they fled to British lines and assisted the British war effort.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such proclamations were repeatedly issued over the course of the conflict, which resulted in up to 100,000 American slaves fleeing to British lines.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Self-emancipated slaves who reached British lines were organized into a variety of military units, which served in all theaters of the war. Formerly enslaved women and children, in lieu of military service, worked instead as laborers and domestic servants. At the end of the war, freed slaves in British lines either evacuated to other British colonies or to Britain itself, were re-enslaved by the victorious Americans, or fled into the countryside.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In early 1775, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_Virginia" title="List of colonial governors of Virginia">royal governor of Virginia</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Murray,_4th_Earl_of_Dunmore" title="John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore">Lord Dunmore</a>, wrote to the <a href="/wiki/William_Legge,_2nd_Earl_of_Dartmouth" title="William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth">Earl of Dartmouth</a> of his intention to free slaves owned by <a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">American Patriots</a> in case they staged a rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On November 7, 1775, Dunmore issued <a href="/wiki/Dunmore%27s_Proclamation" title="Dunmore's Proclamation">Dunmore's Proclamation</a>, which promised freedom to any slaves of American patriots who would leave their masters and join the British forces.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians agree that the proclamation was chiefly designed for practical rather than moral reasons, and slaves owned by American Loyalists were unaffected by the proclamation. About 1,500 slaves owned by patriots escaped and joined Dunmore's forces. A total of 18 slaves fled <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>'s plantation, one of whom, Harry, served in Dunmore's all-black loyalist regiment called "the Black Pioneers".<sup id="cite_ref-PBS_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PBS-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Escapees who joined Dunmore had "Liberty to Slaves" stitched on to their jackets.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most died of disease before they could do any fighting, but three hundred of these freed slaves made it to freedom in Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Jill Lepore writes that "between eighty and a hundred thousand (nearly one in five black slaves) left their homes ... betting on British victory", but Cassandra Pybus states that between 20,000 and 30,000 is a more realistic number of slaves who defected to the British side during the war.<sup id="cite_ref-PBS_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PBS-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many slaves took advantage of the disruption of war to escape from their plantations to British lines or to fade into the general population. Upon their first sight of British vessels, thousands of slaves in Maryland and Virginia fled from their owners.<sup id="cite_ref-Clavin_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clavin-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 21">: 21 </span></sup> Throughout the South, losses of slaves were high, with many due to escapes.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slaves also escaped throughout New England and the mid-Atlantic, with many joining the British who had occupied New York.<sup id="cite_ref-PBS_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PBS-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the closing months of the war, the British evacuated <a href="/wiki/Freedmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedmen">freedmen</a> and also removed slaves owned by loyalists. Around 15,000 <a href="/wiki/Black_loyalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Black loyalists">black loyalists</a> left with the British, most of them ending up as free people in England or its colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-Duke_Law_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duke_Law-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Washington hired a <a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">slave catcher</a> during the war, and at its end he pressed the British to return the slaves to their masters.<sup id="cite_ref-PBS_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PBS-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the British certificates of freedom in their belongings, the black loyalists, including Washington's slave Harry, sailed with their white counterparts out of New York harbor to <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PBS_40-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PBS-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than 3,000 were resettled in Nova Scotia, where they were eventually granted land and formed the community of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">black Nova Scotians</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_abolitionism_in_the_United_States">Early abolitionism in the United States</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Historical_Geography,_by_John_F._Smith.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Historical_Geography%2C_by_John_F._Smith.jpg/220px-Historical_Geography%2C_by_John_F._Smith.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Historical_Geography%2C_by_John_F._Smith.jpg/330px-Historical_Geography%2C_by_John_F._Smith.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Historical_Geography%2C_by_John_F._Smith.jpg/440px-Historical_Geography%2C_by_John_F._Smith.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4680" data-file-height="3104" /></a><figcaption>Arguments for and against slavery caused ongoing conflict during the first 89 years of the United States (<i>Historical Geography</i>, John J. Smith, 1888)</figcaption></figure> <p>In the first two decades after the American Revolution, state legislatures and individuals took actions to free slaves. Northern states passed new constitutions that contained language about equal rights or specifically abolished slavery; some states, such as New York and New Jersey, where slavery was more widespread, passed laws by the end of the 18th century to abolish slavery incrementally. By 1804, all the Northern states had passed laws outlawing slavery, either immediately or over time. In New York, the last slaves were freed in 1827 (celebrated with a big July<span class="nowrap"> </span>5 parade). <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_British_America" title="Indentured servitude in British America">Indentured servitude</a>, which had been widespread in the colonies (half the population of <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> had once been <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_Pennsylvania" title="Indentured servitude in Pennsylvania">indentured servants</a>), dropped dramatically, and disappeared by 1800. However, there were still forcibly indentured servants in New Jersey in 1860. No Southern state abolished slavery, but some individual owners, more than a handful, freed their slaves by personal decision, often providing for <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumission</a> in wills but sometimes filing deeds or court papers to free individuals. Numerous slaveholders who freed their slaves cited revolutionary ideals in their documents; others freed slaves as a promised reward for service. From 1790 to 1810, the proportion of <a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">blacks free in the United States</a> increased from 8 to 13.5 percent, and in the <a href="/wiki/Upland_South" title="Upland South">Upper South</a> from less than one to nearly ten percent as a result of these actions.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Starting in 1777, the rebels outlawed the importation of slaves state by state. They all acted to end the international trade, but, after the war, it was reopened in North Carolina (opened until 1794) and Georgia (opened until 1798) and South Carolina (opened until 1787, and then reopened again in 1803.)<sup id="cite_ref-O'Malley_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Malley-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1807, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> acted on President <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>'s advice and, without controversy, made importing slaves from abroad a federal crime, effective the first day that the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">United States Constitution</a> permitted this prohibition: January 1, 1808.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Revolution and in the following years, all states north of Maryland ( the <a href="/wiki/Mason%E2%80%93Dixon_line" title="Mason–Dixon line">Mason–Dixon line</a>) took steps towards abolishing slavery. In 1777, the <a href="/wiki/Vermont_Republic" title="Vermont Republic">Vermont Republic</a>, which was still unrecognized by the United States, passed a <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Vermont_(1777)" title="Constitution of Vermont (1777)">state constitution prohibiting slavery</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Abolition_Society" title="Pennsylvania Abolition Society">Pennsylvania Abolition Society</a>, led in part by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a>, was founded in 1775, and Pennsylvania began <a href="/wiki/An_Act_for_the_Gradual_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="An Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery">gradual abolition</a> in 1780. In 1783, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Judicial_Court_of_Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts">Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts</a> ruled in <i><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_v._Jennison" title="Commonwealth v. Jennison">Commonwealth v. Jennison</a></i> that slavery was unconstitutional under the state's new <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Massachusetts Constitution">1780 constitution</a>. New Hampshire began <a href="/wiki/Gradual_emancipation_(United_States)" title="Gradual emancipation (United States)">gradual emancipation</a> in 1783, while Connecticut and Rhode Island followed suit in 1784. The <a href="/wiki/New_York_Manumission_Society" title="New York Manumission Society">New York Manumission Society</a>, which was led by <a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Burr" title="Aaron Burr">Aaron Burr</a>, was founded in 1785. New York state began gradual emancipation in 1799, and New Jersey did the same in 1804. </p><p>Shortly after the Revolution, the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territory" title="Northwest Territory">Northwest Territory</a> was established, by <a href="/wiki/Manasseh_Cutler" title="Manasseh Cutler">Manasseh Cutler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rufus_Putnam" title="Rufus Putnam">Rufus Putnam</a> (who had been George Washington's chief engineer). Both Cutler and Putnam came from <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Puritans_in_North_America" title="History of the Puritans in North America">Puritan</a> New England. The Puritans strongly believed that slavery was morally wrong. Their influence on the issue of slavery was long-lasting, and this was provided significantly greater impetus by the Revolution. The Northwest Territory (which became Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota) doubled the size of the United States, and it was established at the insistence of Cutler and Putnam as "free soil" – no slavery. This was to prove crucial a few decades later. Had those states been slave states, and their electoral votes gone to Abraham Lincoln's main opponent, Lincoln would not have become president. The Civil War would not have been fought. Even if it eventually had been, the North might well have lost.<sup id="cite_ref-Hubbard,_Robert_Ernest_pp._1_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hubbard,_Robert_Ernest_pp._1-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McCullough,_David_pp._11,_13_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCullough,_David_pp._11,_13-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McCullough,_David_p._132-3_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCullough,_David_p._132-3-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitution_of_the_United_States">Constitution of the United States</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Slavery and the United States Constitution">Slavery and the United States Constitution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave Clause</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oney_Judge_Runaway_Ad_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Oney_Judge_Runaway_Ad_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Oney_Judge_Runaway_Ad_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Oney_Judge_Runaway_Ad_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Oney_Judge_Runaway_Ad_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Oney_Judge_Runaway_Ad_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Oney_Judge_Runaway_Ad_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="709" /></a><figcaption>Advertisement in <i><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Gazette" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania Gazette">Pennsylvania Gazette</a></i>, May 24, 1796, seeking the return of <a href="/wiki/Oney_Judge" class="mw-redirect" title="Oney Judge">Oney Judge</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">fugitive slave</a> who had escaped from the household of <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Slavery was a contentious issue in the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)#Slavery" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">writing and approval</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The words "slave" and "slavery" did not appear in the Constitution as originally adopted, although several provisions clearly referred to slaves and slavery. Until the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/13th_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="13th Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment</a> in 1865, the Constitution did not prohibit slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Section 9 of <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article I</a> forbade the federal government from prohibiting the importation of slaves, described as "such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit", for twenty years after the Constitution's ratification (until January 1, 1808). The <a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves of 1807</a>, passed by Congress and signed into law by President <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> (who had called for its enactment in his 1806 State of the Union address), went into effect on January 1, 1808, the earliest date on which the importation of slaves could be prohibited under the Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The delegates approved the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave Clause</a> of the Constitution (<a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_3:_Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Article IV, section 2, clause 3</a>), which prohibited states from freeing those "held to Service or Labour" (meaning slaves, indentures, and apprentices) who fled to them from another state and required that they be returned to their owners.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1793" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1793">Fugitive Slave Act of 1793</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</a> gave effect to the Fugitive Slave Clause.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Salmon P. Chase</a> considered the Fugitive Slave Acts unconstitutional because "The Fugitive Slave Clause was a compact among the states, not a grant of power to the federal government".<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Three-fifths_Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_of_1794" title="Slave Trade Act of 1794">Slave Trade Act of 1794</a> and <a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Washington_by_John_Trumbull_(1780).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/George_Washington_by_John_Trumbull_%281780%29.jpg/220px-George_Washington_by_John_Trumbull_%281780%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/George_Washington_by_John_Trumbull_%281780%29.jpg/330px-George_Washington_by_John_Trumbull_%281780%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/George_Washington_by_John_Trumbull_%281780%29.jpg/440px-George_Washington_by_John_Trumbull_%281780%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2749" data-file-height="3545" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Trumbull" title="John Trumbull">John Trumbull</a>'s 1780 portrait <i><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_(Trumbull)" title="George Washington (Trumbull)">George Washington</a></i> also depicts a man believed to be Washington's enslaved valet <a href="/wiki/William_Lee_(valet)" title="William Lee (valet)">William Lee</a> (<a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> 24.109.88)</figcaption></figure> <p>In a section negotiated by <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> of Virginia, Section<span class="nowrap"> </span>2 of Article<span class="nowrap"> </span>I designated "other persons" (slaves) to be added to the total of the state's free population, at the rate of <a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">three-fifths</a> of their total number, to establish the state's official population for the purposes of apportionment of congressional representation and federal taxation.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "Three-Fifths Compromise" was reached after a debate in which delegates from Southern (slaveholding) states argued that slaves should be counted in the census just as all other persons were while delegates from Northern (free) states countered that slaves should not be counted at all. The compromise strengthened the political power of Southern states, as three-fifths of the (non-voting) slave population was counted for congressional apportionment and in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a>, although it did not strengthen Southern states as much as it would have had the Constitution provided for counting all persons, whether slave or free, equally. </p><p>In addition, many parts of the country were tied to the Southern economy. As the historian James Oliver Horton noted, prominent slaveholder politicians and the commodity crops of the South had a strong influence on United States politics and economy. Horton said, </p> <blockquote><p>in the 72 years between the election of George Washington and the election of Abraham Lincoln, 50 of those years [had] a <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_owned_slaves" title="List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves">slaveholder as president of the United States</a>, and, for that whole period of time, there was never a person elected to a second term who was not a slaveholder.<sup id="cite_ref-pbs.org_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pbs.org-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The power of Southern states in Congress lasted until the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>, affecting national policies, legislation, and appointments.<sup id="cite_ref-pbs.org_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pbs.org-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One result was that most of the justices appointed to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> were slave owners. The planter elite dominated the Southern congressional delegations and the United States presidency for nearly fifty years.<sup id="cite_ref-pbs.org_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pbs.org-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_in_the_19th_century">Slavery in the 19th century</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slave_and_free_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave and free states">Slave and free states</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_by_state" title="History of slavery in the United States by state">History of slavery in the United States by state</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">List of court cases in the United States involving slavery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_leading_to_the_American_Civil_War#1812_1849" title="Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War">Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War § 1812 1849</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">Female slavery in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slave_labor_on_United_States_military_installations_1799%E2%80%931863" title="Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863">Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_American_colleges_and_universities" title="Slavery at American colleges and universities">Slavery at American colleges and universities</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22For_Sale%22_Louisiana_State_Gazette,_New_Orleans,_November_1,_1819.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/%22For_Sale%22_Louisiana_State_Gazette%2C_New_Orleans%2C_November_1%2C_1819.jpg/220px-%22For_Sale%22_Louisiana_State_Gazette%2C_New_Orleans%2C_November_1%2C_1819.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="551" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/%22For_Sale%22_Louisiana_State_Gazette%2C_New_Orleans%2C_November_1%2C_1819.jpg/330px-%22For_Sale%22_Louisiana_State_Gazette%2C_New_Orleans%2C_November_1%2C_1819.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/%22For_Sale%22_Louisiana_State_Gazette%2C_New_Orleans%2C_November_1%2C_1819.jpg/440px-%22For_Sale%22_Louisiana_State_Gazette%2C_New_Orleans%2C_November_1%2C_1819.jpg 2x" data-file-width="756" data-file-height="1895" /></a><figcaption>For sale: 51 head of slaves, 12 yoke of draught oxen, 32 horses or mules; 5 head of slaves, 2 yoke of draught oxen; 11 head of slaves, 4 yoke of oxen—in early America, slaves were treated legally and socially as if they were farm animals <small>(<i>Louisiana State Gazette</i>, New Orleans, November 1, 1819)</small></figcaption></figure> <p>Slavery in the United States was a variable thing, in "constant flux, driven by the violent pursuit of ever-larger profits."<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to demographic calculations by J. David Hacker of the University of Minnesota, approximately four out of five of all of the slaves who ever lived in the United States or the territory that became the United States (beginning in 1619 and including all colonies that were eventually acquired or conquered by the United States) were born in or imported to the United States in the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slaves were the labor force of the South, but slave ownership was also the foundation upon which American <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a> was constructed. Historian <a href="/wiki/Walter_Johnson_(historian)" title="Walter Johnson (historian)">Walter Johnson</a> argues that "one of the many miraculous things a slave could do was make a household white...", meaning that the value of whiteness in America was in some ways measured by the ability to purchase and maintain black slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Beecher_Stowe" title="Harriet Beecher Stowe">Harriet Beecher Stowe</a> described slavery in the United States in 1853:<sup id="cite_ref-Stowe1853_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stowe1853-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>What, then, is American slavery, as we have seen it exhibited by law, and by the decision of Courts? Let us begin by stating what it is not: </p><p>1. It is not apprenticeship. </p><p>2. It is not guardianship. </p><p>3. It is in no sense a system for the education of a weaker race by a stronger. </p><p>4. The happiness of the governed is in no sense its object. </p><p>5. The temporal improvement or the eternal well-being of the governed is in no sense its object. </p><p>The object of it has been distinctly stated in one sentence by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Ruffin" title="Thomas Ruffin">Judge Ruffin</a>,— "The end is the profit of the master, his security, and the public safety." </p><p> Slavery, then, is absolute despotism, of the most unmitigated form.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Justifications_in_the_South">Justifications in the South</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/American_proslavery_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="American proslavery movement">American proslavery movement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fire-Eaters" title="Fire-Eaters">Fire-Eaters</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gang_system" title="Gang system">Gang system</a>, <a href="/wiki/Task_system" title="Task system">Task system</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantation complexes in the Southern United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_gentry" title="American gentry">American gentry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">Planter class</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="List of plantations in the United States">List of plantations in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anti-slavery_almanac_1840_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Anti-slavery_almanac_1840_detail.jpg/220px-Anti-slavery_almanac_1840_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Anti-slavery_almanac_1840_detail.jpg/330px-Anti-slavery_almanac_1840_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Anti-slavery_almanac_1840_detail.jpg/440px-Anti-slavery_almanac_1840_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1078" data-file-height="634" /></a><figcaption>One of the many defenses of American slavery was that the imagined "<a href="/wiki/Paternalism#Paternalism_and_slavery" title="Paternalism">benevolent paternalism</a>" of planters was beneficial or necessary<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Detail, <i><a href="/wiki/American_Anti-Slavery_Almanac" title="American Anti-Slavery Almanac">Anti-Slavery Almanac</a></i>, 1840)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="American_slavery_as_"a_necessary_evil""><span id="American_slavery_as_.22a_necessary_evil.22"></span>American slavery as "a necessary evil"</h4></div> <p>In the 19th century, proponents of slavery often defended the institution as a "necessary evil". At that time, it was feared that emancipation of black slaves would have more harmful social and economic consequences than the continuation of slavery. On April 22, 1820, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a>, wrote in a letter to <a href="/wiki/John_Holmes_(Maine_politician)" title="John Holmes (Maine politician)">John Holmes</a>, that with slavery, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We have the wolf by the ear, and we can neither hold him, nor safely let him go. Justice is in one scale, and self-preservation in the other.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The French writer and traveler <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a>, in his influential <i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> (1835), expressed opposition to slavery while observing its effects on American society. He felt that a multiracial society without slavery was untenable, as he believed that prejudice against blacks increased as they were granted more rights (for example, in Northern states). He believed that the attitudes of white Southerners, and the concentration of the black population in the South, were bringing the white and black populations to a state of equilibrium, and were a danger to both races. Because of the racial differences between master and slave, he believed that the latter could not be emancipated.<sup id="cite_ref-Alexis_de_Tocqueville_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alexis_de_Tocqueville-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a letter to his wife dated December 27, 1856, in reaction to a message from President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Pierce" title="Franklin Pierce">Franklin Pierce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a> wrote, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There are few, I believe, in this enlightened age, who will not acknowledge that slavery as an institution is a moral and political evil. It is idle to expatiate on its disadvantages. I think it is a greater evil to the white than to the colored race. While my feelings are strongly enlisted in behalf of the latter, my sympathies are more deeply engaged for the former. The blacks are immeasurably better off here than in Africa, morally, physically, and socially. The painful discipline they are undergoing is necessary for their further instruction as a race, and will prepare them, I hope, for better things. How long their servitude may be necessary is known and ordered by a merciful Providence.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="American_slavery_as_"a_positive_good""><span id="American_slavery_as_.22a_positive_good.22"></span>American slavery as "a positive good"</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_as_a_positive_good_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery as a positive good in the United States">Slavery as a positive good in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Eugenics_in_the_United_States" title="Eugenics in the United States">Eugenics in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mudsill_theory" title="Mudsill theory">Mudsill theory</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CSA-T41-$100-1862%E2%80%9363.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/CSA-T41-%24100-1862%E2%80%9363.jpg/220px-CSA-T41-%24100-1862%E2%80%9363.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/CSA-T41-%24100-1862%E2%80%9363.jpg/330px-CSA-T41-%24100-1862%E2%80%9363.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/CSA-T41-%24100-1862%E2%80%9363.jpg/440px-CSA-T41-%24100-1862%E2%80%9363.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6153" data-file-height="2640" /></a><figcaption>Confederate $100 bill, 1862–63, showing slaves farming; there were over 125 carefully wrought etchings of laboring slaves made for currency issued by 19th-century Southern banks and the Confederate States,<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> images that provided reassurance that slavery "was protected both by law and by tradition."<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1860, Southern slaveholders held slaves as personal property<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> collectively valued at more than $3 billion (about $97 billion in 2022)<sup id="cite_ref-:04_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/National_Numismatic_Collection" title="National Numismatic Collection">National Numismatic Collection</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_American_History" title="National Museum of American History">National Museum of American History</a>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slave_shackle_-_1811_Kid_Ory_Historic_House,_LaPlace,_Louisiana_B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Slave_shackle_-_1811_Kid_Ory_Historic_House%2C_LaPlace%2C_Louisiana_B.jpg/220px-Slave_shackle_-_1811_Kid_Ory_Historic_House%2C_LaPlace%2C_Louisiana_B.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Slave_shackle_-_1811_Kid_Ory_Historic_House%2C_LaPlace%2C_Louisiana_B.jpg/330px-Slave_shackle_-_1811_Kid_Ory_Historic_House%2C_LaPlace%2C_Louisiana_B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Slave_shackle_-_1811_Kid_Ory_Historic_House%2C_LaPlace%2C_Louisiana_B.jpg/440px-Slave_shackle_-_1811_Kid_Ory_Historic_House%2C_LaPlace%2C_Louisiana_B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3888" /></a><figcaption>Slave shackle found while digging in a property on <a href="/w/index.php?title=Baronne_Street&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baronne Street (page does not exist)">Baronne Street</a> in New Orleans; donated to the <a href="/wiki/Kid_Ory_Historic_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Kid Ory Historic House">Kid Ory Historic House</a> museum</figcaption></figure> <p>However, as the abolitionist movement's agitation increased and the area developed for plantations expanded, apologies for slavery became more faint in the South. Leaders then described slavery as a beneficial scheme of labor management. <a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a>, in a famous speech in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> in 1837, declared that slavery was "instead of an evil, a good – a positive good". Calhoun supported his view with the following reasoning: in every civilized society one portion of the community must live on the labor of another; learning, science, and the arts are built upon leisure; the African slave, kindly treated by his master and mistress and looked after in his old age, is better off than the free laborers of Europe; and under the slave system conflicts between capital and labor are avoided. The advantages of slavery in this respect, he concluded, "will become more and more manifest, if left undisturbed by interference from without, as the country advances in wealth and numbers".<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Negroes_for_Sale_-_New_Orleans_Crescent_-_January_10_1861.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Negroes_for_Sale_-_New_Orleans_Crescent_-_January_10_1861.jpg/220px-Negroes_for_Sale_-_New_Orleans_Crescent_-_January_10_1861.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="649" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Negroes_for_Sale_-_New_Orleans_Crescent_-_January_10_1861.jpg/330px-Negroes_for_Sale_-_New_Orleans_Crescent_-_January_10_1861.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Negroes_for_Sale_-_New_Orleans_Crescent_-_January_10_1861.jpg/440px-Negroes_for_Sale_-_New_Orleans_Crescent_-_January_10_1861.jpg 2x" data-file-width="658" data-file-height="1941" /></a><figcaption>Newspaper listings for <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_slave_market" title="New Orleans slave market">New Orleans slave depots</a> at Barrone and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gravier_Street&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gravier Street (page does not exist)">Gravier Street</a>, and at 54, 58, 68, and 78 Barrone represented but a slim fraction of the trade in the city<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<i>New Orleans Crescent</i>, January 10, 1861)</figcaption></figure> <p>South Carolina army officer, <a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">planter</a>, and railroad executive <a href="/wiki/James_Gadsden" title="James Gadsden">James Gadsden</a> called slavery "a social blessing" and abolitionists "the greatest curse of the nation".<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gadsden was in favor of South Carolina's <a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States#South_Carolina" title="Secession in the United States">secession</a> in 1850, and was a leader in efforts to split California into two states, <a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">one slave and one free</a>. </p><p>Other Southern writers who also began to portray slavery as a positive good were <a href="/wiki/James_Henry_Hammond" class="mw-redirect" title="James Henry Hammond">James Henry Hammond</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Fitzhugh" title="George Fitzhugh">George Fitzhugh</a>. They presented several arguments to defend the practice of slavery in the South.<sup id="cite_ref-Mudsill_Theory_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mudsill_Theory-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hammond, like Calhoun, believed that slavery was needed to build the rest of society. In a speech to the Senate on March 4, 1858, Hammond developed his "Mudsill Theory", defending his view on slavery by stating: "Such a class you must have, or you would not have that other class which leads progress, civilization, and refinement. It constitutes the very mud-sill of society and of political government; and you might as well attempt to build a house in the air, as to build either the one or the other, except on this mud-sill." Hammond believed that in every class one group must accomplish all the menial duties, because without them the leaders in society could not progress.<sup id="cite_ref-Mudsill_Theory_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mudsill_Theory-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued that the hired laborers of the North were slaves too: "The difference<span class="nowrap"> </span>... is, that our slaves are hired for life and well compensated; there is no starvation, no begging, no want of employment," while those in the North had to search for employment.<sup id="cite_ref-Mudsill_Theory_83-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mudsill_Theory-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>George Fitzhugh used assumptions about white superiority to justify slavery, writing that, "the Negro is but a grown up child, and must be governed as a child." In <i>The Universal Law of Slavery</i>, Fitzhugh argues that slavery provides everything necessary for life and that the slave is unable to survive in a free world because he is lazy, and cannot compete with the intelligent European white race. He states that "The negro slaves of the South are the happiest, and in some sense, the freest people in the world."<sup id="cite_ref-Universal_Law_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Universal_Law-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Without the South, "He (slave) would become an insufferable burden to society" and "Society has the right to prevent this, and can only do so by subjecting him to domestic slavery."<sup id="cite_ref-Universal_Law_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Universal_Law-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On March 21, 1861, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stephens" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Stephens">Alexander Stephens</a>, Vice President of the Confederacy, delivered his <a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a>. He explained the differences between the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Confederate_States" title="Constitution of the Confederate States">Constitution of the Confederate States</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>, laid out the cause for the American Civil War, as he saw it, and defended slavery:<sup id="cite_ref-Schott,_Thomas_E._1996,_page_334_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schott,_Thomas_E._1996,_page_334-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The new [Confederate] Constitution has put at rest forever all the agitating questions relating to our peculiar institutions – African slavery as it exists among us – the proper status of the negro in our form of civilization. This was the immediate cause of the late rupture and present revolution. Jefferson, in his forecast, had anticipated this, as the "rock upon which the old Union would split." He was right. What was conjecture with him, is now a realized fact. But whether he fully comprehended the great truth upon which that rock stood and stands, may be doubted. The prevailing ideas entertained by him and most of the leading statesmen at the time of the formation of the old Constitution were, that the enslavement of the African was in violation of the laws of nature; that it was wrong in principle, socially, morally and politically. It was an evil they knew not well how to deal with; but the general opinion of the men of that day was, that, somehow or other, in the order of Providence, the institution would be evanescent and pass away<span class="nowrap"> </span>... Those ideas, however, were fundamentally wrong. They rested upon the assumption of the equality of races. This was an error. It was a sandy foundation, and the idea of a Government built upon it – when the "storm came and the wind blew, it fell".<br /><br />Our new [Confederate] Government is founded upon exactly the opposite ideas; its foundations are laid, its cornerstone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery, subordination to the superior race, is his natural and moral condition.<sup id="cite_ref-Schott,_Thomas_E._1996,_page_334_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schott,_Thomas_E._1996,_page_334-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This view of the "Negro race" was backed by <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The leading researcher was Dr. <a href="/wiki/Samuel_A._Cartwright" title="Samuel A. Cartwright">Samuel A. Cartwright</a>, a Southerner and the inventor of the mental illnesses of <a href="/wiki/Drapetomania" title="Drapetomania">drapetomania</a> (the desire of a slave to run away) and <a href="/wiki/Dysaesthesia_aethiopica" title="Dysaesthesia aethiopica">dysaesthesia aethiopica</a> ("rascality"), both cured, according to him, by whipping. The Medical Association of Louisiana set up a committee, of which he was chair, to investigate "the Diseases and Physical Peculiarities of the Negro Race". Their report, first delivered to the Medical Association in an address, was published in their journal in 1851, <sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and then reprinted in part in the widely circulated <i><a href="/wiki/DeBow%27s_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="DeBow's Review">DeBow's Review</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cartwright_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cartwright-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Proposed_expansion_of_slavery">Proposed expansion of slavery</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Golden_Circle_(Proposed_Country).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Golden_Circle_%28Proposed_Country%29.png/220px-Golden_Circle_%28Proposed_Country%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Golden_Circle_%28Proposed_Country%29.png 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>Dark green indicates the reach of the <a href="/wiki/Knights_of_the_Golden_Circle" title="Knights of the Golden Circle">Golden Circle</a>, an aspirational empire for American slave owners</figcaption></figure> <p>Whether slavery was to be limited to the Southern states that already had it, or whether it was to be permitted in new states made from the lands of the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Cession" title="Mexican Cession">Mexican Cession</a>, was a major issue in the 1840s and 1850s. It was addressed by the <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a> and during the <a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a> period. </p><p>Also relatively well-known are the proposals, including the <a href="/wiki/Ostend_Manifesto" title="Ostend Manifesto">Ostend Manifesto</a>, to <a href="/wiki/History_of_Cuba#The_possibility_of_annexation_by_the_United_States" title="History of Cuba">annex Cuba as a slave state</a>, as well as the privately funded invasion of Cuba by <a href="/wiki/Narciso_L%C3%B3pez" title="Narciso López">Narciso López</a>. There was also talk of making slave states of Mexico, Nicaragua (see <a href="/wiki/Walker_affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Walker affair">Walker affair</a> and <a href="/wiki/Filibuster_War" title="Filibuster War">Filibuster War</a>) and other lands around the so-called <a href="/wiki/Golden_Circle_(proposed_country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Circle (proposed country)">Golden Circle</a>. Less well known today, though well known at the time, is that pro-slavery Southerners: </p> <ul><li>Actively <a href="/wiki/Movement_to_reopen_the_transatlantic_slave_trade" title="Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade">sought to reopen the transatlantic slave trade</a><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Funded <a href="/wiki/Post-1808_importation_of_slaves_to_the_United_States" title="Post-1808 importation of slaves to the United States">illegal slave shipments</a> from the Caribbean and Africa, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Wanderer_(slave_ship)" title="Wanderer (slave ship)">Wanderer</a></i> slave shipment to Georgia in 1858<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Wanted to reintroduce slavery in the Northern states, through federal action or <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_amendment" title="Constitutional amendment">Constitutional amendment</a> making slavery legal nationwide, thus overriding state anti-slavery laws.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See <a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a>.) This was described as "well underway" by 1858.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Said openly that slavery should by no means be limited to black people, since in their view it was beneficial. Northern white workers, who were allegedly "<a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">wage slaves</a>" already, would allegedly have better lives if they were enslaved.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>None of these ideas got very far, but they alarmed Northerners and contributed to the growing polarization of the country. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abolitionism_in_the_North">Abolitionism in the North</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">List of abolitionists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Slavery is a volcano, the fires of which cannot be quenched, nor its ravishes controlled. We already feel its convulsions, and if we sit idly gazing upon its flames, as they rise higher and higher, our happy republic will be buried in ruin, beneath its overwhelming energies.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/William_Ellsworth" class="mw-redirect" title="William Ellsworth">William Ellsworth</a>, attorney for <a href="/wiki/Prudence_Crandall" title="Prudence Crandall">Prudence Crandall</a>, 1834<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 193–194">: 193–194 </span></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:19th_century_American_abolitionists.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/19th_century_American_abolitionists.jpg/220px-19th_century_American_abolitionists.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/19th_century_American_abolitionists.jpg/330px-19th_century_American_abolitionists.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/19th_century_American_abolitionists.jpg/440px-19th_century_American_abolitionists.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Some 19th-century American abolitionists: <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Phillips" title="Wendell Phillips">Wendell Phillips</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</a> (with British abolitionist <a href="/wiki/George_Thompson_(abolitionist)" title="George Thompson (abolitionist)">George Thompson</a>), <a href="/wiki/William_Wells_Brown" title="William Wells Brown">William Wells Brown</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a>, 1851 meeting of the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Abolition_Society" title="Pennsylvania Abolition Society">Pennsylvania Abolition Society</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Johnson_(writer)" title="Oliver Johnson (writer)">Oliver Johnson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Grew" title="Mary Grew">Mary Grew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Purvis" title="Robert Purvis">Robert Purvis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lucretia_Mott" title="Lucretia Mott">Lucretia Mott</a>), <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Beginning during the Revolution and in the first two decades of the postwar era, every state in the North abolished slavery. These were the first abolitionist laws in the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_World" title="Atlantic World">Atlantic World</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the abolition of slavery did not necessarily mean that existing slaves became free. In some states they were forced to remain with their former owners as <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servants" class="mw-redirect" title="Indentured servants">indentured servants</a>: free in name only, although they could not be sold and thus families could not be split, and their children were born free. The end of slavery did not come in New York until July 4, 1827, when it was celebrated (on July 5) with a big parade.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in the <a href="/wiki/1830_census" class="mw-redirect" title="1830 census">1830 census</a>, the only state with no slaves was Vermont. In the <a href="/wiki/1840_census" class="mw-redirect" title="1840 census">1840 census</a>, there were still slaves in New Hampshire (1), Rhode Island (5), Connecticut (17), New York (4), Pennsylvania (64), Ohio (3), Indiana (3), Illinois (331), Iowa (16), and Wisconsin (11). There were none in these states in the <a href="/wiki/1850_census" class="mw-redirect" title="1850 census">1850 census</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most Northern states passed legislation for gradual abolition, first freeing children born to slave mothers (and requiring them to serve lengthy indentures to their mother's owners, often into their 20s as young adults). In 1845, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_New_Jersey" title="Supreme Court of New Jersey">Supreme Court of New Jersey</a> received lengthy arguments towards "the deliverance of four thousand persons from bondage".<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pennsylvania's last slaves were freed in 1847, Connecticut's in 1848, and while neither New Hampshire nor New Jersey had any slaves in the <a href="/wiki/1850_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="1850 Census">1850 Census</a>, and New Jersey only one and New Hampshire none in the <a href="/wiki/1860_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="1860 Census">1860 Census</a>, slavery was never prohibited in either state until ratification of the <a href="/wiki/13th_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="13th Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment</a> in 1865<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (and New Jersey was one of the last states to ratify it). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ordinance2_of_1787.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Ordinance2_of_1787.jpg/220px-Ordinance2_of_1787.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Ordinance2_of_1787.jpg/330px-Ordinance2_of_1787.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Ordinance2_of_1787.jpg/440px-Ordinance2_of_1787.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1302" data-file-height="830" /></a><figcaption>Establishing the Northwest Territory as free soil – no slavery – by <a href="/wiki/Manasseh_Cutler" title="Manasseh Cutler">Manasseh Cutler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rufus_Putnam" title="Rufus Putnam">Rufus Putnam</a> proved to be crucial to the outcome of the Civil War<sup id="cite_ref-Hubbard,_Robert_Ernest_pp._1_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hubbard,_Robert_Ernest_pp._1-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McCullough,_David_pp._11,_13_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCullough,_David_pp._11,_13-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/U.S._Bureau_of_Engraving_and_Printing" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing">U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing</a> artist, 3¢ stamp issued July 13, 1937)</figcaption></figure> <p>None of the Southern states abolished slavery before 1865, but it was not unusual for individual slaveholders in the South to free numerous slaves, often citing revolutionary ideals, in their wills. <a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quaker</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Baptists_in_the_United_States" title="Baptists in the United States">Baptist</a> preachers traveled in the South, appealing to slaveholders to <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumit</a> their slaves, and there were "manumission societies" in some Southern states. By 1810, the number and proportion of free blacks in the population of the United States had risen dramatically. Most free blacks lived in the North, but even in the Upper South, the proportion of free blacks went from less than one percent of all blacks to more than ten percent, even as the total number of slaves was increasing through imports.<sup id="cite_ref-Peter_Kolchin_1993_pp._77–78_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peter_Kolchin_1993_pp._77–78-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SamuelSewall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/SamuelSewall.jpg/170px-SamuelSewall.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/SamuelSewall.jpg/255px-SamuelSewall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/SamuelSewall.jpg/340px-SamuelSewall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1208" /></a><figcaption>Abolitionist <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Sewall" title="Samuel Sewall">Samuel Sewall</a> was chief justice of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Superior_Court_of_Judicature" class="mw-redirect" title="Massachusetts Superior Court of Judicature">Massachusetts Superior Court of Judicature</a>, the highest court in Massachusetts. (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts)</figcaption></figure> <p>African slaves arrived in the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a> in the 1630s, and slavery was legally sanctioned by the Puritans in 1641.<sup id="cite_ref-Mass_Col_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mass_Col-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Massachusetts residents participated in the slave trade, and laws were passed regulating the movement and marriage among slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-Mass_Col_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mass_Col-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1700, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Sewall" title="Samuel Sewall">Samuel Sewall</a>, Puritan abolitionist and associate justice of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Superior_Court_of_Judicature" class="mw-redirect" title="Massachusetts Superior Court of Judicature">Massachusetts Superior Court of Judicature</a>, wrote <i>The Selling of Joseph</i>, within which he condemned slavery and the slave trade and refuted many of the era's typical justifications for slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Puritan influence on slavery was still strong at the time of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> and up until the Civil War. Of America's first seven presidents, the two who did not own slaves, <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> and his son <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a>, came from Puritan New England. They were wealthy enough to own slaves, but they chose not to because they believed that it was morally wrong to do so. In 1765, colonial leader <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams</a> and his wife were given a slave girl as a gift. They immediately freed her. Just after the Revolution, in 1787, the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territory" title="Northwest Territory">Northwest Territory</a> (which became the states of Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin and part of Minnesota) was opened up for settlement. The two men responsible for establishing this territory were <a href="/wiki/Manasseh_Cutler" title="Manasseh Cutler">Manasseh Cutler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rufus_Putnam" title="Rufus Putnam">Rufus Putnam</a>. They came from Puritan New England, and they insisted that this new territory, which doubled the size of the United States, was going to be "free soil" – no slavery. This was to prove crucial in the coming decades. If those states had become slave states, and their electoral votes had gone to <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>'s main opponent, Lincoln would not have been elected president.<sup id="cite_ref-Hubbard,_Robert_Ernest_pp._1_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hubbard,_Robert_Ernest_pp._1-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McCullough,_David_pp._11,_13_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCullough,_David_pp._11,_13-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McCullough,_David_p._132-3_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCullough,_David_p._132-3-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giddings_brady_1955-65rr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Giddings_brady_1955-65rr.jpg/180px-Giddings_brady_1955-65rr.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Giddings_brady_1955-65rr.jpg/270px-Giddings_brady_1955-65rr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Giddings_brady_1955-65rr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="283" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Abolitionist and politician <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reed_Giddings" title="Joshua Reed Giddings">Joshua Reed Giddings</a> was <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_expelled,_censured,_or_reprimanded" title="List of United States representatives expelled, censured, or reprimanded">censured</a> in the <a href="/wiki/U.S._House_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. House of Representatives">U.S. House of Representatives</a> in 1842 for introducing anti-slavery resolution deemed to be incendiary, and in violation of the House's <a href="/wiki/Gag_rule_(United_States)" title="Gag rule (United States)">gag rule</a> prohibiting discussion of slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In the decades leading up to the Civil War, the abolitionists, such as <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Parker" title="Theodore Parker">Theodore Parker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a>, repeatedly used the Puritan heritage of the country to bolster their cause. The most radical anti-slavery newspaper, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Liberator_(newspaper)" title="The Liberator (newspaper)">The Liberator</a>,</i> invoked the Puritans and Puritan values over a thousand times. Parker, in urging New England Congressmen to support the abolition of slavery, wrote that "The son of the Puritan<span class="nowrap"> </span>... is sent to Congress to stand up for Truth and Right<span class="nowrap"> </span>..."<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Northerners predominated in the westward movement into the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern</a> territory after the American Revolution; as the states were organized, they voted to prohibit slavery in their constitutions when they achieved statehood: Ohio in 1803, Indiana in 1816, and Illinois in 1818. What developed was a Northern block of free states united into one contiguous geographic area that generally shared an anti-slavery culture. The exceptions were the areas along the Ohio River settled by Southerners: the southern portions of Indiana, Ohio, and Illinois. Residents of those areas generally shared in Southern culture and attitudes. In addition, these areas were devoted to agriculture longer than the industrializing northern parts of these states, and some farmers used slave labor. In Illinois, for example, while the trade in slaves was prohibited, it was legal to bring slaves from <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a> into Illinois and use them there, as long as the slaves left Illinois one day per year (they were "visiting"). The emancipation of slaves in the North led to the growth in the population of Northern free blacks, from several hundred in the 1770s to nearly 50,000 by 1810.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Legree.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Legree.png/220px-Legree.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Legree.png/330px-Legree.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Legree.png/440px-Legree.png 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>Simon Legree and Uncle Tom: a scene from <i><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></i> (1852), an influential abolitionist novel</figcaption></figure> <p>Throughout the first half of the 19th century, abolitionism, a movement to end slavery, grew in strength; most abolitionist societies and supporters were in the North. They worked to raise awareness about the evils of slavery, and to build support for abolition. After 1830, abolitionist and newspaper publisher <a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</a> promoted emancipation, characterizing slaveholding as a personal sin. He demanded that slaveowners repent and start the process of emancipation. His position increased defensiveness on the part of some Southerners, who noted the long history of slavery among many cultures. A few abolitionists, such as <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a>, favored the use of armed force to foment uprisings among the slaves, as he attempted to do at <a href="/wiki/Harper%27s_Ferry" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper's Ferry">Harper's Ferry</a>. Most abolitionists tried to raise public support to change laws and to challenge slave laws. Abolitionists were active on the lecture circuit in the North, and often featured escaped slaves in their presentations. Writer and orator <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> became an important abolitionist leader after escaping from slavery. <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Beecher_Stowe" title="Harriet Beecher Stowe">Harriet Beecher Stowe</a>'s novel <i><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></i> (1852) was an international bestseller, and along with the non-fiction companion <i><a href="/wiki/A_Key_to_Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin">A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin</a>,</i> aroused popular sentiment against slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also provoked the publication of numerous <a href="/wiki/Anti-Tom_novels" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Tom novels">anti-Tom novels</a> by Southerners in the years before the American Civil War. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Undergroundrailroadsmall2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Undergroundrailroadsmall2.jpg/220px-Undergroundrailroadsmall2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Undergroundrailroadsmall2.jpg/330px-Undergroundrailroadsmall2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Undergroundrailroadsmall2.jpg/440px-Undergroundrailroadsmall2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8345" data-file-height="4128" /></a><figcaption>Map of known <a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> routes, as mapped by a historian of 1898</figcaption></figure> <p>This struggle took place amid strong support for slavery among white Southerners, who profited greatly from the system of enslaved labor. But slavery was entwined with the national economy; for instance, the banking, shipping, insurance, and manufacturing industries of New York City all had strong economic interests in slavery, as did similar industries in other major port cities in the North. The Northern textile mills in New York and New England processed Southern cotton and manufactured clothes to outfit slaves. By 1822, half of New York City's exports were related to cotton.<sup id="cite_ref-divided_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-divided-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slaveholders began to refer to slavery as the "peculiar institution" to differentiate it from other examples of <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced labor">forced labor</a>. They justified it as less cruel than the free labor of the North. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anti-slavery_Alphabet_1846-9.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Anti-slavery_Alphabet_1846-9.jpg/220px-Anti-slavery_Alphabet_1846-9.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Anti-slavery_Alphabet_1846-9.jpg/330px-Anti-slavery_Alphabet_1846-9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Anti-slavery_Alphabet_1846-9.jpg/440px-Anti-slavery_Alphabet_1846-9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="931" /></a><figcaption>Page from <i><a href="/wiki/The_Anti-Slavery_Alphabet" title="The Anti-Slavery Alphabet">The Anti-Slavery Alphabet</a></i> (1846–1849)</figcaption></figure> <p>The principal organized bodies to advocate abolition and anti-slavery reforms in the north were the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Abolition_Society" title="Pennsylvania Abolition Society">Pennsylvania Abolition Society</a> and the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Manumission_Society" title="New York Manumission Society">New York Manumission Society</a>. Before the 1830s the antislavery groups called for gradual emancipation.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the late 1820s, under the impulse of religious evangelicals such as <a href="/wiki/Beriah_Green" title="Beriah Green">Beriah Green</a>, the sense emerged that owning slaves was a sin and the owner had to immediately free himself from this grave sin by immediate emancipation.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prohibiting_the_international_trade">Prohibiting the international trade</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22Shipping_news%22_The_Charleston_Daily_Courier,_December_24,_1805.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/%22Shipping_news%22_The_Charleston_Daily_Courier%2C_December_24%2C_1805.jpg/220px-%22Shipping_news%22_The_Charleston_Daily_Courier%2C_December_24%2C_1805.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="565" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/%22Shipping_news%22_The_Charleston_Daily_Courier%2C_December_24%2C_1805.jpg/330px-%22Shipping_news%22_The_Charleston_Daily_Courier%2C_December_24%2C_1805.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/%22Shipping_news%22_The_Charleston_Daily_Courier%2C_December_24%2C_1805.jpg/440px-%22Shipping_news%22_The_Charleston_Daily_Courier%2C_December_24%2C_1805.jpg 2x" data-file-width="899" data-file-height="2310" /></a><figcaption>The shipping news in Charleston in December 1805 included 900 newly imported enslaved Africans from the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(region)" title="Gold Coast (region)">Gold Coast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Windward_Coast" title="Windward Coast">Windward Coast</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bonny" title="Kingdom of Bonny">Bonny</a>, plus cotton shipping out for <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>, and a delivery of <a href="/wiki/Salampore" title="Salampore">salampore</a> cloth, which was traded for "prime negroes" in regions of Africa where <a href="/wiki/Islamic_dietary_laws" title="Islamic dietary laws">Islamic dietary laws</a> made American <a href="/wiki/Rum" title="Rum">rum</a> undesirable<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Under the Constitution, Congress could not prohibit the import slave trade that was allowed in South Carolina until 1808. However, the third Congress regulated against it in the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_of_1794" title="Slave Trade Act of 1794">Slave Trade Act of 1794</a>, which prohibited American shipbuilding and outfitting for the trade. Subsequent acts <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_of_1800" title="Slave Trade Act of 1800">in 1800</a> and 1803 sought to discourage the trade by banning American investment in the trade, and American employment on ships in the trade, as well as prohibiting importation into states that had abolished slavery, which all states except South Carolina had by 1807.<sup id="cite_ref-Regulation_of_the_Trade_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Regulation_of_the_Trade-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final <a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves</a> was adopted in 1807 and went into effect in 1808. However, illegal importation of African slaves (smuggling) was common.<sup id="cite_ref-Julia_Floyd_Smith_1973,_pp._44–46_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Julia_Floyd_Smith_1973,_pp._44–46-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Cuban slave trade between 1796 and 1807 was dominated by American slave ships. Despite the 1794 Act, Rhode Island slave ship owners found ways to continue supplying the slave-owning states. The overall U.S. slave-ship fleet in 1806 was estimated to be almost 75% the size of that of the British.<sup id="cite_ref-Grindal_2016_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grindal_2016-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 63, 65">: 63, 65 </span></sup> </p><p>After Great Britain and the United States outlawed the international slave trade in 1807, British slave trade suppression activities began in 1808 through diplomatic efforts and the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">West Africa Squadron</a> in 1809. The United States denied the Royal Navy the right to stop and search U.S. ships suspected as slave ships, so not only were American ships unhindered by British patrols, but slavers from other countries would fly the American flag to try to avoid being stopped. Co-operation between the United States and Britain was not possible during the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a> or the period of poor relations in the following years. In 1820, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> sent <a href="/wiki/USS_Cyane_(1815)" title="USS Cyane (1815)">USS <i>Cyane</i></a> under the command of Captain <a href="/wiki/Edward_Trenchard" title="Edward Trenchard">Edward Trenchard</a> to patrol the slave coasts of West Africa. <i>Cyane</i> seized four American slave ships in her first year on station. Trenchard developed a good level of co-operation with the Royal Navy. Four additional U.S. warships were sent to the African coast in 1820 and 1821. A total of 11 American slave ships were taken by the U.S. Navy over this period. Then American enforcement activity reduced. There was still no agreement between the United States and Britain on a mutual right to board suspected slave traders sailing under each other's flag. Attempts to reach such an agreement stalled in 1821 and 1824 in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a>. A U.S. Navy presence, however sporadic, did result in American slavers sailing under the Spanish flag, but still as an extensive trade. The <a href="/wiki/Webster-Ashburton_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Webster-Ashburton Treaty">Webster-Ashburton Treaty</a> of 1842 set a guaranteed minimum level of patrol activity by the U.S. Navy and the Royal Navy, and formalized the level of co-operation that had existed in 1820. Its effects, however, were minimal<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while opportunities for greater co-operation were not taken. The U.S. transatlantic slave trade was not effectively suppressed until 1861, during Lincoln's presidency, when a treaty with Britain was signed whose provisions included allowing the Royal Navy to board, search and arrest slavers operating under the American flag.<sup id="cite_ref-Grindal_2016_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grindal_2016-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 399–400, 449, 1144, 1149">: 399–400, 449, 1144, 1149 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_of_1812">War of 1812</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Black_refugee_(War_of_1812)" title="Black refugee (War of 1812)">Black refugee (War of 1812)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Andrew_Jackson_explains_how_much_it_should_cost_to_take_a_shipment_of_slaves_to_Natchez_for_sale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Andrew_Jackson_explains_how_much_it_should_cost_to_take_a_shipment_of_slaves_to_Natchez_for_sale.jpg/220px-Andrew_Jackson_explains_how_much_it_should_cost_to_take_a_shipment_of_slaves_to_Natchez_for_sale.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Andrew_Jackson_explains_how_much_it_should_cost_to_take_a_shipment_of_slaves_to_Natchez_for_sale.jpg/330px-Andrew_Jackson_explains_how_much_it_should_cost_to_take_a_shipment_of_slaves_to_Natchez_for_sale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Andrew_Jackson_explains_how_much_it_should_cost_to_take_a_shipment_of_slaves_to_Natchez_for_sale.jpg/440px-Andrew_Jackson_explains_how_much_it_should_cost_to_take_a_shipment_of_slaves_to_Natchez_for_sale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1568" data-file-height="1095" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_and_the_slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Andrew Jackson and the slave trade in the United States">Andrew Jackson and the slave trade in the United States</a>: Jackson, soon to be the "Hero of New Orleans," explains how much it should cost to take a shipment of slaves to Natchez for sale (<i> The Correspondence of Andrew Jackson</i>, 1926)</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>, British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> commanders of the blockading fleet were instructed to offer freedom to defecting American slaves, as the Crown had during the Revolutionary War. Thousands of <a href="/wiki/Black_Refugee_(War_of_1812)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Refugee (War of 1812)">escaped slaves</a> went over to the Crown with their families.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Men were recruited into the <a href="/wiki/Corps_of_Colonial_Marines" title="Corps of Colonial Marines">Corps of Colonial Marines</a> on occupied <a href="/wiki/Tangier_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Tangier Island">Tangier Island</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay" title="Chesapeake Bay">Chesapeake Bay</a>. Many freed American slaves were recruited directly into existing West Indian regiments, or newly created <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a> units. The British later resettled a few thousand freed slaves to Nova Scotia. Their descendants, together with descendants of the black people resettled there after the Revolution, have established the Black Loyalist Heritage Museum.<sup id="cite_ref-schama_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schama-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slaveholders, primarily in the South, had considerable "loss of property" as thousands of slaves escaped to the British lines or ships for freedom, despite the difficulties.<sup id="cite_ref-schama_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schama-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The planters' complacency about slave "contentment" was shocked by seeing that slaves would risk so much to be free.<sup id="cite_ref-schama_121-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schama-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterward, when some freed slaves had been settled at <a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a>, slaveholders such as Major <a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(American_politician)" title="Pierce Butler (American politician)">Pierce Butler</a> of <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> tried to persuade them to return to the United States, to no avail. </p><p>The Americans protested that Britain's failure to return all slaves violated the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Ghent" title="Treaty of Ghent">Treaty of Ghent</a>. After arbitration by the <a href="/wiki/Tsar_Alexander_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsar Alexander I">Tsar of Russia</a>, the British paid $1,204,960 in damages (about $32.4 million in today's money) to Washington, which reimbursed the slaveowners.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slave_rebellions">Slave rebellions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion_and_resistance_in_the_United_States" title="Slave rebellion and resistance in the United States">Slave rebellion and resistance in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_United_States#Slave_rebellions" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the colonial United States">Slavery in the colonial United States § Slave rebellions</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nat_Turner_captured.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Nat_Turner_captured.jpg/220px-Nat_Turner_captured.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Nat_Turner_captured.jpg/330px-Nat_Turner_captured.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Nat_Turner_captured.jpg/440px-Nat_Turner_captured.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption><i>Discovery of Nat Turner</i> [in 1831], an 1881 <a href="/wiki/Wood-engraving" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood-engraving">wood-engraving</a> by <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Henry_Shelton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Henry Shelton (page does not exist)">William Henry Shelton</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q52155231#sitelinks-wikipedia" class="extiw" title="d:Special:EntityPage/Q52155231"><span title=""William Henry Shelton" in other languages">d</span></a>]</span></figcaption></figure> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Aptheker" title="Herbert Aptheker">Herbert Aptheker</a>, "there were few phases of ante-bellum Southern life and history that were not in some way influenced by the fear of, or the actual outbreak of, militant concerted slave action."<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historians in the 20th century identified 250 to 311 slave uprisings in U.S. and colonial history.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those after 1776 include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel</a>'s conspiracy (1800)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Landing" title="Igbo Landing">Igbo Landing</a> slave escape and mass suicide (1803)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chatham_Manor" title="Chatham Manor">Chatham Manor</a> Rebellion (1805)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1811_German_Coast_uprising" title="1811 German Coast uprising">1811 German Coast uprising</a>, (1811)<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Boxley" title="George Boxley">George Boxley</a> Rebellion (1815)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a>'s conspiracy (1822)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_Rebellion" title="Nat Turner's Rebellion">Nat Turner's Rebellion</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Black Seminole Slave Rebellion</a> (1835–1838)<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amistad_(case)" class="mw-redirect" title="Amistad (case)"><i>Amistad</i> seizure</a> (1839)<sup id="cite_ref-WDLAmistad_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WDLAmistad-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1842_Slave_Revolt_in_the_Cherokee_Nation" title="1842 Slave Revolt in the Cherokee Nation">1842 Slave Revolt in the Cherokee Nation</a><sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charleston_Workhouse_Slave_Rebellion" title="Charleston Workhouse Slave Rebellion">Charleston Workhouse Slave Rebellion</a> (1849)</li></ul> <p>In 1831, <a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner" title="Nat Turner">Nat Turner</a>, a literate slave who claimed to have spiritual <a href="/wiki/Vision_(spirituality)" title="Vision (spirituality)">visions</a>, organized a <a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">slave rebellion</a> in <a href="/wiki/Southampton_County,_Virginia" title="Southampton County, Virginia">Southampton County, Virginia</a>; it was sometimes called the Southampton Insurrection. Turner and his followers killed nearly sixty white inhabitants, mostly women and children. Many of the men in the area were attending a religious event in North Carolina.<sup id="cite_ref-Foner_2009_406–407_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foner_2009_406–407-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually Turner was captured with 17 other rebels, who were subdued by the militia.<sup id="cite_ref-Foner_2009_406–407_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foner_2009_406–407-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turner and his followers were <a href="/wiki/Hanging" title="Hanging">hanged</a>, and Turner's body was <a href="/wiki/Flaying" title="Flaying">flayed</a>. In a frenzy of fear and retaliation, the militia killed more than 100 slaves who had not been involved in the rebellion. Planters whipped hundreds of innocent slaves to ensure resistance was quelled.<sup id="cite_ref-Foner_2009_406–407_129-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foner_2009_406–407-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This rebellion prompted Virginia and other slave states to pass more restrictions on slaves and free people of color, controlling their movement and requiring more white supervision of gatherings. In 1835, North Carolina withdrew the franchise for free people of color, and they lost their vote. </p><p>There are four known mutinies on vessels involved in the coastwise slave trade: <i><a href="/wiki/Decatur_slave-ship_mutiny" title="Decatur slave-ship mutiny">Decatur</a></i> (1826), <i>Governor Strong</i> (1826), <i>Lafayette</i> (1829), and the <a href="/wiki/Creole_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Creole case"><i>Creole</i></a> (1841).<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-revolution_Southern_manumissions">Post-revolution Southern manumissions</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manumission_papers_of_Phillis_Murray,_negro_woman_aged_about_25_years,_signed_William_Glasgow,_December_31,_1833.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Manumission_papers_of_Phillis_Murray%2C_negro_woman_aged_about_25_years%2C_signed_William_Glasgow%2C_December_31%2C_1833.jpg/220px-Manumission_papers_of_Phillis_Murray%2C_negro_woman_aged_about_25_years%2C_signed_William_Glasgow%2C_December_31%2C_1833.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Manumission_papers_of_Phillis_Murray%2C_negro_woman_aged_about_25_years%2C_signed_William_Glasgow%2C_December_31%2C_1833.jpg/330px-Manumission_papers_of_Phillis_Murray%2C_negro_woman_aged_about_25_years%2C_signed_William_Glasgow%2C_December_31%2C_1833.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Manumission_papers_of_Phillis_Murray%2C_negro_woman_aged_about_25_years%2C_signed_William_Glasgow%2C_December_31%2C_1833.jpg/440px-Manumission_papers_of_Phillis_Murray%2C_negro_woman_aged_about_25_years%2C_signed_William_Glasgow%2C_December_31%2C_1833.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5023" data-file-height="7634" /></a><figcaption>Manumission papers of Phillis Murray, a black woman about 25 years old, signed by William Glasgow, December 31, 1833 (<a href="/wiki/Missouri_History_Museum" title="Missouri History Museum">Missouri History Museum</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Although Virginia, Maryland and <a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a> were slave states, the latter two already had a high proportion of free blacks by the outbreak of war. Following the Revolution, the three legislatures made <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumission</a> easier, allowing it by deed or will. Quaker and Methodist ministers in particular urged slaveholders to free their slaves. The number and proportion of freed slaves in these states rose dramatically until 1810. More than half of the number of free blacks in the United States were concentrated in the Upper South. The proportion of free blacks among the black population in the Upper South rose from less than 1 percent in 1792 to more than 10 percent by 1810.<sup id="cite_ref-Peter_Kolchin_1993_pp._77–78_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peter_Kolchin_1993_pp._77–78-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Delaware, nearly 75 percent of black people were free by 1810.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States as a whole, the number of free blacks reached 186,446, or 13.5 percent of all black people by 1810.<sup id="cite_ref-PeterKolchin_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PeterKolchin-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After that period, few slaves were freed, as the development of <a href="/wiki/Plantations_in_the_American_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantations in the American South">cotton plantations</a> featuring short-staple cotton in the Deep South drove up the internal demand for slaves in the domestic slave trade and high prices being paid for them.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>South Carolina made manumission more difficult, requiring legislative approval of every manumission.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Alabama banned free black people from the state beginning in 1834; free people of color who crossed the state line were subject to enslavement.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Free black people in Arkansas after 1843 had to buy a $500 good-behavior bond, and no unenslaved black person was legally allowed to move into the state.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Female_slave_owners">Female slave owners</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22Kidnapping_250_Dollars_Reward_%22_Constitutional_Whig,_April_27,_1827.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/%22Kidnapping_250_Dollars_Reward_%22_Constitutional_Whig%2C_April_27%2C_1827.jpg/220px-%22Kidnapping_250_Dollars_Reward_%22_Constitutional_Whig%2C_April_27%2C_1827.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/%22Kidnapping_250_Dollars_Reward_%22_Constitutional_Whig%2C_April_27%2C_1827.jpg/330px-%22Kidnapping_250_Dollars_Reward_%22_Constitutional_Whig%2C_April_27%2C_1827.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/%22Kidnapping_250_Dollars_Reward_%22_Constitutional_Whig%2C_April_27%2C_1827.jpg/440px-%22Kidnapping_250_Dollars_Reward_%22_Constitutional_Whig%2C_April_27%2C_1827.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1193" data-file-height="1561" /></a><figcaption>The slave trade made <a href="/wiki/Kidnapping_into_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Kidnapping into slavery in the United States">kidnapping children of color</a> a profitable criminal business—the <a href="/wiki/Patty_Cannon" title="Patty Cannon">Patty Cannon</a> gang was at work in Northwest Fork Hundred, Delaware until 1829, when four bodies were found buried on property they had owned ("Kidnapping 250 Dollars Reward" <i>Constitutional Whig</i>, April 27, 1827)</figcaption></figure> <p>Women exercised their right to own and control human property without their husbands' interference or permission, and they were active participants in the slave trade.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in South Carolina 40% of bills of sale for slaves from the 1700s to the present included a female buyer or seller.<sup id="cite_ref-mcdonald2019_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcdonald2019-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women also governed their slaves in a manner similar to men, engaging in the same levels of physical disciplining. Like men, they brought lawsuits against those who jeopardized their ownership to their slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Black_slave_owners">Black slave owners</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/African-American_slave_owners" title="African-American slave owners">African-American slave owners</a></div> <p>Despite the longstanding color line in the United States, some African Americans were slave owners themselves, some in cities and others as plantation owners in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slave ownership signified both wealth and increased social status.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_139-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black slave owners were uncommon, however, as "of the two and a half million African Americans living in the United States in 1850, the vast majority [were] enslaved."<sup id="cite_ref-:5_139-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Native_American_slave_owners">Native American slave owners</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">Amerindian slave ownership</a></div> <p>After 1800, some of the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> and the other <a href="/wiki/Five_civilized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Five civilized tribes">four civilized tribes</a> of the Southeast started buying and using black slaves as labor. They continued this practice after removal to <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> in the 1830s, when as many as 15,000 enslaved blacks were taken with them.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The nature of <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Freedmen_Controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherokee Freedmen Controversy">slavery in Cherokee society</a> often mirrored that of white slave-owning society. The law barred intermarriage of Cherokees and enslaved African Americans, but Cherokee men had unions with enslaved women, resulting in mixed-race children.<sup id="cite_ref-tperdue1_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tperdue1-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-katover_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-katover-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cherokee who aided slaves were punished with one hundred lashes on the back. In Cherokee society, persons of African descent were barred from holding office even if they were also racially and culturally Cherokee. They were also barred from bearing arms and owning property. The Cherokee prohibited the teaching of African Americans to read and write.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By contrast, the <a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminole</a> welcomed into their nation African Americans who had <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugitive slave">escaped</a> slavery (<a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a>). Historically, the Black Seminoles lived mostly in distinct bands near the Native American Seminole. Some were held as slaves of particular Seminole leaders. Seminole practice in Florida had acknowledged slavery, though not the chattel slavery model common elsewhere. It was, in fact, more like feudal dependency and taxation.<sup id="cite_ref-Jennison2012_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jennison2012-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mulroy2016_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mulroy2016-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relationship between Seminole blacks and natives changed following their relocation in the 1830s to territory controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Creek_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Creek people">Creek</a> who had a system of chattel slavery. Pro slavery pressure from Creek and pro-Creek Seminole and slave raiding led to many Black Seminoles escaping to Mexico.<sup id="cite_ref-DeloriaSalisbury2008_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeloriaSalisbury2008-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TriggerWashburn1996_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TriggerWashburn1996-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Binder1987_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Binder1987-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Buchanan1955_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchanan1955-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mulroy2007p79_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mulroy2007p79-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High_demand_and_smuggling">High demand and smuggling</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Post-1808_importation_of_slaves_to_the_United_States" title="Post-1808 importation of slaves to the United States">Post-1808 importation of slaves to the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Movement_to_reopen_the_transatlantic_slave_trade" title="Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade">Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Africa_and_the_American_Flag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Africa_and_the_American_Flag.jpg/220px-Africa_and_the_American_Flag.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Africa_and_the_American_Flag.jpg/330px-Africa_and_the_American_Flag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Africa_and_the_American_Flag.jpg/440px-Africa_and_the_American_Flag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="595" data-file-height="468" /></a><figcaption>U.S. brig <i><a href="/wiki/USS_Perry_(1843)" title="USS Perry (1843)">Perry</a></i> confronting the <a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">slave ship</a> <i>Martha</i> off <a href="/wiki/Ambriz" title="Ambriz">Ambriz</a> on June 6, 1850 (<a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Sarony" title="Napoleon Sarony">Sarony & Co.</a> lithograph, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Hull_Foote" title="Andrew Hull Foote">Andrew H. Foote</a>'s <i>Africa and the American Flag</i>, 1854)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>, adopted in 1787, prevented <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> from completely banning the <a href="/wiki/Import" title="Import">importation</a> of slaves until 1808, although Congress regulated against the trade in the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_of_1794" title="Slave Trade Act of 1794">Slave Trade Act of 1794</a>, and in subsequent Acts <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_of_1800" title="Slave Trade Act of 1800">in 1800</a> and 1803.<sup id="cite_ref-Regulation_of_the_Trade_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Regulation_of_the_Trade-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During and after the Revolution, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._states" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. states">states</a> individually passed laws against importing slaves. By contrast, the states of Georgia and South Carolina reopened their trade due to demand by their upland planters, who were developing new cotton plantations: Georgia from 1800 until December 31, 1807, and South Carolina from 1804. In that period, Charleston traders imported about 75,000 slaves, more than were brought to South Carolina in the 75 years before the Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximately 30,000 were imported to Georgia. </p><p>By January 1, 1808, when Congress <a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">banned further imports</a>, South Carolina was the only state that still allowed importation of enslaved people. The domestic trade became extremely profitable as demand rose with the expansion of cultivation in the Deep South for cotton and sugar cane crops. Slavery in the United States became, more or less, self-sustaining by natural increase among the current slaves and their descendants. Maryland and Virginia viewed themselves as slave producers, seeing "producing slaves" as resembling animal husbandry. Workers, including many children, were relocated by force from the upper to the lower South. </p><p>Despite the ban, slave imports continued through smugglers bringing in slaves past the U.S. Navy's <a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">African Slave Trade Patrol</a> to South Carolina, and overland from Texas and Florida, both under Spanish control.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress increased the punishment associated with importing slaves, classifying it in 1820 as an act of piracy, with smugglers subject to harsh penalties, including death if caught. After that, "it is unlikely that more than 10,000 [slaves] were successfully landed in the United States."<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But, some smuggling of slaves into the United States continued until just before the start of the Civil War. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonization_movement">Colonization movement</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">American Colonization Society</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Liberia" title="History of Liberia">History of Liberia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mitchell_Map_Liberia_colony_1839.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Mitchell_Map_Liberia_colony_1839.jpg/220px-Mitchell_Map_Liberia_colony_1839.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Mitchell_Map_Liberia_colony_1839.jpg/330px-Mitchell_Map_Liberia_colony_1839.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Mitchell_Map_Liberia_colony_1839.jpg/440px-Mitchell_Map_Liberia_colony_1839.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1678" data-file-height="1743" /></a><figcaption>The 1839 Mitchell <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Liberia" title="Geography of Liberia">map of Liberia</a> shows colonial settlements including <a href="/wiki/New_Georgia,_Liberia" title="New Georgia, Liberia">New Georgia</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pennsylvania_Colony_(Liberia)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pennsylvania Colony (Liberia) (page does not exist)">Pennsylvania Colony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mississippi-in-Africa" title="Mississippi-in-Africa">Mississippi Colony</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Colony_(Liberia)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Louisiana Colony (Liberia) (page does not exist)">Louisiana Colony</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Maryland" title="Republic of Maryland">Maryland Colony</a> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Only_think_of_it.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Only_think_of_it.jpg/220px-Only_think_of_it.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Only_think_of_it.jpg/330px-Only_think_of_it.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Only_think_of_it.jpg/440px-Only_think_of_it.jpg 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="403" /></a><figcaption>"Only think of it!—There is actually a scheme on foot for transporting to the shores of Africa <i>a large portion of the yeomanry of this country!</i> And why? Because it is said they can never attain to respectability or happiness here—among their own countrymen!!—Hail, Columbia! happy land!" (<i>The Liberator</i>, December 1, 1832)</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early part of the 19th century, other organizations were founded to take action on the future of black Americans. Some advocated removing free black people from the United States to places where they would enjoy greater freedom; some endorsed <a href="/wiki/Colony" title="Colony">colonization</a> in Africa, while others advocated <a href="/wiki/Emigration" title="Emigration">emigration</a>, usually to Haiti. During the 1820s and 1830s, the <a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">American Colonization Society</a> (ACS) was the primary organization to implement the "return" of black Americans to Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-AFP_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AFP-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACS was made up mostly of <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a> and slaveholders, and they found uneasy common ground in support of what was incorrectly called "repatriation". By this time, however, most black Americans were native-born and did not want to emigrate, saying they were no more African than white Americans were British. Rather, they wanted full rights in the United States, where their families had lived and worked for generations. </p><p>In 1822, the ACS and affiliated state societies established what would become the colony of <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>, in West Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-WDLMap_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WDLMap-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACS assisted thousands of freedmen and free blacks (with legislated limits) to emigrate there from the United States. Many white people considered this preferable to <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">emancipation</a> in the United States. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a>, one of the founders and a prominent slaveholder politician from Kentucky, said that blacks faced: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off.<sup id="cite_ref-ATH_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ATH-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Deportation would also be a way to prevent reprisals against former slaveholders and white people in general, as had occurred in the <a href="/wiki/1804_Haiti_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="1804 Haiti massacre">1804 Haiti massacre</a>, which had contributed to a consuming fear amongst whites of retributive black violence, a phobia dubbed <a href="/wiki/Haitianism" title="Haitianism">Haitianism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic_slave_trade_and_forced_migration">Domestic slave trade and forced migration</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">Slave trade in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_traders_of_the_United_States" title="List of slave traders of the United States">List of slave traders of the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slave_markets_and_slave_jails_in_the_United_States" title="Slave markets and slave jails in the United States">Slave markets and slave jails in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kidnapping_into_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Kidnapping into slavery in the United States">Kidnapping into slavery in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of the slave trade in the United States">Bibliography of the slave trade in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Family_separation_in_American_slavery" title="Family separation in American slavery">Family separation in American slavery</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crowe-Slaves_Waiting_for_Sale_-_Richmond,_Virginia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Crowe-Slaves_Waiting_for_Sale_-_Richmond%2C_Virginia.jpg/220px-Crowe-Slaves_Waiting_for_Sale_-_Richmond%2C_Virginia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Crowe-Slaves_Waiting_for_Sale_-_Richmond%2C_Virginia.jpg/330px-Crowe-Slaves_Waiting_for_Sale_-_Richmond%2C_Virginia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Crowe-Slaves_Waiting_for_Sale_-_Richmond%2C_Virginia.jpg/440px-Crowe-Slaves_Waiting_for_Sale_-_Richmond%2C_Virginia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2550" data-file-height="1722" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slaves_Waiting_for_Sale:_Richmond,_Virginia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slaves Waiting for Sale: Richmond, Virginia (page does not exist)">Slaves Waiting for Sale: Richmond, Virginia</a> </i><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q111822148#sitelinks-wikipedia" class="extiw" title="d:Special:EntityPage/Q111822148"><span title=""Slaves Waiting for Sale: Richmond, Virginia" in other languages">d</span></a>]</span>, painting by <a href="/wiki/Eyre_Crowe_(painter)" title="Eyre Crowe (painter)">Eyre Crowe</a> based on a sketch made 1853 while visiting the United States with <a href="/wiki/William_Thackeray" class="mw-redirect" title="William Thackeray">William Thackeray</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slavery_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Slavery_map.jpg/220px-Slavery_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="350" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Slavery_map.jpg/330px-Slavery_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Slavery_map.jpg/440px-Slavery_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2042" data-file-height="3250" /></a><figcaption>Movement of slaves between 1790 and 1860</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/U.S._Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Constitution">U.S. Constitution</a> barred the federal government from prohibiting the importation of slaves for twenty years. Various states passed bans on the international slave trade during that period; by 1808, the only state still allowing the importation of African slaves was South Carolina. After 1808, legal importation of slaves ceased, although there was smuggling via <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Spanish Florida</a> and the disputed Gulf Coast to the west.<sup id="cite_ref-Florida_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Florida-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 48–49">: 48–49 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peoples_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peoples-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 138">: 138 </span></sup> This route all but ended after Florida <a href="/wiki/Florida_Territory" title="Florida Territory">became a U.S. territory</a> in 1821 (but see <a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">slave ships</a> <a href="/wiki/Wanderer_(slave_ship)" title="Wanderer (slave ship)"><i>Wanderer</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/Clotilda_(slave_ship)" title="Clotilda (slave ship)"><i>Clotilda</i></a>). </p><p>The replacement for the importation of slaves from abroad was increased domestic production. Virginia and Maryland had little new agricultural development, and their need for slaves was mostly for replacements for decedents. Normal reproduction more than supplied these: Virginia and Maryland had surpluses of slaves. Their tobacco farms were "worn out"<sup id="cite_ref-Sweig_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sweig-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the climate was not suitable for cotton or sugar cane. The surplus was even greater because <a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">slaves were encouraged to reproduce</a> (though <a href="/wiki/Marriage_of_enslaved_people_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marriage of enslaved people (United States)">they could not marry</a>). The pro-slavery Virginian <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Roderick_Dew" title="Thomas Roderick Dew">Thomas Roderick Dew</a> wrote in 1832 that Virginia was a "negro-raising state"; i.e. Virginia "produced" slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to him, in 1832 Virginia exported "upwards of 6,000 slaves" per year, "a source of wealth to Virginia".<sup id="cite_ref-Curry_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Curry-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 198">: 198 </span></sup> A newspaper from 1836 gives the figure as 40,000, earning for Virginia an estimated $24,000,000 per year.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Curry_164-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Curry-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 201">: 201 </span></sup> Demand for slaves was the strongest in what was then the southwest of the country: Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and, later, Texas, Arkansas, and Missouri. Here there was abundant land suitable for plantation agriculture, which young men with some <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a> established. This was expansion of the white, monied population: younger men seeking their fortune. </p><p>The most valuable crop that could be grown on a plantation in that climate was cotton. That crop was labor-intensive, and the least-costly laborers were slaves. Demand for slaves exceeded the supply in the southwest; therefore slaves, never cheap if they were productive, went for a higher price. As portrayed in <i><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></i> (the "original" cabin was in Maryland),<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "selling South" was greatly feared. A recently (2018) publicized example of the practice of "selling South" is the <a href="/wiki/1838_Jesuit_slave_sale" title="1838 Jesuit slave sale">1838 sale</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuits</a> of 272 slaves from Maryland, to plantations in Louisiana, to benefit <a href="/wiki/Georgetown_University" title="Georgetown University">Georgetown University</a>, which has been described as "ow[ing] its existence" to this transaction.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The growing international demand for cotton led many plantation owners further west in search of suitable land. In addition, the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a> in 1793 enabled profitable processing of short-staple cotton, which could readily be grown in the uplands. The invention revolutionized the cotton industry by increasing fifty-fold the quantity of cotton that could be processed in a day. At the end of the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>, fewer than 300,000 bales of cotton were produced nationally. By 1820, the amount of cotton produced had increased to 600,000 bales, and by 1850 it had reached 4,000,000. There was an explosive growth of cotton cultivation throughout the Deep South and greatly increased demand for slave labor to support it.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, manumissions decreased dramatically in the South.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the slaves sold from the Upper South were from <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Carolinas" title="Carolinas">Carolinas</a>, where changes in agriculture decreased the need for their labor and the demand for slaves. Before 1810, primary destinations for the slaves who were sold were <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a>, but, after 1810, the Deep South states of <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> received the most slaves. This is where cotton became "king".<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, the Upper South states of Kentucky and Tennessee joined the slave-exporting states. </p><p>By 1815, the domestic slave trade had become a major economic activity in the United States; it lasted until the 1860s.<sup id="cite_ref-CUP_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CUP-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1830 and 1840, nearly 250,000 slaves were taken across state lines.<sup id="cite_ref-CUP_173-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CUP-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1850s, more than 193,000 enslaved persons were transported, and historians estimate nearly one million in total took part in the forced migration of this new "Middle Passage". By 1860, the slave population in the United States had reached four million.<sup id="cite_ref-CUP_173-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CUP-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the 1,515,605 free families in the fifteen slave states in 1860, nearly 400,000 held slaves (roughly one in four, or 25%),<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> amounting to 8% of all American families.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ashley%27s_Sack_(Slave_Sack_c._mid-19th_century).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Ashley%27s_Sack_%28Slave_Sack_c._mid-19th_century%29.jpg/220px-Ashley%27s_Sack_%28Slave_Sack_c._mid-19th_century%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Ashley%27s_Sack_%28Slave_Sack_c._mid-19th_century%29.jpg/330px-Ashley%27s_Sack_%28Slave_Sack_c._mid-19th_century%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Ashley%27s_Sack_%28Slave_Sack_c._mid-19th_century%29.jpg/440px-Ashley%27s_Sack_%28Slave_Sack_c._mid-19th_century%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2496" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ashley%27s_Sack" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashley's Sack">Ashley's Sack</a> is a cloth that recounts a slave sale separating a mother and her daughter. The sack belonged to a nine-year-old girl Ashley and was a parting gift from her mother, Rose, after Ashley had been sold. Rose filled the sack with a dress, braid of her hair, pecans, and "my love always". (<a href="/wiki/Middleton_Place_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Middleton Place Foundation">Middleton Place Foundation</a>, South Carolina)</figcaption></figure> <p>The historian <a href="/wiki/Ira_Berlin" title="Ira Berlin">Ira Berlin</a> called this forced migration of slaves the "Second Middle Passage" because it reproduced many of the same horrors as the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a> (the name given to the transportation of slaves from Africa to North America). These sales of slaves broke up many families and caused much hardship. Characterizing it as the "central event" in the life of a slave between the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> and the Civil War, Berlin wrote that, whether slaves were directly uprooted or lived in fear that they or their families would be involuntarily moved, "the massive deportation traumatized black people, both slave and free".<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individuals lost their connection to families and clans. Added to the earlier colonists combining slaves from different tribes, many ethnic Africans lost their knowledge of varying tribal origins in Africa. Most were descended from families that had been in the United States for many generations.<sup id="cite_ref-CUP_173-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CUP-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The firm of <a href="/wiki/Franklin_and_Armfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin and Armfield">Franklin and Armfield</a> was a leader in this trade. In the 1840s, almost 300,000 slaves were transported, with Alabama and Mississippi receiving 100,000 each. During each decade between 1810 and 1860, at least 100,000 slaves were moved from their state of origin. In the final decade before the Civil War, 250,000 were transported. Michael Tadman wrote in <i>Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South</i> (1989) that 60–70% of inter-regional migrations were the result of the sale of slaves. In 1820, a slave child in the Upper South had a 30 percent chance of being sold South by 1860.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The death rate for the slaves on their way to their new destination across the American South was less than that suffered by captives shipped across the Atlantic Ocean, but mortality nevertheless was higher than the normal death rate. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Interregional_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Interregional slave trade">Slave traders</a> transported two-thirds of the slaves who moved West.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only a minority moved with their families and existing master. Slave traders had little interest in purchasing or transporting intact slave families; in the early years, planters demanded only the young male slaves needed for heavy labor. Later, in the interest of creating a "self-reproducing labor force", planters purchased nearly equal numbers of men and women. Berlin wrote: </p> <blockquote><p>The internal slave trade became the largest enterprise in the South outside the plantation itself, and probably the most advanced in its employment of modern transportation, finance, and publicity. The slave trade industry <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_American_slavery" title="Glossary of American slavery">developed its own unique language</a>, with terms such as "prime hands, bucks, breeding wenches, and "fancy girls" coming into common use.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The expansion of the interstate slave trade contributed to the "economic revival of once depressed seaboard states" as demand accelerated the value of slaves who were subject to sale.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some traders moved their "chattels" by sea, with <a href="/wiki/Norfolk,_Virginia" title="Norfolk, Virginia">Norfolk</a> to <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans,_Louisiana" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans, Louisiana">New Orleans</a> being the most common route, but most slaves were forced to walk overland. Others were shipped downriver from such markets as <a href="/wiki/Louisville,_Kentucky" title="Louisville, Kentucky">Louisville</a> on the Ohio River, and <a href="/wiki/Natchez,_Mississippi" title="Natchez, Mississippi">Natchez</a> on the Mississippi. Traders created regular migration routes served by a network of slave pens, yards and warehouses needed as temporary housing for the slaves. In addition, other vendors provided clothes, food and supplies for slaves. As the trek advanced, some slaves were sold and new ones purchased. Berlin concluded, "In all, the slave trade, with its hubs and regional centers, its spurs and circuits, reached into every cranny of southern society. Few southerners, black or white, were untouched."<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once the trip ended, slaves faced a life on the frontier significantly different from most labor in the Upper South. Clearing trees and starting crops on virgin fields was harsh and backbreaking work. A combination of inadequate nutrition, bad water and exhaustion from both the journey and the work weakened the newly arrived slaves and produced casualties. New plantations were located at rivers' edges for ease of transportation and travel. <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">Mosquitoes</a> and other environmental challenges spread disease, which took the lives of many slaves. They had acquired only limited immunities to lowland diseases in their previous homes. The death rate was so high that, in the first few years of hewing a plantation out of the wilderness, some planters preferred whenever possible to use rented slaves rather than their own.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The harsh conditions on the frontier increased slave resistance and led owners and overseers to rely on violence for control. Many of the slaves were new to cotton fields and unaccustomed to the "sunrise-to-sunset gang labor" required by their new life. Slaves were driven much harder than when they had been in growing tobacco or <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a> back East. Slaves had less time and opportunity to improve the quality of their lives by raising their own <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> or tending vegetable gardens, for either their own consumption or trade, as they could in the East.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Broadside_for_1858_Sale_of_Slaves_in_New_Orleans.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Broadside_for_1858_Sale_of_Slaves_in_New_Orleans.jpg/220px-Broadside_for_1858_Sale_of_Slaves_in_New_Orleans.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="463" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Broadside_for_1858_Sale_of_Slaves_in_New_Orleans.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="497" /></a><figcaption>Broadside for an 1858 slave sale at the <a href="/wiki/St._Louis_Hotel" title="St. Louis Hotel">St. Louis Hotel</a> in New Orleans (<a href="/wiki/Museum_of_African_American_History_and_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of African American History and Culture">Museum of African American History and Culture</a> 2011.155.305)</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/French_Louisiana" title="French Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, French colonists had established <a href="/wiki/Sugar_cane" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar cane">sugar cane</a> plantations and exported sugar as the chief commodity crop. After the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> in 1803, Americans entered the state and joined the sugar cultivation. Between 1810 and 1830, planters bought slaves from the North and the number of slaves increased from fewer than 10,000 to more than 42,000. Planters preferred young males, who represented two-thirds of the slave purchases. Dealing with sugar cane was even more physically demanding than growing cotton. The largely young, unmarried male slave force made the reliance on violence by the owners "especially savage".<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slave_Market-Atlanta_Georgia_1864.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Slave_Market-Atlanta_Georgia_1864.jpg/220px-Slave_Market-Atlanta_Georgia_1864.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Slave_Market-Atlanta_Georgia_1864.jpg/330px-Slave_Market-Atlanta_Georgia_1864.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Slave_Market-Atlanta_Georgia_1864.jpg/440px-Slave_Market-Atlanta_Georgia_1864.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2457" data-file-height="2082" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Crawford,_Frazer_%26_Co." title="Crawford, Frazer & Co.">Crawford, Frazer & Co.</a>, a slave trading business in <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, photographed by <a href="/wiki/George_N._Barnard" title="George N. Barnard">George N. Barnard</a> just prior to the 1864 <a href="/wiki/Burning_of_Atlanta" class="mw-redirect" title="Burning of Atlanta">burning of Atlanta</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> became nationally important as a slave market and port, as slaves were shipped from there upriver by <a href="/wiki/Steamboat" title="Steamboat">steamboat</a> to plantations on the Mississippi River; it also sold slaves who had been shipped downriver from markets such as Louisville. By 1840, the <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_slave_market" title="New Orleans slave market">New Orleans slave market</a> was the largest in North America. It became the wealthiest and the fourth-largest city in the nation, based chiefly on the slave trade and associated businesses.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The trading season was from September to May, after the harvest.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The notion that slave traders were social outcasts of low reputation, even in the South, was initially promulgated by defensive southerners and later by figures like historian <a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Bonnell_Phillips" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulrich Bonnell Phillips">Ulrich B. Phillips</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Bancroft" title="Frederic Bancroft">Frederic Bancroft</a>, author of <i><a href="/wiki/Slave-Trading_in_the_Old_South" title="Slave-Trading in the Old South">Slave-Trading in the Old South</a></i> (1931) found — to the contrary of Phillips's position — that many traders were esteemed members of their communities.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contemporary researcher <a href="/w/index.php?title=Steven_Deyle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Steven Deyle (page does not exist)">Steven Deyle</a> argues that the "trader's position in society was not unproblematic and owners who dealt with the trader felt the need to satisfy themselves that they acted honorably," while <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Tadman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Tadman (page does not exist)">Michael Tadman</a> contends that "'trader as outcast' operated at the level of propaganda" whereas white slave owners almost universally professed a belief that slaves were not human like them, and thus dismissed the consequences of slave trading as beneath consideration.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_186-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, historian <a href="/wiki/Charles_B._Dew" title="Charles B. Dew">Charles Dew</a> read hundreds of letters to slave traders and found virtually zero narrative evidence for guilt, shame, or contrition about the slave trade: "If you begin with the absolute belief in white supremacy—unquestioned white superiority/unquestioned black inferiority—everything falls neatly into place: the African is inferior racial 'stock,' living in sin and ignorance and barbarism and heathenism on the 'Dark Continent' until enslaved...Slavery thus miraculously becomes a form of 'uplift' for this supposedly benighted and brutish race of people. And once notions of white supremacy and black inferiority are in place in the American South, they are passed on from one generation to the next with all the certainty and inevitability of a genetic trait."<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/1828_United_States_presidential_election" title="1828 United States presidential election">1828 presidential election</a>, candidate <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> was strongly criticized by opponents <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_and_the_slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Andrew Jackson and the slave trade in the United States">as a slave trader</a> who transacted in slaves in defiance of modern standards or morality.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treatment">Treatment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Torture_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Torture of slaves in the United States">Torture of slaves in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slave_health_on_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="Slave health on plantations in the United States">Slave health on plantations in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slave_quarters_in_the_United_States" title="Slave quarters in the United States">Slave quarters in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver,_1863,_retouched.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg/220px-Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="355" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg/330px-Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg/440px-Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1252" data-file-height="2020" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Peter_(enslaved_man)" title="Peter (enslaved man)">Peter</a>, formerly enslaved on a cotton plantation along the <a href="/wiki/Atchafalaya_River" title="Atchafalaya River">Atchafalaya River</a>, photo taken at <a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge,_Louisiana" title="Baton Rouge, Louisiana">Baton Rouge, Louisiana</a>, 1863; after the whipping, Peter's wounds were salted, a common practice;<sup id="cite_ref-:12_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:42_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the overseer who whipped Peter was fired by slave owner <a href="/wiki/John_Lyons_(Louisiana)" title="John Lyons (Louisiana)">Capt. John Lyons</a><sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (original <i><a href="/wiki/Carte_de_visite" title="Carte de visite">carte de visite</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/McPherson_%26_Oliver" class="mw-redirect" title="McPherson & Oliver">McPherson & Oliver</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The treatment of slaves in the United States varied widely depending on conditions, time, and place, but in general it was brutal, especially on plantations. Whippings and rape were routine. The power relationships of slavery corrupted many whites that had authority over slaves, with children showing their own cruelty. Masters and overseers resorted to physical punishments to impose their wills. Slaves were punished by whipping, shackling, hanging, beating, burning, mutilation, branding and imprisonment. Punishment was most often meted out in response to disobedience or perceived infractions, but sometimes abuse was carried out to re-assert the dominance of the master or overseer of the slave.<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatment was usually harsher on large plantations, which were often managed by overseers and owned by absentee slaveholders, conditions permitting abuses. </p><p><a href="/wiki/William_Wells_Brown" title="William Wells Brown">William Wells Brown</a>, who escaped to freedom, reported that on one plantation, slave men were required to pick eighty pounds per day of cotton, while women were required to pick seventy pounds; if any slave failed in his or her quota, they were subject to whip lashes for each pound they were short. The whipping post stood next to the cotton scales.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A New York man who attended a slave auction in the mid-19th century reported that at least three-quarters of the male slaves he saw at sale had scars on their backs from whipping.<sup id="cite_ref-McInnis2011_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McInnis2011-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, small slave-owning families had closer relationships between the owners and slaves; this sometimes resulted in a more humane environment but was not a given.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Friedman" title="Lawrence M. Friedman">Lawrence M. Friedman</a> wrote: "Ten Southern codes made it a crime to mistreat a slave.<span class="nowrap"> </span>... Under the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Civil_Code" title="Louisiana Civil Code">Louisiana Civil Code</a> of 1825 (art. 192), if a master was "convicted of cruel treatment", the judge could order the sale of the mistreated slave, presumably to a better master.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Masters and overseers were seldom prosecuted under these laws. No slave could give testimony in the courts. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wilson_Chinn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Wilson_Chinn.jpg/220px-Wilson_Chinn.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="359" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Wilson_Chinn.jpg/330px-Wilson_Chinn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Wilson_Chinn.jpg/440px-Wilson_Chinn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="735" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wilson_Chinn" title="Wilson Chinn">Wilson Chinn</a>, a branded slave from Louisiana—also exhibiting instruments of torture used to punish slaves (carte de visite by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Paxson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Paxson (page does not exist)">Charles Paxson</a>, Metropolitan Museum of Art 2019.521)</figcaption></figure> <p>According to Adalberto Aguirre's research, 1,161 slaves were executed in the United States between the 1790s and 1850s.<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quick executions of innocent slaves as well as suspects typically followed any attempted slave rebellions, as white militias overreacted with widespread killings that expressed their fears of rebellions, or suspected rebellions. </p><p>Although most slaves had lives that were very restricted in terms of their movements and agency, exceptions existed to virtually every generalization; for instance, there were also slaves who had considerable freedom in their daily lives: slaves allowed to rent out their labor and who might live independently of their master in cities, slaves who employed white workers, and slave doctors who treated upper-class white patients.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After 1820, in response to the inability to import new slaves from Africa and in part to abolitionist criticism, some slaveholders improved the living conditions of their slaves, to encourage them to be productive and to try to prevent escapes.<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was part of a paternalistic approach in the <a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">antebellum era</a> that was encouraged by ministers trying to use Christianity to improve the treatment of slaves. Slaveholders published articles in Southern agricultural journals to share best practices in treatment and management of slaves; they intended to show that their system was better than the living conditions of northern industrial workers. </p><p>Medical care for slaves was limited in terms of the medical knowledge available to anyone. It was generally provided by other slaves or by slaveholders' family members, although sometimes "plantation physicians", like <a href="/wiki/J._Marion_Sims" title="J. Marion Sims">J. Marion Sims</a>, were called by the owners to protect their investment by treating sick slaves. Many slaves possessed medical skills needed to tend to each other, and used folk remedies brought from Africa. They also developed new remedies based on American plants and herbs.<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An estimated nine percent of <a href="/wiki/Disability_in_American_slavery" title="Disability in American slavery">slaves were disabled</a> due to a physical, sensory, psychological, neurological, or developmental condition. However, slaves were often described as disabled if they were unable to work or bear a child, and were often subjected to harsh treatment as a result.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Andrew Fede, an owner could be held criminally liable for killing a slave only if the slave he killed was "completely submissive and under the master's absolute control".<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in 1791 the <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_General_Assembly" title="North Carolina General Assembly">North Carolina General Assembly</a> defined the willful killing of a slave as criminal <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</a>, unless done in resisting or under moderate correction (that is, corporal punishment).<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BRIGHTEN_Eyre_Crowe_-_Subasta_de_esclavos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/BRIGHTEN_Eyre_Crowe_-_Subasta_de_esclavos.jpg/220px-BRIGHTEN_Eyre_Crowe_-_Subasta_de_esclavos.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/BRIGHTEN_Eyre_Crowe_-_Subasta_de_esclavos.jpg/330px-BRIGHTEN_Eyre_Crowe_-_Subasta_de_esclavos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/BRIGHTEN_Eyre_Crowe_-_Subasta_de_esclavos.jpg/440px-BRIGHTEN_Eyre_Crowe_-_Subasta_de_esclavos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="684" /></a><figcaption>Sale at auction, by <a href="/wiki/Alonzo_J._White" title="Alonzo J. White">Alonzo J. White</a> on the plaza north of the <a href="/wiki/Exchange_and_Provost" title="Exchange and Provost">Exchange Building</a> in <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charleston</a> on March 10, 1853, of 96 people who had previously been enslaved near the <a href="/wiki/Combahee_River" title="Combahee River">Combahee River</a> (Eyre Crowe, <a href="/wiki/Museo_della_Belle_Artes" class="mw-redirect" title="Museo della Belle Artes">Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes</a>, Havana, Cuba)</figcaption></figure> <p>While slaves' living conditions were poor by modern standards, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Fogel" title="Robert Fogel">Robert Fogel</a> argued that all workers, free or slave, during the first half of the 19th century were subject to hardship.<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike free individuals, however, enslaved people were far more likely to be underfed, physically punished, sexually abused, or killed, with no recourse, legal or otherwise, against those who perpetrated these crimes against them. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commodification_of_human_tissue">Commodification of human tissue</h3></div> <p>In a very grim fashion, the commodification of the human body was legal in the case of African slaves as they were not legally seen as fully human. The most popular means of commodifying slave tissues was through medical experimentation. Slaves were routinely used as medical specimens forced to take part in experimental surgeries, amputations, disease research, and developing medical techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many cases, slave cadavers were used in demonstrations and dissection tables,<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> oftentimes resulting in their tissues being sold for profit. For the reason of slave punishment, decoration, or self-expression, the skin of slaves was in many instances allowed to be made into leather for furniture, accessories, and clothing,<sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a famous example of which being that of wealthy clientele sending cadaver skin to tanners and shoemakers under the guise of animal leather.<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slave hair could be shaved and used for stuffing in pillows and furniture. In some instances, the inner body tissue of slaves (fat, bones, etc.) could be made into soap, trophies, and other commodities.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_abuse,_reproductive_exploitation,_and_breeding_farms"><span id="Sexual_abuse.2C_reproductive_exploitation.2C_and_breeding_farms"></span>Sexual abuse, reproductive exploitation, and breeding farms</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">Slave breeding in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shadow_family" title="Shadow family">Shadow family</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Enslaved_women%27s_resistance_in_the_United_States_and_Caribbean" title="Enslaved women's resistance in the United States and Caribbean">Enslaved women's resistance in the United States and Caribbean</a></div> <p>Because of the power relationships at work, <a href="/wiki/Slave_women_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave women in the United States">slave women in the United States</a> were at high risk for rape and sexual abuse.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moon,_p._234_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moon,_p._234-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their children were repeatedly taken away from them and sold as chattel; usually they never saw each other again. Many slaves fought back against sexual attacks, and some died resisting. Others carried psychological and physical scars from the attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sexual abuse of slaves was partially rooted in a patriarchal Southern culture that treated black women as property or chattel.<sup id="cite_ref-Moon,_p._234_212-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moon,_p._234-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southern culture strongly policed against sexual relations between white women and black men on the purported grounds of racial purity but, by the late 18th century, the many <a href="/wiki/Mixed-race" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed-race">mixed-race</a> slaves and slave children showed that white men had often taken advantage of slave women.<sup id="cite_ref-Moon,_p._234_212-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moon,_p._234-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wealthy planter widowers, notably such as <a href="/wiki/John_Wayles" title="John Wayles">John Wayles</a> and his son-in-law <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, took slave women as <a href="/wiki/Concubines" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubines">concubines</a>; each had six children with his partner: <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Hemings" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth Hemings">Elizabeth Hemings</a> and her daughter <a href="/wiki/Sally_Hemings" title="Sally Hemings">Sally Hemings</a> (the half-sister of Jefferson's late wife), respectively. Both <a href="/wiki/Mary_Chesnut" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary Chesnut">Mary Chesnut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fanny_Kemble" title="Fanny Kemble">Fanny Kemble</a>, wives of planters, wrote about this issue in the antebellum South in the decades before the Civil War. Sometimes planters used mixed-race slaves as house servants or favored artisans because they were their children or other relatives.<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While publicly opposed to race mixing, in his <i><a href="/wiki/Notes_on_the_State_of_Virginia" title="Notes on the State of Virginia">Notes on the State of Virginia</a></i> published in 1785, Jefferson wrote: "The improvement of the blacks in body and mind, in the first instance of their mixture with the whites, has been observed by every one, and proves that their inferiority is not the effect merely of their condition of life".<sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians estimate that 58% of enslaved women in the U.S. aged 15–30 years were sexually assaulted by their slave owners and other white men.<sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of centuries of slavery and such relationships, DNA studies have shown that the vast majority of African Americans also have historic European ancestry, generally through paternal lines.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryc_2015_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryc_2015-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zakharia2009_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zakharia2009-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Portrayals of black men as hypersexual and savage, along with ideals of protecting white women, were predominant during this time<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and masked the experiences of sexual violence faced by black male slaves, especially by white women. Subject not only to rape and sexual exploitation, slaves faced sexual violence in many forms. A black man could be forced by his slaveowner to rape another slave or even a free black woman.<sup id="cite_ref-:05_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:05-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forced pairings with other slaves, including forced breeding, which neither slave might desire, were common.<sup id="cite_ref-:05_220-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:05-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite explicit bans on homosexuality and sodomy, it was not uncommon for male slaves and children to be sexually harassed and assaulted by their masters in secret.<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through sexual and reproductive abuse slaveowners could further enforce their control over their slaves. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">prohibition on the importation of slaves</a> into the United States after 1808 limited the supply of slaves in the United States. This came at a time when the invention of the cotton gin enabled the expansion of cultivation in the uplands of short-staple cotton, leading to clearing lands cultivating cotton through large areas of the Deep South, especially the <a href="/wiki/Black_Belt_(geological_formation)" title="Black Belt (geological formation)">Black Belt</a>. The demand for labor in the area increased sharply and led to an expansion of the internal slave market. At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Upland_South" title="Upland South">Upper South</a> had an excess number of slaves because of a shift to mixed-crops agriculture, which was less labor-intensive than tobacco. To add to the supply of slaves, slaveholders looked at the fertility of slave women as part of their productivity, and intermittently forced the women to have large numbers of children. During this time period, the terms "breeders", "breeding slaves", "child bearing women", "breeding period", and "too old to breed" became familiar.<sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%27The_Quadroon_Girl%27_by_Henry_Mosler,_Cincinnati_Art_Museum.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%27The_Quadroon_Girl%27_by_Henry_Mosler%2C_Cincinnati_Art_Museum.JPG/220px-%27The_Quadroon_Girl%27_by_Henry_Mosler%2C_Cincinnati_Art_Museum.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%27The_Quadroon_Girl%27_by_Henry_Mosler%2C_Cincinnati_Art_Museum.JPG/330px-%27The_Quadroon_Girl%27_by_Henry_Mosler%2C_Cincinnati_Art_Museum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%27The_Quadroon_Girl%27_by_Henry_Mosler%2C_Cincinnati_Art_Museum.JPG/440px-%27The_Quadroon_Girl%27_by_Henry_Mosler%2C_Cincinnati_Art_Museum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1980" data-file-height="2450" /></a><figcaption><i>The Quadroon Girl</i> (1878) oil painting by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Mosler" title="Henry Mosler">Henry Mosler</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cincinnati_Art_Museum" title="Cincinnati Art Museum">Cincinnati Art Museum</a> 1976.25)</figcaption></figure> <p>As it became popular on many plantations to breed slaves for strength, fertility, or extra labor, there grew many documented instances of "<a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">breeding farms</a>" in the United States. Slaves were forced to conceive and birth as many new slaves as possible. The largest farms were located in Virginia and Maryland.<sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the industry of slave breeding came from a desire for larger than natural population growth of slaves, slaveowners often turned towards systematic practices for creating more slaves. Female slaves "were subjected to repeated rape or forced sex and became pregnant again and again",<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even by <a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">incest</a>. In horrific accounts of former slaves, some stated that hoods or bags were placed over their heads to prevent them from knowing who they were forced to have sex with. Journalist William Spivey wrote, "It could be someone they know, perhaps a niece, aunt, sister, or their own mother. The breeders only wanted a child that could be sold."<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States in the early 19th century, owners of female slaves could freely and legally <a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">use them as sexual objects</a>. This follows free use of female slaves on slaving vessels by the crews.<sup id="cite_ref-Kingsley_226-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kingsley-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 83">: 83 </span></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>The slaveholder has it in his power, to violate the chastity of his slaves. And not a few are beastly enough to exercise such power. Hence it happens that, in some families, it is difficult to distinguish the free children from the slaves. It is sometimes the case, that the largest part of the master's own children are born, not of his wife, but of the wives and daughters of his slaves, whom he has basely prostituted as well as enslaved.<sup id="cite_ref-Rankin_227-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rankin-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 38">: 38 </span></sup></p></blockquote> <p>"This vice, this bane of society, has already become so common, that it is scarcely esteemed a disgrace."<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22$100_Runaway%22_Cahawba_Democrat,_June_16,_1838.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/%22%24100_Runaway%22_Cahawba_Democrat%2C_June_16%2C_1838.jpg/220px-%22%24100_Runaway%22_Cahawba_Democrat%2C_June_16%2C_1838.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="551" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/%22%24100_Runaway%22_Cahawba_Democrat%2C_June_16%2C_1838.jpg/330px-%22%24100_Runaway%22_Cahawba_Democrat%2C_June_16%2C_1838.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/%22%24100_Runaway%22_Cahawba_Democrat%2C_June_16%2C_1838.jpg/440px-%22%24100_Runaway%22_Cahawba_Democrat%2C_June_16%2C_1838.jpg 2x" data-file-width="842" data-file-height="2108" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Byrenheidt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andreas Byrenheidt (page does not exist)">Andreas Byrenheidt</a>, a 70-year-old physician,<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> placed an unusually long and detailed <a href="/wiki/Runaway_slave_ad" class="mw-redirect" title="Runaway slave ad">runaway slave ad</a> in two Alabama newspapers in hopes of recovering a 20-year-old enslaved woman, whom he had purchased four years earlier, and her four-year-old daughter, who sometimes called herself Lolo <span style="font-size:85%;">("$100 Reward" <i>Cahawba Democrat</i>, <a href="/wiki/Cahaba,_Alabama" title="Cahaba, Alabama">Cahaba, Alabama</a>, June 16, 1838)</span></figcaption></figure> <p>"Fancy" was a code word that indicated that the girl or young woman was suitable for or trained for sexual use.<sup id="cite_ref-Manganelli_230-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manganelli-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 56">: 56 </span></sup> In some cases, children were also abused in this manner. The sale of a 13-year-old "nearly a fancy" is documented.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_231-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Zephaniah_Kingsley,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Zephaniah Kingsley, Jr.">Zephaniah Kingsley, Jr.</a>, bought his wife when she was 13.<sup id="cite_ref-Allman_232-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allman-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 191">: 191 </span></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, enslaved women who were old enough to bear children were encouraged to procreate, which raised their value as slaves, since their children would eventually provide labor or be sold, enriching the owners. Enslaved women were sometimes medically treated to enable or encourage their fertility.<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The variations in skin color found in the United States make it obvious how often black women were impregnated by whites.<sup id="cite_ref-234" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in the 1850 Census, 75.4% of "free negros" in Florida were described as <a href="/wiki/Mulatto" title="Mulatto">mulattos</a>, of mixed race.<sup id="cite_ref-235" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, it is only very recently, with <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> studies, that any sort of reliable number can be provided, and the research has only begun. Light-skinned girls, who contrasted with the darker field workers, were preferred.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_231-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-236" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Randall_Williams" title="Caroline Randall Williams">Caroline Randall Williams</a> was quoted in <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>: "You Want a Confederate Monument? My Body Is a Confederate Monument." "I have rape-colored skin", she added.<sup id="cite_ref-237" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sexual use of black slaves by either slave owners or by those who could purchase the temporary services of a slave took various forms. A slaveowner, or his teenage son, could go to the <a href="/wiki/Slave_quarters_in_the_United_States" title="Slave quarters in the United States">slave quarters area of the plantation</a> and do what he wanted, with minimal privacy if any. It was common for a "house" female (housekeeper, maid, cook, laundress, or <a href="/wiki/Nanny" title="Nanny">nanny</a>) to be raped by one or more members of the household. <a href="/wiki/Brothel" title="Brothel">Houses of prostitution</a> throughout the slave states were largely staffed by female slaves providing sexual services, to their owners' profit. There were a small number of free black females engaged in prostitution, or concubinage, especially in New Orleans.<sup id="cite_ref-Manganelli_230-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manganelli-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 41">: 41 </span></sup> </p><p>Slave owners who engaged in sexual activity with female slaves "were often the elite of the community. They had little need to worry about public scorn." These relationships "appear to have been tolerated and in some cases even quietly accepted". "Southern women<span class="nowrap"> </span>... do not trouble themselves about it".<sup id="cite_ref-238" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Franklin and Armfield, who were definitely the elite of the community, joked frequently in their letters about the black women and girls that they were raping. It never occurred to them that there was anything wrong in what they were doing.<sup id="cite_ref-Wapo_239-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wapo-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Light-skinned young girls were sold openly for sexual use; their price was much higher than that of a field hand.<sup id="cite_ref-Manganelli_230-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manganelli-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 38, 55">: 38, 55 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Special markets for the fancy girl trade existed in New Orleans<sup id="cite_ref-Manganelli_230-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manganelli-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 55">: 55 </span></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Lexington,_Kentucky" title="Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington, Kentucky</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-241" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Philip Shaw describes an occasion when <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> and Allen Gentry witnessed such sales in New Orleans in 1828: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Gentry vividly remembered a day in New Orleans when he and the nineteen-year-old Lincoln came upon a slave market. Pausing to watch, Gentry recalled looking down at Lincoln's hands and seeing that he "doubled his fists tightly; his knuckles went white". Men wearing black coats and white hats buy field hands, "black and ugly", for $500 to 800. And then the real horror begins: "When the sale of "fancy girls" began, Lincoln, "unable to stand it any longer", muttered to Gentry "Allen that's a disgrace. If I ever get a lick at that thing I'll hit it hard."<sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Those girls who were "considered educated and refined, were purchased by the wealthiest clients, usually plantation owners, to become personal sexual companions". "There was a great demand in New Orleans for 'fancy girls'."<sup id="cite_ref-244" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The issue that did come up frequently was the threat of sexual intercourse between black males and white females. Just as the black women were perceived as having "a trace of Africa, that supposedly incited passion and sexual wantonness",<sup id="cite_ref-Manganelli_230-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manganelli-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 39">: 39 </span></sup> the men were perceived as savages, unable to control their lust, given an opportunity.<sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another approach to the question was offered by <a href="/wiki/Quaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaker">Quaker</a> and Florida planter <a href="/wiki/Zephaniah_Kingsley,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Zephaniah Kingsley, Jr.">Zephaniah Kingsley, Jr.</a> He advocated, and personally practiced, deliberate racial mixing through marriage, as part of his proposed solution to the slavery issue: <a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">racial integration</a>, called "<a href="/wiki/Miscegenation#Etymological_history" title="Miscegenation">amalgamation</a>" at the time. In <a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_on_the_Patriarchal,_or_Co-operative_System_of_Society" title="A Treatise on the Patriarchal, or Co-operative System of Society">an 1829 <i>Treatise</i></a>, he stated that mixed-race people were healthier and often more beautiful, that interracial sex was hygienic, and slavery made it convenient.<sup id="cite_ref-Allman_232-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allman-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 190">: 190 </span></sup> Because of these views, tolerated in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Spanish Florida</a>, he found it impossible to remain long in <a href="/wiki/Florida_Territory" title="Florida Territory">Territorial Florida</a>, and moved with his slaves and multiple wives to a plantation, <a href="/wiki/Mayorasgo_de_Koka" title="Mayorasgo de Koka">Mayorasgo de Koka</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> (now in the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a>). There were many others who less flagrantly practiced interracial, common-law marriages with slaves (see <i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem#Mixed-race_slaves" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slave_codes">Slave codes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slave_pass" title="Slave pass">Slave pass</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_slave_codes" title="South Carolina slave codes">South Carolina slave codes</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_slave_codes" title="New York slave codes">New York slave codes</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jonathan_Walker_branded_hand,_1845.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Jonathan_Walker_branded_hand%2C_1845.png/220px-Jonathan_Walker_branded_hand%2C_1845.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Jonathan_Walker_branded_hand%2C_1845.png/330px-Jonathan_Walker_branded_hand%2C_1845.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Jonathan_Walker_branded_hand%2C_1845.png/440px-Jonathan_Walker_branded_hand%2C_1845.png 2x" data-file-width="551" data-file-height="442" /></a><figcaption>The inscription on the back of the case reads: <i>This Daguerreotype was taken by Southworth Aug. 1845 it is a copy of Captain <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="Jonathan Walker (abolitionist)">Jonathan Walker</a>'s hand as branded by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="United States District Court for the District of Florida">U.S. Marshall of the Dist. of Florida</a> for having helped 7 men to obtain 'Life Liberty, and Happiness.' SS Slave Saviour Northern Dist. SS Slave Stealer Southern Dist.</i> (image by <a href="/wiki/Southworth_%26_Hawes" title="Southworth & Hawes">Southworth & Hawes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Historical_Society" title="Massachusetts Historical Society">Massachusetts Historical Society</a> 1.373)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Museum_of_American_History_-_Slave_tags_of_Charleston_South_Carolina.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/National_Museum_of_American_History_-_Slave_tags_of_Charleston_South_Carolina.jpg/220px-National_Museum_of_American_History_-_Slave_tags_of_Charleston_South_Carolina.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/National_Museum_of_American_History_-_Slave_tags_of_Charleston_South_Carolina.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="298" data-file-height="169" /></a><figcaption>Tags to be used for identifying and tracking enslaved people of Charleston, South Carolina (National Museum of American History 1993.0503)</figcaption></figure> <p>To help regulate the relationship between slave and owner, including legal support for keeping the slave as property, states established <a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">slave codes</a>, most based on laws existing since the colonial era. The code for the District of Columbia defined a slave as "a human being, who is by law deprived of his or her liberty for life, and is the property of another".<sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While each state had its own slave code, many concepts were shared throughout the slave states.<sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the slave codes, some of which were passed in reaction to slave rebellions, teaching a slave to read or write was illegal. This prohibition was unique to American slavery, believed to reduce slaves forming aspirations that could lead to escape or rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-248" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Informal education occurred when white children taught slave companions what they were learning; in other cases, adult slaves learned from free artisan workers, especially if located in cities, where there was more freedom of movement. </p><p>In Alabama, slaves were not allowed to leave their master's premises without written consent or passes. This was a common requirement in other states as well, and locally run patrols (known to slaves as <i>pater rollers</i>) often checked the passes of slaves who appeared to be away from their plantations. In Alabama slaves were prohibited from trading goods among themselves. In Virginia, a slave was not permitted to drink in public within one mile of his master or during public gatherings. Slaves were not permitted to carry firearms in any of the slave states. </p><p>Slaves were generally prohibited by law from associating in groups, with the exception of worship services (a reason why the <a href="/wiki/Black_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Church">Black Church</a> is such a notable institution in black communities today). Following <a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's rebellion</a> in 1831, which raised white fears throughout the South, some states also prohibited or restricted religious gatherings of slaves, or required that they be officiated by white men. Planters feared that group meetings would facilitate communication among slaves that could lead to rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-249" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slaves held private, secret "brush meetings" in the woods. </p><p>In Ohio, an emancipated slave was prohibited from returning to the state in which he or she had been enslaved. Other Northern states discouraged the settling of free blacks within their boundaries. Fearing the influence of free blacks, Virginia and other Southern states passed laws to require blacks who had been freed to leave the state within a year (or sometimes less time) unless granted a stay by an act of the legislature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Religion_of_black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion of black Americans">Religion of black Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_Catholicism" title="Black Catholicism">Black Catholicism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marriage_of_enslaved_people_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marriage of enslaved people (United States)">Marriage of enslaved people (United States)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Invisible_churches" title="Invisible churches">Invisible churches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hush_harbor" title="Hush harbor">Hush harbor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Praise_house" title="Praise house">Praise house</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eastman_Johnson,_The_Lord_is_My_Shepherd.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Eastman_Johnson%2C_The_Lord_is_My_Shepherd.jpg/220px-Eastman_Johnson%2C_The_Lord_is_My_Shepherd.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Eastman_Johnson%2C_The_Lord_is_My_Shepherd.jpg/330px-Eastman_Johnson%2C_The_Lord_is_My_Shepherd.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Eastman_Johnson%2C_The_Lord_is_My_Shepherd.jpg/440px-Eastman_Johnson%2C_The_Lord_is_My_Shepherd.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2363" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eastman_Johnson" title="Eastman Johnson">Eastman Johnson</a>'s 1863 oil painting painting <a href="/wiki/The_Lord_Is_My_Shepherd_(Eastman_Johnson)" title="The Lord Is My Shepherd (Eastman Johnson)"><i>The Lord is My Shepherd</i></a> (<a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_American_Art_Museum" title="Smithsonian American Art Museum">Smithsonian American Art Museum</a> 1979.5.13)</figcaption></figure> <p>Africans brought their religions with them from Africa, including Islam,<sup id="cite_ref-Gomez_250-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gomez-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>248<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Catholicism,<sup id="cite_ref-251" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>249<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and traditional religions. </p><p>Prior to the American Revolution, masters and revivalists spread Christianity to slave communities, including Catholicism in <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Florida" title="History of slavery in Florida">Spanish Florida</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_California#Spanish_missionaries_(1769–1820)" title="History of slavery in California">California</a>, and in French and Spanish <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Louisiana" title="History of slavery in Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, and Protestantism in English colonies, supported by the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_the_Propagation_of_the_Gospel" class="mw-redirect" title="Society for the Propagation of the Gospel">Society for the Propagation of the Gospel</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a> of the mid-18th century, <a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Methodists" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodists">Methodists</a> from New England preached a message against slavery, encouraged masters to free their slaves, converted both slaves and free blacks, and gave them active roles in new congregations.<sup id="cite_ref-252" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first independent black congregations were started in the South before the Revolution, in South Carolina and Georgia. Believing that, "slavery was contrary to the ethics of Jesus", Christian congregations and church clergy, especially in the North, played a role in the <a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Wesleyan_Methodist_Church_(United_States)" title="Wesleyan Methodist Church (United States)">Wesleyan Methodists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaker">Quakers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Congregationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregationalist">Congregationalists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Smedley2005_253-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smedley2005-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-254" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over the decades and with the growth of slavery throughout the South, some Baptist and Methodist ministers gradually changed their messages to accommodate the institution. After 1830, <a href="/wiki/White_Southerners" title="White Southerners">white Southerners</a> argued for the compatibility of Christianity and slavery, with a multitude of both <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> citations.<sup id="cite_ref-J._William_Frost_1998_255-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J._William_Frost_1998-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They promoted Christianity as encouraging better treatment of slaves and argued for a paternalistic approach. In the 1840s and 1850s, the issue of accepting slavery split the nation's largest religious denominations (the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Methodism_in_the_United_States" title="History of Methodism in the United States">Methodist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baptists_in_the_United_States" title="Baptists in the United States">Baptist</a> and <a href="/wiki/American_Presbyterianism" class="mw-redirect" title="American Presbyterianism">Presbyterian</a> churches) into separate Northern and Southern organizations (see <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church,_South" title="Methodist Episcopal Church, South">Methodist Episcopal Church, South</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Baptist_Convention" title="Southern Baptist Convention">Southern Baptist Convention</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_in_the_Confederate_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America">Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-256" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>254<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Schisms occurred, such as that between the <a href="/wiki/Wesleyan_Methodist_Church_(United_States)" title="Wesleyan Methodist Church (United States)">Wesleyan Methodist Church</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="Methodist Episcopal Church">Methodist Episcopal Church</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-257" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Southern slaves generally attended their masters' white churches, where they often outnumbered the white congregants. They were usually permitted to sit only in the back or in the balcony. They listened to white preachers, who emphasized the obligation of slaves to keep in their place, and acknowledged the slave's identity as both person and property.<sup id="cite_ref-J._William_Frost_1998_255-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J._William_Frost_1998-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Preachers taught the master's responsibility and the concept of appropriate paternal treatment, using Christianity to improve conditions for slaves, and to treat them "justly and fairly" (Col. 4:1). This included masters having self-control, not disciplining under anger, not threatening, and ultimately fostering Christianity among their slaves by example.<sup id="cite_ref-J._William_Frost_1998_255-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J._William_Frost_1998-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slaves also created their own religious observances, meeting alone without the supervision of their white masters or ministers. The larger plantations with groups of slaves numbering 20, or more, tended to be centers of nighttime meetings of one or several plantation slave populations.<sup id="cite_ref-J._William_Frost_1998_255-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J._William_Frost_1998-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These congregations revolved around a singular preacher, often illiterate with limited knowledge of theology, who was marked by his personal piety and ability to foster a spiritual environment. African Americans developed a theology related to Biblical stories having the most meaning for them, including the hope for deliverance from slavery by their own <a href="/wiki/The_Exodus" title="The Exodus">Exodus</a>. One lasting influence of these secret congregations is the <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual (music)">African American spiritual</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-258" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mandatory_illiteracy">Mandatory illiteracy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anti-literacy_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-literacy laws in the United States">Anti-literacy laws in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Education_of_freed_people_during_the_Civil_War" title="Education of freed people during the Civil War">Education of freed people during the Civil War</a></div> <p>In a feature unique to American slavery, legislatures across the South enacted new laws to curtail the already limited rights of African Americans. For example, Virginia prohibited blacks, free or slave, from practicing preaching, prohibited them from owning firearms, and forbade anyone to teach slaves or free blacks how to read.<sup id="cite_ref-Foner_2009_406–407_129-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foner_2009_406–407-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It specified heavy penalties for both student and teacher if slaves were taught, including whippings or jail.<sup id="cite_ref-Basu_259-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basu-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>[E]very assemblage of negroes for the purpose of instruction in reading or writing, or in the night time for any purpose, shall be an unlawful assembly. Any justice may issue his warrant to any office or other person, requiring him to enter any place where such assemblage may be, and seize any negro therein; and he, or any other justice, may order such negro to be punished with stripes.<sup id="cite_ref-260" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>258<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Slave owners saw <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a> as a threat to the institution of slavery and their financial investment in it; as a North Carolina statute passed in 1830-1831 stated, "Teaching slaves to read and write, tends to excite dissatisfaction in their minds, and to produce insurrection and rebellion."<sup id="cite_ref-261" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-262" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>260<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Literacy enabled the enslaved to read the writings of <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolitionists</a>, which discussed the abolition of slavery and described the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">slave revolution in Haiti</a> of 1791–1804 and the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">end of slavery in the British Empire</a> in 1833. It also allowed slaves to learn that thousands of enslaved individuals had escaped, often with the assistance of the <a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a>. Literacy also was believed to make the enslaved unhappy at best, insolent and sullen at worst. As put by prominent Washington lawyer <a href="/wiki/Elias_B._Caldwell" title="Elias B. Caldwell">Elias B. Caldwell</a> in 1822: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The more you improve the condition of these people, the more you cultivate their minds, the more miserable you make them, in their present state. You give them a higher relish for those privilegies which they can never attain, and turn what we intend for a blessing [slavery] into a curse. No, if they must remain in their present situation, keep them in the lowest state of degradation and ignorance. The nearer you bring them to the condition of brutes, the better chance do you give them of possessing their apathy.<sup id="cite_ref-263" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-263"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>261<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Unlike in the South, slave owners in Utah were required to send their slaves to school.<sup id="cite_ref-264" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>262<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black slaves did not have to spend as much time in school as Indian slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-265" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-265"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>263<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freedom_suits_and_Dred_Scott">Freedom suits and Dred Scott</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_suits" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom suits">Freedom suits</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liberation_of_slave_allegory.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Liberation_of_slave_allegory.png/220px-Liberation_of_slave_allegory.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Liberation_of_slave_allegory.png/330px-Liberation_of_slave_allegory.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Liberation_of_slave_allegory.png/440px-Liberation_of_slave_allegory.png 2x" data-file-width="901" data-file-height="710" /></a><figcaption>Allegorical liberation of a slave entering a free state, <a href="/wiki/Wood-engraving" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood-engraving">wood-engraving</a> from <i><a href="/wiki/Narrative_of_the_Life_and_Adventures_of_Henry_Bibb,_An_American_Slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Henry Bibb, An American Slave">Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Henry Bibb, An American Slave</a></i>, 1849<sup id="cite_ref-266" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-266"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>264<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>With the development of slave and free states after the American Revolution, and far-flung commercial and military activities, new situations arose in which slaves might be taken by masters into free states. Most free states not only prohibited slavery, but ruled that slaves brought and kept there illegally could be freed. Such cases were sometimes known as transit cases.<sup id="cite_ref-267" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-267"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>265<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott" title="Dred Scott">Dred Scott</a> and his wife Harriet Scott each <a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">sued for freedom</a> in <a href="/wiki/St._Louis,_Missouri" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Louis, Missouri">St. Louis</a> after the death of their master, based on their having been held in a free territory (the northern part of the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> from which slavery was excluded under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a>). (Later the two cases were combined under Dred Scott's name.) Scott filed suit for freedom in 1846 and went through two state trials, the first denying and the second granting freedom to the couple (and, by extension, their two daughters, who had also been held illegally in free territories). For 28 years, Missouri state precedent had generally respected laws of neighboring free states and territories, ruling for freedom in such transit cases where slaves had been held illegally in free territory. But in the Dred Scott case, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Missouri" title="Supreme Court of Missouri">Missouri Supreme Court</a> ruled against the slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-268" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>266<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Scott and his team appealed the case to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a>, Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Roger_B._Taney" title="Roger B. Taney">Roger B. Taney</a>, in a sweeping decision, denied Scott his freedom. The 1857 <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">decision</a>, decided 7–2, held that a slave did not become free when taken into a free state; Congress could not bar slavery from a territory; and people of African descent imported into the United States and held as slaves, or their descendants, could never be citizens and thus had no status to bring suit in a U.S. court. A state could not bar slaveowners from bringing slaves into that state. Many Republicans, including <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, considered the decision unjust and evidence that the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a> had seized control of the Supreme Court. Anti-slavery groups were enraged and slave owners encouraged, escalating the tensions that led to civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-269" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-269"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>267<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1850_to_the_firing_on_Fort_Sumter">1850 to the firing on Fort Sumter</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_leading_to_the_American_Civil_War#Compromise_of_1850_to_the_Election_of_1860" title="Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War">Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War § Compromise of 1850 to the Election of 1860</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_leading_to_the_American_Civil_War#Election_of_1860_to_the_Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War">Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War § Election of 1860 to the Battle of Fort Sumter</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a> and <a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860 United States presidential election</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_United_States,_showing_by_colors_the_area_of_freedom_and_slavery,_and_the_territories_whose_destiny_is_yet_to_be_decided,_exhibiting_also_the_Missouri_compromise_line,_and_the_routes_of_(4578788503).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Map_of_the_United_States%2C_showing_by_colors_the_area_of_freedom_and_slavery%2C_and_the_territories_whose_destiny_is_yet_to_be_decided%2C_exhibiting_also_the_Missouri_compromise_line%2C_and_the_routes_of_%284578788503%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Map_of_the_United_States%2C_showing_by_colors_the_area_of_freedom_and_slavery%2C_and_the_territories_whose_destiny_is_yet_to_be_decided%2C_exhibiting_also_the_Missouri_compromise_line%2C_and_the_routes_of_%284578788503%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Map_of_the_United_States%2C_showing_by_colors_the_area_of_freedom_and_slavery%2C_and_the_territories_whose_destiny_is_yet_to_be_decided%2C_exhibiting_also_the_Missouri_compromise_line%2C_and_the_routes_of_%284578788503%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6539" data-file-height="7518" /></a><figcaption>Map of the United States in 1856, showing the areas where slavery was still present, and those where it wasn't</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1853_slave_trader_advertisement.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/1853_slave_trader_advertisement.jpg/220px-1853_slave_trader_advertisement.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/1853_slave_trader_advertisement.jpg/330px-1853_slave_trader_advertisement.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/1853_slave_trader_advertisement.jpg/440px-1853_slave_trader_advertisement.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1961" /></a><figcaption>1853 advertisement by the slave trader <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_F._Talbott&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William F. Talbott (page does not exist)">William F. Talbott</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lexington,_Kentucky" title="Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington, Kentucky</a> seeking to buy slaves to resell in the lucrative the New Orleans market</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eastman_Johnson_-_A_Ride_for_Liberty_--_The_Fugitive_Slaves_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Eastman_Johnson_-_A_Ride_for_Liberty_--_The_Fugitive_Slaves_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Eastman_Johnson_-_A_Ride_for_Liberty_--_The_Fugitive_Slaves_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Eastman_Johnson_-_A_Ride_for_Liberty_--_The_Fugitive_Slaves_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Eastman_Johnson_-_A_Ride_for_Liberty_--_The_Fugitive_Slaves_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Eastman_Johnson_-_A_Ride_for_Liberty_--_The_Fugitive_Slaves_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Eastman_Johnson_-_A_Ride_for_Liberty_--_The_Fugitive_Slaves_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5449" data-file-height="4528" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/A_Ride_for_Liberty_%E2%80%93_The_Fugitive_Slaves" title="A Ride for Liberty – The Fugitive Slaves">A Ride for Liberty – The Fugitive Slaves</a></i>, oil on paperboard, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1862</span> by Eastman Johnson (<a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a> 40.59a-b)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1850, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a>, as part of the <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a>, which required law enforcement and citizens of free states to cooperate in the capture and return of slaves. This met with considerable overt and covert resistance in free states and cities such as Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. Refugees from slavery continued to flee the South across the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_River" title="Ohio River">Ohio River</a> and other parts of the <a href="/wiki/Mason%E2%80%93Dixon_line" title="Mason–Dixon line">Mason–Dixon line</a> dividing North from South, to the North and <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Canada" title="Province of Canada">Canada</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a>. Some white Northerners helped hide former slaves from their former owners or helped them reach freedom in Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-270" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>268<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As part of the <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a>, Congress abolished the slave trade (though not the ownership of slaves) in the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a>; fearing this would happen, <a href="/wiki/Alexandria,_Virginia" title="Alexandria, Virginia">Alexandria</a>, regional slave trading center and port, successfully sought <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_retrocession" title="District of Columbia retrocession">its removal from the District of Columbia and devolution to Virginia</a>. After 1854, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Republican_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States Republican Party">Republicans</a> argued that the "<a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a>", especially the pro-slavery <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Democratic_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States Democratic Party">Democratic Party in the South</a>, controlled two of the three branches of the Federal government.<sup id="cite_ref-271" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The abolitionists, realizing that the total elimination of slavery was unrealistic as an immediate goal, worked to prevent the expansion of slavery into the western territories that eventually would become new states. The <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a> period dealt with whether new states would be slave or free, or how that was to be decided. Both sides were anxious about effects of these decisions on the balance of power in the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Senate">Senate</a>. </p><p>After the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> in 1854, border fighting broke out in the <a href="/wiki/Kansas_Territory" title="Kansas Territory">Kansas Territory</a>, where the question of whether it would be admitted to the Union as a <a href="/wiki/Slave_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave state">slave</a> or <a href="/wiki/Free_state_(USA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Free state (USA)">free state</a> was <a href="/wiki/Popular_Sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular Sovereignty">left to the inhabitants</a>. Migrants from both free and slave states moved into the territory to prepare for the vote on slavery. Abolitionist <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a>, the most famous of the anti-slavery immigrants, was active in the fighting in "Bleeding Kansas", but so too were many white Southerners (many from adjacent Missouri) who opposed abolition. </p><p>Abraham Lincoln's and the Republicans' political platform in 1860 was to stop slavery's expansion. Historian <a href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson" title="James M. McPherson">James M. McPherson</a> says that in his famous "<a href="/wiki/Lincoln%27s_House_Divided_Speech" title="Lincoln's House Divided Speech">House Divided</a>" speech in 1858, Lincoln said <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">American republicanism</a> can be purified by restricting the further expansion of slavery as the first step to putting it on the road to 'ultimate extinction.' Southerners took Lincoln at his word. When he won the presidency, they left the Union to escape the 'ultimate extinction' of slavery."<sup id="cite_ref-272" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-272"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>270<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The divisions became fully exposed with the <a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860 presidential election</a>. The electorate split four ways. The <a href="/wiki/Southern_Democrats" title="Southern Democrats">Southern Democrats</a> endorsed slavery, while the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a> denounced it. The <a href="/wiki/Northern_Democratic_Party" title="Northern Democratic Party">Northern Democrats</a> said democracy required the people to decide on slavery locally, state by state and territory by territory. The <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Union Party (United States)">Constitutional Union Party</a> said the survival of the Union was at stake and everything else should be compromised.<sup id="cite_ref-273" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-273"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>271<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lincoln, the Republican, won with a plurality of popular votes and a majority of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">electoral votes</a>. Lincoln, however, did not appear on the ballots of ten southern slave states. Many slave owners in the South feared that the real intent of the Republicans was the abolition of slavery in states where it already existed, and that the sudden emancipation of four million slaves would be disastrous for the slave owners and for the economy that drew its greatest profits from the labor of people who were not paid. The slave owners feared that ending the balance could lead to the domination of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a> by the northern free states. This led seven southern states to <a href="/wiki/Ordinance_of_Secession" title="Ordinance of Secession">secede from the Union</a>. When the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Confederate Army</a> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Battle of Fort Sumter">attacked a U.S. Army installation at Fort Sumter</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> began and four additional slave states seceded. Northern leaders had viewed the slavery interests as a threat politically, but with secession, they viewed the prospect of a new Southern nation, the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a>, with control over the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> and parts of the <a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">West</a>, as politically unacceptable. Most of all, they could not accept this repudiation of <a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">American nationalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-274" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-274"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>272<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civil_War_and_emancipation">Civil War and emancipation</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery during the American Civil War</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="border:4px double #000000;;"><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center; width: 285px; background: #FFFFFF;">Events leading to the American Civil War</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="font-size: 85%;"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_and_Virginia_Resolutions" title="Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions">Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#End_of_the_Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">End of Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_Abominations" title="Tariff of Abominations">Tariff of 1828</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_Rebellion" title="Nat Turner's Rebellion">Nat Turner's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">End of slavery in British colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Revolution" title="Texas Revolution">Texas Revolution</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Reuben_Crandall" title="Trial of Reuben Crandall">United States v. Crandall</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gag_rule_(United_States)" title="Gag rule (United States)">Gag rule</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_v._Aves" title="Commonwealth v. Aves">Commonwealth v. Aves</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Parish_Lovejoy" title="Elijah Parish Lovejoy">Murder of Elijah Lovejoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Hall_(Philadelphia)" title="Pennsylvania Hall (Philadelphia)">Burning of Pennsylvania Hall</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Slavery_As_It_Is" title="American Slavery As It Is">American Slavery As It Is</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._The_Amistad" title="United States v. The Amistad">United States v. The Amistad</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prigg_v._Pennsylvania" title="Prigg v. Pennsylvania">Prigg v. Pennsylvania</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_annexation" title="Texas annexation">Texas annexation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmot_Proviso" title="Wilmot Proviso">Wilmot Proviso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Convention" title="Nashville Convention">Nashville Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Burns" title="Anthony Burns">Recapture of Anthony Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostend_Manifesto" title="Ostend Manifesto">Ostend Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caning_of_Charles_Sumner" title="Caning of Charles Sumner">Caning of Charles Sumner</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Impending_Crisis_of_the_South" title="The Impending Crisis of the South">The Impending Crisis of the South</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">Panic of 1857</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%E2%80%93Douglas_debates" title="Lincoln–Douglas debates">Lincoln–Douglas debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlin%E2%80%93Wellington_Rescue" title="Oberlin–Wellington Rescue">Oberlin–Wellington Rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._John_Brown" title="Virginia v. John Brown">Virginia v. John Brown</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860 presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession of Southern states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Conference_of_1861" title="Peace Conference of 1861">Peace Conference of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Battle of Fort Sumter">Battle of Fort Sumter</a></li></ol></div></div> </div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unite-or-Die_GW-Falen.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Unite-or-Die_GW-Falen.gif/220px-Unite-or-Die_GW-Falen.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Unite-or-Die_GW-Falen.gif/330px-Unite-or-Die_GW-Falen.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Unite-or-Die_GW-Falen.gif/440px-Unite-or-Die_GW-Falen.gif 2x" data-file-width="954" data-file-height="524" /></a><figcaption>Modification by G. W. Falen of Ben Franklin's <i><a href="/wiki/Join,_or_Die" title="Join, or Die">Join, or Die</a></i> graphic, advocating a confederation of slave states, with a quote from <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Jefferson Davis</a>: "SLAVE STATES, once more let me repeat that the only way of preserving our slave property, or what we prize more than life, our LIBERTY, is by a UNION WITH EACH OTHER." (<a href="/wiki/New-York_Historical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="New-York Historical Society">New-York Historical Society</a>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Confederate_chieftains_-_Engd_by_J.C._Buttre,_New_York.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Confederate_chieftains_-_Engd_by_J.C._Buttre%2C_New_York.jpg/220px-Confederate_chieftains_-_Engd_by_J.C._Buttre%2C_New_York.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="350" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Confederate_chieftains_-_Engd_by_J.C._Buttre%2C_New_York.jpg/330px-Confederate_chieftains_-_Engd_by_J.C._Buttre%2C_New_York.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Confederate_chieftains_-_Engd_by_J.C._Buttre%2C_New_York.jpg/440px-Confederate_chieftains_-_Engd_by_J.C._Buttre%2C_New_York.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2409" data-file-height="3832" /></a><figcaption>Pro-slavery activists <a href="/wiki/Judah_P._Benjamin" title="Judah P. Benjamin">Judah P. Benjamin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wise" title="Henry A. Wise">Henry A. Wise</a>, <a href="/wiki/R._Barnwell_Rhett_Jr." title="R. Barnwell Rhett Jr.">R. Barnwell Rhett Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_H._Stephens" title="Alexander H. Stephens">Alexander H. Stephens</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_M._Mason" title="James M. Mason">James M. Mason</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Jefferson Davis</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_B._Floyd" title="John B. Floyd">John B. Floyd</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Slidell" title="John Slidell">John Slidell</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_L._Yancey" class="mw-redirect" title="William L. Yancey">William L. Yancey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Toombs_House_State_Historic_Site" title="Robert Toombs House State Historic Site">Robert Toombs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isham_G._Harris" title="Isham G. Harris">Isham G. Harris</a> ("Confederate chieftans" engraving by <a href="/wiki/J.C._Buttre" class="mw-redirect" title="J.C. Buttre">J.C. Buttre</a>, 1864) </figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_Civil_War">American Civil War</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins of the American Civil War</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Contraband_(American_Civil_War)" title="Contraband (American Civil War)">Contraband (American Civil War)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Acts" title="Confiscation Acts">Confiscation Acts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_the_Return_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting the Return of Slaves">Act Prohibiting the Return of Slaves</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, beginning in 1861, led to the end of chattel slavery in America. Not long after the war broke out, through a legal maneuver by Union General <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Butler_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Butler (politician)">Benjamin F. Butler</a>, a lawyer by profession, slaves who fled to Union lines were considered <a href="/wiki/Contraband_(American_Civil_War)" title="Contraband (American Civil War)">"contraband of war"</a>. General Butler ruled that they were not subject to return to Confederate owners as they had been before the war. "Lincoln and his Cabinet discussed the issue on May 30 and decided to support Butler's stance".<sup id="cite_ref-275" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-275"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>273<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon word spread, and many slaves sought refuge in Union territory, desiring to be declared "contraband". Many of the "contrabands" joined the <a href="/wiki/Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union Army</a> as workers or troops, forming entire regiments of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">U.S. Colored Troops</a>. Others went to refugee camps such as the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Contraband_Camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Contraband Camp">Grand Contraband Camp</a> near <a href="/wiki/Fort_Monroe" title="Fort Monroe">Fort Monroe</a> or fled to northern cities. General Butler's interpretation was reinforced when Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Act_of_1861" title="Confiscation Act of 1861">Confiscation Act of 1861</a>, which declared that any property used by the Confederate military, including slaves, could be confiscated by Union forces. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SMITHSONIAN_-_Ambrotype_of_African_American_Woman_with_Flag_-_believed_to_be_a_washerwoman_for_Union_troops_quartered_outside_Richmond,_Virginia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/SMITHSONIAN_-_Ambrotype_of_African_American_Woman_with_Flag_-_believed_to_be_a_washerwoman_for_Union_troops_quartered_outside_Richmond%2C_Virginia.jpg/220px-SMITHSONIAN_-_Ambrotype_of_African_American_Woman_with_Flag_-_believed_to_be_a_washerwoman_for_Union_troops_quartered_outside_Richmond%2C_Virginia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/SMITHSONIAN_-_Ambrotype_of_African_American_Woman_with_Flag_-_believed_to_be_a_washerwoman_for_Union_troops_quartered_outside_Richmond%2C_Virginia.jpg/330px-SMITHSONIAN_-_Ambrotype_of_African_American_Woman_with_Flag_-_believed_to_be_a_washerwoman_for_Union_troops_quartered_outside_Richmond%2C_Virginia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/SMITHSONIAN_-_Ambrotype_of_African_American_Woman_with_Flag_-_believed_to_be_a_washerwoman_for_Union_troops_quartered_outside_Richmond%2C_Virginia.jpg/440px-SMITHSONIAN_-_Ambrotype_of_African_American_Woman_with_Flag_-_believed_to_be_a_washerwoman_for_Union_troops_quartered_outside_Richmond%2C_Virginia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="715" data-file-height="826" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ambrotype" title="Ambrotype">Ambrotype</a> of African-American woman with a flag, "believed to be a washerwoman for Union troops quartered outside Richmond, Virginia" (National Museum of American History 2005.0002)</figcaption></figure> <p>At the beginning of the war, some Union commanders thought they were supposed to return escaped slaves to their masters. By 1862, when it became clear that this would be a long war, the question of what to do about slavery became more general. The Southern economy and military effort depended on slave labor. It began to seem unreasonable to protect slavery while blockading Southern commerce and destroying Southern production. As Congressman <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Julian" class="mw-redirect" title="George Washington Julian">George W. Julian</a> of Indiana put it in an 1862 speech in Congress, the slaves "cannot be neutral. As laborers, if not as soldiers, they will be allies of the rebels, or of the Union."<sup id="cite_ref-276" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-276"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>274<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Julian and his fellow <a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a> put pressure on Lincoln to rapidly emancipate the slaves, whereas moderate Republicans favored gradual, compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization.<sup id="cite_ref-277" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-277"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>275<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Border_states_(Civil_War)" class="mw-redirect" title="Border states (Civil War)">border states</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copperheads_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Copperheads (politics)">Peace Democrats (Copperheads)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/War_Democrats" class="mw-redirect" title="War Democrats">War Democrats</a> opposed emancipation, although the border states and <a href="/wiki/War_Democrat" title="War Democrat">War Democrats</a> eventually accepted it as part of the <a href="/wiki/Total_war" title="Total war">total war</a> needed to save the Union. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emancipation_Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></div> <p>The Emancipation Proclamation was an <a href="/wiki/Executive_order" title="Executive order">executive order</a> issued by President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> on January 1, 1863. In a single stroke it changed the legal status of three million slaves in designated areas of the Confederacy from "slave" to "free". It had the practical effect that as soon as a slave escaped the control of his or her owner, by running away or through advances of federal troops, the slave's proclaimed freedom became actual. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their slaves as far as possible out of reach of the Union army. By June 1865, the <a href="/wiki/Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union Army</a> controlled all of the Confederacy and had liberated all of the designated slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-278" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-278"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>276<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1861, Lincoln expressed the fear that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states. He believed that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game."<sup id="cite_ref-279" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-279"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>277<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War <a href="/wiki/Simon_Cameron" title="Simon Cameron">Simon Cameron</a> and Generals <a href="/wiki/John_C._Fr%C3%A9mont" title="John C. Frémont">John C. Frémont</a> (in Missouri) and <a href="/wiki/David_Hunter" title="David Hunter">David Hunter</a> (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Contrabands_accompanying_the_line_of_Sherman%27s_march_through_Georgia_(Frank_Leslie%27s_Illustrated_News).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Contrabands_accompanying_the_line_of_Sherman%27s_march_through_Georgia_%28Frank_Leslie%27s_Illustrated_News%29.jpg/220px-Contrabands_accompanying_the_line_of_Sherman%27s_march_through_Georgia_%28Frank_Leslie%27s_Illustrated_News%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Contrabands_accompanying_the_line_of_Sherman%27s_march_through_Georgia_%28Frank_Leslie%27s_Illustrated_News%29.jpg/330px-Contrabands_accompanying_the_line_of_Sherman%27s_march_through_Georgia_%28Frank_Leslie%27s_Illustrated_News%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Contrabands_accompanying_the_line_of_Sherman%27s_march_through_Georgia_%28Frank_Leslie%27s_Illustrated_News%29.jpg/440px-Contrabands_accompanying_the_line_of_Sherman%27s_march_through_Georgia_%28Frank_Leslie%27s_Illustrated_News%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2255" data-file-height="1394" /></a><figcaption>Contrabands accompanying the line of <a href="/wiki/Sherman%27s_march_through_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherman's march through Georgia">Sherman's march through Georgia</a> (unidentified <a href="/wiki/War_artist" title="War artist">war artist</a> "F", <i><a href="/wiki/Frank_Leslie%27s_Illustrated_News" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Leslie's Illustrated News">Frank Leslie's Illustrated News</a></i>, March 18, 1865)</figcaption></figure> <p>On July 22, 1862, Lincoln told his cabinet of his plan to issue a preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">William H. Seward</a> advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing the proclamation, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat".<sup id="cite_ref-280" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-280"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>278<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On September 17, 1862, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam" title="Battle of Antietam">Battle of Antietam</a> provided this opportunity, and on September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued his preliminary <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a>, which provided that enslaved people in the states in rebellion against the United States on January 1, 1863, "shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free".<sup id="cite_ref-281" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-281"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>279<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On September 24 and 25, the <a href="/wiki/War_Governors%27_Conference" title="War Governors' Conference">War Governors' Conference</a> added support for the proclamation.<sup id="cite_ref-282" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-282"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>280<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lincoln issued his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong<span class="nowrap"> </span>... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling<span class="nowrap"> </span>... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me.<sup id="cite_ref-283" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-283"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>281<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation declared freedom for slaves in the Confederate states and authorized the enlistment of African Americans in the Union Army. The Emancipation Proclamation did not free slaves in the <a href="/wiki/Border_states_(Civil_War)" class="mw-redirect" title="Border states (Civil War)">border states</a>, which were the slaveholding states that that remained in the Union. As a practical matter, the proclamation freed only those slaves who escaped to Union lines. But the proclamation made the abolition of slavery an official war goal and was implemented as the Union took territory from the Confederacy. According to the <a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_census" title="1860 United States census">Census of 1860</a>, this policy would free nearly four million slaves, or over 12 percent of the total <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">population of the United States</a>. </p><p>Because the Emancipation Proclamation was issued under the president's war powers, it might not have continued in force after the war ended. Therefore, Lincoln played a leading role in getting the constitutionally required two-thirds majority of both houses of Congress to vote for the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Who_Freed_284-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Who_Freed-284"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>282<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which made emancipation universal and permanent, "except as a punishment for crime". </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Family_of_African_American_slaves_on_Smith%27s_Plantation_Beaufort_South_Carolina.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Family_of_African_American_slaves_on_Smith%27s_Plantation_Beaufort_South_Carolina.jpg/210px-Family_of_African_American_slaves_on_Smith%27s_Plantation_Beaufort_South_Carolina.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Family_of_African_American_slaves_on_Smith%27s_Plantation_Beaufort_South_Carolina.jpg/315px-Family_of_African_American_slaves_on_Smith%27s_Plantation_Beaufort_South_Carolina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Family_of_African_American_slaves_on_Smith%27s_Plantation_Beaufort_South_Carolina.jpg/420px-Family_of_African_American_slaves_on_Smith%27s_Plantation_Beaufort_South_Carolina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="943" /></a><figcaption>Four <a href="/wiki/Generation" title="Generation">generations</a> of a formerly enslaved family, photographed by <a href="/wiki/Timothy_H._O%27Sullivan" title="Timothy H. O'Sullivan">Timothy H. O'Sullivan</a> on J. J. Smith's confiscated plantation at <a href="/wiki/Beaufort,_South_Carolina" title="Beaufort, South Carolina">Beaufort, South Carolina</a> (now <a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Hospital_Beaufort" title="United States Naval Hospital Beaufort">U.S. Naval Hospital Beaufort</a>) during the <a href="/wiki/Port_Royal_Experiment" title="Port Royal Experiment">Port Royal Experiment</a>, 1862</figcaption></figure> <p>Enslaved African Americans had not waited for Lincoln before escaping and seeking freedom behind Union lines. From the early years of the war, hundreds of thousands of African Americans escaped to Union lines, especially in Union-controlled areas such as <a href="/wiki/Norfolk,_Virginia" title="Norfolk, Virginia">Norfolk</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hampton_Roads" title="Hampton Roads">Hampton Roads</a> region in 1862 Virginia, Tennessee from 1862 on, and the line of Sherman's march. So many African Americans fled to Union lines that commanders created camps and schools for them, where both adults and children learned to read and write. The <a href="/wiki/American_Missionary_Association" title="American Missionary Association">American Missionary Association</a> entered the war effort by sending teachers south to such contraband camps, for instance, establishing schools in Norfolk and on nearby plantations. </p><p>In addition, nearly 200,000 African-American men served with distinction in the Union forces as soldiers and sailors; most were escaped slaves. The Confederacy was outraged by armed black soldiers and refused to treat them as <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a>. They murdered many, as at the <a href="/wiki/Fort_Pillow_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Pillow massacre">Fort Pillow massacre</a>, and re-enslaved others.<sup id="cite_ref-285" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-285"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>283<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On February 24, 1863, the <a href="/wiki/Arizona_Organic_Act" title="Arizona Organic Act">Arizona Organic Act</a> abolished slavery in the newly formed <a href="/wiki/Arizona_Territory" title="Arizona Territory">Arizona Territory</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a> and all of the border states (except Kentucky and Delaware) abolished slavery by early 1865. Thousands of slaves were freed by the operation of the Emancipation Proclamation as Union armies marched across the South. Emancipation came to the remaining Southern slaves after the surrender of all the Confederate troops in spring 1865. </p><p>In spite of the South's shortage of manpower, until 1865, most Southern leaders opposed arming slaves as soldiers. However, a few Confederates discussed arming slaves. Finally, in early 1865, General <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a> said that black soldiers were essential, and legislation was passed. The first black units were in training when the war ended in April.<sup id="cite_ref-286" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-286"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>284<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_slavery">End of slavery</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/End_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="End of slavery in the United States of America">End of slavery in the United States of America</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states#End_of_slavery" title="Slave states and free states">Slave states and free states § End of slavery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day#United_States" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day § United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation_in_the_United_States" title="Compensated emancipation in the United States">Compensated emancipation in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Family_reunification_ads_after_emancipation" title="Family reunification ads after emancipation">Family reunification ads after emancipation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emancipation_proclamation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A dark-haired, bearded, middle-aged man holding documents is seated among seven other men" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Emancipation_proclamation.jpg/220px-Emancipation_proclamation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Emancipation_proclamation.jpg/330px-Emancipation_proclamation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Emancipation_proclamation.jpg/440px-Emancipation_proclamation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="915" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/First_Reading_of_the_Emancipation_Proclamation_of_President_Lincoln" title="First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln">First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln</a></i> (1864) oil painting by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bicknell_Carpenter" title="Francis Bicknell Carpenter">Francis Bicknell Carpenter</a> (U.S. Senate Collection 33.00005.000) </figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> remembered <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a> in early 1863, when he was a boy of nine in Virginia:<sup id="cite_ref-287" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-287"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>285<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>As the great day drew nearer, there was more singing in the slave quarters than usual. It was bolder, had more ring, and lasted later into the night. Most of the verses of the plantation songs had some reference to freedom.<span class="nowrap"> </span>... Some man who seemed to be a stranger (a United States officer, I presume) made a little speech and then read a rather long paper – the Emancipation Proclamation, I think. After the reading we were told that we were all free, and could go when and where we pleased. My mother, who was standing by my side, leaned over and kissed her children, while tears of joy ran down her cheeks. She explained to us what it all meant, that this was the day for which she had been so long praying, but fearing that she would never live to see.</p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_SVG_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_SVG_map.svg/220px-Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_SVG_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_SVG_map.svg/330px-Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_SVG_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_SVG_map.svg/440px-Abolition_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_SVG_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="942" data-file-height="595" /></a><figcaption>Abolition of slavery in the various states of the United States over time:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#84c6c9; color:black;"> </span> Abolition of slavery during or shortly after the American Revolution</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#7be3de; color:black;"> </span> The Northwest Ordinance, 1787</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#64e5c5; color:black;"> </span> Gradual emancipation in New York (starting 1799) and New Jersey (starting 1804)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#7ab377; color:black;"> </span> The Missouri Compromise, 1821</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#5f9b4a; color:black;"> </span> Effective abolition of slavery by Mexican or joint US/British authority</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#97cf2d; color:black;"> </span> Abolition of slavery by Congressional action, 1861</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#c7dd47; color:black;"> </span> Abolition of slavery by Congressional action, 1862</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffe86d; color:black;"> </span> Emancipation Proclamation as originally issued, 1 Jan 1863</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f1c84e; color:black;"> </span> Subsequent operation of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#d39c59; color:black;"> </span> Abolition of slavery by state action during the Civil War</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f7b360; color:black;"> </span> Operation of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1864</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f6a89a; color:black;"> </span> Operation of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1865</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#d3595f; color:black;"> </span> Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. constitution, 18 Dec 1865</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#bca4b1; color:black;"> </span> Territory incorporated into the U.S. after the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment</div></figcaption></figure> <p>The war ended on June 22, 1865, and following that surrender, the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> was enforced throughout remaining regions of the South that had not yet freed the slaves. Slavery officially continued for a couple of months in other locations.<sup id="cite_ref-288" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-288"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>286<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Federal troops arrived in <a href="/wiki/Galveston,_Texas" title="Galveston, Texas">Galveston, Texas</a>, on June 19, 1865, to enforce the emancipation. The commemoration of that event, <a href="/wiki/Juneteenth_National_Independence_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Juneteenth National Independence Day">Juneteenth National Independence Day</a>, was declared a <a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Public holidays in the United States">national holiday</a> in 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-289" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-289"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>287<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a>, abolishing slavery except as punishment for a crime, had been passed by the Senate in April 1864, and by the House of Representatives in January 1865.<sup id="cite_ref-quote_290-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-quote-290"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>288<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Library_Company_of_Philadelphia_1865-3_variant_101540.F_Thomas_Nast_Emancipation_crop_and_straighten_and_brighten_from_tiff.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Library_Company_of_Philadelphia_1865-3_variant_101540.F_Thomas_Nast_Emancipation_crop_and_straighten_and_brighten_from_tiff.jpg/220px-Library_Company_of_Philadelphia_1865-3_variant_101540.F_Thomas_Nast_Emancipation_crop_and_straighten_and_brighten_from_tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Library_Company_of_Philadelphia_1865-3_variant_101540.F_Thomas_Nast_Emancipation_crop_and_straighten_and_brighten_from_tiff.jpg/330px-Library_Company_of_Philadelphia_1865-3_variant_101540.F_Thomas_Nast_Emancipation_crop_and_straighten_and_brighten_from_tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Library_Company_of_Philadelphia_1865-3_variant_101540.F_Thomas_Nast_Emancipation_crop_and_straighten_and_brighten_from_tiff.jpg/440px-Library_Company_of_Philadelphia_1865-3_variant_101540.F_Thomas_Nast_Emancipation_crop_and_straighten_and_brighten_from_tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4260" data-file-height="3102" /></a><figcaption>Color lithograph of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nast" title="Thomas Nast">Thomas Nast</a>'s 1863 woodblock etching <i>Emancipation: The Past and the Future</i> (<a href="/wiki/Library_Company_of_Philadelphia" title="Library Company of Philadelphia">Library Company of Philadelphia</a> 1865-3 variant 101540.F) </figcaption></figure> <p>The amendment did not take effect until it was ratified by three-fourths of the states, which occurred on December 6, 1865, when Georgia ratified it. On that date, the last 40,000–45,000 enslaved Americans in the remaining two slave states of <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a>, as well as the 200 or so perpetual apprentices in New Jersey left from the very gradual emancipation process begun in 1804, were freed.<sup id="cite_ref-291" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-291"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>289<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/List_of_last_survivors_of_American_slavery" title="List of last survivors of American slavery">last Americans</a> known to have been born into legal slavery died in the 1970s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reconstruction_to_the_present">Reconstruction to the present</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Era">Reconstruction Era</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_unfree_labor_in_the_United_States" title="History of unfree labor in the United States">History of unfree labor in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">History of civil rights in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radical_Reconstruction.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Radical_Reconstruction.jpg/220px-Radical_Reconstruction.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Radical_Reconstruction.jpg/330px-Radical_Reconstruction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Radical_Reconstruction.jpg/440px-Radical_Reconstruction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Against brutal (often physically brutal) opposition from the whites of the late rebel states, <a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a> like <a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Thaddeus Stevens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner" title="Charles Sumner">Charles Sumner</a>, and black representatives elected by newly enfranchised former slaves, including <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Revels" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiram Revels">Hiram Revels</a>, who took <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Jeff Davis</a>' old Senate seat, worked to realize the lofty goals of the abolitionists through Congressional legislation </figcaption></figure> <p>Journalist <a href="/wiki/Douglas_A._Blackmon" title="Douglas A. Blackmon">Douglas A. Blackmon</a> reported in his <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize" title="Pulitzer Prize">Pulitzer Prize</a>-winning book <i><a href="/wiki/Slavery_By_Another_Name" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery By Another Name">Slavery By Another Name</a></i> that many black persons were virtually enslaved under <a href="/wiki/Convict_leasing" title="Convict leasing">convict leasing</a> programs, which started after the Civil War. Most Southern states had no prisons; they leased convicts to businesses and farms for their labor, and the lessee paid for food and board. Incentives for abuse were present. </p><p>The continued involuntary servitude took various forms, but the primary forms included <a href="/wiki/Convict_lease" class="mw-redirect" title="Convict lease">convict leasing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">peonage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">sharecropping</a>, with the latter eventually encompassing <a href="/wiki/Poor_white" class="mw-redirect" title="Poor white">poor whites</a> as well. By the 1930s, whites constituted most of the sharecroppers in the South. <a href="/wiki/Mechanised_agriculture" title="Mechanised agriculture">Mechanization of agriculture</a> had reduced the need for farm labor, and many black people left the South in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a>. Jurisdictions and states created fines and sentences for a wide variety of minor crimes and used these as an excuse to arrest and sentence black people. Under convict-leasing programs, African-American men, often guilty of petty crimes or even no crime at all, were arrested, compelled to work without pay, repeatedly bought and sold, and coerced to do the bidding of the leaseholder. Sharecropping, as it was practiced during this period, often involved severe restrictions on the freedom of movement of sharecroppers, who could be whipped for leaving the plantation. Both sharecropping and convict leasing were legal and tolerated by both the North and South. However, peonage was an illicit form of forced labor. Its existence was ignored by authorities while thousands of African Americans and poor white Americans were subjugated and held in bondage until the mid-1960s to the late 1970s. With the exception of cases of peonage, beyond the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">period of Reconstruction</a>, the federal government took almost no action to enforce the Thirteenth Amendment until December 1941, when President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin Delano Roosevelt</a> summoned his attorney general. Five days after the attack on Pearl Harbor, at the request of the President, Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Francis_Biddle" title="Francis Biddle">Francis Biddle</a> issued <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Circular_No._3591" class="extiw" title="s:Circular No. 3591">Circular No. 3591</a> to all <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney" title="United States Attorney">federal prosecutors</a>, instructing them to investigate actively and try any case of involuntary servitude or slavery. Several months later, convict leasing was officially abolished. But aspects have persisted in other forms. Historians argue that other systems of penal labor were all created in 1865, and convict leasing was simply the most oppressive form. Over time, a large <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a> arose to bring full civil rights and equality under the law to all Americans. <sup id="cite_ref-292" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-292"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>290<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Convict_leasing">Convict leasing</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Convict_lease" class="mw-redirect" title="Convict lease">Convict lease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">Penal labor in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nathan_B._Forrest,_Confederate_General_from_Tennessee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Nathan_B._Forrest%2C_Confederate_General_from_Tennessee.jpg/220px-Nathan_B._Forrest%2C_Confederate_General_from_Tennessee.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Nathan_B._Forrest%2C_Confederate_General_from_Tennessee.jpg/330px-Nathan_B._Forrest%2C_Confederate_General_from_Tennessee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Nathan_B._Forrest%2C_Confederate_General_from_Tennessee.jpg/440px-Nathan_B._Forrest%2C_Confederate_General_from_Tennessee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Bedford_Forrest" title="Nathan Bedford Forrest">Nathan Bedford Forrest</a> transitioned effortlessly from being a slave trader before the war<sup id="cite_ref-293" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-293"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>291<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to using convict labor on his farm on <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Island" title="President's Island">President's Island</a> near Memphis after the war<sup id="cite_ref-294" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-294"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>292<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (glass copy negative, Library of Congress LC-BH821-3061)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Picking_cotton,_Angola_State_Farm_(circa_1900).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Picking_cotton%2C_Angola_State_Farm_%28circa_1900%29.jpg/220px-Picking_cotton%2C_Angola_State_Farm_%28circa_1900%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Picking_cotton%2C_Angola_State_Farm_%28circa_1900%29.jpg/330px-Picking_cotton%2C_Angola_State_Farm_%28circa_1900%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Picking_cotton%2C_Angola_State_Farm_%28circa_1900%29.jpg/440px-Picking_cotton%2C_Angola_State_Farm_%28circa_1900%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="815" data-file-height="539" /></a><figcaption>Prisoners pick cotton <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1900</span> at <a href="/wiki/Angola_Prison_Farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angola Prison Farm">Angola Prison Farm</a> in Louisiana, which was built on land that had formerly been plantations owned by hugely successful interstate slave trader <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Franklin" title="Isaac Franklin">Isaac Franklin</a><sup id="cite_ref-295" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-295"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>293<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>With emancipation a legal reality, white Southerners were concerned with both controlling the newly freed slaves and keeping them in the labor force at the lowest level. The system of <a href="/wiki/Convict_lease" class="mw-redirect" title="Convict lease">convict leasing</a> began during Reconstruction and was fully implemented in the 1880s, officially ending in the last state, Alabama, in 1928. It persisted in various forms until it was abolished in 1942 by President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, several months after the attack on <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Harbor" title="Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a> involved the U.S. in the conflict. This system allowed private contractors to purchase the services of convicts from the state or local governments for a specific time period. African Americans, due to "vigorous and selective enforcement of laws and discriminatory sentencing", made up the vast majority of the convicts leased.<sup id="cite_ref-296" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-296"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>294<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Writer Douglas A. Blackmon writes of the system: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It was a form of bondage distinctly different from that of the antebellum South in that for most men, and the relatively few women drawn in, this slavery did not last a lifetime and did not automatically extend from one generation to the next. But it was nonetheless slavery – a system in which armies of free men, guilty of no crimes and entitled by law to freedom, were compelled to labor without compensation, were repeatedly bought and sold, and were forced to do the bidding of white masters through the regular application of extraordinary physical coercion.<sup id="cite_ref-297" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-297"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>295<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The constitutional basis for convict leasing is that the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a>, while abolishing slavery and involuntary servitude generally, expressly <a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">permits it as a punishment for crime</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Educational_issues">Educational issues</h3></div><p> Historian Mark Summers Wahlgren notes that the estimated literacy rate among formerly enslaved southern blacks at the time of emancipation was five to 10 percent, but had reached a baseline of 40 to 50 percent (and higher in cities) by the turn of the century, representing a "great advance".<sup id="cite_ref-298" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-298"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>296<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a> noted, the black colleges were not perfect, but "in a single generation they put thirty thousand black teachers in the South" and "wiped out the illiteracy of the majority of black people in the land".<sup id="cite_ref-299" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-299"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>297<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg/220px-Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg/330px-Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg/440px-Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1467" data-file-height="1118" /></a><figcaption>An industrial school set up for ex-slaves in Richmond during Reconstruction (<i><a href="/wiki/Frank_Leslie%27s_illustrated_newspaper" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Leslie's illustrated newspaper">Frank Leslie's illustrated newspaper</a></i>, September 22, 1866)</figcaption></figure> <p>Northern philanthropists continued to support black education in the 20th century, for example of a major donor to Hampton Institute and Tuskegee was <a href="/wiki/George_Eastman" title="George Eastman">George Eastman</a>, who also helped fund health programs at colleges and in communities.<sup id="cite_ref-Ford_300-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ford-300"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>298<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Apologies">Apologies</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Public_apologies_for_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Public apologies for slavery in the United States">Public apologies for slavery in the United States</a></div> <p>In the 21st century, various legislative bodies have issued <a href="/wiki/Public_apologies_for_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Public apologies for slavery in the United States">public apologies for slavery in the United States</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_legacy">Political legacy</h3></div> <p>A 2016 study, published in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Politics" title="The Journal of Politics">The Journal of Politics</a></i>, finds that "[w]hites who currently live in Southern counties that had high shares of slaves in 1860 are more likely to identify as a Republican, oppose affirmative action, and express racial resentment and colder feelings toward blacks." The study contends that "contemporary differences in political attitudes across counties in the American South in part trace their origins to slavery's prevalence more than 150 years ago. "<sup id="cite_ref-:0_301-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-301"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>299<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors argue that their findings are consistent with the theory that "following the Civil War, Southern whites faced political and economic incentives to reinforce existing racist norms and institutions to maintain control over the newly freed African American population. This amplified local differences in racially conservative political attitudes, which in turn have been passed down locally across generations."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_301-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-301"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>299<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Negro_going_in_colored_entrance_of_movie_house_on_Saturday_afternoon,_Belzoni,_Mississippi_Delta,_Mississippi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Negro going in colored entrance of movie house on Saturday afternoon, Belzoni, Mississippi Delta, Mississippi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Negro_going_in_colored_entrance_of_movie_house_on_Saturday_afternoon%2C_Belzoni%2C_Mississippi_Delta%2C_Mississippi.jpg/220px-Negro_going_in_colored_entrance_of_movie_house_on_Saturday_afternoon%2C_Belzoni%2C_Mississippi_Delta%2C_Mississippi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Negro_going_in_colored_entrance_of_movie_house_on_Saturday_afternoon%2C_Belzoni%2C_Mississippi_Delta%2C_Mississippi.jpg/330px-Negro_going_in_colored_entrance_of_movie_house_on_Saturday_afternoon%2C_Belzoni%2C_Mississippi_Delta%2C_Mississippi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Negro_going_in_colored_entrance_of_movie_house_on_Saturday_afternoon%2C_Belzoni%2C_Mississippi_Delta%2C_Mississippi.jpg/440px-Negro_going_in_colored_entrance_of_movie_house_on_Saturday_afternoon%2C_Belzoni%2C_Mississippi_Delta%2C_Mississippi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="974" data-file-height="641" /></a><figcaption>Original caption: "Negro going in colored entrance of movie house on Saturday afternoon, <a href="/wiki/Belzoni,_Mississippi" title="Belzoni, Mississippi">Belzoni</a>, Mississippi Delta, Mississippi" (<a href="/wiki/Marion_Post_Wolcott" title="Marion Post Wolcott">Marion Post Wolcott</a> 35mm nitrate negative, <a href="/wiki/Farm_Security_Administration" title="Farm Security Administration">Farm Security Administration</a>, October 1939)</figcaption></figure> <p>A 2017 study in the <i><a href="/wiki/British_Journal_of_Political_Science" title="British Journal of Political Science">British Journal of Political Science</a></i> argued that the British American colonies without slavery adopted better democratic institutions to attract migrant workers to their colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-302" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-302"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>300<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An article published in the <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Economic_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Economic History">Journal of Economic History</a></i> in 2022 finds that former slave owners remained politically dominant long after the abolition of slavery. Using data from Texas, the authors find that "[i]n 1900, still around 50 percent of all state legislators came from a slave-owning background."<sup id="cite_ref-303" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-303"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>301<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economics">Economics</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prices_of_slaves_noted_in_pencil_on_slave_sale_broadside_with_listing_of_names,_ages_and_special_skills.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Prices_of_slaves_noted_in_pencil_on_slave_sale_broadside_with_listing_of_names%2C_ages_and_special_skills.jpg/220px-Prices_of_slaves_noted_in_pencil_on_slave_sale_broadside_with_listing_of_names%2C_ages_and_special_skills.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Prices_of_slaves_noted_in_pencil_on_slave_sale_broadside_with_listing_of_names%2C_ages_and_special_skills.jpg/330px-Prices_of_slaves_noted_in_pencil_on_slave_sale_broadside_with_listing_of_names%2C_ages_and_special_skills.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Prices_of_slaves_noted_in_pencil_on_slave_sale_broadside_with_listing_of_names%2C_ages_and_special_skills.jpg/440px-Prices_of_slaves_noted_in_pencil_on_slave_sale_broadside_with_listing_of_names%2C_ages_and_special_skills.jpg 2x" data-file-width="656" data-file-height="968" /></a><figcaption>Prices noted in pencil on slave sale broadside with listing of names, ages and special skills; a note was made on an outer page "average $623.45"<sup id="cite_ref-304" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-304"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>302<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>(Hutson Lee papers, <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Historical_Society" title="South Carolina Historical Society">South Carolina Historical Society</a> via <a href="/wiki/Lowcountry_Digital_Library" title="Lowcountry Digital Library">Lowcountry Digital Library</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Fogel" title="Robert Fogel">Robert Fogel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Engerman" title="Stanley Engerman">Stanley Engerman</a>, in their 1974 book <i><a href="/wiki/Time_on_the_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Time on the Cross">Time on the Cross</a></i>, argued that the <a href="/wiki/Rate_of_return" title="Rate of return">rate of return</a> of slavery at the market price was close to ten percent, a number close to investment in other assets. The transition from indentured servants to slaves is cited to show that slaves offered greater profits to their owners. A qualified consensus among economic historians and economists is that "Slave agriculture was efficient compared with free agriculture. Economies of scale, effective management, and intensive utilization of labor and capital made southern slave agriculture considerably more efficient than nonslave southern farming",<sup id="cite_ref-Whaples_1995_No._16_305-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whaples_1995_No._16-305"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>303<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it is the near-universal consensus among economic historians and economists that slavery was not "a system irrationally kept in existence by plantation owners who failed to perceive or were indifferent to their best economic interests".<sup id="cite_ref-Whaples_1995_139–154_306-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whaples_1995_139–154-306"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>304<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The relative price of slaves and indentured servants in the antebellum period did decrease. Indentured servants became more costly with the increase in the demand of skilled labor in England.<sup id="cite_ref-Galenson_307-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galenson-307"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>305<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, slaves were mostly supplied from within the United States and thus language was not a barrier, and the cost of transporting slaves from one state to another was relatively low. However, as in <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Europe</a>, slavery at its end in the United States tended to be concentrated in the poorest regions of the United States,<sup id="cite_ref-Sowell_2005_pp._157–158_308-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sowell_2005_pp._157–158-308"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>306<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a qualified consensus among economists and economic historians concluding that the "modern period of the South's economic convergence to the level of the North only began in earnest when the institutional foundations of the southern regional labor market were undermined, largely by <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">federal farm and labor legislation dating from the 1930s</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Whaples_1995_No._26_309-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whaples_1995_No._26-309"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>307<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the decades preceding the Civil War, the black population of the United States experienced a rapid <a href="/wiki/Rate_of_natural_increase" title="Rate of natural increase">natural increase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tadman_310-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tadman-310"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>308<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">trans-Saharan slave trade</a> with <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Africa</a>, the slave population transported by the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> to the United States was sex-balanced.<sup id="cite_ref-Sowell_2005_p._156_311-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sowell_2005_p._156-311"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>309<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The slave population multiplied nearly fourfold between 1810 and 1860, despite the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves</a> signed into law by <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> in 1807 banning the international slave trade.<sup id="cite_ref-ICPSR_Study_312-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICPSR_Study-312"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>310<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, it is also the universal consensus among modern economic historians and economists that slavery in the United States was not "economically moribund on the eve of the Civil War".<sup id="cite_ref-313" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-313"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>311<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 2010s, several historians, among them <a href="/wiki/Edward_E._Baptist" title="Edward E. Baptist">Edward E. Baptist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sven_Beckert" title="Sven Beckert">Sven Beckert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Johnson_(historian)" title="Walter Johnson (historian)">Walter Johnson</a> and Calvin Schermerhorn, have posited that slavery was integral in the development of American <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-314" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-314"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>312<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-315" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-315"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>313<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_316-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-316"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>314<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-317" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-317"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>315<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Johnson wrote in <i>River of Dark Dreams</i> (2013): "The cords of credit and debt—of advance and obligation—that cinched the Atlantic economy together were anchored with the mutually defining values of land and slaves: without land and slaves, there was no credit, and without slaves, land itself was valueless. Promises made in the Mississippi Valley were backed by the value of slaves and fulfilled in their labor."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_316-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-316"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>314<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other <a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic historians</a> have rejected that thesis.<sup id="cite_ref-318" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-318"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>316<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-319" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-319"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>317<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-320" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-320"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>318<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-321" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-321"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>319<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:03_322-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-322"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>320<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2023 study estimates that prior to the onset of the US Civil War, the enslaved population produced 12.6% of US national product.<sup id="cite_ref-323" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-323"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>321<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slavery had a long-lasting impact on wealth and racial inequality in the United States. Black families whose ancestors were freed before the start of the Civil War have substantially better socio-economic outcomes than families who were freed in the Civil War.<sup id="cite_ref-324" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-324"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>322<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Efficiency_of_slaves">Efficiency of slaves</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weighing_Cotton_After_the_Day%27s_Picking_circa_1908.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Weighing_Cotton_After_the_Day%27s_Picking_circa_1908.jpg/220px-Weighing_Cotton_After_the_Day%27s_Picking_circa_1908.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Weighing_Cotton_After_the_Day%27s_Picking_circa_1908.jpg/330px-Weighing_Cotton_After_the_Day%27s_Picking_circa_1908.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Weighing_Cotton_After_the_Day%27s_Picking_circa_1908.jpg/440px-Weighing_Cotton_After_the_Day%27s_Picking_circa_1908.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1956" data-file-height="1204" /></a><figcaption>"Weighing cotton after the day's picking" <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1908</span> in Monticello, Florida, with a black man in a sack used as the counterweight; when a New York reporter visited a cotton gin in South Carolina in 1851, the managers reported that it cost an average of $75 a year to staff the gin with black slaves, whereas it would have cost $116 to use free whites<sup id="cite_ref-325" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-325"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>323<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Scholars disagree on how to quantify the efficiency of slavery. In <i>Time on the Cross</i> Fogel and Engerman equate efficiency to <a href="/wiki/Total_factor_productivity" title="Total factor productivity">total factor productivity</a> (TFP), the output per average unit of input on a farm. Using this measurement, Southern farms that enslaved black people using the <a href="/wiki/Gang_system" title="Gang system">gang system</a> were 35% more efficient than Northern farms, which used free labor. Under the gang system, groups of slaves perform synchronized tasks under the constant vigilance of an overseer. Each group was like a part of a machine. If perceived to be working below his capacity, a slave could be punished. Fogel argues that this kind of negative enforcement was not frequent and that slaves and free laborers had a similar quality of life; however, there is controversy on this last point.<sup id="cite_ref-Fogel_and_Engeman_326-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fogel_and_Engeman-326"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>324<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A critique of Fogel and Engerman's view was published by Paul A. David in 1976.<sup id="cite_ref-327" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-327"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>325<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1995, a random survey of 178 members of the <a href="/wiki/Economic_History_Association" title="Economic History Association">Economic History Association</a> sought to study the views of economists and economic historians on the debate. The study found that 72 percent of economists and 65 percent of economic historians would generally agree that "Slave agriculture was efficient compared with free agriculture. Economies of scale, effective management, and intensive utilization of labor and capital made southern slave agriculture considerably more efficient than nonslave southern farming." 48 percent of the economists agreed without provisos, while 24 percent agreed when provisos were included in the statement. On the other hand, 58 percent of economic historians and 42 percent of economists disagreed with Fogel and Engerman's "proposition that the material (not psychological) conditions of the lives of slaves compared favorably with those of free industrial workers in the decades before the Civil War".<sup id="cite_ref-Whaples_1995_No._16_305-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whaples_1995_No._16-305"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>303<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prices_of_slaves">Prices of slaves</h3></div> <p>The U.S. has a capitalist economy so the price of slaves was determined by the law of <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a>. For example, following bans on the import of slaves after the UK's <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_1807" title="Slave Trade Act 1807">Slave Trade Act 1807</a> and the American 1807 <a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves</a>, the prices for slaves increased. The markets for the products produced by slaves also affected the price of slaves (e.g. the price of slaves fell when the price of cotton fell in 1840). Anticipation of slavery's abolition also influenced prices. During the Civil War the price for slave men in New Orleans dropped from $1,381 in 1861 to $1,116 by 1862 (the <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_New_Orleans" title="Capture of New Orleans">city was captured</a> by U.S. forces in the Spring of 1862).<sup id="cite_ref-328" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-328"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>326<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portraits_from_Survivors_from_the_Cargo_of_the_Negro_Slave_Yacht_Wanderer_Charles_J._Montgomery_American_Anthropologist,_Vol._10,_No._4_Oct%E2%80%93Dec_1908_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Portraits_from_Survivors_from_the_Cargo_of_the_Negro_Slave_Yacht_Wanderer_Charles_J._Montgomery_American_Anthropologist%2C_Vol._10%2C_No._4_Oct%E2%80%93Dec_1908_02.jpg/220px-Portraits_from_Survivors_from_the_Cargo_of_the_Negro_Slave_Yacht_Wanderer_Charles_J._Montgomery_American_Anthropologist%2C_Vol._10%2C_No._4_Oct%E2%80%93Dec_1908_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Portraits_from_Survivors_from_the_Cargo_of_the_Negro_Slave_Yacht_Wanderer_Charles_J._Montgomery_American_Anthropologist%2C_Vol._10%2C_No._4_Oct%E2%80%93Dec_1908_02.jpg/330px-Portraits_from_Survivors_from_the_Cargo_of_the_Negro_Slave_Yacht_Wanderer_Charles_J._Montgomery_American_Anthropologist%2C_Vol._10%2C_No._4_Oct%E2%80%93Dec_1908_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Portraits_from_Survivors_from_the_Cargo_of_the_Negro_Slave_Yacht_Wanderer_Charles_J._Montgomery_American_Anthropologist%2C_Vol._10%2C_No._4_Oct%E2%80%93Dec_1908_02.jpg/440px-Portraits_from_Survivors_from_the_Cargo_of_the_Negro_Slave_Yacht_Wanderer_Charles_J._Montgomery_American_Anthropologist%2C_Vol._10%2C_No._4_Oct%E2%80%93Dec_1908_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1306" data-file-height="919" /></a><figcaption>Survivors of the <i>Wanderer</i>: Ward Lee, Tucker Henderson, and Romeo—born Cilucängy, Pucka Gaeta, and Tahro in the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo River</a> basin—were purchased at a Portuguese-run African slave market in 1858 for an estimated <span style="white-space: nowrap">US$50</span> (equivalent to $1,761 in 2023) each, and resold in the United States where the fair-market price for a healthy young enslaved male was easily <span style="white-space: nowrap">US$1,000</span> (equivalent to $35,215 in 2023)<sup id="cite_ref-329" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-329"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>327<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Charles J. Montgomery, <i><a href="/wiki/American_Anthropologist" title="American Anthropologist">American Anthropologist</a></i>, 1908)</figcaption></figure> <p>Controlling for inflation, prices of slaves rose dramatically in the six decades prior to the Civil War, reflecting demand due to commodity cotton, as well as use of slaves in shipping and manufacturing. Although the prices of slaves relative to indentured servants declined, both got more expensive. Cotton production was rising and relied on the use of slaves to yield high profits. Fogel and Engeman initially argued that if the Civil War had not happened, the slave prices would have increased even more, an average of more than fifty percent by 1890.<sup id="cite_ref-Fogel_and_Engeman_326-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fogel_and_Engeman-326"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>324<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 96">: 96 </span></sup> </p><p>Prices reflected the characteristics of the slave; such factors as sex, age, nature, and height were all taken into account to determine the price of a slave. Over the life-cycle, the price of enslaved women was higher than their male counterparts up to puberty age, as they would likely bear children who their masters could sell as slaves and could be used as slave laborers. Men around the age of 25 were the most valued, as they were at the highest level of productivity and still had a considerable life-span.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> If slaves had a history of fights or escapes, their price was lowered reflecting what planters believed was risk of repeating such behavior. Slave traders and buyers would examine a slave's back for whipping scars; a large number of injuries would be seen as evidence of laziness or rebelliousness, rather than the previous master's brutality, and would lower the slave's price.<sup id="cite_ref-McInnis2011_195-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McInnis2011-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taller male slaves were priced at a higher level, as height was viewed as a proxy for fitness and productivity.<sup id="cite_ref-Fogel_and_Engeman_326-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fogel_and_Engeman-326"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>324<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_Southern_economic_development">Effects on Southern economic development</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:5_dollar_banknote_showing_a_plantation_scene_with_enslaved_people_in_South_Carolina._Issued_by_the_Planters_Bank,_Winnsboro,_1853._On_display_at_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/5_dollar_banknote_showing_a_plantation_scene_with_enslaved_people_in_South_Carolina._Issued_by_the_Planters_Bank%2C_Winnsboro%2C_1853._On_display_at_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/5_dollar_banknote_showing_a_plantation_scene_with_enslaved_people_in_South_Carolina._Issued_by_the_Planters_Bank%2C_Winnsboro%2C_1853._On_display_at_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/5_dollar_banknote_showing_a_plantation_scene_with_enslaved_people_in_South_Carolina._Issued_by_the_Planters_Bank%2C_Winnsboro%2C_1853._On_display_at_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4348" data-file-height="1954" /></a><figcaption>Five-dollar banknote showing a plantation scene with enslaved people in South Carolina. Issued by the Planters Bank, <a href="/wiki/Winnsboro,_South_Carolina" title="Winnsboro, South Carolina">Winnsboro</a>, 1853. On display at the British Museum in London.</figcaption></figure> <p>While slavery brought profits in the short run, discussion continues on the economic benefits of slavery in the long run. In 1995, a random anonymous survey of 178 members of the <a href="/wiki/Economic_History_Association" title="Economic History Association">Economic History Association</a> found that out of the forty propositions about <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">American economic history</a> that were surveyed, the group of propositions most disputed by economic historians and economists were those about the postbellum economy of the American South (along with the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">Great Depression</a>). The only exception was the proposition initially put forward by historian <a href="/wiki/Gavin_Wright" title="Gavin Wright">Gavin Wright</a> that the "modern period of the South's economic convergence to the level of the North only began in earnest when the institutional foundations of the southern regional labor market were undermined, largely by <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">federal farm and labor legislation dating from the 1930s</a>." 62 percent of economists (24 percent with and 38 percent without provisos) and 73 percent of historians (23 percent with and 50 percent without provisos) agreed with this statement.<sup id="cite_ref-330" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-330"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>328<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Whaples_1995_No._26_309-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whaples_1995_No._26-309"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>307<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wright has also argued that the private investment of monetary resources in the cotton industry, among others, delayed development in the South of commercial and industrial institutions. There was little public investment in railroads or other infrastructure. Wright argues that agricultural technology was far more developed in the South, representing an economic advantage of the South over the North of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-331" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-331"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>329<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a> noted that "the colonies in which there were no slaves became more populous and more rich than those in which slavery flourished".<sup id="cite_ref-332" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-332"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>330<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1857, in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Impending_Crisis_of_the_South" title="The Impending Crisis of the South">The Impending Crisis of the South</a>: How to Meet It</i>, <a href="/wiki/Hinton_Rowan_Helper" title="Hinton Rowan Helper">Hinton Rowan Helper</a> made the same point.<sup id="cite_ref-333" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-333"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>331<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economists Peter H. Lindert and <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_G._Williamson" title="Jeffrey G. Williamson">Jeffrey G. Williamson</a>, in a pair of articles published in 2012 and 2013, found that, despite the American South initially having per capita income roughly double that of the North in 1774, incomes in the South had declined 27% by 1800 and continued to decline over the next four decades, while the economies in New England and the Mid-Atlantic states vastly expanded. By 1840, per capita income in the South was well behind the Northeast and the national average (Note: this is also true <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_counties_by_per_capita_income" title="List of United States counties by per capita income">in the early 21st century</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-334" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-334"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>332<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-335" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-335"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>333<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_coton_aux_%C3%89tats-Unis_(1903)_Cotton_of_the_United_States_by_Yves_Henry_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Le_coton_aux_%C3%89tats-Unis_%281903%29_Cotton_of_the_United_States_by_Yves_Henry_02.jpg/220px-Le_coton_aux_%C3%89tats-Unis_%281903%29_Cotton_of_the_United_States_by_Yves_Henry_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Le_coton_aux_%C3%89tats-Unis_%281903%29_Cotton_of_the_United_States_by_Yves_Henry_02.jpg/330px-Le_coton_aux_%C3%89tats-Unis_%281903%29_Cotton_of_the_United_States_by_Yves_Henry_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Le_coton_aux_%C3%89tats-Unis_%281903%29_Cotton_of_the_United_States_by_Yves_Henry_02.jpg/440px-Le_coton_aux_%C3%89tats-Unis_%281903%29_Cotton_of_the_United_States_by_Yves_Henry_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2451" data-file-height="1607" /></a><figcaption>Soils of the cotton-growing regions of the United States</figcaption></figure> <p>Lindert and Williamson argue that this antebellum period is an example of what economists <a href="/wiki/Daron_Acemoglu" title="Daron Acemoglu">Daron Acemoglu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simon_Johnson_(economist)" title="Simon Johnson (economist)">Simon Johnson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_A._Robinson_(economist)" class="mw-redirect" title="James A. Robinson (economist)">James A. Robinson</a> call "a reversal of fortune".<sup id="cite_ref-336" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-336"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>334<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his essay "<a href="/wiki/Black_Rednecks_and_White_Liberals#The_Real_History_of_Slavery" title="Black Rednecks and White Liberals">The Real History of Slavery</a>", economist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Thomas Sowell</a> reiterated and augmented the observation made by de Tocqueville by comparing slavery in the United States to <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">slavery in Brazil</a>. He notes that slave societies reflected similar economic trends in those and other parts of the world, suggesting that the trend Lindert and Williamson identify may have continued until the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Both in <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazil</a> and in the United States – the countries with the two largest slave populations in the Western Hemisphere – the end of slavery found the regions in which slaves had been concentrated poorer than other regions of these same countries. For the United States, a case could be made that this was due to the Civil War, which did so much damage to the South, but no such explanation would apply to Brazil, which fought no Civil War over this issue. Moreover, even in the United States, the South lagged behind the North in many ways even before the Civil War. Although slavery in Europe died out before it was abolished in the Western Hemisphere, as late as 1776 slavery had not yet died out all across the continent when <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> wrote in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i> that it still existed in some eastern regions. But, even then, Eastern Europe was much poorer than Western Europe. The slavery of North Africa and the Middle East, over the centuries, took more slaves from sub-Saharan Africa than the Western Hemisphere did<span class="nowrap"> </span>... But these remained largely poor countries until the discovery and extraction of their vast oil deposits.<sup id="cite_ref-Sowell_2005_pp._157–158_308-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sowell_2005_pp._157–158-308"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>306<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AMERICAN_SLAVE_MARKET_PRICES_IN_1860_%22A_negro-broker_in_Richmond...%22_The_Wheeling_Daily_Intelligencer,_Wheeling,_Virginia,_August_11,_1860.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/AMERICAN_SLAVE_MARKET_PRICES_IN_1860_%22A_negro-broker_in_Richmond...%22_The_Wheeling_Daily_Intelligencer%2C_Wheeling%2C_Virginia%2C_August_11%2C_1860.jpg/220px-AMERICAN_SLAVE_MARKET_PRICES_IN_1860_%22A_negro-broker_in_Richmond...%22_The_Wheeling_Daily_Intelligencer%2C_Wheeling%2C_Virginia%2C_August_11%2C_1860.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/AMERICAN_SLAVE_MARKET_PRICES_IN_1860_%22A_negro-broker_in_Richmond...%22_The_Wheeling_Daily_Intelligencer%2C_Wheeling%2C_Virginia%2C_August_11%2C_1860.jpg/330px-AMERICAN_SLAVE_MARKET_PRICES_IN_1860_%22A_negro-broker_in_Richmond...%22_The_Wheeling_Daily_Intelligencer%2C_Wheeling%2C_Virginia%2C_August_11%2C_1860.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/AMERICAN_SLAVE_MARKET_PRICES_IN_1860_%22A_negro-broker_in_Richmond...%22_The_Wheeling_Daily_Intelligencer%2C_Wheeling%2C_Virginia%2C_August_11%2C_1860.jpg/440px-AMERICAN_SLAVE_MARKET_PRICES_IN_1860_%22A_negro-broker_in_Richmond...%22_The_Wheeling_Daily_Intelligencer%2C_Wheeling%2C_Virginia%2C_August_11%2C_1860.jpg 2x" data-file-width="713" data-file-height="372" /></a><figcaption>Market update, published on the eve of the American Civil War: Here the sell-side (Virginia) prepares the buy-side (Mississippi) for expected prices in the 1860–61 slave-trading season (<i>The Wheeling Daily Intelligencer</i>, August 11, 1860).</figcaption></figure> <p>Sowell also notes in <i>Ethnic America: A History</i>, citing historians <a href="/wiki/Clement_Eaton" title="Clement Eaton">Clement Eaton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Genovese" title="Eugene Genovese">Eugene Genovese</a>, that three-quarters of Southern white families owned no slaves at all.<sup id="cite_ref-337" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-337"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>335<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most slaveholders lived on farms rather than plantations,<sup id="cite_ref-338" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-338"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>336<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and few plantations were as large as the fictional ones depicted in <i><a href="/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(film)" title="Gone with the Wind (film)">Gone with the Wind</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-339" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-339"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>337<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In "The Real History of Slavery", Sowell also notes in comparison to <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">slavery in the Arab world and the Middle East</a> (where slaves were seldom used for productive purposes) and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a> (where the slaves consumed the entire output they created), Sowell observes that many commercial slaveowners in the antebellum South tended to be <a href="/wiki/Spendthrift" title="Spendthrift">spendthrift</a> and many lost their plantations due to creditor <a href="/wiki/Foreclosure" title="Foreclosure">foreclosures</a>, and in Britain, profits by British slave traders only amounted to two percent of British <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product#Expenditure_approach" title="Gross domestic product">domestic investment</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#Destinations_and_flags_of_carriers" title="Atlantic slave trade">height of the Atlantic slave trade in the 18th century</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-340" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-340"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>338<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-341" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-341"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>339<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sowell draws the following conclusion regarding the <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomic</a> value of slavery: </p> <blockquote><p>In short, even though some individual slaveowners grew rich and some family fortunes were founded on the exploitation of slaves, that is very different from saying that the whole society, or even its non-slave population as a whole, was more economically advanced than it would have been in the absence of slavery. What this means is that, whether employed as domestic servants or producing crops or other goods, millions suffered exploitation and dehumanization for no higher purpose than the<span class="nowrap"> </span>... aggrandizement of slaveowners.<sup id="cite_ref-342" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-342"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>340<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Eric Hilt noted that, while some historians have suggested slavery was necessary for the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> (on the grounds that American slave plantations produced most of the raw cotton for the British textiles market and the British textiles market was the vanguard of the Industrial Revolution), it is not clear if this is actually true; there is no evidence that cotton could not have been mass-produced by <a href="/wiki/Yeoman#United_States" title="Yeoman">yeoman farmers</a> rather than slave plantations if the latter had not existed (as their existence tended to force yeoman farmers into <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture" title="Subsistence agriculture">subsistence farming</a>) and there is some evidence that they certainly could have. The soil and <a href="/wiki/Climate_of_the_United_States#Gulf_Coast/Lower_Mississippi_Valley/South_Atlantic_states" title="Climate of the United States">climate of the American South</a> were excellent for growing cotton, so it is not unreasonable to postulate that farms without slaves could have produced substantial amounts of cotton; even if they did not produce as much as the plantations did, it could still have been enough to serve the demand of British producers.<sup id="cite_ref-343" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-343"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>341<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar arguments have been made by other historians.<sup id="cite_ref-344" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-344"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>342<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_economy_of_American_slavery">Sexual economy of American slavery</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carnegie_Museum_of_Art,_Pittsburgh_The_Slave_Market_circa_1859_artist_unknown.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Carnegie_Museum_of_Art%2C_Pittsburgh_The_Slave_Market_circa_1859_artist_unknown.png/220px-Carnegie_Museum_of_Art%2C_Pittsburgh_The_Slave_Market_circa_1859_artist_unknown.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Carnegie_Museum_of_Art%2C_Pittsburgh_The_Slave_Market_circa_1859_artist_unknown.png/330px-Carnegie_Museum_of_Art%2C_Pittsburgh_The_Slave_Market_circa_1859_artist_unknown.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Carnegie_Museum_of_Art%2C_Pittsburgh_The_Slave_Market_circa_1859_artist_unknown.png/440px-Carnegie_Museum_of_Art%2C_Pittsburgh_The_Slave_Market_circa_1859_artist_unknown.png 2x" data-file-width="563" data-file-height="421" /></a><figcaption><i>Slave Market</i>, artist unknown, date unknown (<a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Museum_of_Art" title="Carnegie Museum of Art">Carnegie Museum of Art</a>, Pittsburgh)</figcaption></figure> <p>Scholar Adrienne Davis articulates how the economics of slavery also can be defined as a sexual economy, specifically focusing on how <a href="/wiki/Black_women" title="Black women">black women</a> were expected to perform physical, sexual and reproductive labor to provide a consistent enslaved workforce and increase the profits of white slavers. Davis writes that black women were needed for their "sexual and reproductive labor to satisfy the economic, political, and personal interest of white men of the elite class"<sup id="cite_ref-345" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-345"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>343<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> articulating that black women's reproductive capacity was important in the maintenance of the system of slavery due to its ability to perpetuate an enslaved workforce. She is also drawing attention to black women's labor being needed to maintain the aristocracy of a white ruling class, due to the intimate nature of reproduction and its potential for producing more enslaved peoples. </p><p>Due to the institution of <i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus sequitur ventrem</a></i>, black women's wombs became the site where slavery was developed and transferred,<sup id="cite_ref-346" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-346"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>344<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meaning that black women were not only used for their physical labor, but for their sexual and reproductive labor as well. </p> <blockquote><p>"The rule that the children's status follows their mothers' was a foundational one for our economy. It converted enslaved women's reproductive capacity into market capital"<sup id="cite_ref-347" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-347"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>345<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St_Louis_Hotel_Slave_Block_Sold_as_a_Child_Postcard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/St_Louis_Hotel_Slave_Block_Sold_as_a_Child_Postcard.jpg/220px-St_Louis_Hotel_Slave_Block_Sold_as_a_Child_Postcard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="351" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/St_Louis_Hotel_Slave_Block_Sold_as_a_Child_Postcard.jpg/330px-St_Louis_Hotel_Slave_Block_Sold_as_a_Child_Postcard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/St_Louis_Hotel_Slave_Block_Sold_as_a_Child_Postcard.jpg/440px-St_Louis_Hotel_Slave_Block_Sold_as_a_Child_Postcard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="909" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Divided-back_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Divided-back era">Divided-back era</a> postcard: "The Old Slave Block in the <a href="/wiki/St._Louis_Hotel" title="St. Louis Hotel">Old St. Louis Hotel</a>, New Orleans, La. The colored woman standing on the block was sold for $1500.00 on this same block when a little girl."</figcaption></figure> <p>This articulation by Davis illustrates how black women's reproductive capacity was commodified under slavery, and that an analysis of the economic structures of slavery requires an acknowledgment of how pivotal black women's sexuality was in maintaining slavery's economic power. Davis writes how black women performed labor under slavery, writing: "[black women were] male when convenient and horrifically female when needed".<sup id="cite_ref-:02_348-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-348"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>346<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fluctuating expectations of black women's gendered labor under slavery disrupted the white normative roles that were assigned to white men and white women. This ungendering black women received under slavery contributed to the systemic dehumanization experienced by enslaved black women, as they were unable to receive the expectations or experiences of either gender within the white binary. </p><p>Davis's arguments address the fact that, under slavery, black women's sexuality became linked to the economic and public sphere, making their intimate lives into public institutions. Black women's physical labor was gendered as masculine under slavery when they were needed to yield more profit, but their reproductive capacities and sexual labor were equally as important in maintaining white power over black communities and perpetuating an enslaved workforce.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_348-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-348"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>346<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography_and_demography">Geography and demography</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nypl.digitalcollections.ce508360-c614-012f-3a04-58d385a7bc34.001.w.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Nypl.digitalcollections.ce508360-c614-012f-3a04-58d385a7bc34.001.w.jpg/220px-Nypl.digitalcollections.ce508360-c614-012f-3a04-58d385a7bc34.001.w.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Nypl.digitalcollections.ce508360-c614-012f-3a04-58d385a7bc34.001.w.jpg/330px-Nypl.digitalcollections.ce508360-c614-012f-3a04-58d385a7bc34.001.w.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Nypl.digitalcollections.ce508360-c614-012f-3a04-58d385a7bc34.001.w.jpg/440px-Nypl.digitalcollections.ce508360-c614-012f-3a04-58d385a7bc34.001.w.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption>"Fugitive Negroes, fording Rappahannock river following Pope's retreat, Aug. 1862" (New York Public Library)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slave_importation">Slave importation</h3></div> <p>About 600,000 slaves were transported to the United States, or five percent of the 12 million slaves taken from Africa. About 310,000 of these persons were imported into the Thirteen Colonies before 1776: 40 percent directly, and the rest from the Caribbean. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Slaves trafficked to the British colonies and United States:<sup id="cite_ref-349" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-349"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>347<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Time period</th> <th>Quantity </th></tr> <tr> <td>1620–1700</td> <td>21,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1701–1760</td> <td>189,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1761–1770</td> <td>63,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1771–1790</td> <td>56,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1791–1800</td> <td>79,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1801–1810</td> <td>124,000<sup id="cite_ref-350" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-350"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>348<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1810–1865</td> <td>51,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total</td> <td>597,000 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The great majority of enslaved Africans were transported to <a href="/wiki/Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean" title="Sugar plantations in the Caribbean">sugar plantations in the Caribbean</a> and to <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">Portuguese Brazil</a>. As life expectancy was short, their numbers had to be continually replenished. Life expectancy was much higher in the United States, and the enslaved population was successful in reproduction, which was called "natural increase" by enslavers. The population of enslaved people in the United States grew to <span class="nowrap">4 million</span> by the <a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_census" title="1860 United States census">1860 census</a>. Historian J. David Hacker conducted research that estimated that the cumulative number of slaves in colonial America and the United States (1619–1865) was 10 million.<sup id="cite_ref-Hacker_2020_pp._840–855_351-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hacker_2020_pp._840–855-351"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>349<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_of_American_slaves">Origins of American slaves</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/African-American_genealogy" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American genealogy">African-American genealogy</a></div> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Origins and percentages of Africans<br />imported into British North America<br />and Louisiana (1700–1820)<sup id="cite_ref-352" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-352"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>350<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-353" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-353"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>351<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>Amount % <br /> (exceeds 100%) </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">West-central Africa</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Kongo_people" title="Kongo people">Kongo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mbundu_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Mbundu people">N. Mbundu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Mbundu_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Mbundu people">S. Mbundu</a>)</small></td> <td align="center">26.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bight_of_Bonny" class="mw-redirect" title="Bight of Bonny">Bight of Biafra</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igbo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tikar" class="mw-redirect" title="Tikar">Tikar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibibio_people" title="Ibibio people">Ibibio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bamileke" class="mw-redirect" title="Bamileke">Bamileke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bubi_people" title="Bubi people">Bubi</a>)</small></td> <td align="center">24.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Mende_people" title="Mende people">Mende</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temne_people" title="Temne people">Temne</a>)</small></td> <td align="center">15.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Senegambia" title="Senegambia">Senegambia</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Mandinka_people" title="Mandinka people">Mandinka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fula_people" title="Fula people">Fula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolof_people" title="Wolof people">Wolof</a>)</small></td> <td align="center">14.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(region)" title="Gold Coast (region)">Gold Coast</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Akan_people" title="Akan people">Akan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fon_people" title="Fon people">Fon</a>)</small></td> <td align="center">13.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Windward_Coast" title="Windward Coast">Windward Coast</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Mand%C3%A9_peoples" title="Mandé peoples">Mandé</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kru_people" title="Kru people">Kru</a>)</small></td> <td align="center">5.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bight_of_Benin" title="Bight of Benin">Bight of Benin</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ewe_people" title="Ewe people">Ewe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fon_people" title="Fon people">Fon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allada" title="Allada">Allada</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mahi_people" title="Mahi people">Mahi</a>)</small></td> <td align="center">4.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">Southeast Africa</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Macua_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Macua (people)">Macua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Malagasy people">Malagasy</a>)</small></td> <td align="center">1.8 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distribution_of_slaves">Distribution of slaves</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SlavePopulationUS1860.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/SlavePopulationUS1860.jpg/220px-SlavePopulationUS1860.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/SlavePopulationUS1860.jpg/330px-SlavePopulationUS1860.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/SlavePopulationUS1860.jpg/440px-SlavePopulationUS1860.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10503" data-file-height="8380" /></a><figcaption><i>Map showing the distribution of the slave population of the southern states of the United States</i> (1861) created by Edwin Hergesheimer of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_and_Geodetic_Survey" title="United States Coast and Geodetic Survey">United States Coast Survey</a>; Lincoln kept a copy of this map in the White House and studied it often, using it to track Union troop movements<sup id="cite_ref-354" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-354"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>352<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable" style="ftext-align:right; font-size:95%;"> <tbody><tr style="border-bottom:2px solid gray;"> <th>Census<br />Year</th> <th># Slaves</th> <th># Free<br />Africans</th> <th>Total<br />Africans</th> <th>% Free<br />Africans</th> <th>Total US<br />population</th> <th>% Africans<br />of total </th></tr> <tr> <td>1790</td> <td>697,681</td> <td>59,527</td> <td>757,208</td> <td>8%</td> <td>3,929,214</td> <td>19% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1800</td> <td>893,602</td> <td>108,435</td> <td>1,002,037</td> <td>11%</td> <td>5,308,483</td> <td>19% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1810</td> <td>1,191,362</td> <td>186,446</td> <td>1,377,808</td> <td>14%</td> <td>7,239,881</td> <td>19% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1820</td> <td>1,538,022</td> <td>233,634</td> <td>1,771,656</td> <td>13%</td> <td>9,638,453</td> <td>18% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1830</td> <td>2,009,043</td> <td>319,599</td> <td>2,328,642</td> <td>14%</td> <td>12,860,702</td> <td>18% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1840</td> <td>2,487,355</td> <td>386,293</td> <td>2,873,648</td> <td>13%</td> <td>17,063,353</td> <td>17% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1850</td> <td>3,204,313</td> <td>434,495</td> <td>3,638,808</td> <td>12%</td> <td>23,191,876</td> <td>16% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1860</td> <td>3,953,760</td> <td>488,070</td> <td>4,441,830</td> <td>11%</td> <td>31,443,321</td> <td>14% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1870</td> <td>0</td> <td>4,880,009</td> <td>4,880,009</td> <td>100%</td> <td>38,558,371</td> <td>13% </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7" style="text-align:center;">Source:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thomaslegioncherokee.tripod.com/distributionofslavesinunitedstateshistory.html">"Distribution of Slaves in U.S. History"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 13,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Distribution+of+Slaves+in+U.S.+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthomaslegioncherokee.tripod.com%2Fdistributionofslavesinunitedstateshistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US-SlaveryPercentbyState1790-1860.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/US-SlaveryPercentbyState1790-1860.svg/220px-US-SlaveryPercentbyState1790-1860.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/US-SlaveryPercentbyState1790-1860.svg/330px-US-SlaveryPercentbyState1790-1860.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/US-SlaveryPercentbyState1790-1860.svg/440px-US-SlaveryPercentbyState1790-1860.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="513" data-file-height="572" /></a><figcaption>Evolution of the enslaved population of the United States as a percentage of the population of each state, 1790–1860</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:right; font-size:80%;"> <caption>Total Slave Population in U.S., 1790–1860, by State and Territory<sup id="cite_ref-355" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-355"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>353<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-356" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-356"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>354<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center; background: #efefef; border-bottom:2px solid gray;"> <th>Census<br />Year</th> <th>1790</th> <th>1800</th> <th>1810</th> <th>1820</th> <th>1830</th> <th>1840</th> <th>1850</th> <th>1860 </th></tr> <tr> <th align="left">All States</th> <th>694,207</th> <th>893,308</th> <th>1,191,338</th> <th>1,531,490</th> <th>2,009,079</th> <th>2,487,392</th> <th>3,204,215</th> <th>3,953,820 </th></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Alabama</td> <td>–</td> <td>494</td> <td>2,565</td> <td>41,879</td> <td>117,549</td> <td>253,532</td> <td>342,844</td> <td>435,080 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Arkansas</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>136</td> <td>1,617</td> <td>4,576</td> <td>19,935</td> <td>47,100</td> <td>111,115 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">California</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Connecticut</td> <td>2,648</td> <td>951</td> <td>310</td> <td>97</td> <td>25</td> <td>54</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Delaware</td> <td>8,887</td> <td>6,153</td> <td>4,177</td> <td>4,509</td> <td>3,292</td> <td>2,605</td> <td>2,290</td> <td>1,798 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">District of Columbia</td> <td>–</td> <td>2,072</td> <td>3,554</td> <td>4,520</td> <td>4,505</td> <td>3,320</td> <td>3,687</td> <td>3,185 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Florida</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>15,501</td> <td>25,717</td> <td>39,310</td> <td>61,745 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Georgia</td> <td>29,264</td> <td>59,699</td> <td>105,218</td> <td>149,656</td> <td>217,531</td> <td>280,944</td> <td>381,682</td> <td>462,198 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Illinois</td> <td>–</td> <td>107</td> <td>168</td> <td>917</td> <td>747</td> <td>331</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Indiana</td> <td>–</td> <td>28</td> <td>237</td> <td>190</td> <td>3</td> <td>3</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Iowa</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>16</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Kansas</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Kentucky</td> <td>12,430</td> <td>40,343</td> <td>80,561</td> <td>126,732</td> <td>165,213</td> <td>182,258</td> <td>210,981</td> <td>225,483 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Louisiana</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>34,660</td> <td>69,064</td> <td>109,588</td> <td>168,452</td> <td>244,809</td> <td>331,726 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Maine</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>2</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Maryland</td> <td>103,036</td> <td>105,635</td> <td>111,502</td> <td>107,398</td> <td>102,994</td> <td>89,737</td> <td>90,368</td> <td>87,189 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Massachusetts</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Michigan</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>24</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Minnesota</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Mississippi</td> <td>–</td> <td>2,995</td> <td>14,523</td> <td>32,814</td> <td>65,659</td> <td>195,211</td> <td>309,878</td> <td>436,631 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Missouri</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>10,222</td> <td>25,096</td> <td>58,240</td> <td>87,422</td> <td>114,931 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Nebraska</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>15 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Nevada</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">New Hampshire</td> <td>157</td> <td>8</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>3</td> <td>1</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">New Jersey</td> <td>11,423</td> <td>12,422</td> <td>10,851</td> <td>7,557</td> <td>2,254</td> <td>674</td> <td>236</td> <td>18 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">New York</td> <td>21,193</td> <td>20,613</td> <td>15,017</td> <td>10,088</td> <td>75</td> <td>4</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">North Carolina</td> <td>100,783</td> <td>133,296</td> <td>168,824</td> <td>205,017</td> <td>245,601</td> <td>245,817</td> <td>288,548</td> <td>331,059 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Ohio</td> <td>–</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>6</td> <td>3</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Oregon</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Pennsylvania</td> <td>3,707</td> <td>1,706</td> <td>795</td> <td>211</td> <td>403</td> <td>64</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Rhode Island</td> <td>958</td> <td>380</td> <td>108</td> <td>48</td> <td>17</td> <td>5</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">South Carolina</td> <td>107,094</td> <td>146,151</td> <td>196,365</td> <td>251,783</td> <td>315,401</td> <td>327,038</td> <td>384,984</td> <td>402,406 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Tennessee</td> <td>3,417</td> <td>13,584</td> <td>44,535</td> <td>80,107</td> <td>141,603</td> <td>183,059</td> <td>239,459</td> <td>275,719 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Texas</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>58,161</td> <td>182,566 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Utah</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>26</td> <td>29 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Vermont</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Virginia</td> <td>287,959</td> <td>339,499</td> <td>383,521</td> <td>411,886</td> <td>453,698</td> <td>431,873</td> <td>452,028</td> <td>472,494 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">West Virginia</td> <td>4,668</td> <td>7,172</td> <td>10,836</td> <td>15,178</td> <td>17,673</td> <td>18,488</td> <td>20,428</td> <td>18,371 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">Wisconsin</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>11</td> <td>4</td> <td>0 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>For various reasons, the census did not always include all of the slaves, especially in the West. California was admitted as a free state and reported no slaves. However, there were many slaves that were brought to work in the mines during the <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-357" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-357"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>355<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Californian communities openly tolerated slavery, such as <a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Bernardino,_California#Mormon_San_Bernardino" title="History of San Bernardino, California">San Bernardino</a>, which was mostly made up of transplants from the neighboring slave <a href="/wiki/Utah_Territory" title="Utah Territory">territory of Utah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-358" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-358"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>356<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_Territory" title="New Mexico Territory">New Mexico Territory</a> never reported any slaves on the census, yet sued the government for compensation for 600 slaves that were freed when Congress outlawed slavery in the territory.<sup id="cite_ref-Snodgrass_359-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snodgrass-359"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>357<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Utah was actively trying to hide its slave population from Congress<sup id="cite_ref-360" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-360"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>358<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-361" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-361"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>359<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and did not report slaves in several communities.<sup id="cite_ref-362" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-362"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>360<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the census did not traditionally include Native Americans, and hence did not include Native American slaves or Native African slaves owned by Native Americans. There were hundreds of Native American slaves in California,<sup id="cite_ref-363" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-363"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>361<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Utah<sup id="cite_ref-morrill_364-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-morrill-364"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>362<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and New Mexico<sup id="cite_ref-Snodgrass_359-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snodgrass-359"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>357<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that were never recorded in the census. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distribution_of_slaveholders">Distribution of slaveholders</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sketches_made_in_Charleston,_South_Carolina_by_artist_Eyre_Crowe_in_March_1853.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Sketches_made_in_Charleston%2C_South_Carolina_by_artist_Eyre_Crowe_in_March_1853.jpg/220px-Sketches_made_in_Charleston%2C_South_Carolina_by_artist_Eyre_Crowe_in_March_1853.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Sketches_made_in_Charleston%2C_South_Carolina_by_artist_Eyre_Crowe_in_March_1853.jpg/330px-Sketches_made_in_Charleston%2C_South_Carolina_by_artist_Eyre_Crowe_in_March_1853.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Sketches_made_in_Charleston%2C_South_Carolina_by_artist_Eyre_Crowe_in_March_1853.jpg/440px-Sketches_made_in_Charleston%2C_South_Carolina_by_artist_Eyre_Crowe_in_March_1853.jpg 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1199" /></a><figcaption>Sketches of enslaved Americans in Richmond and Charleston, made by British artist Eyre Crowe, March 1853</figcaption></figure> <p>As of the <a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="1860 United States Census">1860 census</a>, one may compute the following statistics on slaveholding:<sup id="cite_ref-365" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-365"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>363<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Enumerating slave schedules by county, 393,975 <a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">named persons</a> held 3,950,546 unnamed slaves, for an average of about ten slaves per holder. As some large holders held slaves in multiple counties and are thus multiply counted, this slightly overestimates the number of slaveholders.</li> <li>Excluding slaves, the 1860 U.S. population was 27,167,529; therefore, approximately 1.45% of free persons (roughly one in 69) was a named slaveholder (393,975 named slaveholders among 27,167,529 free persons). By counting only named slaveholders, this approach does not acknowledge people who benefited from slavery by being in a slaveowning household, e.g., the wife and children of an owner; in 1850, there was an average of 5.55 people per household,<sup id="cite_ref-366" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-366"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>364<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so on average, around 8.05% of free persons lived in a slave-owning household. In the South, 33% of families owned at least one slave.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> According to historian Joseph Glatthaar, the number of soldiers of the Confederacy's Army of Northern Virginia who either owned slaves or came from slave owning households is "almost one of every two 1861 recruits". In addition he notes that, "Untold numbers of enlistees rented land from, sold crops to, or worked for slaveholders. In the final tabulation, the vast majority of the volunteers of 1861 had a direct connection to slavery."<sup id="cite_ref-367" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-367"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>365<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>It is estimated by the transcriber Tom Blake, that holders of 200 or more slaves, constituting less than 1% of all U.S. slaveholders (fewer than 4,000 persons, one in 7,000 free persons, or 0.015% of the population) held an estimated 20–30% of all slaves (800,000 to 1,200,000 slaves). Nineteen holders of 500 or more slaves have been identified.<sup id="cite_ref-largest_368-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-largest-368"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>366<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest slaveholder was <a href="/wiki/Joshua_John_Ward" title="Joshua John Ward">Joshua John Ward</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Georgetown,_South_Carolina" title="Georgetown, South Carolina">Georgetown, South Carolina</a>, who in 1850 held 1,092 slaves,<sup id="cite_ref-dap2008_369-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dap2008-369"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>367<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and whose heirs in 1860 held 1,130 or 1,131 slaves<sup id="cite_ref-largest_368-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-largest-368"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>366<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dap2008_369-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dap2008-369"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>367<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – he was dubbed "the king of the rice planters",<sup id="cite_ref-dap2008_369-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dap2008-369"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>367<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and one of his plantations is now part of <a href="/wiki/Brookgreen_Gardens" title="Brookgreen Gardens">Brookgreen Gardens</a>.</li> <li>The percentage of families that owned slaves in 1860 in various groupings of states was as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-370" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-370"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>368<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Group of States </th> <th>States in Group </th> <th>Slave-Owning Families </th></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 325px;">15 states where slavery was legal </td> <td style="width: 600px;">Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia </td> <td style="width: 50px; padding-left: 2.5em;">26% </td></tr> <tr> <td>11 states that seceded </td> <td>Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia </td> <td style="width: 50px; padding-left: 2.5em;">31% </td></tr> <tr> <td>7 states that seceded before Lincoln's inauguration </td> <td>Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, Texas </td> <td style="width: 50px; padding-left: 2.5em;">37% </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 states that seceded later </td> <td>Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia </td> <td style="width: 50px; padding-left: 2.5em;">25% </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 slave states that did not secede </td> <td>Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri </td> <td style="width: 50px; padding-left: 2.5em;">16% </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States#Slavery_and_black_history" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography of the United States § Slavery and black history</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of slavery in the United States">Bibliography of slavery in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WINDOW_GRATING_OF_OLD_SLAVE_PRISON_CELL_-_Girod_House,_500-506_Chartres.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/WINDOW_GRATING_OF_OLD_SLAVE_PRISON_CELL_-_Girod_House%2C_500-506_Chartres.jpg/220px-WINDOW_GRATING_OF_OLD_SLAVE_PRISON_CELL_-_Girod_House%2C_500-506_Chartres.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/WINDOW_GRATING_OF_OLD_SLAVE_PRISON_CELL_-_Girod_House%2C_500-506_Chartres.jpg/330px-WINDOW_GRATING_OF_OLD_SLAVE_PRISON_CELL_-_Girod_House%2C_500-506_Chartres.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/WINDOW_GRATING_OF_OLD_SLAVE_PRISON_CELL_-_Girod_House%2C_500-506_Chartres.jpg/440px-WINDOW_GRATING_OF_OLD_SLAVE_PRISON_CELL_-_Girod_House%2C_500-506_Chartres.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2558" data-file-height="3216" /></a><figcaption>"Window grating of old slave prison cell" at <a href="/wiki/Girod_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Girod House">Girod House</a>, 500–506 Chartres, New Orleans (Richard Koch, <a href="/wiki/Historic_American_Buildings_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Historic American Buildings Survey">Historic American Buildings Survey</a>, April 1934)</figcaption></figure> <p>The historian <a href="/wiki/Peter_Kolchin" title="Peter Kolchin">Peter Kolchin</a>, writing in 1993, noted that until the latter decades of the 20th century, historians of slavery had primarily concerned themselves with the culture, practices and economics of the slaveholders, not with the slaves. This was in part due to the circumstance that most slaveholders were literate and left behind written records, whereas slaves were largely illiterate and not in a position to leave written records. Scholars differed as to whether slavery should be considered a benign or a "harshly exploitive" institution.<sup id="cite_ref-Kolchin_p._134_371-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolchin_p._134-371"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>369<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Much of the history written prior to the 1950s had a distinctive racist slant to it.<sup id="cite_ref-Kolchin_p._134_371-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolchin_p._134-371"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>369<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 1970s and 1980s, historians were using <a href="/wiki/Archaeological" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological">archaeological</a> records, black <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a> and statistical data to develop a much more detailed and nuanced picture of slave life. Individuals were shown to have been resilient and somewhat autonomous in many of their activities, within the limits of their situation and despite its precariousness. Historians who wrote in this era include <a href="/wiki/John_Blassingame" class="mw-redirect" title="John Blassingame">John Blassingame</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Slave_Community" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave Community">Slave Community</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Genovese" title="Eugene Genovese">Eugene Genovese</a> (<i>Roll, Jordan, Roll</i>), Leslie Howard Owens (<i>This Species of Property</i>), and <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Gutman" title="Herbert Gutman">Herbert Gutman</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Family_in_Slavery_and_Freedom" title="The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom">The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-372" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-372"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>370<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output 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/></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_slavery_timeline" class="mw-redirect" title="Abolition of slavery timeline">Abolition of slavery timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Descendants_of_Slavery" title="American Descendants of Slavery">American Descendants of Slavery</a> (ADOS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_American_slavery" title="Glossary of American slavery">Glossary of American slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States#Slavery_and_black_history" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography of the United States § Slavery and black history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">List of slave owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_United_States_public_officials_who_owned_slaves" title="Lists of United States public officials who owned slaves">Lists of United States public officials who owned slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:American_slave_owners" title="Category:American slave owners">Category:American slave owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery_debate_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Reparations for slavery debate in the United States">Reparations for slavery debate in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Slave insurance in the United States">Slave insurance in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative#North_American_slave_narratives" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative § North American slave narratives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Narrative_Collection" title="Slave Narrative Collection">WPA Slave Narratives Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_Slaving_in_World_History:_A_Bibliography" title="Slavery and Slaving in World History: A Bibliography">Slavery and Slaving in World History: A Bibliography</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_American_colleges_and_universities" title="Slavery at American colleges and universities">Slavery at American colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triangular_trade" title="Triangular trade">Triangular trade</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Histories_of_slavery_in_the_Western_Hemisphere">Histories of slavery in the Western Hemisphere</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Spanish_New_World_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies">Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Slavery in the British and French Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Slavery in Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Slavery in Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Slavery in Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Slavery in Canada</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Slaves were considered personal property in all slave states except Louisiana, which deemed them real estate.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The United States continued to prohibit Royal Navy ships from investigating U.S.-flagged vessels – even in instances when the U.S. flag was being used fraudulently. The British still insisted on the right to impress (i.e. force to serve in the Royal Navy) British citizens found on American ships – something that was a continued cause of grievance. Despite the intent of the treaty, the opportunity for additional co-operation was missed.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbzug1980" class="citation book cs1">Abzug, Robert H. (1980). <i>Passionate Liberator. Theodore Dwight Weld and the Dilemma of Reform</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-502771-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-502771-X"><bdi>0-19-502771-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Passionate+Liberator.+Theodore+Dwight+Weld+and+the+Dilemma+of+Reform&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-19-502771-X&rft.aulast=Abzug&rft.aufirst=Robert+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2003" class="citation magazine cs1">Wood, Peter (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/articles/life/the_history_of_american_slavery/2015/05/why_america_adopted_race_based_slavery.html">"The Birth of Race-Based Slavery"</a>. <i>Slate</i>. (May 19, 2015): Reprinted from <i>Strange New Land: Africans in Colonial America</i> by Peter H. Wood with permission from Oxford University Press. 1996, 2003.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slate&rft.atitle=The+Birth+of+Race-Based+Slavery&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slate.com%2Farticles%2Flife%2Fthe_history_of_american_slavery%2F2015%2F05%2Fwhy_america_adopted_race_based_slavery.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglass1849" class="citation web cs1">Douglass, Frederick (1849). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/the-constitution-and-slavery/">"The Constitution and Slavery"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Constitution+and+Slavery&rft.date=1849&rft.aulast=Douglass&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fteachingamericanhistory.org%2Flibrary%2Fdocument%2Fthe-constitution-and-slavery%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Julia_Floyd_Smith_1973,_pp._44–46-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Julia_Floyd_Smith_1973,_pp._44–46_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Julia_Floyd_Smith_1973,_pp._44–46_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1973" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Julia Floyd (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BKIDcAAACAAJ&pg=PA44"><i>Slavery and Plantation Growth in Antebellum Florida, 1821–1860</i></a>. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. pp. 44–46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-0323-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-0323-8"><bdi>978-0-8130-0323-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+Plantation+Growth+in+Antebellum+Florida%2C+1821%E2%80%931860&rft.place=Gainesville&rft.pages=44-46&rft.pub=University+of+Florida+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-8130-0323-8&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Julia+Floyd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBKIDcAAACAAJ%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDonough1993" class="citation book cs1">McDonough, Gary W. (1993). <i>The Florida Negro. A Federal Writers' Project Legacy</i>. University Press of Mississippi. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87805-588-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87805-588-3"><bdi>978-0-87805-588-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Florida+Negro.+A+Federal+Writers%27+Project+Legacy&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-87805-588-3&rft.aulast=McDonough&rft.aufirst=Gary+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-USCG1808-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-USCG1808_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.uscg.mil/research/chronology/">Chronology of U.S. Coast Guard history</a> on the USCG official history website.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WP-20220110-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WP-20220110_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeilBlancoDominguez2022" class="citation news cs1">Weil, Julie Zauzmer; Blanco, Adrian; Dominguez, Leo (January 10, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/interactive/2022/congress-slaveowners-names-list/">"More than 1,700 congressmen once enslaved Black people. This is who they were, and how they shaped the nation"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 11,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=More+than+1%2C700+congressmen+once+enslaved+Black+people.+This+is+who+they+were%2C+and+how+they+shaped+the+nation.&rft.date=2022-01-10&rft.aulast=Weil&rft.aufirst=Julie+Zauzmer&rft.au=Blanco%2C+Adrian&rft.au=Dominguez%2C+Leo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fhistory%2Finteractive%2F2022%2Fcongress-slaveowners-names-list%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stephen1999-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stephen1999_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAppiahGates1999" class="citation book cs1">Appiah, Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/africanaencyclop00appi"><i>Africana: the encyclopedia of the African and African American experience</i></a>. Internet Archive. New York : Basic Civitas Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00071-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00071-5"><bdi>978-0-465-00071-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africana%3A+the+encyclopedia+of+the+African+and+African+American+experience&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Basic+Civitas+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-465-00071-5&rft.aulast=Appiah&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft.au=Gates%2C+Henry+Louis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafricanaencyclop00appi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itd.nps.gov/cwss/manassas/social/introsoc.htm">Introduction – Social Aspects of the Civil War</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070714073725/http://www.itd.nps.gov/cwss/manassas/social/introsoc.htm">Archived</a> July 14, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, National Park Service. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"[I]n 1854, the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Kansas-Nebraska_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Kansas-Nebraska Act">Kansas-Nebraska Act</a> ... overturned the policy of containment [of slavery] and effectively unlocked the gates of the Western territories (including both the old Louisiana Purchase lands and the Mexican Cession) to the legal expansion of slavery...." <a href="/wiki/Allen_C._Guelzo" title="Allen C. Guelzo">Guelzo, Allen C.</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> as a Man of Ideas</i>, Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press (2009), p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendment/amendment-xiii">"The 13th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution"</a>. <i>National Constitution Center – The 13th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 1,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Constitution+Center+%E2%80%93+The+13th+Amendment+of+the+U.S.+Constitution&rft.atitle=The+13th+Amendment+of+the+U.S.+Constitution&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fconstitutioncenter.org%2Finteractive-constitution%2Famendment%2Famendment-xiii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nation-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nation_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thenation.com/doc/20051107/slavery_in_new_york">"Slavery in New York"</a>, <i>The Nation</i>, November 7, 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ira Berlin, <i>Generations of Captivity: A History of African-American Slaves</i>, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674010612" title="Special:BookSources/0674010612">0674010612</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-usnews.com-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-usnews.com_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/070121/29african.htm">"The First Black Americans"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110202205901/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/070121/29african.htm">Archived</a> February 2, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Hashaw, Tim; <i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, 1/21/07</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciway.net/afam/slavery/population.html">"South Carolina - African-Americans - Slave Population"</a>. <i>www.sciway.net</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 29,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.sciway.net&rft.atitle=South+Carolina+-+African-Americans+-+Slave+Population&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciway.net%2Fafam%2Fslavery%2Fpopulation.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMehr2023" class="citation web cs1">Mehr, Emmanuel (November 18, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://baltimorehistories.substack.com/p/city-of-bricks-bricks-and-early-baltimore">"City of Brick: Bricks and Early Baltimore"</a>. <i>Baltimore Histories Weekly</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 12,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Baltimore+Histories+Weekly&rft.atitle=City+of+Brick%3A+Bricks+and+Early+Baltimore&rft.date=2023-11-18&rft.aulast=Mehr&rft.aufirst=Emmanuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbaltimorehistories.substack.com%2Fp%2Fcity-of-bricks-bricks-and-early-baltimore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1978" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Howard W. (1978). Riley, Edward M. (ed.). <i>Benjamin Harrison and the American Revolution</i>. Williamsburg: Virginia Independence Bicentennial Commission. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4781472">4781472</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Harrison+and+the+American+Revolution&rft.place=Williamsburg&rft.pub=Virginia+Independence+Bicentennial+Commission&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4781472&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Howard+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFonerGarraty2014" class="citation book cs1">Foner, Eric; Garraty, John A. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tZeHAgAAQBAJ&q=the+influential+fairfax+resolves+called+for+the+end+of+the+slave+trade&pg=PT728"><i>The Reader's Companion to American History</i></a>. Houghton Mifflin. p. 705. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-547-56134-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-547-56134-9"><bdi>978-0-547-56134-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210707115029/https://books.google.com/books?id=tZeHAgAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PT728&dq=the+influential+fairfax+resolves+called+for+the+end+of+the+slave+trade&hl=en">Archived</a> from the original on July 7, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 4,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reader%27s+Companion+to+American+History&rft.pages=705&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-547-56134-9&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft.au=Garraty%2C+John+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtZeHAgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dthe%2Binfluential%2Bfairfax%2Bresolves%2Bcalled%2Bfor%2Bthe%2Bend%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bslave%2Btrade%26pg%3DPT728&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morison and Commager: <i>Growth of the American Republic</i>, pp. 212–220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, Christopher. PBS Video "Liberty! The American Revolution", Episode 6, "Are We to be a Nation?", Twin Cities Public Television, Inc., 1997.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, Christopher Leslie (2006). <i>Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism,</i> pp. 105–106, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3034-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3034-5">978-0-8078-3034-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mackaman" title="Thomas Mackaman">Mackaman, Tom</a>. "An Interview with Historian Gordon Wood on the New York Times "1619 Project," World Socialist Web Site, wsws.org, November 28, 2019.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bailyn, Bernard. <i>Faces of the Revolution: Personalities and Themes in the Struggle for American Independence,</i> pp. 221-4, Vintage Books, New York, New York, 1992. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-73623-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-73623-9">0-679-73623-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, Gordon S. <i>The Radicalism of the American Revolution,</i> pp. 3-8, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, New York, 1992. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-40493-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-40493-7">0-679-40493-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hubbard-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hubbard_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hubbard_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hubbard, Robert Ernest (2017). <i>Major General Israel Putnam: Hero of the American Revolution</i>, p. 98, McFarland & Company, Inc., Jefferson, NC. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-6453-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-6453-8">978-1-4766-6453-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNell1855" class="citation book cs1">Nell, William C. (1855). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jy8OAAAAIAAJ">"IV, Rhode Island"</a>. <i>The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution</i>. Robert F. Wallcut. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-557-53528-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-557-53528-6"><bdi>978-0-557-53528-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=IV%2C+Rhode+Island&rft.btitle=The+Colored+Patriots+of+the+American+Revolution&rft.pub=Robert+F.+Wallcut&rft.date=1855&rft.isbn=978-0-557-53528-6&rft.aulast=Nell&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJy8OAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner,_Eric2010" class="citation book cs1">Foner, Eric (2010). <i>The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery</i>. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 205.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fiery+Trial%3A+Abraham+Lincoln+and+American+Slavery&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=205&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company%2C+Inc&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Foner%2C+Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Liberty!" title="Liberty!">Liberty! The American Revolution</a> (Documentary), Episode II:<i>Blows Must Decide: 1774–1776</i>. 1997 <a href="/wiki/Twin_Cities_Public_Television,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Twin Cities Public Television, Inc.">Twin Cities Public Television, Inc.</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4157-0217-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-4157-0217-9">1-4157-0217-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanrevolution.org/blk.php">"The Revolution's Black Soldiers"</a>. <i>www.americanrevolution.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 29,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.americanrevolution.org&rft.atitle=The+Revolution%27s+Black+Soldiers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanrevolution.org%2Fblk.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoock, Holger. <i>Scars of Independence: America's Violent Birth,</i> pp. 95, 300–303, 305, 308–310, Crown Publishing Group, New York, 2017. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8041-3728-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8041-3728-7">978-0-8041-3728-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Reilly, Bill and Dugard, Martin. <i>Killing England: The Brutal Struggle for American Independence,</i> pp. 96, 308, Henry Holt and Company, New York, 2017. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62779-064-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62779-064-2">978-1-62779-064-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ayres, Edward. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historyisfun.org/learn/learning-center/african-americans-and-the-american-revolution-2/">"African Americans and the American Revolution"</a>, Jamestown Settlement and American Revolution Museum at Yorktown website. Retrieved October 21, 2020.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/active_learning/explorations/revolution/revolution_slavery.cfm#:~:text=Slavery,%2520the%2520American%2520Revolution,%2520and%2520the%2520Constitution%2520African,sensitivity%2520to%2520the%2520opinion%2520of%2520southern%2520slave%2520holders">"Digital History"</a>. <i>www.digitalhistory.uh.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 29,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.digitalhistory.uh.edu&rft.atitle=Digital+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalhistory.uh.edu%2Factive_learning%2Fexplorations%2Frevolution%2Frevolution_slavery.cfm%23%3A~%3Atext%3DSlavery%2C%252520the%252520American%252520Revolution%2C%252520and%252520the%252520Constitution%252520African%2Csensitivity%252520to%252520the%252520opinion%252520of%252520southern%252520slave%252520holders&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.bl.uk/untoldlives/2020/10/tracing-the-lives-and-letters-of-the-black-loyalists-part-1-the-journey-to-sierra-leone-1.html">"Tracing the lives and letters of the Black Loyalists – Part 1 The Journey to Sierra Leone - Untold lives blog"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tracing+the+lives+and+letters+of+the+Black+Loyalists+%E2%80%93+Part+1+The+Journey+to+Sierra+Leone+-+Untold+lives+blog&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.bl.uk%2Funtoldlives%2F2020%2F10%2Ftracing-the-lives-and-letters-of-the-black-loyalists-part-1-the-journey-to-sierra-leone-1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/black-loyalists-in-british-north-america">"Black Loyalists in British North America"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Black+Loyalists+in+British+North+America&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fblack-loyalists-in-british-north-america&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert2012" class="citation book cs1">Gilbert, Alan (March 19, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kZfOjZ65WecC&q=Black+Patriots+and+Loyalists:+Fighting+for+Emancipation+in+the+War+for+Independence+by+Alan+Gilbert"><i>Black Patriots and Loyalists: Fighting for Emancipation in the War for Independence</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-29309-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-29309-7"><bdi>978-0-226-29309-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Patriots+and+Loyalists%3A+Fighting+for+Emancipation+in+the+War+for+Independence&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2012-03-19&rft.isbn=978-0-226-29309-7&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkZfOjZ65WecC%26q%3DBlack%2BPatriots%2Band%2BLoyalists%3A%2BFighting%2Bfor%2BEmancipation%2Bin%2Bthe%2BWar%2Bfor%2BIndependence%2Bby%2BAlan%2BGilbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelig" class="citation web cs1">Selig, Robert A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanrevolution.org/blk.html">"The Revolution's Black Soldiers"</a>. 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Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Water+From+the+Rock%3A+Black+Resistance+in+a+Revolutionary+Age&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Frey&rft.aufirst=Sylvia+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScribner1983" class="citation book cs1">Scribner, Robert L. (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/revolutionaryvir0000unse"><i>Revolutionary Virginia, the Road to Independence</i></a>. University of Virginia Press. p. xxiv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-0748-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-0748-2"><bdi>978-0-8139-0748-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionary+Virginia%2C+the+Road+to+Independence&rft.pages=xxiv&rft.pub=University+of+Virginia+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-8139-0748-2&rft.aulast=Scribner&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frevolutionaryvir0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PBS-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PBS_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PBS_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PBS_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PBS_40-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PBS_40-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/george-washingtons-runaway-slave-harry/">"George Washington's Runaway Slave, Harry"</a>. <i>PBS</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Macmillan. p. 206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-58552-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-58552-5"><bdi>978-0-312-58552-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Promise%2C+Volume+I%3A+To+1877%3A+A+History+of+the+United+States&rft.pages=206&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-312-58552-5&rft.aulast=Roark&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF7bVy_eUYYwC%26pg%3DPA206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clavin-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clavin_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClavin2019" class="citation book cs1">Clavin, Matthew J. 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Duke University School of Law. p. 116.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+the+United+States&rft.pages=116&rft.pub=Duke+University+School+of+Law&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Finkelman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.duke.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D5386%26context%3Dfaculty_scholarship&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPainter2007" class="citation book cs1">Painter, Nell Irvin (2007). <i>Creating Black Americans: African-American History and Its Meanings, 1619 to the Present</i>. p. 72.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creating+Black+Americans%3A+African-American+History+and+Its+Meanings%2C+1619+to+the+Present&rft.pages=72&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Painter&rft.aufirst=Nell+Irvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2019/11/28/wood-n28.html">"An interview with historian Gordon Wood on the New York Times' 1619 Project"</a>. <i>World Socialist Web Site</i>. November 28, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 29,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Socialist+Web+Site&rft.atitle=An+interview+with+historian+Gordon+Wood+on+the+New+York+Times%27+1619+Project&rft.date=2019-11-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsws.org%2Fen%2Farticles%2F2019%2F11%2F28%2Fwood-n28.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2015/03/03/wood-m03.html">"Interview with Gordon Wood on the American Revolution"</a>. <i>World Socialist Web Site</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 25,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Abolition+of+The+Slave+Trade&rft.pub=New+York+Public+Library&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Finkelman%2C+Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabolition.nypl.org%2Fprint%2Fus_constitution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hubbard,_Robert_Ernest_pp._1-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hubbard,_Robert_Ernest_pp._1_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hubbard,_Robert_Ernest_pp._1_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hubbard,_Robert_Ernest_pp._1_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hubbard, Robert Ernest. <i>General Rufus Putnam: George Washington's Chief Military Engineer and the "Father of Ohio"</i>, pp. 1–4, 105–106, McFarland & Company, Inc., Jefferson, North Carolina, 2020. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-7862-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-7862-7">978-1-4766-7862-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCullough,_David_pp._11,_13-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McCullough,_David_pp._11,_13_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCullough,_David_pp._11,_13_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCullough,_David_pp._11,_13_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">McCullough, David. <i>The Pioneers: The Heroic Story of the Settlers Who Brought the American Ideal West,</i> pp. 11, 13, 29–30, Simon & Schuster, New York, 2019. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5011-6868-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5011-6868-0">978-1-5011-6868-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCullough,_David_p._132-3-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McCullough,_David_p._132-3_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCullough,_David_p._132-3_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">McCullough, David. <i>John Adams,</i> pp. 132–133, Simon & Schuster, New York, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-81363-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-81363-7">0-684-81363-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bennett, William J. <i>America: The Last Best Hope,</i> Vol. I, p. 110, Tomas Nelson, Inc., Nashville, Tennessee, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59555-111-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59555-111-5">978-1-59555-111-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gradert, Kenyon. <i>Puritan Spirits in the Abolitionist Imagination,</i> pp. 1-3, 26, 74-5, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, 2020. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-69402-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-69402-3">978-0-226-69402-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith L. 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"The Slave Power Conspiracy: 1830–1860". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_%26_Society" title="Science & Society">Science & Society</a></i>. <b>10</b> (3): 262–274. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40399768">40399768</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+%26+Society&rft.atitle=The+Slave+Power+Conspiracy%3A+1830%E2%80%931860&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=262-274&rft.date=1946&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40399768%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Nye&rft.aufirst=Russel+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Williams_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1838" class="citation book cs1">Williams, James (1838). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=emu.010002634169&view=1up&seq=1"><i>Narrative of James Williams, an American slave: who was for several years a driver on a cotton plantation in Alabama</i></a>. 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Boston: Published by the <a href="/wiki/American_Anti-Slavery_Society" title="American Anti-Slavery Society">American Anti-Slavery Society</a>. p. iv.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Narrative+of+James+Williams%2C+an+American+slave%3A+who+was+for+several+years+a+driver+on+a+cotton+plantation+in+Alabama&rft.place=Boston&rft.series=Authentic+narrative+of+James+Williams%2C+an+American+slave&rft.pages=iv&rft.pub=Published+by+the+American+Anti-Slavery+Society&rft.date=1838&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Demu.010002634169%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur Zilversmit, <i>The First Emancipation: The Abolition of Slavery in the North</i> (1967).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodriguez2015" class="citation book cs1">Rodriguez, Junius P., ed. 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Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 471. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-95799-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-95799-5"><bdi>978-0-275-95799-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gradual+abolition&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Afro-American+Slavery&rft.pages=471&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-275-95799-5&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Randall+M.&rft.au=Smith%2C+John+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DidktzKdgb7YC%26pg%3DPA471&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peter_Kolchin_1993_pp._77–78-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_Kolchin_1993_pp._77–78_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_Kolchin_1993_pp._77–78_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Kolchin (1993), <i>American Slavery</i>, pp. 77–78, 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mass_Col-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mass_Col_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mass_Col_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mass.gov/guides/massachusetts-constitution-and-the-abolition-of-slavery">"Massachusetts Constitution and the Abolition of Slavery"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 28,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=Unidentified+Young+Man&rft.date=1839%2F1840&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F3080%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=SL002">"Slave Revolt of 1842 | The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture"</a>. <i>www.okhistory.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.okhistory.org&rft.atitle=Slave+Revolt+of+1842+%26%23124%3B+The+Encyclopedia+of+Oklahoma+History+and+Culture&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.okhistory.org%2Fpublications%2Fenc%2Fentry.php%3Fentry%3DSL002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Foner_2009_406–407-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Foner_2009_406–407_129-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foner_2009_406–407_129-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foner_2009_406–407_129-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foner_2009_406–407_129-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner2009" class="citation book cs1">Foner, Eric (2009). <i>Give Me Liberty</i>. London: Seagull Edition. pp. 406–407.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Give+Me+Liberty&rft.place=London&rft.pages=406-407&rft.pub=Seagull+Edition&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2020" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, Jennie K. (April 2, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0144039X.2019.1660509">"Trouble the water: The Baltimore to New Orleans coastwise slave trade, 1820–1860"</a>. <i>Slavery & Abolition</i>. <b>41</b> (2): 275–303. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0144039X.2019.1660509">10.1080/0144039X.2019.1660509</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0144-039X">0144-039X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:203494471">203494471</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavery+%26+Abolition&rft.atitle=Trouble+the+water%3A+The+Baltimore+to+New+Orleans+coastwise+slave+trade%2C+1820%E2%80%931860&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=275-303&rft.date=2020-04-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A203494471%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0144-039X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0144039X.2019.1660509&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Jennie+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F0144039X.2019.1660509&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kolchin (1993), <i>American Slavery</i>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PeterKolchin-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PeterKolchin_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Kolchin (1993), <i>American Slavery</i>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kolchin (1993), <i>American Slavery</i>, p. 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMADEO" class="citation web cs1">MADEO. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/jan/17">"Jan. 17, 1834 | Alabama Legislature Bans Free Black People from Living in the State"</a>. <i>calendar.eji.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 22,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=calendar.eji.org&rft.atitle=Jan.+17%2C+1834+%7C+Alabama+Legislature+Bans+Free+Black+People+from+Living+in+the+State&rft.au=MADEO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcalendar.eji.org%2Fracial-injustice%2Fjan%2F17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCathey1944" class="citation journal cs1">Cathey, Clyde W. (1944). "Slavery in Arkansas". <i>The Arkansas Historical Quarterly</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 66–90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F40027465">10.2307/40027465</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0004-1823">0004-1823</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40027465">40027465</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Arkansas+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+Arkansas&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=66-90&rft.date=1944&rft.issn=0004-1823&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40027465%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F40027465&rft.aulast=Cathey&rft.aufirst=Clyde+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones-Rogers2019" class="citation book cs1">Jones-Rogers, Stephanie E. (2019). <i>They Were Her Property: White Women as Slave Owners in the American South</i>. New Haven London: Yale University Press. pp. 37, 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-25183-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-25183-8"><bdi>978-0-300-25183-8</bdi></a>. <q><span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Throughout the antebellum period, married women consistently asserted their rights to own and control human property without their husband's interference, and they exercised those rights as well." "White women were not anomalies at local slave auctions, either, and no group could testify more powerfully to white women's presence at and involvement in slave auctions than the enslaved people who were there.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=They+Were+Her+Property%3A+White+Women+as+Slave+Owners+in+the+American+South&rft.place=New+Haven+London&rft.pages=37%2C+134&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-300-25183-8&rft.aulast=Jones-Rogers&rft.aufirst=Stephanie+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mcdonald2019-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mcdonald2019_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDonald2019" class="citation web cs1">McDonald, Soraya Nadia (March 15, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://andscape.com/features/in-they-were-her-property-a-historian-shows-that-white-women-were-deeply-involved-in-the-slave-economy/">"In 'They Were Her Property,' a historian shows that white women were deeply involved in the slave economy"</a>. <i>Andscape</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 14,</span> 2020</span>. <q>South Carolina has bills of sale for property transactions from the 1700s to pretty recently. I looked at a sample of 3,000 bills of sale involving enslaved people being purchased or sold. Close to 40 percent of the bills of sale included either a female buyer or a female seller.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Andscape&rft.atitle=In+%27They+Were+Her+Property%2C%27+a+historian+shows+that+white+women+were+deeply+involved+in+the+slave+economy&rft.date=2019-03-15&rft.aulast=McDonald&rft.aufirst=Soraya+Nadia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fandscape.com%2Ffeatures%2Fin-they-were-her-property-a-historian-shows-that-white-women-were-deeply-involved-in-the-slave-economy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones-Rogers2019" class="citation book cs1">Jones-Rogers, Stephanie E. (2019). <i>They Were Her Property: White Women as Slave Owners in the American South</i>. New Haven London: Yale University Press. pp. xv–xvi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-25183-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-25183-8"><bdi>978-0-300-25183-8</bdi></a>. <q>When we listen to what enslaved people had to say about white women and slave mastery, we find that articulated quite clearly their belief that slave-owning women governed their slaves in the same ways that white men did, sometimes they were more effective at slave management or they used more brutal methods of discipline than their husbands did...White southern women conducted transactions with slave traders...and they were not meek in their bargaining...slave-owning women brought legal suits against individuals, both male and female, who jeopardized their claims to human property, and others sued them in kind. They bought and sold slaves for profit, and, on rare occasions owned slave yards.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=They+Were+Her+Property%3A+White+Women+as+Slave+Owners+in+the+American+South&rft.place=New+Haven+London&rft.pages=xv-xvi&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-300-25183-8&rft.aulast=Jones-Rogers&rft.aufirst=Stephanie+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_139-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_139-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_139-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Class". <i>Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619–1895: From the Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass</i>. January 1, 2006. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195167771.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780195167771.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516777-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516777-1"><bdi>978-0-19-516777-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+American+History%2C+1619%E2%80%931895%3A+From+the+Colonial+Period+to+the+Age+of+Frederick+Douglass&rft.atitle=Class&rft.date=2006-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195167771.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-516777-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A history of the descendants of the slaves of Cherokee can be found at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturm1998" class="citation journal cs1">Sturm, Circe (1998). "Blood Politics, Racial Classification, and Cherokee National Identity: The Trials and Tribulations of the Cherokee Freedmen". <i><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Quarterly" title="American Indian Quarterly">American Indian Quarterly</a></i>. <b>22</b> (1/2): 230–258. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1185118">1185118</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Indian+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Blood+Politics%2C+Racial+Classification%2C+and+Cherokee+National+Identity%3A+The+Trials+and+Tribulations+of+the+Cherokee+Freedmen&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=230-258&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1185118%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sturm&rft.aufirst=Circe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> In 1835, 7.4% of Cherokee families held slaves. In comparison, nearly one-third of white families living in Confederate states owned slaves in 1860. Further analysis of the 1835 Federal Cherokee Census can be found in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLoughlinConser1977" class="citation journal cs1">McLoughlin, W. G.; Conser, W. H. (1977). "The Cherokees in Transition: a Statistical Analysis of the Federal Cherokee Census of 1835". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_American_History" title="The Journal of American History">The Journal of American History</a></i>. <b>64</b> (3): 678–703. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1887236">10.2307/1887236</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1887236">1887236</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=The+Cherokees+in+Transition%3A+a+Statistical+Analysis+of+the+Federal+Cherokee+Census+of+1835&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=678-703&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1887236&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1887236%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=McLoughlin&rft.aufirst=W.+G.&rft.au=Conser%2C+W.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> A discussion on the total number of Slave holding families can be found in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlsen2004" class="citation web cs1">Olsen, Otto H. (December 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070720231457/http://www.southernhistory.net/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=9406&mode=thread&order=0&thold=0">"Historians and the extent of slave ownership in the Southern United States"</a>. <i>Civil War History</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.southernhistory.net/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=9406&mode=thread&order=0&thold=0">the original</a> on July 20, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 8,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Civil+War+History&rft.atitle=Historians+and+the+extent+of+slave+ownership+in+the+Southern+United+States&rft.date=2004-12&rft.aulast=Olsen&rft.aufirst=Otto+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.southernhistory.net%2Fmodules.php%3Fop%3Dmodload%26name%3DNews%26file%3Darticle%26sid%3D9406%26mode%3Dthread%26order%3D0%26thold%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tperdue1-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tperdue1_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerdue1979" class="citation book cs1">Perdue, Theda (1979). <i>Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee Society, 1540–1866</i>. University of Tennessee Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryevolution0000perd/page/207">207</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87049-530-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87049-530-4"><bdi>978-0-87049-530-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+the+Evolution+of+Cherokee+Society%2C+1540%E2%80%931866&rft.pages=207&rft.pub=University+of+Tennessee+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-87049-530-4&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Theda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-katover-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-katover_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz2012" class="citation book cs1">Katz, William Loren (January 3, 2012). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackindianshidd0000katz"><i>Black Indians: A Hidden Heritage</i></a></span>. Simon and Schuster. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackindianshidd0000katz/page/254">254</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4424-4637-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4424-4637-3"><bdi>978-1-4424-4637-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 1,</span> 2019</span>. <q>black indians.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Indians%3A+A+Hidden+Heritage&rft.pages=254&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2012-01-03&rft.isbn=978-1-4424-4637-3&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=William+Loren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackindianshidd0000katz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuncan1928" class="citation journal cs1">Duncan, J. W. (1928). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071219043621/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/chronicles/v006/v006p178.html">"Interesting ante-bellum laws of the Cherokee, now Oklahoma history"</a>. <i>Chronicles of Oklahoma</i>. <b>6</b> (2): 178–180. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.okstate.edu/chronicles/v006/v006p178.html">the original</a> on December 19, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 13,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chronicles+of+Oklahoma&rft.atitle=Interesting+ante-bellum+laws+of+the+Cherokee%2C+now+Oklahoma+history&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=178-180&rft.date=1928&rft.aulast=Duncan&rft.aufirst=J.+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.okstate.edu%2Fchronicles%2Fv006%2Fv006p178.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis1933" class="citation journal cs1">Davis, J. B. (1933). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150310044812/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/Chronicles/v011/v011p1056.html">"Slavery in the Cherokee nation"</a>. <i>Chronicles of Oklahoma</i>. <b>11</b> (4): 1056–1072. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.okstate.edu/Chronicles/v011/v011p1056.html">the original</a> on March 10, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 13,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chronicles+of+Oklahoma&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+the+Cherokee+nation&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1056-1072&rft.date=1933&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=J.+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.okstate.edu%2FChronicles%2Fv011%2Fv011p1056.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jennison2012-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jennison2012_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJennison2012" class="citation book cs1">Jennison, Watson W. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ImNeFi-wt6IC&pg=PA132"><i>Cultivating Race: The Expansion of Slavery in Georgia, 1750–1860</i></a>. University Press of Kentucky. p. 132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-4021-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-4021-6"><bdi>978-0-8131-4021-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultivating+Race%3A+The+Expansion+of+Slavery+in+Georgia%2C+1750%E2%80%931860&rft.pages=132&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8131-4021-6&rft.aulast=Jennison&rft.aufirst=Watson+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DImNeFi-wt6IC%26pg%3DPA132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCall1868" class="citation book cs1">McCall, George A. (1868). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bA0EZPPKc_QC&q=%22melons+pumpkins%22+mccall&pg=PA160"><i>Letters from the Frontiers</i></a>. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. p. 160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4290-2158-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4290-2158-6"><bdi>978-1-4290-2158-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Letters+from+the+Frontiers&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=160&rft.pub=J.B.+Lippincott&rft.date=1868&rft.isbn=978-1-4290-2158-6&rft.aulast=McCall&rft.aufirst=George+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbA0EZPPKc_QC%26q%3D%2522melons%2Bpumpkins%2522%2Bmccall%26pg%3DPA160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mulroy2016-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mulroy2016_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulroy2016" class="citation book cs1">Mulroy, Kevin (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b--eCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25"><i>The Seminole Freedmen: A History</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-5588-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-5588-3"><bdi>978-0-8061-5588-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Seminole+Freedmen%3A+A+History&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-5588-3&rft.aulast=Mulroy&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db--eCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DeloriaSalisbury2008-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DeloriaSalisbury2008_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeloriaSalisbury2008" class="citation book cs1">Deloria, Philip; Salisbury, Neal (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BMenL80QO0kC&pg=PA348"><i>A Companion to American Indian History</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 348–349. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4378-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4378-3"><bdi>978-1-4051-4378-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+American+Indian+History&rft.pages=348-349&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-4378-3&rft.aulast=Deloria&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft.au=Salisbury%2C+Neal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBMenL80QO0kC%26pg%3DPA348&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TriggerWashburn1996-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TriggerWashburn1996_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTriggerWashburn1996" class="citation book cs1">Trigger, Bruce G.; Washburn, Wilcomb E. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DRGVjLiyXEwC&pg=PA525"><i>The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 525. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57392-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57392-4"><bdi>978-0-521-57392-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+Native+Peoples+of+the+Americas&rft.pages=525&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57392-4&rft.aulast=Trigger&rft.aufirst=Bruce+G.&rft.au=Washburn%2C+Wilcomb+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDRGVjLiyXEwC%26pg%3DPA525&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Binder1987-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Binder1987_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBinder1987" class="citation book cs1">Binder, Wolfgang (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k7F1AAAAMAAJ&q=%22Marcellus%20Duval%22"><i>Westward Expansion in America (1803–1860)</i></a>. Palm & Enke. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7896-0171-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7896-0171-2"><bdi>978-3-7896-0171-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Westward+Expansion+in+America+%281803%E2%80%931860%29&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Palm+%26+Enke&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-3-7896-0171-2&rft.aulast=Binder&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk7F1AAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522Marcellus%2520Duval%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buchanan1955-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buchanan1955_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Shannon_Buchanan1955" class="citation book cs1">James Shannon Buchanan (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6i8UAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Siah%20Hardridge%22"><i>Chronicles of Oklahoma</i></a>. Oklahoma Historical Society. p. 522.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronicles+of+Oklahoma&rft.pages=522&rft.pub=Oklahoma+Historical+Society.&rft.date=1955&rft.au=James+Shannon+Buchanan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6i8UAAAAYAAJ%26q%3D%2522Siah%2520Hardridge%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mulroy2007p79-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mulroy2007p79_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulroy2007" class="citation book cs1">Mulroy, Kevin (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/seminolefreedmen0000mulr"><i>The Seminole Freedmen: A History</i></a></span>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/seminolefreedmen0000mulr/page/79">79</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3865-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3865-7"><bdi>978-0-8061-3865-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Seminole+Freedmen%3A+A+History&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3865-7&rft.aulast=Mulroy&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fseminolefreedmen0000mulr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelman2004" class="citation magazine cs1">Finkelman, Paul (2004). "Suppressing American Slave Traders in the 1790s". <i>OAH Magazine of History</i>. Vol. 18, no. 3. pp. 51–55. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0882-228X">0882-228X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=OAH+Magazine+of+History&rft.atitle=Suppressing+American+Slave+Traders+in+the+1790s&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=51-55&rft.date=2004&rft.issn=0882-228X&rft.aulast=Finkelman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James A. McMillin, <i>The Final Victims: Foreign Slave Trade to North America, 1783–1810, Volume 2</i>, Univ of South Carolina Press, 2004, p. 86</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas1997" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Hugh (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slavetradestoryo00thom"><i>The Slave Trade. The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440–1870</i></a></span>. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slavetradestoryo00thom/page/568">568</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-81063-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-81063-8"><bdi>978-0-684-81063-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Slave+Trade.+The+Story+of+the+Atlantic+Slave+Trade%3A+1440%E2%80%931870&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=568&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-684-81063-8&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fslavetradestoryo00thom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelman2007" class="citation web cs1">Finkelman, Paul (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abolition.nypl.org/print/us_constitution/">"The Abolition of the Slave Trade"</a>. <i>New York Public Library</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 14,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+York+Public+Library&rft.atitle=The+Abolition+of+the+Slave+Trade&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Finkelman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabolition.nypl.org%2Fprint%2Fus_constitution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AFP-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AFP_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110108042234/http://www.fcnl.org/issues/item.php?item_id=731&issue_id=75">"Background on Conflict in Liberia"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fcnl.org/issues/item.php?item_id=731&issue_id=75">the original</a> on January 8, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Background+on+Conflict+in+Liberia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fcnl.org%2Fissues%2Fitem.php%3Fitem_id%3D731%26issue_id%3D75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Cuffe" title="Paul Cuffe">Paul Cuffe</a>, a successful New England black shipping man, financed and captained a voyage for American blacks in 1815–1816 to British-ruled <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a>. Cuffe believed that African Americans could more easily "rise to be a people" in Africa than in the United States because of the latter's slavery, racial discrimination, and limits on black rights. Although Cuffee died in 1817, his early efforts encouraged the ACS to promote further settlements. The <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a> opposed slavery, but they believed that blacks would face better chances for freedom in Africa than in the United States. Slaveholders opposed abolition, but they wanted to get rid of <a href="/wiki/Freedmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedmen">freedmen</a>, whom they saw as potential leaders of rebellions and people who encouraged slaves to run away.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WDLMap-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WDLMap_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/446/">"Map of Liberia, West Africa"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World_Digital_Library" title="World Digital Library">World Digital Library</a></i>. 1830<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 3,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=Map+of+Liberia%2C+West+Africa&rft.date=1830&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F446%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ATH-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ATH_159-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSale1997" class="citation book cs1">Sale, Maggie Montesinos (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1yQowl-nEh8C&pg=PA45"><i>The Slumbering Volcano: American Slave Ship Revolts and the Production of Rebellious Masculinity</i></a>. Duke University Press. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-1992-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-1992-4"><bdi>978-0-8223-1992-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Slumbering+Volcano%3A+American+Slave+Ship+Revolts+and+the+Production+of+Rebellious+Masculinity&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-1992-4&rft.aulast=Sale&rft.aufirst=Maggie+Montesinos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1yQowl-nEh8C%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Florida-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Florida_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1995" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Robert L. (1995). "African Religious Retentions in Florida". In Colburn, David R.; Landers, Jane L. (eds.). <i>The African American Heritage of Florida</i>. University Press of Florida. pp. 42–70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-1332-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-1332-9"><bdi>978-0-8130-1332-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=African+Religious+Retentions+in+Florida&rft.btitle=The+African+American+Heritage+of+Florida&rft.pages=42-70&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Florida&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8130-1332-9&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peoples-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Peoples_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWasserman2010" class="citation book cs1">Wasserman, Adam (2010). <i>A People's History of Florida 1513–1876. How Africans, Seminoles, Women, and Lower Class Whites Shaped the Sunshine State</i> (Revised 4th ed.). Adam Wasserman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4421-6709-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4421-6709-4"><bdi>978-1-4421-6709-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+People%27s+History+of+Florida+1513%E2%80%931876.+How+Africans%2C+Seminoles%2C+Women%2C+and+Lower+Class+Whites+Shaped+the+Sunshine+State&rft.edition=Revised+4th&rft.pub=Adam+Wasserman&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4421-6709-4&rft.aulast=Wasserman&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sweig-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sweig_162-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSweig2014" class="citation web cs1">Sweig, Donald (October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://connectionarchives.com/PDF/2014/Slave%20Trader/Slave%20Trader.PDF">"Alexandria to New Orleans: The Human Tragedy of the Interstate Slave Trade"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexandria_Gazette-Packet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexandria Gazette-Packet (page does not exist)">Alexandria Gazette-Packet</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 13,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Alexandria+Gazette-Packet&rft.atitle=Alexandria+to+New+Orleans%3A+The+Human+Tragedy+of+the+Interstate+Slave+Trade&rft.date=2014-10&rft.aulast=Sweig&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconnectionarchives.com%2FPDF%2F2014%2FSlave%2520Trader%2FSlave%2520Trader.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDew2016" class="citation book cs1">Dew, Charles B. (2016). <i>The Making of a Racist</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Virginia_Press" title="University of Virginia Press">University of Virginia Press</a>. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-3887-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-3887-5"><bdi>978-0-8139-3887-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+a+Racist&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=University+of+Virginia+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-8139-3887-5&rft.aulast=Dew&rft.aufirst=Charles+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Curry-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Curry_164-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curry_164-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurryCowden1972" class="citation book cs1">Curry, Richard O.; Cowden, Joanna Dunlop (1972). <i>Slavery in America: Theodore Weld's </i>American Slavery As It Is<i><span></span></i>. <a href="/wiki/Itasca,_Illinois" title="Itasca, Illinois">Itasca, Illinois</a>: F. E. Peacock. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/699102217">699102217</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+America%3A+Theodore+Weld%27s+American+Slavery+As+It+Is&rft.place=Itasca%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=F.+E.+Peacock&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F699102217&rft.aulast=Curry&rft.aufirst=Richard+O.&rft.au=Cowden%2C+Joanna+Dunlop&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/103141201/slaves-exported-from-virginia/">"(Untitled)"</a>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Branch_Intelligencer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="South Branch Intelligencer (page does not exist)">South Branch Intelligencer</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Romney,_West_Virginia" title="Romney, West Virginia">Romney, West Virginia</a>. December 10, 1836. p. 2 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=South+Branch+Intelligencer&rft.atitle=%28Untitled%29&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1836-12-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F103141201%2Fslaves-exported-from-virginia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliot2006" class="citation episode cs1">Elliot, Debbie (February 4, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5188487">"A Visit to the Real 'Uncle Tom's Cabin'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>All Things Considered</i>. <a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 28,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=All+Things+Considered&rft.date=2006-02-04&rft.aulast=Elliot&rft.aufirst=Debbie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Fstory%2Fstory.php%3FstoryId%3D5188487&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwarns2018" class="citation news cs1">Swarns, Rachel (February 14, 2018). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/17/us/georgetown-university-search-for-slave-descendants.html">"272 Slaves Were Sold to Save Georgetown. What Does It Owe Their Descendants?"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160416193641/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/17/us/georgetown-university-search-for-slave-descendants.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 16, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 15,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=272+Slaves+Were+Sold+to+Save+Georgetown.+What+Does+It+Owe+Their+Descendants%3F&rft.date=2018-02-14&rft.aulast=Swarns&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F04%2F17%2Fus%2Fgeorgetown-university-search-for-slave-descendants.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwarns2017" class="citation news cs1">Swarns, Rachel L. (March 12, 2017). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/12/us/georgetown-university-slaves-life-campbell.html">"A Glimpse Into the Life of a Slave Sold to Save Georgetown"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170312203811/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/12/us/georgetown-university-slaves-life-campbell.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 12, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Glimpse+Into+the+Life+of+a+Slave+Sold+to+Save+Georgetown&rft.date=2017-03-12&rft.aulast=Swarns&rft.aufirst=Rachel+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F03%2F12%2Fus%2Fgeorgetown-university-slaves-life-campbell.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHassan2019" class="citation news cs1">Hassan, Adeel (April 12, 2019). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/12/us/georgetown-reparations.html">"Georgetown Students Agree to Create Reparations Fund"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190412174603/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/12/us/georgetown-reparations.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 12, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Georgetown+Students+Agree+to+Create+Reparations+Fund&rft.date=2019-04-12&rft.aulast=Hassan&rft.aufirst=Adeel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2019%2F04%2F12%2Fus%2Fgeorgetown-reparations.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The People's Chronology</i>, 1994, by James Trager.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kolchin p. 96. Through the domestic slave trade, about one million enslaved African Americans were forcibly removed from the Upper South to the Deep South, with some transported by ship in the coastwise trade. In 1834, <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a> grew half the nation's cotton; by 1859, along with <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, they grew 78%. By 1859, cotton growth in the <a href="/wiki/Carolinas" title="Carolinas">Carolinas</a> had fallen to just 10% of the national total. Berlin p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berlin, <i>Generations of Captivity</i>, pp. 168–169. Kolchin p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CUP-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CUP_173-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CUP_173-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CUP_173-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CUP_173-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan2002" class="citation book cs1">Morgan, Marcyliena (July 4, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mhJcsiydNe8C&pg=PA20"><i>Language, Discourse and Power in African American Culture</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00149-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00149-6"><bdi>978-0-521-00149-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language%2C+Discourse+and+Power+in+African+American+Culture&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002-07-04&rft.isbn=978-0-521-00149-6&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=Marcyliena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmhJcsiydNe8C%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thegunzone.com/gun-reviews/">"Gun Reviews Archives"</a>. <i>TheGunZone</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 29,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TheGunZone&rft.atitle=Gun+Reviews+Archives&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthegunzone.com%2Fgun-reviews%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160322110116/http://www.civil-war.net/census.asp?census=Total">"American Civil War Census Data"</a>. Civil-war.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civil-war.net/census.asp?census=Total">the original</a> on March 22, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 27,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Civil+War+Census+Data&rft.pub=Civil-war.net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.civil-war.net%2Fcensus.asp%3Fcensus%3DTotal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berlin, <i>Generations of Captivity</i>, pp. 161–162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berlin, <i>Generations of Captivity</i>, pp. 168–169. Kolchin p. 96. Kolchin notes that Fogel and Engerman maintained that 84% of slaves moved with their families but "most other scholars assign far greater weight<span class="nowrap"> </span>... to slave sales." Ransome (p. 582) notes that Fogel and Engerman based their conclusions on the study of some counties in Maryland in the 1830s and attempted to extrapolate that analysis as reflective of the entire South over the entire period.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKulikoff1992" class="citation book cs1">Kulikoff, Allan (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/agrarianoriginso00kuli"><i>The Agrarian Origins of American Capitalism</i></a></span>. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/agrarianoriginso00kuli/page/226">226</a>–269. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-1388-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-1388-9"><bdi>978-0-8139-1388-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Agrarian+Origins+of+American+Capitalism&rft.place=Charlottesville&rft.pages=226-269&rft.pub=University+of+Virginia+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8139-1388-9&rft.aulast=Kulikoff&rft.aufirst=Allan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fagrarianoriginso00kuli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berlin, <i>Generations of Captivity</i>, pp. 166–169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kolchin, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berlin, <i>Generations of Captivity</i>, pp. 168–171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berlin, <i>Generations of Captivity</i>, p. 174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berlin, <i>Generations of Captivity</i>, pp. 175–177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berlin, <i>Generations of Captivity</i>, pp. 179–180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnson (1999), <i>Soul by Soul</i>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_186-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_186-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTadman2012" class="citation book cs1">Tadman, Michael (September 18, 2012). Smith, Mark M.; Paquette, Robert L. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34514/chapter/292862907"><i>Internal Slave Trades</i></a>. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199227990.013.0029">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0029</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Internal+Slave+Trades&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012-09-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199227990.013.0029&rft.aulast=Tadman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fedited-volume%2F34514%2Fchapter%2F292862907&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.2307/2714086">"Frederic Bancroft, Slave-Trading in the Old South"</a>. <i>The Journal of Negro History</i>. <b>16</b> (2): 240–241. April 1931. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2714086">10.2307/2714086</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2992">0022-2992</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2714086">2714086</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153885388">153885388</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Negro+History&rft.atitle=Frederic+Bancroft%2C+Slave-Trading+in+the+Old+South&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=240-241&rft.date=1931-04&rft.issn=0022-2992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153885388%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2714086%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2714086&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.2307%2F2714086&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDew2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_B._Dew" title="Charles B. Dew">Dew, Charles B.</a> (2016). <i>The making of a racist: a southerner reflects on family, history, and the slave trade</i>. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. p. 154. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-3888-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-3888-2"><bdi>978-0-8139-3888-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2015043815">2015043815</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/956713856">956713856</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+making+of+a+racist%3A+a+southerner+reflects+on+family%2C+history%2C+and+the+slave+trade&rft.place=Charlottesville&rft.pages=154&rft.pub=University+of+Virginia+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F956713856&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2015043815&rft.isbn=978-0-8139-3888-2&rft.aulast=Dew&rft.aufirst=Charles+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.readex.com/readex-report/issues/volume-9-issue-3/frontiersman-or-southern-gentleman-newspaper-coverage-andrew">"Frontiersman or Southern Gentleman? Newspaper Coverage of Andrew Jackson during the 1828 Presidential Campaign | Readex"</a>. <i>www.readex.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 29,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.readex.com&rft.atitle=Frontiersman+or+Southern+Gentleman%3F+Newspaper+Coverage+of+Andrew+Jackson+during+the+1828+Presidential+Campaign+%26%23124%3B+Readex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.readex.com%2Freadex-report%2Fissues%2Fvolume-9-issue-3%2Ffrontiersman-or-southern-gentleman-newspaper-coverage-andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:12_190-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBostonian1863" class="citation news cs1">Bostonian (December 3, 1863) [1863-11-12]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/article/new-york-tribune-the-realities-of-slaver/128982438/">"The Realities of Slavery: To the Editor of the N.Y. Tribune"</a>. <i>New-York Tribune</i>. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2158-2661">2158-2661</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 27,</span> 2023</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">Newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New-York+Tribune&rft.atitle=The+Realities+of+Slavery%3A+To+the+Editor+of+the+N.Y.+Tribune&rft.pages=4&rft.date=1863-12-03&rft.issn=2158-2661&rft.au=Bostonian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Farticle%2Fnew-york-tribune-the-realities-of-slaver%2F128982438%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:42-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:42_191-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickman2015" class="citation thesis cs1">Dickman, Michael (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2345/bc-ir:104219"><i>Honor, Control, and Powerlessness: Plantation Whipping in the Antebellum South</i></a> (Thesis). Boston College. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2345%2Fbc-ir%3A104219">2345/bc-ir:104219</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Honor%2C+Control%2C+and+Powerlessness%3A+Plantation+Whipping+in+the+Antebellum+South&rft.inst=Boston+College&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2345%2Fbc-ir%3A104219&rft.aulast=Dickman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F2345%2Fbc-ir%3A104219&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins1985" class="citation news cs1">Collins, Kathleen (January 9, 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/04/books/review/Letters-t-ASLAVENAMEDG_LETTERS.html?_r=0">"The Scourged Back"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. pp. 43–45.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Scourged+Back&rft.pages=43-45&rft.date=1985-01-09&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F10%2F04%2Fbooks%2Freview%2FLetters-t-ASLAVENAMEDG_LETTERS.html%3F_r%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moore, p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clinton, Catherine, <i>Scholastic Encyclopedia of the Civil War</i>, New York: Scholastic Inc., 1999, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McInnis2011-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McInnis2011_195-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McInnis2011_195-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcInnis2011" class="citation book cs1">McInnis, Maurie D. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R3W4M4UojrEC&pg=PA129"><i>Slaves Waiting for Sale: Abolitionist Art and the American Slave Trade</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. pp. 129–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-55933-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-55933-9"><bdi>978-0-226-55933-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slaves+Waiting+for+Sale%3A+Abolitionist+Art+and+the+American+Slave+Trade&rft.pages=129-&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-226-55933-9&rft.aulast=McInnis&rft.aufirst=Maurie+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR3W4M4UojrEC%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moore, p. 118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Friedman" title="Lawrence M. Friedman">Lawrence M. Friedman</a> (2005). <i>A History of American Law: Third Edition</i>. Simon and Schuster, p. 163. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7432-8258-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7432-8258-2">0-7432-8258-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Aguirre, Jr., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-54370544/slave-executions-united-states.html">Slave executions in the United States</a>", <i>The Social Science Journal</i>, vol. 36, issue 1 (1999), pp. 1–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davis, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christian, Charles M., and Bennet, Sari, <i>Black Saga: The African American Experience: A Chronology</i>, Basic Civitas Books, 1998, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burke, p. 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_202-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barclay, J. L. (2021). <i>The Mark of Slavery: Disability, Race, and Gender in Antebellum America</i>. University of Illinois Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew Fede (2012). <i>People Without Rights (Routledge Revivals): An Interpretation of the Fundamentals of the Law of Slavery in the U.S. South</i>. 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Malden, Mass.: Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3929-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3929-1"><bdi>978-1-4443-3929-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+sexual+histories&rft.place=Malden%2C+Mass.&rft.series=Blackwell+readers+in+American+social+and+cultural+history&rft.edition=2.&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-3929-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:05-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:05_220-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:05_220-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerryHarris2018" class="citation book cs1">Berry, Daina Ramey; Harris, Leslie Maria (2018). <i>Sexuality and slavery: reclaiming intimate histories in the Americas</i>. Gender and slavery. 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New York: New York University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9461-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9461-6"><bdi>978-0-8147-9461-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+delectable+Negro%3A+human+consumption+and+homoeroticism+within+U.S.+slave+culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Sexual+cultures&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-9461-6&rft.aulast=Woodard&rft.aufirst=Vincent&rft.au=Joyce%2C+Justin+A.&rft.au=McBride%2C+Dwight+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, Julia Floyd (1991) <i>Slavery and Rice Culture in Low Country Georgia, 1750-1860</i> University of Tennessee Press, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bZzDDt3RPkoC&pg=PA104">104.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSubletteSublette2015" class="citation book cs1">Sublette, Ned; Sublette, Constance (October 1, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iwCKCgAAQBAJ"><i>The American Slave Coast: A History of the Slave-Breeding Industry</i></a>. Chicago Review Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61373-893-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61373-893-1"><bdi>978-1-61373-893-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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University Press of Florida. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-4462-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-4462-0"><bdi>978-0-8130-4462-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zephaniah+Kingsley+Jr.+and+the+Atlantic+World.+Slave+Trader%2C+Plantation+Owner%2C+Emancipator&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Florida&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8130-4462-0&rft.aulast=Schafer&rft.aufirst=Daniel+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rankin-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rankin_227-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRankin1833" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Rankin_(abolitionist)" title="John Rankin (abolitionist)">Rankin, John</a> (1833). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lettersonamerica00rank_0/page/28"><i>Letters on American slavery, addressed to Mr. Thomas Rankin, merchant at Middlebrook, Augusta County, Va</i></a>. Boston: <a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">Garrison</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Knapp" title="Isaac Knapp">Knapp</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Letters+on+American+slavery%2C+addressed+to+Mr.+Thomas+Rankin%2C+merchant+at+Middlebrook%2C+Augusta+County%2C+Va&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Garrison+and+Knapp&rft.date=1833&rft.aulast=Rankin&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flettersonamerica00rank_0%2Fpage%2F28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenrick1817" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Kenrick,_1755%E2%80%931833&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Kenrick, 1755–1833 (page does not exist)">Kenrick, John</a> (1817). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=mayantislavery;cc=mayantislavery;q1=American;rgn=full%20text;idno=19869004;didno=19869004;view=image;seq=1;node=19869004%3A1"><i>The Horrors of Slavery</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 21,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=D%27Iberville%2FSt.+Martin+Chamber+of+Commerce&rft.atitle=D%27Iberville%2FSt.+Martin+Chamber+of+Commerce&rft.aulast=Commerce&rft.aufirst=D%27Iberville%2FSt+Martin+Chamber+of&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdsmchamber.com%2Fdiberville-time-line&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Manganelli-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Manganelli_230-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manganelli_230-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manganelli_230-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manganelli_230-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manganelli_230-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManganelli2012" class="citation book cs1">Manganelli, Kimberly Snyder (2012). <i>Transatlantic spectacles of race: the tragic mulatta and the tragic muse</i>. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-4987-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-4987-3"><bdi>978-0-8135-4987-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transatlantic+spectacles+of+race%3A+the+tragic+mulatta+and+the+tragic+muse&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-4987-3&rft.aulast=Manganelli&rft.aufirst=Kimberly+Snyder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Johnson-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Johnson_231-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johnson_231-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2000" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson, Walter (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2567914">"The Slave Trader, the White Slave, and the Politics of Racial Determination in the 1850s"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_American_History" title="The Journal of American History">The Journal of American History</a></i>. <b>87</b> (1): 13–38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2567914">10.2307/2567914</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2567914">2567914</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 25,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=The+Slave+Trader%2C+the+White+Slave%2C+and+the+Politics+of+Racial+Determination+in+the+1850s&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13-38&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2567914&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2567914%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2567914&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allman-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allman_232-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allman_232-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllman2013" class="citation book cs1">Allman, T.D. (2013). <i>Finding Florida. The True History of the Sunshine State</i>. Atlantic Monthly Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-2076-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-2076-2"><bdi>978-0-8021-2076-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finding+Florida.+The+True+History+of+the+Sunshine+State&rft.pub=Atlantic+Monthly+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8021-2076-2&rft.aulast=Allman&rft.aufirst=T.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schwartz, Marie Jenkins (2004). <i>Birthing a Slave: Motherhood and Medicine in the Antebellum South</i>. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 10–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2016" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, Patrick (2016). <i>Blood at the Root. A Racial Cleansing in America</i>. <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton" class="mw-redirect" title="W. W. Norton">W. W. Norton</a>. pp. 78–79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-29301-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-29301-2"><bdi>978-0-393-29301-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blood+at+the+Root.+A+Racial+Cleansing+in+America&rft.pages=78-79&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-393-29301-2&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKingsleyStowell2000" class="citation book cs1">Kingsley, Zephaniah Jr.; Stowell, Daniel W. (2000). "Introduction". <i>Balancing Evils Judiciously: The Proslavery Writings of Zephaniah Kingsley</i>. University Press of Florida. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-1733-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-1733-4"><bdi>978-0-8130-1733-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Balancing+Evils+Judiciously%3A+The+Proslavery+Writings+of+Zephaniah+Kingsley&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Florida&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8130-1733-4&rft.aulast=Kingsley&rft.aufirst=Zephaniah+Jr.&rft.au=Stowell%2C+Daniel+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged February 2019">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuillory1999" class="citation cs2">Guillory, Monique (1999), <i>Some Enchanted Evening on the Auction Block: The Cultural Legacy of the New Orleans Quadroon Balls</i>, PhD dissertation, New York University</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Some+Enchanted+Evening+on+the+Auction+Block%3A+The+Cultural+Legacy+of+the+New+Orleans+Quadroon+Balls&rft.pub=PhD+dissertation%2C+New+York+University&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Guillory&rft.aufirst=Monique&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2020" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Randall_Williams" title="Caroline Randall Williams">Williams, Caroline Randall</a> (June 26, 2020). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/26/opinion/confederate-monuments-racism.html">"You Want a Confederate Monument? My Body Is a Confederate Monument. The black people I come from were owned and raped by the white people I come from. Who dares to tell me to celebrate them?"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200626112011/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/26/opinion/confederate-monuments-racism.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 26, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=You+Want+a+Confederate+Monument%3F+My+Body+Is+a+Confederate+Monument.+The+black+people+I+come+from+were+owned+and+raped+by+the+white+people+I+come+from.+Who+dares+to+tell+me+to+celebrate+them%3F&rft.date=2020-06-26&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Caroline+Randall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2020%2F06%2F26%2Fopinion%2Fconfederate-monuments-racism.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunn2016" class="citation book cs1">Dunn, Marvin (2016). <i>A History of Florida through Black Eyes</i>. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. pp. 87–88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5193-7267-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5193-7267-3"><bdi>978-1-5193-7267-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Florida+through+Black+Eyes&rft.pages=87-88&rft.pub=CreateSpace+Independent+Publishing+Platform&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-5193-7267-3&rft.aulast=Dunn&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wapo-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wapo_239-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNatanson2019" class="citation news cs1">Natanson, Hannah (September 14, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2019/09/14/they-were-once-americas-cruelest-richest-slave-traders-why-does-no-one-know-their-names/">"They were once America's cruelest, richest slave traders. Why does no one know their names?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=They+were+once+America%27s+cruelest%2C+richest+slave+traders.+Why+does+no+one+know+their+names%3F&rft.date=2019-09-14&rft.aulast=Natanson&rft.aufirst=Hannah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fhistory%2F2019%2F09%2F14%2Fthey-were-once-americas-cruelest-richest-slave-traders-why-does-no-one-know-their-names%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBercaw" class="citation web cs1">Bercaw, Nancy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nmaahc.si.edu/object/nmaahc_2010.1.117ab">"Clary and the Fancy Girl Trade, 1806"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_African-American_History_and_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum of African-American History and Culture">National Museum of African-American History and Culture</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 15,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Clary+and+the+Fancy+Girl+Trade%2C+1806&rft.pub=National+Museum+of+African-American+History+and+Culture&rft.aulast=Bercaw&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnmaahc.si.edu%2Fobject%2Fnmaahc_2010.1.117ab&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEblen2012" class="citation news cs1">Eblen, Tom (February 1, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kentucky.com/news/local/news-columns-blogs/tom-eblen/article44152383.html">"Without the Civil War, who knows when Lexington's slave trade might have ended?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Lexington_Herald-Leader" title="Lexington Herald-Leader">Lexington Herald-Leader</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 15,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lexington+Herald-Leader&rft.atitle=Without+the+Civil+War%2C+who+knows+when+Lexington%27s+slave+trade+might+have+ended%3F&rft.date=2012-02-01&rft.aulast=Eblen&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kentucky.com%2Fnews%2Flocal%2Fnews-columns-blogs%2Ftom-eblen%2Farticle44152383.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandt1990" class="citation book cs1">Brandt, Nat (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/townthatstartedt00bran"><i>The town that started the Civil War</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_New_York" title="Syracuse, New York">Syracuse, New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University_Press" title="Syracuse University Press">Syracuse University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/townthatstartedt00bran/page/5">5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-0243-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-0243-9"><bdi>978-0-8156-0243-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+town+that+started+the+Civil+War&rft.place=Syracuse%2C+New+York&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-0243-9&rft.aulast=Brandt&rft.aufirst=Nat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftownthatstartedt00bran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaludan2006" class="citation journal cs1">Paludan, Phillip Shaw (Summer 2006). "Lincoln and Negro Slavery: I Haven't Got Time for the Pain". <i>Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association</i>. <b>27</b> (2): 1–23. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fspo.2629860.0027.203">2027/spo.2629860.0027.203</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Abraham+Lincoln+Association&rft.atitle=Lincoln+and+Negro+Slavery%3A+I+Haven%27t+Got+Time+for+the+Pain&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1-23&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fspo.2629860.0027.203&rft.aulast=Paludan&rft.aufirst=Phillip+Shaw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGenovese1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Genovese" title="Eugene Genovese">Genovese, Eugene D.</a> (1974). <i>Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made</i>. <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_Books" title="Pantheon Books">Pantheon Books</a>. p. 416.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roll%2C+Jordan%2C+Roll%3A+The+World+the+Slaves+Made&rft.pages=416&rft.pub=Pantheon+Books&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Genovese&rft.aufirst=Eugene+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdler1995" class="citation book cs1">Adler, Jeffrey S. (1995). "Black Violence in the New South. Patterns of Conflict in Late-Nineteenth-Century Tampa". In Colburn, David R.; Landers, Jane L. (eds.). <i>The African Ameritage Heritage of Florida</i>. University Press of Florida. pp. 207–239 [212–213]. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-1332-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-1332-9"><bdi>978-0-8130-1332-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Black+Violence+in+the+New+South.+Patterns+of+Conflict+in+Late-Nineteenth-Century+Tampa&rft.btitle=The+African+Ameritage+Heritage+of+Florida&rft.pages=207-239+212-213&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Florida&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8130-1332-9&rft.aulast=Adler&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampagecollId=llsc&fileName=001//llsc001.db&recNum=2">"Slaves and the Courts, 1740–1860 Slave code for the District of Columbia, 1860."</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> The Library of Congress. Retrieved July 19, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a> (1971). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/natturner0000fone"><i>Nat Turner</i></a></span>. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nat+Turner&rft.pub=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+N.J.%2C+Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnatturner0000fone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodriguez, pp. 616–617.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris1999" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Thomas D. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VmPWCKh0hZAC&pg=PA347"><i>Southern Slavery and the Law, 1619–1860</i></a>. University of North Carolina Press. p. 347. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-6430-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-6430-2"><bdi>978-0-8078-6430-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Southern+Slavery+and+the+Law%2C+1619%E2%80%931860&rft.pages=347&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-6430-2&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Thomas+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVmPWCKh0hZAC%26pg%3DPA347&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gomez-250"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gomez_250-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGomez1994" class="citation journal cs1">Gomez, Michael A. (1994). "Muslims in Early America". <i>The Journal of Southern History</i>. <b>60</b> (4): 671–710. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2211064">10.2307/2211064</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-4642">0022-4642</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2211064">2211064</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=Muslims+in+Early+America&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=671-710&rft.date=1994&rft.issn=0022-4642&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2211064%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2211064&rft.aulast=Gomez&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCostello2020" class="citation web cs1">Costello, Damian (September 1, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscatholic.org/articles/202009/pray-with-our-lady-of-stono-to-heal-the-wounds-of-slavery/">"Pray with Our Lady of Stono to heal the wounds of slavery"</a>. <i>U.S. Catholic magazine – Faith in Real Life</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 12,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Catholic+magazine+%E2%80%93+Faith+in+Real+Life&rft.atitle=Pray+with+Our+Lady+of+Stono+to+heal+the+wounds+of+slavery&rft.date=2020-09-01&rft.aulast=Costello&rft.aufirst=Damian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fuscatholic.org%2Farticles%2F202009%2Fpray-with-our-lady-of-stono-to-heal-the-wounds-of-slavery%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrost1998" class="citation book cs1">Frost, J. William (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8YrYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA446">"Christianity and Culture in America"</a>. In Kee, Howard Clark (ed.). <i>Christianity: A Social and Cultural History</i>. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. p. 446. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-578071-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-578071-8"><bdi>978-0-13-578071-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Christianity+and+Culture+in+America&rft.btitle=Christianity%3A+A+Social+and+Cultural+History&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+NJ&rft.pages=446&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-13-578071-8&rft.aulast=Frost&rft.aufirst=J.+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8YrYAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA446&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smedley2005-253"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smedley2005_253-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmedley2005" class="citation book cs1">Smedley, R. 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Stackpole Books. p. xvi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-3189-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-3189-8"><bdi>978-0-8117-3189-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Underground+Railroad%3A+In+Chester+and+the+Neighboring+Counties+of+Pennsylvania&rft.pages=xvi&rft.pub=Stackpole+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8117-3189-8&rft.aulast=Smedley&rft.aufirst=R.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>History of Salem Township, Washtenaw County, Michigan</i>. Salem Area Historical Society. 1976. p. 56.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Salem+Township%2C+Washtenaw+County%2C+Michigan&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Salem+Area+Historical+Society&rft.date=1976&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-J._William_Frost_1998-255"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-J._William_Frost_1998_255-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-J._William_Frost_1998_255-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-J._William_Frost_1998_255-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-J._William_Frost_1998_255-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrost1998" class="citation book cs1">Frost, J. William (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8YrYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA447">"Christianity and Culture in America"</a>. In Kee, Howard Clark (ed.). <i>Christianity: A Social and Cultural History</i>. 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New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. pp. 648–649. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-01762-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-01762-5"><bdi>978-0-300-01762-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Religious+History+of+the+American+People&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Connecticut&rft.pages=648-649&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-300-01762-5&rft.aulast=Ahlstrom&rft.aufirst=Sydney+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5kFF6a1viGcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/thisfarbyfaith/journey_2/p_5.html">"Abolition and the Splintering of the Church"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>. 2003<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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New York: <a href="/wiki/Dudley_Leavitt_(publisher)" title="Dudley Leavitt (publisher)">Leavitt, Lord & Co.</a> p. 136.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Inquiry+Into+the+Character+and+Tendency+of+the+American+Colonization%2C+and+American+Anti-slavery+Societies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=136&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Leavitt%2C+Lord+%26+Co.&rft.date=1835&rft.aulast=Jay&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faninquiryintoch05jaygoog%2Fpage%2Fn6%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorrey1822" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Torrey" title="Jesse Torrey">Torrey, Jesse</a> (1822). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanslavetr00torrgoog/page/n118/mode/2up"><i>American slave trade; or, An Account of the Manner in which the Slave Dealers take Free People from some of the United States of America, and carry them away, and sell them as Slaves in other of the States; and of the horrible Cruelties practiced in the carrying on of this infamous Traffic: with Reflections on the Project for forming a Colony of American Blacks in Africa, and certain Documents respecting that Project</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/John_Morgan_Cobbett" title="John Morgan Cobbett">J[ohn] M[organ] Cobbett</a>. p. 102.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+slave+trade%3B+or%2C+An+Account+of+the+Manner+in+which+the+Slave+Dealers+take+Free+People+from+some+of+the+United+States+of+America%2C+and+carry+them+away%2C+and+sell+them+as+Slaves+in+other+of+the+States%3B+and+of+the+horrible+Cruelties+practiced+in+the+carrying+on+of+this+infamous+Traffic%3A+with+Reflections+on+the+Project+for+forming+a+Colony+of+American+Blacks+in+Africa%2C+and+certain+Documents+respecting+that+Project&rft.place=London&rft.pages=102&rft.pub=%5B%5BJohn+Morgan+Cobbett+%7CJ%5Bohn%5D+M%5Borgan%5D+Cobbett%5D%5D&rft.date=1822&rft.aulast=Torrey&rft.aufirst=Jesse&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanslavetr00torrgoog%2Fpage%2Fn118%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackpast.org/primarywest/utah-slave-code-1852">"The Utah Territory Slave Code (1852) – The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed"</a>. <i>www.blackpast.org</i>. June 27, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 28,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.blackpast.org&rft.atitle=The+Utah+Territory+Slave+Code+%281852%29+%E2%80%93+The+Black+Past%3A+Remembered+and+Reclaimed&rft.date=2007-06-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.blackpast.org%2Fprimarywest%2Futah-slave-code-1852&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uNFGAQAAMAAJ"><i>Acts, Resolutions, and Memorials Passed at the ... Annual, and Special Sessions, of the Legislative Assembly of the Territory of Utah</i></a>. Brigham H. Young, Printers. 1866. pp. 87–88.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Acts%2C+Resolutions%2C+and+Memorials+Passed+at+the+...+Annual%2C+and+Special+Sessions%2C+of+the+Legislative+Assembly+of+the+Territory+of+Utah&rft.pages=87-88&rft.pub=Brigham+H.+Young%2C+Printers&rft.date=1866&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuNFGAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/resource/rbc0001.2019gen05639/?sp=74">"Image 74 of Page view"</a>. <i>Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 28,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+Congress%2C+Washington%2C+D.C.+20540+USA&rft.atitle=Image+74+of+Page+view&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fresource%2Frbc0001.2019gen05639%2F%3Fsp%3D74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Finkelman, <i> Dred Scott v. Sandford: A Brief History with Documents</i> (Bedford Books, 1997).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFehrenbacher1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Don_E._Fehrenbacher" title="Don E. Fehrenbacher">Fehrenbacher, Don E.</a> (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=btkgAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Dred Scott Case: Its Significance in American Law and Politics</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502403-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502403-6"><bdi>978-0-19-502403-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dred+Scott+Case%3A+Its+Significance+in+American+Law+and+Politics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-19-502403-6&rft.aulast=Fehrenbacher&rft.aufirst=Don+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbtkgAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fehrenbacher, <i>The Dred Scott Case: Its Significance in American Law and Politics</i> (2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larry Gara, <i> The Liberty Line: The Legend of the Underground Railroad</i> (University Press of Kentucky, 2013).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leonard L. Richards, <i>The Slave Power: The Free North and Southern Domination, 1780–1860</i> (LSU Press, 2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcPherson1992" class="citation book cs1">McPherson, James M. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tYdpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA134"><i>Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976270-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976270-5"><bdi>978-0-19-976270-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abraham+Lincoln+and+the+Second+American+Revolution&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-19-976270-5&rft.aulast=McPherson&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtYdpAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David M. Potter, <i>The Impending Crisis: America Before the Civil War, 1848–1861</i> (Harper & Row, 1976).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Potter, pp. 448–554.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stahr, Walter, <i>Samuel Chase: Lincoln's Vital Rival</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2021, p. 342.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson" title="James M. McPherson">McPherson</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Battle_Cry_of_Freedom_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle Cry of Freedom (book)">Battle Cry of Freedom</a></i>, p. 495.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McPherson, <i>Battle Cry</i>, pp. 355, 494–496, quote from <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Julian" class="mw-redirect" title="George Washington Julian">George Julian</a> on 495.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLitwack1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leon_Litwack" title="Leon Litwack">Litwack, Leon F.</a> (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bi2aAAAAIAAJ"><i>Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery</i></a>. New York: Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-50099-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-50099-7"><bdi>978-0-394-50099-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Been+in+the+Storm+So+Long%3A+The+Aftermath+of+Slavery&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-394-50099-7&rft.aulast=Litwack&rft.aufirst=Leon+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbi2aAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lincoln's letter to O. H. Browning, September 22, 1861.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_B._Oates" title="Stephen B. Oates">Stephen B. Oates</a>, <i>Abraham Lincoln: The Man Behind the Myths</i>, page 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/american_originals_iv/sections/transcript_preliminary_emancipation.html">"The Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, 1862"</a>. <i>www.archives.gov</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.archives.gov&rft.atitle=The+Preliminary+Emancipation+Proclamation%2C+1862&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fexhibits%2Famerican_originals_iv%2Fsections%2Ftranscript_preliminary_emancipation.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Images of America: Altoona</i>, by Sr. Anne Francis Pulling, 2001, 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLincoln1953" class="citation book cs1">Lincoln, Abraham (June 15, 1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://name.umdl.umich.edu/lincoln7"><i>Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 7 [Nov. 5, 1863-Sept. 12, 1864]</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collected+Works+of+Abraham+Lincoln.+Volume+7+%5BNov.+5%2C+1863-Sept.+12%2C+1864%5D.&rft.date=1953-06-15&rft.aulast=Lincoln&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fname.umdl.umich.edu%2Flincoln7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Who_Freed-284"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Who_Freed_284-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James McPherson, "Drawn With the Sword", from the article "Who Freed the Slaves?"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoyle2010" class="citation book cs1">Doyle, Robert C. C. (2010). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/enemyinourhandsa0000doyl"><i>The Enemy in Our Hands: America's Treatment of Prisoners of War from the Revolution to the War on Terror</i></a></span>. University Press of Kentucky. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/enemyinourhandsa0000doyl/page/76">76</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-3961-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-3961-6"><bdi>978-0-8131-3961-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Enemy+in+Our+Hands%3A+America%27s+Treatment+of+Prisoners+of+War+from+the+Revolution+to+the+War+on+Terror&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8131-3961-6&rft.aulast=Doyle&rft.aufirst=Robert+C.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenemyinourhandsa0000doyl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruce C. Levine, <i>Confederate Emancipation: Southern Plans to Free and Arm Slaves during the Civil War</i> (2007).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Up from Slavery</i> (1901), pp. 19–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070527081441/http://www.juneteenth.com/history.htm">"History of Juneteenth"</a>. <i>Juneteenth World Wide Celebration</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.juneteenth.com/history.htm">the original</a> on May 27, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Juneteenth+World+Wide+Celebration&rft.atitle=History+of+Juneteenth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.juneteenth.com%2Fhistory.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lUjBhwFcQ4U&t=3811s"><i>President Biden Signs the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act Into Law</i></a>. The White House. June 17, 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230204195847/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lUjBhwFcQ4U&t=3811s">Archived</a> from the original on February 4, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 3,</span> 2024</span> – via YouTube.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=President+Biden+Signs+the+Juneteenth+National+Independence+Day+Act+Into+Law&rft.pub=The+White+House&rft.date=2021-06-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DlUjBhwFcQ4U%26t%3D3811s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-quote-290"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-quote_290-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs">"America's Founding Documents"</a>. <i>National Archives</i>. 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"The Rise and Fall of Indentured Servants in the Americas: An Economic Approach". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Economic_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Economic History">Journal of Economic History</a></i>. <b>44</b>: 1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS002205070003134X">10.1017/S002205070003134X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154682898">154682898</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Indentured+Servants+in+the+Americas%3A+An+Economic+Approach&rft.volume=44&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1984-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS002205070003134X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154682898%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Galenson&rft.aufirst=D.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sowell_2005_pp._157–158-308"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sowell_2005_pp._157–158_308-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sowell_2005_pp._157–158_308-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSowell2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell, Thomas</a> (2005). 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New York: <a href="/wiki/Encounter_Books" title="Encounter Books">Encounter Books</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackredneckswhi00thom/page/157">157–158</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59403-086-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59403-086-4"><bdi>978-1-59403-086-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Real+History+of+Slavery&rft.btitle=Black+Rednecks+and+White+Liberals&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=157-158&rft.pub=Encounter+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-59403-086-4&rft.aulast=Sowell&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whaples_1995_No._26-309"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Whaples_1995_No._26_309-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Whaples_1995_No._26_309-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhaples1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Whaples" title="Robert Whaples">Whaples, Robert</a> (March 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.employees.csbsju.edu/jolson/econ315/whaples2123771.pdf">"Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Economic_History" title="The Journal of Economic History">The Journal of Economic History</a></i>. <b>55</b> (1): 142, 147–148. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.482.4975">10.1.1.482.4975</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050700040602">10.1017/S0022050700040602</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2123771">2123771</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145691938">145691938</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Where+Is+There+Consensus+Among+American+Economic+Historians%3F+The+Results+of+a+Survey+on+Forty+Propositions&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=142%2C+147-148&rft.date=1995-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.482.4975%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145691938%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2123771%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050700040602&rft.aulast=Whaples&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.employees.csbsju.edu%2Fjolson%2Fecon315%2Fwhaples2123771.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tadman-310"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tadman_310-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTadman2000" class="citation journal cs1">Tadman, M. (December 2000). 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New York: <a href="/wiki/Encounter_Books" title="Encounter Books">Encounter Books</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackredneckswhi00thom/page/156">156</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59403-086-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59403-086-4"><bdi>978-1-59403-086-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Real+History+of+Slavery&rft.btitle=Black+Rednecks+and+White+Liberals&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=Encounter+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-59403-086-4&rft.aulast=Sowell&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ICPSR_Study-312"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ICPSR_Study_312-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030401083841/http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/census/">"Historical Demographic, Economic and Social Data: the United States, 1790–1970"</a>. <i>Historical Statistics of the United States</i>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/census/.">the original</a> on April 1, 2003.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Historical+Statistics+of+the+United+States&rft.atitle=Historical+Demographic%2C+Economic+and+Social+Data%3A+the+United+States%2C+1790%E2%80%931970&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffisher.lib.virginia.edu%2Fcensus%2F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhaples1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Whaples" title="Robert Whaples">Whaples, Robert</a> (March 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.employees.csbsju.edu/jolson/econ315/whaples2123771.pdf">"Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Economic_History" title="The Journal of Economic History">The Journal of Economic History</a></i>. <b>55</b> (1): 139–154. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.482.4975">10.1.1.482.4975</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050700040602">10.1017/S0022050700040602</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2123771">2123771</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145691938">145691938</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Where+Is+There+Consensus+Among+American+Economic+Historians%3F+The+Results+of+a+Survey+on+Forty+Propositions&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=139-154&rft.date=1995-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.482.4975%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145691938%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2123771%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050700040602&rft.aulast=Whaples&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.employees.csbsju.edu%2Fjolson%2Fecon315%2Fwhaples2123771.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaptist2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_E._Baptist" title="Edward E. Baptist">Baptist, Edward E.</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.basicbooks.com/titles/edward-e-baptist/the-half-has-never-been-told/9780465097685/"><i>The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery And The Making Of American Capitalism</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-09768-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-09768-5"><bdi>978-0-465-09768-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Half+Has+Never+Been+Told%3A+Slavery+And+The+Making+Of+American+Capitalism&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-465-09768-5&rft.aulast=Baptist&rft.aufirst=Edward+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.basicbooks.com%2Ftitles%2Fedward-e-baptist%2Fthe-half-has-never-been-told%2F9780465097685%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckertRockman2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sven_Beckert" title="Sven Beckert">Beckert, Sven</a>; Rockman, Seth, eds. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://site.pennpress.org/aaihs-2021/9780812224177/slaverys-capitalism/"><i>Slavery's Capitalism: A New History of American Economic Development</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Press" title="University of Pennsylvania Press">University of Pennsylvania Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-2417-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-2417-7"><bdi>978-0-8122-2417-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery%27s+Capitalism%3A+A+New+History+of+American+Economic+Development&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-2417-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsite.pennpress.org%2Faaihs-2021%2F9780812224177%2Fslaverys-capitalism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-316"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_316-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_316-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Johnson_(historian)" title="Walter Johnson (historian)">Johnson, Walter</a> (2013). <i>River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom</i>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. pp. 86–87 (credit backed by slave labor). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04555-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04555-2"><bdi>978-0-674-04555-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span 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Rutgers University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sistercircle00rutg/page/108">108</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-3061-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-3061-1"><bdi>978-0-8135-3061-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22Don%27t+Let+Nobody+Bother+Yo%27+Principle%22+Sexual+Economy+of+American+Slavery&rft.btitle=Sister+Circle%3A+Black+Women+and+Work&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-3061-1&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Adrienne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsistercircle00rutg%2Fpage%2F108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-347"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2002" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Adrienne (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sistercircle00rutg/page/109">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Don't Let Nobody Bother Yo' Principle" The Sexual Economy of American Slavery"</a>. <i>Sister Circle: Black Women and Work</i>. Rutgers University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sistercircle00rutg/page/109">109</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-3061-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-3061-1"><bdi>978-0-8135-3061-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22Don%27t+Let+Nobody+Bother+Yo%27+Principle%22+The+Sexual+Economy+of+American+Slavery&rft.btitle=Sister+Circle%3A+Black+Women+and+Work&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-3061-1&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Adrienne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsistercircle00rutg%2Fpage%2F109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-348"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_348-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_348-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2002" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Adrienne (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sistercircle00rutg/page/119">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Don't Let Nobody Bother Yo' Principle" The Sexual Economy of American Slavery"</a>. <i>Sister Circle: Black Women and Work</i>. Rutgers University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sistercircle00rutg/page/119">119</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-3061-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-3061-1"><bdi>978-0-8135-3061-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22Don%27t+Let+Nobody+Bother+Yo%27+Principle%22+The+Sexual+Economy+of+American+Slavery&rft.btitle=Sister+Circle%3A+Black+Women+and+Work&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-3061-1&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Adrienne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsistercircle00rutg%2Fpage%2F119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-349"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-349">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Source: Miller and Smith, eds. <i>Dictionary of American Slavery</i> (1988) p. 678</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-350"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-350">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Includes 10,000 to Louisiana before 1803.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hacker_2020_pp._840–855-351"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hacker_2020_pp._840–855_351-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHacker2020" class="citation journal cs1">Hacker, J. David (May 13, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7716878">"From '20. and odd' to 10 million: the growth of the slave population in the United States"</a>. <i>Slavery & Abolition</i>. <b>41</b> (4). Informa UK Limited: 840–855. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0144039x.2020.1755502">10.1080/0144039x.2020.1755502</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0144-039X">0144-039X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7716878">7716878</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33281246">33281246</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavery+%26+Abolition&rft.atitle=From+%2720.+and+odd%27+to+10+million%3A+the+growth+of+the+slave+population+in+the+United+States&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=840-855&rft.date=2020-05-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7716878%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0144-039X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33281246&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0144039x.2020.1755502&rft.aulast=Hacker&rft.aufirst=J.+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7716878&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-352"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-352">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gomez, Michael A: <i>Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South</i>, p. 29. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, 1998.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-353"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-353">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRucker2006" class="citation book cs1">Rucker, Walter C. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c2XlG4rRK4QC&pg=PA126"><i>The River Flows On: Black Resistance, Culture, and Identity Formation in Early America</i></a>. LSU Press. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-3109-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-3109-1"><bdi>978-0-8071-3109-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+River+Flows+On%3A+Black+Resistance%2C+Culture%2C+and+Identity+Formation+in+Early+America&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=LSU+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8071-3109-1&rft.aulast=Rucker&rft.aufirst=Walter+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc2XlG4rRK4QC%26pg%3DPA126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-354"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-354">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusan_Schulten2010" class="citation journal cs1">Susan Schulten (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/civil_war_history/v056/56.1.schulten.html">"The Cartography of Slavery and the Authority of Statistics"</a>. <i>Civil War History</i>. <b>56</b> (1): 5–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwh.0.0141">10.1353/cwh.0.0141</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1533-6271">1533-6271</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144587155">144587155</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Civil+War+History&rft.atitle=The+Cartography+of+Slavery+and+the+Authority+of+Statistics&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=5-32&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144587155%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1533-6271&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcwh.0.0141&rft.au=Susan+Schulten&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fcontent%2Fcrossref%2Fjournals%2Fcivil_war_history%2Fv056%2F56.1.schulten.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-355"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-355">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1850/1850c/1850c-04.pdf?">"Chapter V: Slave Population of the United States (through 1850)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>census.gov</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=census.gov&rft.atitle=Chapter+V%3A+Slave+Population+of+the+United+States+%28through+1850%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.census.gov%2Flibrary%2Fpublications%2Fdecennial%2F1850%2F1850c%2F1850c-04.pdf%3F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-356"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-356">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1860/population/1860a-02.pdf">"Population of Slaves in 1860: Introduction"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>census.gov</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=census.gov&rft.atitle=Population+of+Slaves+in+1860%3A+Introduction&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.census.gov%2Flibrary%2Fpublications%2Fdecennial%2F1860%2Fpopulation%2F1860a-02.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-357"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-357">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2007" class="citation web cs1">Johnson, Jason B. (January 27, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/SAN-FRANCISCO-Slavery-in-Gold-Rush-days-New-2653800.php">"SAN FRANCISCO / Slavery in Gold Rush days / New discoveries prompt exhibition, re-examination of state's involvement"</a>. <i>SFGATE</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 29,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SFGATE&rft.atitle=SAN+FRANCISCO+%2F+Slavery+in+Gold+Rush+days+%2F+New+discoveries+prompt+exhibition%2C+re-examination+of+state%27s+involvement&rft.date=2007-01-27&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Jason+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfgate.com%2Fbayarea%2Farticle%2FSAN-FRANCISCO-Slavery-in-Gold-Rush-days-New-2653800.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-358"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-358">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGutglueck" class="citation news cs1">Gutglueck, Mark. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sbcsentinel.com/2016/07/mormons-created-and-then-abandoned-san-bernardino/">"Mormons Created And Then Abandoned San Bernardino"</a>. San Bernardino County Sentinel.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Mormons+Created+And+Then+Abandoned+San+Bernardino&rft.aulast=Gutglueck&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsbcsentinel.com%2F2016%2F07%2Fmormons-created-and-then-abandoned-san-bernardino%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Snodgrass-359"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Snodgrass_359-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Snodgrass_359-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMary_Ellen_Snodgrass2015" class="citation book cs1">Mary Ellen Snodgrass (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cWysBwAAQBAJ"><i>The Civil War Era and Reconstruction: An Encyclopedia of Social, Political, Cultural and Economic History</i></a>. Routledge. p. 556. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-45791-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-45791-6"><bdi>978-1-317-45791-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+War+Era+and+Reconstruction%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Social%2C+Political%2C+Cultural+and+Economic+History&rft.pages=556&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-45791-6&rft.au=Mary+Ellen+Snodgrass&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcWysBwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-360"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-360">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRicks2007" class="citation thesis cs1">Ricks, Nathaniel R. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/1007/"><i>A Peculiar Place for the Peculiar Institution: Slavery and Sovereignty in Early Territorial Utah</i></a> (MA thesis). Brigham Young University. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1877%2Fetd1909">1877/etd1909</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=A+Peculiar+Place+for+the+Peculiar+Institution%3A+Slavery+and+Sovereignty+in+Early+Territorial+Utah&rft.inst=Brigham+Young+University&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1877%2Fetd1909&rft.aulast=Ricks&rft.aufirst=Nathaniel+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarsarchive.byu.edu%2Fetd%2F1007%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-361"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-361">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReeveParshall2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._Paul_Reeve" title="W. Paul Reeve">Reeve, W. Paul</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ardis_E._Parshall" title="Ardis E. Parshall">Parshall, Ardis E</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qLji9wwnaoUC"><i>Mormonism: A Historical Encyclopedia</i></a>. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-107-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-107-7"><bdi>978-1-59884-107-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mormonism%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-107-7&rft.aulast=Reeve&rft.aufirst=W.+Paul&rft.au=Parshall%2C+Ardis+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqLji9wwnaoUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-362"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-362">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColeman" class="citation book cs1">Coleman, Ronald G. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.lib.utah.edu/utils/getfile/collection/USHSArchPub/id/5295/filename/5330.pdf"><i>Blacks in Utah History: An Unknown Legacy</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blacks+in+Utah+History%3A+An+Unknown+Legacy&rft.aulast=Coleman&rft.aufirst=Ronald+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcontent.lib.utah.edu%2Futils%2Fgetfile%2Fcollection%2FUSHSArchPub%2Fid%2F5295%2Ffilename%2F5330.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-363"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-363">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Castillo, E.D. 1998. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ceres.ca.gov/nahc/califindian.html">"Short Overview of California Indian History</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061214031402/http://www.ceres.ca.gov/nahc/califindian.html">Archived</a> December 14, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>California Native American Heritage Commission</i>, 1998. Retrieved October 24, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-morrill-364"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-morrill_364-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States._Congress1857" class="citation book cs1">United States. Congress (1857). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/congressionalgl41bailgoog"><i>The Congressional Globe, Part 2</i></a>. Blair & Rives. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/congressionalgl41bailgoog/page/n247">287</a>–288.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Congressional+Globe%2C+Part+2&rft.pages=287-288&rft.pub=Blair+%26+Rives&rft.date=1857&rft.au=United+States.+Congress&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcongressionalgl41bailgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-365"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-365">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~ajac/">Large Slaveholders of 1860 and African American Surname Matches from 1870</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150905223723/http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~ajac/">Archived</a> September 5, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by Tom Blake, 2001–2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-366"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-366">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFry2019" class="citation web cs1">Fry, Richard (October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/10/01/the-number-of-people-in-the-average-u-s-household-is-going-up-for-the-first-time-in-over-160-years/">"The number of people in the average U.S. household is going up for the first time in over 160 years"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+number+of+people+in+the+average+U.S.+household+is+going+up+for+the+first+time+in+over+160+years&rft.date=2019-10&rft.aulast=Fry&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Ffact-tank%2F2019%2F10%2F01%2Fthe-number-of-people-in-the-average-u-s-household-is-going-up-for-the-first-time-in-over-160-years%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-367"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-367">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlatthaar2009" class="citation book cs1">Glatthaar, Joseph (2009). <i>General Lee's Army: From Victory to Collapse</i>. New York: Free Press. pp. 20, 474. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-9697-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-9697-4"><bdi>978-1-4165-9697-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+Lee%27s+Army%3A+From+Victory+to+Collapse&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=20%2C+474&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4165-9697-4&rft.aulast=Glatthaar&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-largest-368"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-largest_368-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-largest_368-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~ajac/biggest16.htm">The Sixteen Largest American Slaveholders from 1860 Slave Census Schedules</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130719043247/http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~ajac/biggest16.htm">Archived</a> July 19, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Transcribed by Tom Blake, April to July 2001, (updated October 2001 and December 2004; now includes 19 holders)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dap2008-369"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dap2008_369-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dap2008_369-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dap2008_369-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPargas2008" class="citation journal cs1">Pargas, Damian Alan (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jfh.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/33/3/316.pdf">"Boundaries and Opportunities: Comparing Slave Family Formation in the Antebellum South"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Family History</i>. <b>33</b> (3): 316–345. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0363199008318919">10.1177/0363199008318919</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18831111">18831111</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22302394">22302394</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Family+History&rft.atitle=Boundaries+and+Opportunities%3A+Comparing+Slave+Family+Formation+in+the+Antebellum+South&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=316-345&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22302394%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18831111&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0363199008318919&rft.aulast=Pargas&rft.aufirst=Damian+Alan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjfh.sagepub.com%2Fcgi%2Freprint%2F33%2F3%2F316.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2022">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-370"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-370">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonekemper_III2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_H._Bonekemper" title="Edward H. Bonekemper">Bonekemper III, Edward H.</a> (2015). <i>The Myth of the Lost Cause: Why the South Fought the Civil War and Why the North Won</i>. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing. p. 39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+the+Lost+Cause%3A+Why+the+South+Fought+the+Civil+War+and+Why+the+North+Won&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Regnery+Publishing&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Bonekemper+III&rft.aufirst=Edward+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kolchin_p._134-371"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kolchin_p._134_371-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kolchin_p._134_371-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kolchin p. 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-372"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-372">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kolchin pp. 137–143. Horton and Horton p. 9.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of slavery in the United States">Bibliography of slavery in the United States</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_and_comparative_studies">National and comparative studies</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAptheker1939" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Aptheker" title="Herbert Aptheker">Aptheker, Herbert</a> (1939). <i>Negro Slave Revolts in the United States (1526–1860)</i>. New York: International Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Negro+Slave+Revolts+in+the+United+States+%281526%E2%80%931860%29&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=International+Publishers&rft.date=1939&rft.aulast=Aptheker&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.734/page/1/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAptheker1945" class="citation book cs1">—— (1945) [1943]. <i>American Negro Slave Revolts</i>. New York: Columbia University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Negro+Slave+Revolts&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Aptheker&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.84187/page/n7/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArthur2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Arthur_(philosopher)" title="John Arthur (philosopher)">Arthur, John</a> (2007). <i>Race, Equality, and the Burdens of History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race%2C+Equality%2C+and+the+Burdens+of+History&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Arthur&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/raceequalityburd0000arth/page/n3/mode/2up">Preview</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaptist2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_E._Baptist" title="Edward E. Baptist">Baptist, Edward E.</a> (2016). <i>The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism</i>. New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-04966-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-04966-0"><bdi>978-0-465-04966-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Half+Has+Never+Been+Told%3A+Slavery+and+the+Making+of+American+Capitalism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-465-04966-0&rft.aulast=Baptist&rft.aufirst=Edward+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/halfhasneverbeen0000bapt_c1d5">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBatemanWeiss1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fred_Bateman" title="Fred Bateman">Bateman, Fred</a>; Weiss, Thomas (1980). <i>A Deplorable Scarcity: The Failure of Industrialization in the Slave Economy</i>. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-1447-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-1447-4"><bdi>0-8078-1447-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Deplorable+Scarcity%3A+The+Failure+of+Industrialization+in+the+Slave+Economy&rft.place=Chapel+Hill%2C+NC&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-8078-1447-4&rft.aulast=Bateman&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft.au=Weiss%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/deplorablescarci0000bate/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckert2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sven_Beckert" title="Sven Beckert">Beckert, Sven</a> (2014). <i>Empire of Cotton: A Global History</i>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-41414-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-41414-5"><bdi>978-0-375-41414-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Cotton%3A+A+Global+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-375-41414-5&rft.aulast=Beckert&rft.aufirst=Sven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empireofcottongl0000beck">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerlin2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ira_Berlin" title="Ira Berlin">Berlin, Ira</a> (2003). <i>Generations of Captivity: A History of African-American Slaves</i>. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-01061-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-01061-2"><bdi>0-674-01061-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Generations+of+Captivity%3A+A+History+of+African-American+Slaves&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-674-01061-2&rft.aulast=Berlin&rft.aufirst=Ira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/generationsofcap00berl">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerlin1998" class="citation book cs1">—— (1998). <i>Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America</i>. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-81092-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-81092-9"><bdi>0-674-81092-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Many+Thousands+Gone%3A+The+First+Two+Centuries+of+Slavery+in+North+America&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-674-81092-9&rft.aulast=Berlin&rft.aufirst=Ira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manythousandsgon0000berl_w4u6">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerlin1992" class="citation book cs1">—— (1992) [1974]. <i>Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South</i>. New York: The New Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56584-028-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-56584-028-3"><bdi>1-56584-028-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slaves+Without+Masters%3A+The+Free+Negro+in+the+Antebellum+South&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+New+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1-56584-028-3&rft.aulast=Berlin&rft.aufirst=Ira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveswithoutmas00berl/page/n3/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerlinHoffman1983" class="citation book cs1">——; Hoffman, Ronald, eds. (1983). <i>Slavery and Freedom in the Age of the American Revolution</i>. Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8139-0969-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8139-0969-4"><bdi>0-8139-0969-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+Freedom+in+the+Age+of+the+American+Revolution&rft.place=Charlottesville%2C+VA&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Virginia&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-8139-0969-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryfreedomin0000unse/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackburn2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robin_Blackburn" title="Robin Blackburn">Blackburn, Robin</a> (2011). <i>The American Crucible: Slavery, Emancipation and Human Rights</i>. London; New York: Verso. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84467-569-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84467-569-2"><bdi>978-1-84467-569-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Crucible%3A+Slavery%2C+Emancipation+and+Human+Rights&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84467-569-2&rft.aulast=Blackburn&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americancrucible0000blac/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackburn1988" class="citation book cs1">—— (1988). <i>The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery</i>. London; New York: Verso. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86091-188-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-86091-188-8"><bdi>0-86091-188-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Overthrow+of+Colonial+Slavery&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-86091-188-8&rft.aulast=Blackburn&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/overthrowofcolon0000blac/page/n3/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_A._Blackmon" title="Douglas A. Blackmon">Blackmon, Douglas A.</a> <i>Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II</i>, 2008, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-50625-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-50625-0">978-0-385-50625-0</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaverybyanother00blac_0">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Blassingame" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wesley Blassingame">Blassingame, John W.</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Community" title="The Slave Community">The Slave Community</a>: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South</i> Oxford University Press, 1979, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-502563-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-502563-6">0-19-502563-6</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slavecommunitypl00blas_0">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrewster1850" class="citation book cs1">Brewster, Francis E. (1850). <i>Slavery and the Constitution. Both Sides of the Question</i>. Philadelphia: Unknown Publisher.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+the+Constitution.+Both+Sides+of+the+Question&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Unknown+Publisher&rft.date=1850&rft.aulast=Brewster&rft.aufirst=Francis+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryconstitut00brew/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChilders2012" class="citation book cs1">Childers, Christopher (2012). <i>The Failure of Popular Sovereignty: Slavery, Manifest Destiny, and the Radicalization of Southern Politics</i>. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1868-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1868-2"><bdi>978-0-7006-1868-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Failure+of+Popular+Sovereignty%3A+Slavery%2C+Manifest+Destiny%2C+and+the+Radicalization+of+Southern+Politics&rft.place=Lawrence&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-1868-2&rft.aulast=Childers&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/failureofpopular0000chil">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoughtry1981" class="citation book cs1">Coughtry, Jay (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/notorioustriangl0000coug/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>The Notorious Triangle: Rhode Island and the African Slave Trade, 1700–1807</i></a>. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87722-218-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-87722-218-5"><bdi>0-87722-218-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Notorious+Triangle%3A+Rhode+Island+and+the+African+Slave+Trade%2C+1700%E2%80%931807&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-87722-218-5&rft.aulast=Coughtry&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnotorioustriangl0000coug%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brion_Davis" title="David Brion Davis">Davis, David Brion</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Inhuman_Bondage:_The_Rise_and_Fall_of_Slavery_in_the_New_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World">Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World</a></i>, 2006.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis1970" class="citation book cs1">—— (1970) [1966]. <i>The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture</i>. London: Pelican Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Problem+of+Slavery+in+Western+Culture&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Pelican+Books&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=David+Brion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/problemofslavery0000unse_o0v2">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuberman1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Duberman" title="Martin Duberman">Duberman, Martin B.</a>, ed. (1965). <i>New Essays on the Abolitionists</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Essays+on+the+Abolitionists&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1965&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/antislaveryvangu1965dube/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgerton2009" class="citation book cs1">Egerton, Douglas R. (2009). <i>Death or Liberty: African Americans and Revolutionary America</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530669-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530669-9"><bdi>978-0-19-530669-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Death+or+Liberty%3A+African+Americans+and+Revolutionary+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-530669-9&rft.aulast=Egerton&rft.aufirst=Douglas+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/deathorlibertyaf00eger/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Elkins" title="Stanley Elkins">Elkins, Stanley</a>. <i>Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life.</i> University of Chicago Press, 1976, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-20477-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-20477-4">0-226-20477-4</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryproblemin00elki">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_E._Fehrenbacher" title="Don E. Fehrenbacher">Fehrenbacher, Don E.</a> <i>Slavery, Law, and Politics: The Dred Scott Case in Historical Perspective</i>, Oxford University Press, 1981. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaverylawpoliti0000fehr">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelman1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Finkelman" title="Paul Finkelman">Finkelman, Paul</a> (1981). <i>An Imperfect Union: Slavery, Federalism, and Comity</i>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-1438-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-1438-5"><bdi>0-8078-1438-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Imperfect+Union%3A+Slavery%2C+Federalism%2C+and+Comity&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-8078-1438-5&rft.aulast=Finkelman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/imperfectunionsl0000fink/page/n3/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Fogel" title="Robert Fogel">Fogel, Robert W.</a> <i>Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery</i>, W.W. Norton, 1989. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/withoutconsentor00foge_0">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFogelEngerman1995" class="citation book cs1">——; <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Engerman" title="Stanley Engerman">Engerman, Stanley L.</a> (1995). <i>Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery</i>. New York: W.W. Norton Company, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-31218-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-31218-6"><bdi>0-393-31218-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Time+on+the+Cross%3A+The+Economics+of+American+Negro+Slavery&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+Company%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-393-31218-6&rft.aulast=Fogel&rft.aufirst=Robert+William&rft.au=Engerman%2C+Stanley+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timeoncross00robe/page/n7/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFonerBrown2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Brown_(historian)" title="Joshua Brown (historian)">Brown, Joshua</a> (2005). <i>Forever Free: The Story of Emancipation and Reconstruction</i>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-375-40259-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-375-40259-4"><bdi>0-375-40259-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forever+Free%3A+The+Story+of+Emancipation+and+Reconstruction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-375-40259-4&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft.au=Brown%2C+Joshua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foreverfreestory00fone">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner2015" class="citation book cs1">—— (2015). <i>Gateway to Freedom: The Hidden History of the Underground Railroad</i>. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-35219-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-35219-1"><bdi>978-0-393-35219-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gateway+to+Freedom%3A+The+Hidden+History+of+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-393-35219-1&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gatewaytofreedom0000fone_a5t8/page/n9/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner2010" class="citation book cs1">—— (2010). <i>The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery</i>. New York: W. W. Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06618-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06618-0"><bdi>978-0-393-06618-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fiery+Trial%3A+Abraham+Lincoln+and+American+Slavery&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Co.&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-393-06618-0&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> Pulitzer Prize. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fierytrialabraha0000fone/page/n7/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hope_Franklin" title="John Hope Franklin">Franklin, John Hope</a> and Loren Schweninger. <i>Runaway Slaves: Rebels on the Plantation</i>, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-508449-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-508449-7">0-19-508449-7</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/runawayslavesreb00john_0">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFredrickson1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_M._Fredrickson" title="George M. Fredrickson">Fredrickson, George M.</a> (1971). <i>The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817–1914</i>. New York: Harper & Row. <a href="/wiki/SBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SBN (identifier)">SBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-011343-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-011343-X"><bdi>06-011343-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Image+in+the+White+Mind%3A+The+Debate+on+Afro-American+Character+and+Destiny%2C+1817%E2%80%931914&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Fredrickson&rft.aufirst=George+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackimageinwh00fred/page/n7/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreehling2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_W._Freehling" title="William W. Freehling">Freehling, William W.</a> (2007) [1990]. <i>The Road to Disunion, Volume I: Secessionists at Bay</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505814-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505814-7"><bdi>978-0-19-505814-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+to+Disunion%2C+Volume+I%3A+Secessionists+at+Bay&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505814-7&rft.aulast=Freehling&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/roadtodisunion0000free/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreehling2007" class="citation book cs1">—— (2007) [1990]. <i>The Road to Disunion, Volume II: Secessionists Triumph</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505815-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505815-4"><bdi>978-0-19-505815-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+to+Disunion%2C+Volume+II%3A+Secessionists+Triumph&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505815-4&rft.aulast=Freehling&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/roadtodisunionvo0000free/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrey1991" class="citation book cs1">Frey, Sylvia R. (1991). <i>Water from the Rock: Black Resistance in a Revolutionary Age</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-04784-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-04784-7"><bdi>0-691-04784-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Water+from+the+Rock%3A+Black+Resistance+in+a+Revolutionary+Age&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-691-04784-7&rft.aulast=Frey&rft.aufirst=Sylvia+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/waterfromrockbla0000frey/page/n7/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Gallay" title="Alan Gallay">Gallay, Alan</a>. <i>The Indian Slave Trade</i>, 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indianslavetrade00gall">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Genovese" title="Eugene Genovese">Genovese, Eugene D.</a> (1974). <i>Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made</i>. New York: Pantheon Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-49131-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-49131-9">0-394-49131-9</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rolljordanrollwo0000geno_i2q9">Preview.</a></li> <li>—— (1967). <i>The Political Economy of Slavery: Studies in the Economy and Society of the Slave South</i>. New York: Vintage Books. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicaleconomy00geno">Preview.</a></li> <li>—— and <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Fox-Genovese" title="Elizabeth Fox-Genovese">Elizabeth Fox-Genovese</a> (1983). <i>Fruits of Merchant Capital: Slavery and Bourgeois Property in the Rise and Expansion of Capitalism</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-503157-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-503157-1">0-19-503157-1</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fruitsofmerchant00foxg">Preview.</a></li> <li>Harrold, Stanley. <i>American Abolitionism: Its Direct Political Impact from Colonial Times into Reconstruction</i> (U of Virginia Press, 2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=inlzDwAAQBAJ&dq=+Harrold,+Stanley.+%27%27American+Abolitionism%22&pg=PP7">online</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHashaw2007" class="citation book cs1">Hashaw, Tim (2007). <i>The Birth of Black America: The First African Americans and the Pursuit of Freedom at Jamestown</i>. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-1718-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-1718-7"><bdi>978-0-7867-1718-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+Black+America%3A+The+First+African+Americans+and+the+Pursuit+of+Freedom+at+Jamestown&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Carroll+%26+Graf+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7867-1718-7&rft.aulast=Hashaw&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/birthofblackamer00hash/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Leon_Higginbotham,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="A. Leon Higginbotham, Jr.">Higginbotham, A. Leon, Jr.</a> <i>In the Matter of Color: Race and the American Legal Process: The Colonial Period.</i> Oxford University Press, 1978, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-502745-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-502745-0">0-19-502745-0</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/inmatterofcolor00higg">Preview.</a></li> <li>Horton, James Oliver and Horton, Lois E. <i>Slavery and the Making of America</i>, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-517903-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-517903-X">0-19-517903-X</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaverymakingof00hort">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Johnson_(historian)" title="Walter Johnson (historian)">Johnson, Walter</a> (2013). <i>River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom</i>. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04555-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04555-2"><bdi>978-0-674-04555-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=River+of+Dark+Dreams%3A+Slavery+and+Empire+in+the+Cotton+Kingdom&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-674-04555-2&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riverofdarkdream0000john">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaplan1973" class="citation book cs1">Kaplan, Sidney (1973). <i>The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution, 1770–1800</i>. Greenwich, CT: New York Graphic Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8212-0541-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8212-0541-2"><bdi>0-8212-0541-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Presence+in+the+Era+of+the+American+Revolution%2C+1770%E2%80%931800&rft.place=Greenwich%2C+CT&rft.pub=New+York+Graphic+Society&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=0-8212-0541-2&rft.aulast=Kaplan&rft.aufirst=Sidney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackpresenceint00kapl/page/n7/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolchin1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kolchin" title="Peter Kolchin">Kolchin, Peter</a> (1999) [1992]. <i>American Slavery, 1619–1877</i>. New York: Hill and Wang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8090-1554-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8090-1554-4"><bdi>0-8090-1554-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Slavery%2C+1619%E2%80%931877&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Hill+and+Wang&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-8090-1554-4&rft.aulast=Kolchin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780809015542/page/n3/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Litwack" title="Leon Litwack">Litwack, Leon F.</a> <i>Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery</i> (1979), social history of how slavery ended in the Confederacy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/beeninstormsolon0000unse">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLitwack1961" class="citation book cs1">—— (1961). <i>North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790–1860</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=North+of+Slavery%3A+The+Negro+in+the+Free+States%2C+1790%E2%80%931860&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Litwack&rft.aufirst=Leon+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/northofslavery00leon/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li>Mason, Matthew. <i>Slavery and Politics in the Early American Republic</i>, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3049-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3049-9">978-0-8078-3049-9</a>.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaverypoliticsi0000maso">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2001" class="citation book cs1">Miller, James, ed. (2001). <i>The Complete History of American Slavery</i>. San Diego, California: <a href="/wiki/Greenhaven_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhaven Press">Greenhaven Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0737704241" title="Special:BookSources/0737704241"><bdi>0737704241</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+History+of+American+Slavery&rft.place=San+Diego%2C+California&rft.pub=Greenhaven+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0737704241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Moon, Dannell, "Slavery", article in <i>Encyclopedia of Rape</i>, Merril D. Smith (Ed.), Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilbert_Ellis_Moore" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilbert Ellis Moore">Moore, Wilbert Ellis</a>, <i>American Negro Slavery and Abolition: A Sociological Study</i>, Ayer Publishing, 1980. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americannegrosla0000moor">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Morgan_(historian)" title="Edmund Morgan (historian)">Morgan, Edmund S.</a> <i><a href="/wiki/American_Slavery,_American_Freedom" title="American Slavery, American Freedom">American Slavery, American Freedom</a>: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia </i>, W.W. Norton, 1975. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanslaverya00morg_0">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris1996" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Thomas D. (1996). <i>Southern Slavery and the Law, 1619–1860</i>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-4817-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-4817-4"><bdi>0-8078-4817-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Southern+Slavery+and+the+Law%2C+1619%E2%80%931860&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-8078-4817-4&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Thomas+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/southernslavery00thom/page/n3/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Oakes_(historian)" title="James Oakes (historian)">Oakes, James</a>. <i>The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveholders</i>, 1982, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-31705-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-31705-6">0-393-31705-6</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rulingracehistor0000oake">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Colin_A._Palmer" title="Colin A. Palmer">Palmer, Colin A.</a>, ed. (1998). <i>The Worlds of Unfree Labour: From Indentured Servitude to Slavery</i>. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86078-515-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-86078-515-7"><bdi>0-86078-515-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Worlds+of+Unfree+Labour%3A+From+Indentured+Servitude+to+Slavery&rft.place=Brookfield%2C+VT&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-86078-515-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldsofunfreela0000unse/page/n7/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson1970" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, Donald L. (1970). <i>Slavery in the Structure of American Politics, 1765–1820</i>. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-15-182972-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-15-182972-1"><bdi>0-15-182972-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+the+Structure+of+American+Politics%2C+1765%E2%80%931820&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace+Jovanovich&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=0-15-182972-1&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Donald+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryinstructu0000robi/page/n7/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junius_P._Rodriguez" title="Junius P. Rodriguez">Rodriguez, Junius P.</a>, ed. <i>Encyclopedia of Emancipation and Abolition in the Transatlantic World</i>, Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2007.</li> <li>——, ed. <i>Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion</i>, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007.</li> <li>Scarborough, William K. <i>The Overseer: Plantation Management in the Old South</i>, 1984. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/overseerplantati0000scar/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li>Schermerhorn, Calvin. <i>The Business of Slavery and the Rise of American Capitalism, 1815–1860</i>, Yale University Press, 2015.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott2020" class="citation journal cs1">Scott, Daryl Michael (2020). "The Social and Intellectual Origins of 13thism". <i>Fire!!!</i>. <b>5</b> (2): 2–39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fire%21%21%21&rft.atitle=The+Social+and+Intellectual+Origins+of+13thism&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=2-39&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Daryl+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5323/48573836">Preview.</a></li> <li>Snyder, Terri L. <i>The Power to Die: Slavery and Suicide in British North America</i>, University of Chicago Press, 2015.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_M._Stampp" title="Kenneth M. Stampp">Stampp, Kenneth M.</a> <i>The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South</i>, 1956. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peculiarinstitut0000kenn_g8x6">Preview.</a></li> <li>Tadman, Michael. <i>Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South</i>, University of Wisconsin Press, 1989. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/speculatorsslave00tadm">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTannenbaum1946" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Tannenbaum" title="Frank Tannenbaum">Tannenbaum, Frank</a> (1946). <i>Slave and Citizen, the Negro in the Americas</i>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slave+and+Citizen%2C+the+Negro+in+the+Americas&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1946&rft.aulast=Tannenbaum&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slavecitizennegr0000tann">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau" title="United States Census Bureau">United States Census Bureau</a>. <i>Negro Population in the United States, 1790–1915</i>, New York: Arno Press, 1968. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americannegrohis0000unse_d4r3/page/56/mode/2up">Preview</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiecek1977" class="citation book cs1">Wiecek, William M. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sourcesofantisla00wiec/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>The Sources of Antislavery Constitutionalism in America, 1760–1848</i></a>. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-1089-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-1089-4"><bdi>0-8014-1089-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sources+of+Antislavery+Constitutionalism+in+America%2C+1760%E2%80%931848&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+NY&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-8014-1089-4&rft.aulast=Wiecek&rft.aufirst=William+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsourcesofantisla00wiec%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sourcesofantisla00wiec/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1966" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Eric Eustace (1966). <i>Capitalism and Slavery</i>. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Capitalism+and+Slavery&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=G.P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Eric+Eustace&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/capitalismslaver00will/page/n1/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._D._Wright" title="W. D. Wright">Wright, W. D.</a> <i>Historians and Slavery; A Critical Analysis of Perspectives and Irony in American Slavery and Other Recent Works</i>, Washington, D.C.: University Press of America, 1978.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYafa2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Yafa" title="Stephen Yafa">Yafa, Stephen</a> (2006). <i>Big Cotton</i>. Viking Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-03367-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-03367-7"><bdi>0-670-03367-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Big+Cotton&rft.pub=Viking+Penguin&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-670-03367-7&rft.aulast=Yafa&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> Republished as <i>Cotton: The Biography of a Revolutionary Fiber</i> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bigcottonhowhumb00yafa/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Journal_articles">Journal articles</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1969" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen, William (1969). "Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Slavery". <i>The Journal of American History</i>. <b>56</b> (3): 503–526. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1904203">10.2307/1904203</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1904203">1904203</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=Thomas+Jefferson+and+the+Problem+of+Slavery&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=503-526&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1904203&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1904203%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1904203">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCushing1961" class="citation journal cs1">Cushing, John D. (1961). "The Cushing Court and the Abolition of Slavery in Massachusetts: More Notes on the 'Quock Walker Case'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>The American Journal of Legal History</i>. <b>5</b> (2): 118–144. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F844116">10.2307/844116</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/844116">844116</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Legal+History&rft.atitle=The+Cushing+Court+and+the+Abolition+of+Slavery+in+Massachusetts%3A+More+Notes+on+the+%27Quock+Walker+Case%27&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=118-144&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F844116&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F844116%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cushing&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307/844116">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_A._David" title="Paul A. David">David, Paul A.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Temin" title="Peter Temin">Temin, Peter</a>. "Review: Slavery: The Progressive Institution?", <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Economic_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Economic History">Journal of Economic History</a>.</i> Vol. 34, No.<span class="nowrap"> </span>3 (September 1974)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelman2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Finkelman" title="Paul Finkelman">Finkelman, Paul</a> (2001). "The Founders and Slavery: Little Ventured, Little Gained". <i>Yale Journal of Law & the Humanities</i>. <b>13</b> (2): 413–449.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yale+Journal+of+Law+%26+the+Humanities&rft.atitle=The+Founders+and+Slavery%3A+Little+Ventured%2C+Little+Gained&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=413-449&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Finkelman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1432083">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynd1963" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Staughton_Lynd" title="Staughton Lynd">Lynd, Staughton</a> (October 1963). "On Turner, Beard and Slavery". <i>The Journal of Negro History</i>. <b>48</b> (4). University of Chicago Press: 235–250. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2716327">10.2307/2716327</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2716327">2716327</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149624479">149624479</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Negro+History&rft.atitle=On+Turner%2C+Beard+and+Slavery&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=235-250&rft.date=1963-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149624479%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2716327%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2716327&rft.aulast=Lynd&rft.aufirst=Staughton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2716327">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOhline1971" class="citation journal cs1">Ohline, Howard A. (October 1971). "Republicanism and Slavery: Origins of the Three-Fifths Clause in the United States Constitution". <i>The William and Mary Quarterly</i>. <b>28</b> (4). Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture: 563–584. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1922187">10.2307/1922187</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1922187">1922187</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Republicanism+and+Slavery%3A+Origins+of+the+Three-Fifths+Clause+in+the+United+States+Constitution&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=563-584&rft.date=1971-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1922187&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1922187%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ohline&rft.aufirst=Howard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1922187">Preview.</a></li> <li>Ransom, Roger L. "Was It Really All That Great to Be a Slave?" <i>Agricultural History</i>, Vol. 48, No.<span class="nowrap"> </span>4, 1974. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3741391">Preview.</a></li> <li>Stampp, Kenneth M. "Interpreting the Slaveholders' World: a Review." Agricultural History 1970 44(4): 407–412, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0002-1482">0002-1482</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peculiarinstitut0000kenn_g8x6">Preview.</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Videos">Videos</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Hahn" title="Steven Hahn">Hahn, Steven</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://southernspaces.org/2004/greatest-slave-rebellion-modern-history-southern-slaves-american-civil-war">The Greatest Slave Rebellion in Modern History: Southern Slaves in the American Civil War</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Spaces" title="Southern Spaces">Southern Spaces</a>, 2004.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery_and_the_Constitution">Slavery and the Constitution</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a>. <i>The Second Founding: How the Civil War and Reconstruction Remade the Constitution</i> (W. W. Norton & Company, 2019).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="goldstone2005" class="citation book cs1">Goldstone, Lawrence (2005). <i>Dark Bargain: Slavery, Profits, and the Struggle for the Constitution</i>. New York: Walker & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8027-1460-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8027-1460-9"><bdi>0-8027-1460-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dark+Bargain%3A+Slavery%2C+Profits%2C+and+the+Struggle+for+the+Constitution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Walker+%26+Company&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-8027-1460-9&rft.aulast=Goldstone&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/darkbargainslave0000gold/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrake1862" class="citation book cs1">Drake, Charles E. (September 17, 1862). <i>The War of Slavery upon the Constitution: Address of Charles E. Drake on the Anniversary of the Constitution Delivered in St. Louis</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+of+Slavery+upon+the+Constitution%3A+Address+of+Charles+E.+Drake+on+the+Anniversary+of+the+Constitution+Delivered+in+St.+Louis&rft.date=1862-09-17&rft.aulast=Drake&rft.aufirst=Charles+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/warofslaveryupon00drak/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="goldwin1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Goldwin" title="Robert Goldwin">Goldwin, Robert A.</a>; Kaufman, Art, eds. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryitsconseq0000unse/page/n3/mode/2up"><i>Slavery and Its Consequences: The Constitution, Equality, and Race</i></a>. Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8447-3649-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8447-3649-X"><bdi>0-8447-3649-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+Its+Consequences%3A+The+Constitution%2C+Equality%2C+and+Race&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=American+Enterprise+Institute+for+Public+Policy+Research&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-8447-3649-X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fslaveryitsconseq0000unse%2Fpage%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="kaminski1995" class="citation book cs1">Kaminski, John P., ed. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/necessaryevilsla0000unse/page/256/mode/2up"><i>A Necessary Evil?: Slavery and the Debate over the Constitution</i></a>. Madison, WI: Madison House. p. 256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0945-61216-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0945-61216-2"><bdi>978-0945-61216-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Necessary+Evil%3F%3A+Slavery+and+the+Debate+over+the+Constitution&rft.place=Madison%2C+WI&rft.pages=256&rft.pub=Madison+House&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0945-61216-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnecessaryevilsla0000unse%2Fpage%2F256%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Oakes_(historian)" title="James Oakes (historian)">Oakes, James</a>. <i>The Crooked Path to Abolition: Abraham Lincoln and the Antislavery Constitution</i> (W. W. Norton & Company, 2021).</li> <li>Van Cleve, George William. <i>A Slaveholders' Union: Slavery, Politics, and the Constitution in the Early American Republic</i> (University of Chicago Press, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.archive.org/work/nl3p77t3vnf7th6int574wusve/access/wayback/https://libraetd.lib.virginia.edu/downloads/1831ck020?filename=VanCleve_GeorgeW_May2008.pdf">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sean_Wilentz" title="Sean Wilentz">Wilentz, Sean</a>. <i>No Property in Man: Slavery and Antislavery at the Nation's Founding</i> (2nd ed. Harvard University Press, 2019).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamson1990" class="citation book cs1">Williamson, Joel (1990). <i>After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina During Reconstruction, 1861–1877</i>. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8195-6236-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8195-6236-X"><bdi>0-8195-6236-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Slavery%3A+The+Negro+in+South+Carolina+During+Reconstruction%2C+1861%E2%80%931877&rft.place=Hanover%2C+NH&rft.pub=University+Press+of+New+England&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-8195-6236-X&rft.aulast=Williamson&rft.aufirst=Joel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/afterslaverynegr0000will/page/n3/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Journal_articles_2">Journal articles</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid1924" class="citation journal cs1">David, C. W. A. (January 1924). "The Fugitive Slave Law of 1793 and its Antecedents". <i>The Journal of Negro History</i>. <b>9</b> (1). The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Association for the Study of African American Life and History: 18–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2713433">10.2307/2713433</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2713433">2713433</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149160543">149160543</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Negro+History&rft.atitle=The+Fugitive+Slave+Law+of+1793+and+its+Antecedents&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=18-25&rft.date=1924-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149160543%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2713433%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2713433&rft.aulast=David&rft.aufirst=C.+W.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2713433">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoughertyHeckelman2008" class="citation journal cs1">Dougherty, Keith L.; Heckelman, Jac C. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11127-008-9297-7">"Voting on Slavery at the Constitutional Convention"</a>. <i>Public Choice</i>. <b>136</b> (3/4): 293–313. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11127-008-9297-7">10.1007/s11127-008-9297-7</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40270762">40270762</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14103553">14103553</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Public+Choice&rft.atitle=Voting+on+Slavery+at+the+Constitutional+Convention&rft.volume=136&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=293-313&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14103553%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40270762%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11127-008-9297-7&rft.aulast=Dougherty&rft.aufirst=Keith+L.&rft.au=Heckelman%2C+Jac+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs11127-008-9297-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/40270762">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelman2011" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Finkelman" title="Paul Finkelman">Finkelman, Paul</a> (April 2011). "Slavery, the Constitution, and the Origins of the Civil War". <i>OAH Magazine of History</i>. <b>25</b> (2). Oxford University Press: 14–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foahmag%2Foar004">10.1093/oahmag/oar004</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23210240">23210240</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=OAH+Magazine+of+History&rft.atitle=Slavery%2C+the+Constitution%2C+and+the+Origins+of+the+Civil+War&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=14-18&rft.date=2011-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foahmag%2Foar004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23210240%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Finkelman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23210240">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelman2000" class="citation journal cs1">—— (Winter 2000). "Garrison's Constitution: The Covenant with Death and How It Was Made". <i>Prologue Magazine</i>. <b>32</b> (4): 14–18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Prologue+Magazine&rft.atitle=Garrison%27s+Constitution%3A+The+Covenant+with+Death+and+How+It+Was+Made&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=14-18&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Finkelman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2000/winter/garrisons-constitution-1">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreehling1972" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_W._Freehling" title="William W. Freehling">Freehling, William W.</a> (February 1972). "The Founding Fathers and Slavery". <i>The American Historical Review</i>. <b>77</b> (1). Oxford University Press: 81–93. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1856595">10.2307/1856595</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1856595">1856595</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Founding+Fathers+and+Slavery&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=81-93&rft.date=1972-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1856595&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1856595%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Freehling&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1856595">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnowles2013" class="citation journal cs1">Knowles, Helen J. (August 2013). "Seeing the Light: Lysander Spooner's Increasingly Popular Constitutionalism". <i>Law and History Review</i>. <b>31</b> (3). American Society for Legal History: 531–558. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0738248013000242">10.1017/S0738248013000242</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23489502">23489502</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146391068">146391068</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Law+and+History+Review&rft.atitle=Seeing+the+Light%3A+Lysander+Spooner%27s+Increasingly+Popular+Constitutionalism&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=531-558&rft.date=2013-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146391068%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23489502%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0738248013000242&rft.aulast=Knowles&rft.aufirst=Helen+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23489502">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaltz1992" class="citation journal cs1">Maltz, Earl M. (October 1992). "Slavery, Federalism, and the Structure of the Constitution". <i>The American Journal of Legal History</i>. <b>36</b> (4). Oxford University Press: 466–498. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F845555">10.2307/845555</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/845555">845555</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Legal+History&rft.atitle=Slavery%2C+Federalism%2C+and+the+Structure+of+the+Constitution&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=466-498&rft.date=1992-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F845555&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F845555%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Maltz&rft.aufirst=Earl+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/845555">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatterson1987" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Orlando_Patterson" title="Orlando Patterson">Patterson, Orlando</a> (Autumn 1987). "The Unholy Trinity: Freedom, Slavery, and the American Constitution". <i>Social Research</i>. <b>54</b> (3). The Johns Hopkins University Press: 543–577. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40970472">40970472</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Research&rft.atitle=The+Unholy+Trinity%3A+Freedom%2C+Slavery%2C+and+the+American+Constitution&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=543-577&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40970472%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=Orlando&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40970472">Preview.</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_and_local_studies">State and local studies</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke,_Diane_Mutti2010" class="citation book cs1">Burke, Diane Mutti (2010). <i>On Slavery's Border: Missouri's Small Slaveholding Households, 1815–1865</i>. University of Georgia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-3683-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-3683-1"><bdi>978-0-8203-3683-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Slavery%27s+Border%3A+Missouri%27s+Small+Slaveholding+Households%2C+1815%E2%80%931865&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8203-3683-1&rft.au=Burke%2C+Diane+Mutti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onslaverysborder0000burk">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFede1992" class="citation book cs1">Fede, Andrew (1992). <i>People Without Rights: An Interpretation of the Fundamentals of the Law of Slavery in the U.S. South</i>. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8153-0894-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8153-0894-9"><bdi>0-8153-0894-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=People+Without+Rights%3A+An+Interpretation+of+the+Fundamentals+of+the+Law+of+Slavery+in+the+U.S.+South&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Garland+Publishing%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8153-0894-9&rft.aulast=Fede&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peoplewithoutrig00fede/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_J._Fields" title="Barbara J. Fields">Fields, Barbara J.</a> <i>Slavery and Freedom on the Middle Ground: Maryland During the Nineteenth Century</i>, Yale University Press, 1985. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryfreedomon0000fiel/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreehling1982" class="citation book cs1">Freehling, Alice Goodyear (1982). <i>Drift Toward Dissolution: The Virginia Slavery Debate of 1831–1832</i>. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8071-1035-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8071-1035-3"><bdi>0-8071-1035-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drift+Toward+Dissolution%3A+The+Virginia+Slavery+Debate+of+1831%E2%80%931832&rft.place=Baton+Rouge%2C+LA&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-8071-1035-3&rft.aulast=Freehling&rft.aufirst=Alice+Goodyear&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/drifttowarddisso0000free/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolton1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Woody_Holton" title="Woody Holton">Holton, Woody</a> (1999). <i>Forced Founders: Indians, Debtors, Slaves, and the Making of the American Revolution in Virginia</i>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press (published for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, Williamsburg, Virginia). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-2501-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-2501-8"><bdi>0-8078-2501-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forced+Founders%3A+Indians%2C+Debtors%2C+Slaves%2C+and+the+Making+of+the+American+Revolution+in+Virginia&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press+%28published+for+the+Omohundro+Institute+of+Early+American+History+and+Culture%2C+Williamsburg%2C+Virginia%29&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-8078-2501-8&rft.aulast=Holton&rft.aufirst=Woody&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forcedfoundersin00holt/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li>Jennison, Watson W. <i>Cultivating Race: The Expansion of Slavery in Georgia, 1750–1860</i>, University Press of Kentucky, 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cultivatingracee0000jenn">Preview.</a></li> <li>Jewett, Clayton E. and John O. Allen; <i>Slavery in the South: A State-By-State History</i> Greenwood Press, 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryinsouthst0000jewe">Preview.</a></li> <li>Kulikoff, Alan. <i>Tobacco and Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake, 1680–1800</i> University of North Carolina Press, 1986. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tobaccoslaves00kuli">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Minges" title="Patrick Minges">Minges, Patrick N.</a>; <i>Slavery in the Cherokee Nation: The Keetoowah Society and the Defining of a People, 1855–1867</i>, 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryincheroke0000ming">Preview.</a></li> <li>Mohr, Clarence L. <i>On the Threshold of Freedom: Masters and Slaves in Civil War Georgia</i> University of Georgia Press, 1986. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onthresholdoffre0000mohr">Preview.</a></li> <li>Mooney, Chase C. <i>Slavery in Tennessee</i>, Indiana University Press, 1957.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Morgan_(historian)" title="Edmund Morgan (historian)">Morgan, Edmund S.</a> (1995) [1975]. <i>American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia</i>. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-31288-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-31288-7"><bdi>0-393-31288-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Slavery%2C+American+Freedom%3A+The+Ordeal+of+Colonial+Virginia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-393-31288-7&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=Edmund+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanslaverya0000morg/page/n3/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNash1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gary_B._Nash" title="Gary B. Nash">Nash, Gary B.</a> (1991). <i>Freedom by Degrees: Emancipation in Pennsylvania and Its Aftermath</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-504583-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-504583-1"><bdi>0-19-504583-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+by+Degrees%3A+Emancipation+in+Pennsylvania+and+Its+Aftermath&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-19-504583-1&rft.aulast=Nash&rft.aufirst=Gary+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/freedombydegrees0000nash/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li>Olwell, Robert. <i>Masters, Slaves, & Subjects: The Culture of Power in the South Carolina Low Country, 1740–1790</i> Cornell University Press, 1998.</li> <li>Reidy, Joseph P. <i>From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South, Central Georgia, 1800–1880</i> University of North Carolina Press, 1992. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromslaverytoagr00reid_0">Preview.</a></li> <li>Ripley, C. Peter. <i>Slaves and Freemen in Civil War Louisiana</i> Louisiana State University Press, 1976.</li> <li>Rivers, Larry Eugene. <i>Slavery in Florida: Territorial Days to Emancipation</i>, University Press of Florida, 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryinflorida0000rive">Preview.</a></li> <li>Sellers, James Benson; <i>Slavery in Alabama</i> University of Alabama Press, 1950. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryinalabama0000jame">Preview.</a></li> <li>Sydnor, Charles S. <i>Slavery in Mississippi</i>, 1933. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryinmississ0000sydn">Preview.</a></li> <li>Takagi, Midori. <i>Rearing Wolves to Our Own Destruction: Slavery in Richmond, Virginia, 1782–1865</i> University Press of Virginia, 1999. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rearingwolvestoo0000taka">Preview.</a></li> <li>Taylor, Joe Gray. <i>Negro Slavery in Louisiana</i>. Louisiana Historical Society, 1963. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/negroslaveryinlo0000tayl">Preview.</a></li> <li>Trexler, Harrison Anthony. <i>Slavery in Missouri, 1804–1865</i>, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1914. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryinmissour00trex">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_H._Wood" title="Peter H. Wood">Wood, Peter H.</a> <i>Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion</i> W.W. Norton & Company, 1974. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackmajorityneg0000wood">Preview.</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Videos_2">Videos</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Jenkins, Gary (director). <i>Negroes To Hire</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B003Y5H1VO/ref=cm_cr_asin_lnk">(Lifedocumentaries, 2010)</a>; 52 minutes DVD; on slavery in Missouri</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">Gannon, James (October 25, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190722120128/https://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/aljazeeracorrespondent/2018/10/moral-debt-legacy-slavery-usa-181017093941707.html"><i>A Moral Debt: The Legacy of Slavery in the USA</i></a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Arabic" title="Al Jazeera Arabic">Al-Jazeera</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/aljazeeracorrespondent/2018/10/moral-debt-legacy-slavery-usa-181017093941707.html">the original</a> on July 22, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 28,</span> 2018</span>. <q>Gannon is a descendant of Robert E. Lee</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Moral+Debt%3A+The+Legacy+of+Slavery+in+the+USA&rft.date=2018-10-25&rft.aulast=Gannon&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fprogrammes%2Faljazeeracorrespondent%2F2018%2F10%2Fmoral-debt-legacy-slavery-usa-181017093941707.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_and_memory">Historiography and memory</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_L._Ayers" title="Edward L. Ayers">Ayers, Edward L.</a> "The American Civil War, Emancipation, and Reconstruction on the World Stage," <i>OAH Magazine of History</i>, January 2006, Vol. 20, Issue 1, pp.<span class="nowrap"> </span>54–60</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ira_Berlin" title="Ira Berlin">Berlin, Ira</a>. "American Slavery in History and Memory and the Search for Social Justice", <i>The Journal of American History</i>, March 2004, Vol. 90, Issue 4, pp.<span class="nowrap"> </span>1251–1268. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3660347">Preview.</a></li> <li>Boles, John B. and Evelyn T. Nolen, eds., <i>Interpreting Southern History: Historiographical Essays in Honor of Sanford W. Higginbotham</i> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/interpretingsout0000unse">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Brown_(historian)" title="Vincent Brown (historian)">Brown, Vincent</a>. "Social Death and Political Life in the Study of Slavery", <i>American Historical Review</i>, December 2009, Vol. 114, Issue 5, pp.<span class="nowrap"> </span>1231–1249, examined historical and sociological studies since the influential 1982 book <i>Slavery and Social Death</i> by American sociologist <a href="/wiki/Orlando_Patterson" title="Orlando Patterson">Orlando Patterson</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23303423">Preview.</a></li> <li>Campbell, Gwyn. "Children and slavery in the new world: A review", <i>Slavery & Abolition</i>, August 2006, Vol. 27, Issue 2, pp.<span class="nowrap"> </span>261–285</li> <li>Collins, Bruce. "Review: American Slavery and Its Consequences" <i>Historical Journal</i> (1979) 33#4 pp.<span class="nowrap"> </span>997–1015 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.com/stable/2638699">online</a></li> <li>Dirck, Brian. "Changing Perspectives on Lincoln, Race, and Slavery," <i>OAH Magazine of History</i>, October 2007, Vol. 21, Issue 4, pp.<span class="nowrap"> </span>9–12. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25162137">Preview.</a></li> <li>Farrow, Anne; Lang, Joel; Frank, Jenifer. <i>Complicity: How the North Promoted, Prolonged, and Profited from Slavery</i>, Ballantine Books, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-46783-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-345-46783-3">0-345-46783-3</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/complicityhownor0000farr">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Fogel" title="Robert Fogel">Fogel, Robert W.</a> <i>The Slavery Debates, 1952–1990: A Retrospective</i>, 2007.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFord2009" class="citation book cs1">Ford, Lacy K. (2009). <i>Deliver Us from Evil. The Slavery Question in the Old South</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511809-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511809-4"><bdi>978-0-19-511809-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deliver+Us+from+Evil.+The+Slavery+Question+in+the+Old+South&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511809-4&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=Lacy+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/deliverusfromevi0000ford_h1u1">Preview.</a></li> <li>Fox-Amato, Matthew. <i>Exposing Slavery: Photography, Human Bondage, and the Birth of Modern Visual Politics in America</i> (Oxford University Press, 2019).</li> <li>Frey, Sylvia R. "The Visible Church: Historiography of African American Religion since Raboteau", <i>Slavery & Abolition</i>, January 2008, Vol. 29 Issue 1, pp.<span class="nowrap"> </span>83–110</li> <li>Hettle, Wallace. "White Society in the Old South: The Literary Evidence Reconsidered", <i>Southern Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the South</i>, Fall/Winter 2006, Vol. 13, Issue 3/4, pp. 29–44</li> <li>King, Richard H. "Review: Marxism and the Slave South", <i>American Quarterly</i> 29 (1977), 117–131. focus on Genovese. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2712264">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlarman2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Klarman" title="Michael Klarman">Klarman, Michael J.</a> (2016). <i>Unfinished Business: Racial Equality in American History</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-994203-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-994203-9"><bdi>978-0-19-994203-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unfinished+Business%3A+Racial+Equality+in+American+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-19-994203-9&rft.aulast=Klarman&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195304282/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kolchin" title="Peter Kolchin">Kolchin, Peter</a>. "American Historians and Antebellum Southern Slavery, 1959–1984", in <a href="/wiki/William_J._Cooper,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="William J. Cooper, Jr.">William J. Cooper</a>, Michael F. Holt, and <a href="/wiki/John_McCardell" class="mw-redirect" title="John McCardell">John McCardell</a>, eds., <i>A Master's Due: Essays in Honor of David Herbert Donald</i> (1985), 87–111</li> <li>Laurie, Bruce. "Workers, Abolitionists, and the Historians: A Historiographical Perspective", <i>Labor: Studies in Working Class History of the Americas</i>, Winter 2008, Vol. 5, Issue 4, pp.<span class="nowrap"> </span>17–55</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_E._Neely,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Mark E. Neely, Jr.">Neely Jr., Mark E.</a> "Lincoln, Slavery, and the Nation," <i>The Journal of American History</i>, September 2009, Vol. 96 Issue 2, pp.<span class="nowrap"> </span>456–458. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25622304">Preview.</a></li> <li>Parish; Peter J. <i>Slavery: History and Historians</i> Westview Press. 1989. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slavery00pete/page/4/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dylan_C._Penningroth" title="Dylan C. Penningroth">Penningroth, Dylan</a>. "Writing Slavery's History", <i>OAH Magazine of History</i>, April 2009, Vol. 23 Issue 2, pp.<span class="nowrap"> </span>13–20. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40505983">Preview.</a></li> <li>Rael, Patrick. <i>Eighty-Eight Years: The Long Death of Slavery in the United States, 1777–1865.</i> Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2015.</li> <li>Sidbury, James. "Globalization, Creolization, and the Not-So-Peculiar Institution", <i>Journal of Southern History</i>, August 2007, Vol. 73, Issue 3, pp.<span class="nowrap"> </span>617–630, on colonial era. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27649484">Preview.</a></li> <li>Stuckey, P. Sterling. "Reflections on the Scholarship of African Origins and Influence in American Slavery", <i>Journal of African American History</i>, Fall 2006, Vol. 91 Issue 4, pp.<span class="nowrap"> </span>425–443. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20064125">Preview.</a></li> <li>Sweet, John Wood. "The Subject of the Slave Trade: Recent Currents in the Histories of the Atlantic, Great Britain, and Western Africa," <i>Early American Studies, An Interdisciplinary Journal</i>, Spring 2009, Vol.<span class="nowrap"> </span>7 Issue 1, pp.<span class="nowrap"> </span>1–45</li> <li>Tadman, Michael. "The Reputation of the Slave Trader in Southern History and the Social Memory of the South", <i>American Nineteenth Century History</i>, September 2007, Vol. 8, Issue 3, pp.<span class="nowrap"> </span>247–271</li> <li>Tulloch, Hugh. <i>The Debate on the American Civil War Era</i> (1998), ch. 2–4</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Octavia_V._Rogers_Albert" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavia V. Rogers Albert">Albert, Octavia V. Rogers</a>. <i>The House of Bondage Or Charlotte Brooks and Other Slaves</i>. Oxford University Press, 1991. Primary sources with commentary. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-506784-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-506784-3">0-19-506784-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">An American (1855). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cottoniskingorcu01chri"><i>Cotton is king: or, The culture of cotton, and its relation to Agriculture, Manufactures and Commerce; to the free colored people; and to those who hold that slavery is in itself sinful</i></a>. Cincinnati: Moore, Wilstach, Keys.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cotton+is+king%3A+or%2C+The+culture+of+cotton%2C+and+its+relation+to+Agriculture%2C+Manufactures+and+Commerce%3B+to+the+free+colored+people%3B+and+to+those+who+hold+that+slavery+is+in+itself+sinful&rft.place=Cincinnati&rft.pub=Moore%2C+Wilstach%2C+Keys&rft.date=1855&rft.au=An+American&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcottoniskingorcu01chri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBasker2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Basker" title="James Basker">Basker, James G.</a> (2002). <i>Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems About Slavery, 1660–1810</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-09172-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-09172-9"><bdi>0-300-09172-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Amazing+Grace%3A+An+Anthology+of+Poems+About+Slavery%2C+1660%E2%80%931810&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-300-09172-9&rft.aulast=Basker&rft.aufirst=James+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/amazinggraceanth0000unse">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="berlin1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ira_Berlin" title="Ira Berlin">Berlin, Ira</a>; <a href="/wiki/Barbara_J._Fields" title="Barbara J. Fields">Fields, Barbara J.</a>; Miller, Steven F.; <a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Reidy" title="Joseph P. Reidy">Reidy, Joseph P.</a>; Rowland, Leslie S., eds. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781565841208/page/n3/mode/2up"><i>Free at Last: A Documentary History of Slavery, Freedom, and the Civil War</i></a>. New York: The New Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56584-120-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-56584-120-4"><bdi>1-56584-120-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Free+at+Last%3A+A+Documentary+History+of+Slavery%2C+Freedom%2C+and+the+Civil+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+New+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1-56584-120-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9781565841208%2Fpage%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781565841208/page/n3/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="berlin1997" class="citation book cs1">——; Rowland, Leslie S., eds. (1997). <i>Families and Freedom: A Documentary History of African-American Kinship in the Civil War Era</i>. New York: The New Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56584-026-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-56584-026-7"><bdi>1-56584-026-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Families+and+Freedom%3A+A+Documentary+History+of+African-American+Kinship+in+the+Civil+War+Era&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+New+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-56584-026-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/familiesfreedomd00irab/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="berlin1998" class="citation book cs1">——; Favreau, Marc; Miller, Steven F., eds. (1998). <i>Remembering Slavery: African Americans Talk About Their Personal Experiences of Slavery and Emancipation</i>. New York: The New Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Remembering+Slavery%3A+African+Americans+Talk+About+Their+Personal+Experiences+of+Slavery+and+Emancipation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+New+Press&rft.date=1998&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rememberingslave0000irab_h1y3/page/n5/mode/2up">Preview</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Blassingame" title="John W. Blassingame">Blassingame, John W.</a>, ed., <i>Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies</i>. Louisiana State University Press, 1977.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglass2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Douglass, Frederick</a> (2017) [1845]. Morris, Kenneth B. Jr. (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Narrative_of_the_Life_of_Frederick_Douglass,_an_American_Slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave">Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (Written by Himself)</a></i>. Atlanta, GA: Frederick Douglass Family Initiatives. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9984730-2-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9984730-2-4"><bdi>978-0-9984730-2-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Narrative+of+the+Life+of+Frederick+Douglass%2C+an+American+Slave+%28Written+by+Himself%29&rft.place=Atlanta%2C+GA&rft.pub=Frederick+Douglass+Family+Initiatives&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-9984730-2-4&rft.aulast=Douglass&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/narrativeoflifeo0000doug_q4s0/page/n39/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li>——, "<a href="/wiki/The_Heroic_Slave" title="The Heroic Slave">The Heroic Slave</a>." <i>Autographs for Freedom</i>, <a href="/wiki/Julia_Griffiths" title="Julia Griffiths">Julia Griffiths</a>, ed., Boston: John P. Jewett and Company, 1853. pp. 174–239. Available at the Documenting the American South website.</li> <li>——, Collected Articles of Frederick Douglass, A Slave (Project Gutenberg)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_History_Museum" title="Missouri History Museum">Missouri History Museum</a> Archives <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mohistory.org/files/archives_guides/SlaveryCollection.pdf">Slavery Collection</a></li> <li>Morgan, Kenneth, ed. <i>Slavery in America: a reader and guide</i> (University of Georgia Press, 2005.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Rawick" title="George Rawick">Rawick, George P.</a>, ed., <i>The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography</i>. 19 vols. Greenwood Publishing Company, 1972. Collection of WPA interviews made in the 1930s with ex-slaves</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scholarly_books">Scholarly books</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Andrews, William L. (2019) <i>Slavery and Class in the American South: A Generation of Slave Narrative Testimony, 1840–1865</i> (Oxford University Press).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_E._Baptist" title="Edward E. Baptist">Baptist, Edward E.</a> (2014). <i>The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism</i>. <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00296-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00296-2"><bdi>978-0-465-00296-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Half+Has+Never+Been+Told%3A+Slavery+and+the+Making+of+American+Capitalism&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-465-00296-2&rft.aulast=Baptist&rft.aufirst=Edward+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/halfhasneverbeen0000bapt_c1d5">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sven_Beckert" title="Sven Beckert">Beckert, Sven</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UyyOAwAAQBAJ"><i>Empire of Cotton: A Global History</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Knopf_Doubleday" class="mw-redirect" title="Knopf Doubleday">Knopf Doubleday</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-35325-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-35325-0"><bdi>978-0-385-35325-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Cotton%3A+A+Global+History&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-385-35325-0&rft.aulast=Beckert&rft.aufirst=Sven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUyyOAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empireofcottongl0000beck">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="beckert2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sven_Beckert" title="Sven Beckert">Beckert, Sven</a>; Rockman, Seth, eds. (2016). <i>Slavery's Capitalism: A New History of American Economic Development</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Press" title="University of Pennsylvania Press">University of Pennsylvania Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4841-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4841-8"><bdi>978-0-8122-4841-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery%27s+Capitalism%3A+A+New+History+of+American+Economic+Development&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-4841-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaverys-capitalism/page/n3/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li>Brady, Steven J. (2022) <i>Chained to History: Slavery and US Foreign Relations to 1865</i> (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdiplo.org/to/RT24-21">Online Reviews.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="finkelman1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Finkelman" title="Paul Finkelman">Finkelman, Paul</a> (1996). <i>Slavery and the Founders: Race and Liberty in the Age of Jefferson</i>. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56324-590-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56324-590-9"><bdi>978-1-56324-590-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+the+Founders%3A+Race+and+Liberty+in+the+Age+of+Jefferson&rft.place=Armonk%2C+NY&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-56324-590-9&rft.aulast=Finkelman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryfoundersr0000fink">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="finkelman2002" class="citation book cs1">Finkelman, Paul, ed. (2002). <i>Slavery & The Law</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-945612-36-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-945612-36-2"><bdi>0-945612-36-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+%26+The+Law&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-945612-36-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaverylaw0000unse/page/n3/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="forret2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Forret" title="Jeff Forret">Forret, Jeff</a> (2015). <i>New Directions in Slavery Studies: Commodification, Community, and Comparison</i>. <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_State_University_Press" title="Louisiana State University Press">Louisiana State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-6115-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-6115-9"><bdi>978-0-8071-6115-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Directions+in+Slavery+Studies%3A+Commodification%2C+Community%2C+and+Comparison&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-8071-6115-9&rft.aulast=Forret&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Gellman, David Nathaniel. <i>Emancipating New York: The politics of slavery and freedom, 1777–1827</i> (LSU Press, 2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6G3T7KCh_3AC&dq=slavery+new+york&pg=PP9">Online.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Johnson_(historian)" title="Walter Johnson (historian)">Johnson, Walter</a> (2013). <i>River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04555-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04555-2"><bdi>978-0-674-04555-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=River+of+Dark+Dreams%3A+Slavery+and+Empire+in+the+Cotton+Kingdom&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-674-04555-2&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riverofdarkdream0000john">Preview.</a></li> <li>Larson, Edward J. (2023) <i>American Inheritance: Liberty and Slavery in the Birth of a Nation, 1765–1795</i> (W. W. Norton, 2023) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/American-Inheritance-Liberty-Slavery-1765-1795/dp/0393882209/">Excerpt.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_O._Morgan" title="Kenneth O. Morgan">Morgan, Kenneth O.</a> (2000) <i>Slavery and Servitude in North America, 1607–1800</i> (Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryservitude0000morg/page/n3/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li>Parish, Peter J. (2022) <i>Slavery: History and Historians</i> (New York: Harper & Row). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slavery00pete/page/n3/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReséndez2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Res%C3%A9ndez" title="Andrés Reséndez">Reséndez, Andrés</a> (2016). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Other_Slavery:_The_Uncovered_Story_of_Indian_Enslavement_in_America" class="mw-redirect" title="The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America">The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America</a></i>. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-544-94710-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-544-94710-8"><bdi>978-0-544-94710-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Other+Slavery%3A+The+Uncovered+Story+of+Indian+Enslavement+in+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-544-94710-8&rft.aulast=Res%C3%A9ndez&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="schermerhorn2015" class="citation book cs1">Schermerhorn, Calvin (2015). <i>The Business of Slavery and the Rise of American Capitalism, 1815–1860</i>. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-19200-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-19200-1"><bdi>978-0-300-19200-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Business+of+Slavery+and+the+Rise+of+American+Capitalism%2C+1815%E2%80%931860&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-300-19200-1&rft.aulast=Schermerhorn&rft.aufirst=Calvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Schwalm, Leslie A. (1997) <i>A Hard Hight for We: Women's Transition from Slavery to Freedom in South Carolina</i> (Chicago: University of Illinois Press). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hardfightforwewo0000schw/page/n7/mode/2up">Preview.</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scholarly_articles">Scholarly articles</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Baker, Regina S. (2022) "The historical racial regime and racial inequality in poverty in the American south." <i>American Journal of Sociology</i> 127.6 (2022): 1721–1781. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lisdatacenter.org/wps/liswps/820.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Hilt, Eric. (2010). "Revisiting Time on the Cross After 45 Years: The Slavery Debates and the New Economic History." <i>Capitalism: A Journal of History and Economics</i>, Volume 1, Number 2, pp.<span class="nowrap"> </span>456–483. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcap.2020.0000">10.1353/cap.2020.0000</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Lindsey, Treva B.; Johnson, Jessica Marie (Fall 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edb.pbclibrary.org:2084/apps/doc/A388827961/AONE?u=d0_mlpbcls&sid=AONE&xid=5d794dee">"Searching for Climax: Black Erotic Lives in Slavery and Freedom"</a>. <i>Meridians: Feminism, Race, Transnationalism</i>. <b>12</b> (2): 169+<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 25,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Meridians%3A+Feminism%2C+Race%2C+Transnationalism&rft.atitle=Searching+for+Climax%3A+Black+Erotic+Lives+in+Slavery+and+Freedom&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=169%2B&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Lindsey&rft.aufirst=Treva+B.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Jessica+Marie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fedb.pbclibrary.org%3A2084%2Fapps%2Fdoc%2FA388827961%2FAONE%3Fu%3Dd0_mlpbcls%26sid%3DAONE%26xid%3D5d794dee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged June 2022">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li>Logan, Trevon D. (2022) "American Enslavement and the Recovery of Black Economic History." <i>Journal of Economic Perspectives</i> 36.2 (2022): 81–98. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdf/10.1257/jep.36.2.81">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._McCarthy" title="Thomas A. McCarthy">McCarthy, Thomas</a> (December 2004). "Coming to Terms with Our Past, Part II: On the Morality and Politics of Reparations for Slavery". <i><a href="/wiki/Political_Theory_(journal)" title="Political Theory (journal)">Political Theory</a></i>. <b>32</b> (6): 750–772. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0090591704268924">10.1177/0090591704268924</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32786606">32786606</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Theory&rft.atitle=Coming+to+Terms+with+Our+Past%2C+Part+II%3A+On+the+Morality+and+Politics+of+Reparations+for+Slavery&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=750-772&rft.date=2004-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0090591704268924&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32786606%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Naidu, S. (2020). "American slavery and labour market power." <i>Economic History of Developing Regions</i>, 35(1), 3–22. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F20780389.2020.1734312">10.1080/20780389.2020.1734312</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Theresa_A._Singleton" title="Theresa A. Singleton">Singleton, Theresa A.</a> (1995). "The Archaeology of Slavery in North America". <i><a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Anthropology" title="Annual Review of Anthropology">Annual Review of Anthropology</a></i>. <b>24</b>: 119–140. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.an.24.100195.001003">10.1146/annurev.an.24.100195.001003</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Anthropology&rft.atitle=The+Archaeology+of+Slavery+in+North+America&rft.volume=24&rft.pages=119-140&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.an.24.100195.001003&rft.aulast=Singleton&rft.aufirst=Theresa+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Turner, Edward Raymond (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=phhLAQAAMAAJ">"The First Abolition Society in the United States"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Magazine_of_History_and_Biography" title="Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography">Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography</a></i>. <b>36</b>: 92–109.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pennsylvania+Magazine+of+History+and+Biography&rft.atitle=The+First+Abolition+Society+in+the+United+States&rft.volume=36&rft.pages=92-109&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Edward+Raymond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DphhLAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oral_histories_and_autobiographies_of_ex-slaves">Oral histories and autobiographies of ex-slaves</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrewsMason2008" class="citation book cs1">Andrews, William L.; Mason, Regina E., eds. (2008). <i>Life of William Grimes, the Runaway Slave</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534331-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534331-1"><bdi>978-0-19-534331-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+of+William+Grimes%2C+the+Runaway+Slave&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-534331-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_W._Blight" title="David W. Blight">Blight, David W.</a> (2009). <i>A Slave No More: Two Men Who Escaped to Freedom, Including Their Own Narratives of Emancipation</i>. Boston and New York: Mariner Books, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-101-232-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-101-232-9">978-0-15-101-232-9</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Goings, Henry (2012). Schermerhorn, Calvin; Plunkett, Michael; Gaynor, Edward (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bpuMd7z3klIC"><i>Rambles of a Runaway from Southern Slavery</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Virginia_Press" title="University of Virginia Press">University of Virginia Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-3240-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-3240-8"><bdi>978-0-8139-3240-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rambles+of+a+Runaway+from+Southern+Slavery&rft.pub=University+of+Virginia+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8139-3240-8&rft.aulast=Goings&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbpuMd7z3klIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Hurmence, Belinda, ed. (1989). <i>Before Freedom When I Just Can Remember: Twenty-seven Oral Histories of Former South Carolina Slaves</i>. <a href="/wiki/Blair" title="Blair">Blair</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89587-069-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89587-069-8"><bdi>978-0-89587-069-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+Freedom+When+I+Just+Can+Remember%3A+Twenty-seven+Oral+Histories+of+Former+South+Carolina+Slaves&rft.pub=Blair&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-89587-069-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Hurmence, Belinda, ed. (1990). <i>Before Freedom: Forty-Eight Oral Histories of Former North & South Carolina Slaves</i>. <a href="/wiki/New_American_Library" title="New American Library">Mentor Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-451-62781-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-451-62781-0"><bdi>978-0-451-62781-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+Freedom%3A+Forty-Eight+Oral+Histories+of+Former+North+%26+South+Carolina+Slaves&rft.pub=Mentor+Books&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-451-62781-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Hurmence, Belinda, ed. (1990). <i>My Folks Don't Want Me to Talk about Slavery: Twenty-One Oral Histories of Former North Carolina Slaves</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Folks+Don%27t+Want+Me+to+Talk+about+Slavery%3A+Twenty-One+Oral+Histories+of+Former+North+Carolina+Slaves&rft.date=1990&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Hurmence, Belinda, ed. (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaverytimewheni00beli"><i>Slavery Time When I Was Chillun</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/G._P._Putnam%27s_Sons" title="G. P. Putnam's Sons">G. P. Putnam's Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-399-23194-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-399-23194-0"><bdi>978-0-399-23194-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+Time+When+I+Was+Chillun&rft.pub=G.+P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-399-23194-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fslaverytimewheni00beli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Hurmence, Belinda, ed. (1994). <i>We Lived in a Little Cabin in the Yard: Personal Accounts of Slavery in Virginia</i>. <a href="/wiki/Blair" title="Blair">Blair</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89587-118-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89587-118-3"><bdi>978-0-89587-118-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=We+Lived+in+a+Little+Cabin+in+the+Yard%3A+Personal+Accounts+of+Slavery+in+Virginia&rft.pub=Blair&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-89587-118-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Jacobs, Harriet</a> (1861). <a href="/wiki/Lydia_Maria_Child" title="Lydia Maria Child">Child, Lydia Maria</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/jacobs/jacobs.html"><i>Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Thayer_%26_Eldridge" title="Thayer & Eldridge">Thayer & Eldridge</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Incidents+in+the+Life+of+a+Slave+Girl%2C+Written+by+Herself&rft.pub=Thayer+%26+Eldridge&rft.date=1861&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Harriet&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocsouth.unc.edu%2Ffpn%2Fjacobs%2Fjacobs.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Clifton H. (1993). <i>God Struck Me Dead: Voices of Ex-Slaves</i>. <a href="/wiki/Pilgrim_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim Press">Pilgrim Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8298-0945-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8298-0945-9"><bdi>978-0-8298-0945-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God+Struck+Me+Dead%3A+Voices+of+Ex-Slaves&rft.pub=Pilgrim+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8298-0945-9&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Clifton+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliographies">Bibliographies</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="miller1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_C._Miller" title="Joseph C. Miller">Miller, Joseph C.</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryslavingin0000mill/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>Slavery and Slaving in World History: A Bibliography, Volume I, 1900–1991</i></a>. Millwood, NY: Kraus International Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-527-63660-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-527-63660-6"><bdi>0-527-63660-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+Slaving+in+World+History%3A+A+Bibliography%2C+Volume+I%2C+1900%E2%80%931991&rft.place=Millwood%2C+NY&rft.pub=Kraus+International+Publications&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-527-63660-6&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Joseph+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fslaveryslavingin0000mill%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="miller1999" class="citation book cs1">—— (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slaveryslavingin0002mill/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>Slavery and Slaving in World History: A Bibliography, Volume II, 1992–1996</i></a>. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-765-60279-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-765-60279-2"><bdi>0-765-60279-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+Slaving+in+World+History%3A+A+Bibliography%2C+Volume+II%2C+1992%E2%80%931996&rft.place=Armonk%2C+NY&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-765-60279-2&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Joseph+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fslaveryslavingin0002mill%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discussions_by_foreigners">Discussions by foreigners</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickens1913" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Dickens, Charles</a> (1913). "Slavery". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.org/files/675/675-h/675-h.htm"><i>American Notes for General Circulation</i></a>. First published in 1842. See Louise H. Johnson, "The Source of the Chapter on Slavery in Dickens' <i>American Notes</i>", <i>American Literature,</i> vol. 14, Jan. 1943, pp. 427–430. London: <a href="/wiki/Chapman_%26_Hall" title="Chapman & Hall">Chapman & Hall</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery&rft.btitle=American+Notes+for+General+Circulation&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Chapman+%26+Hall&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Dickens&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F675%2F675-h%2F675-h.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literary_and_cultural_criticism">Literary and cultural criticism</h3></div> <ul><li>Ryan, Tim A. <i>Calls and Responses: The American Novel of Slavery Since</i> Gone with the Wind. <a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge" class="mw-redirect" title="Baton Rouge">Baton Rouge</a>: <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_State_University_Press" title="Louisiana State University Press">Louisiana State University Press</a>, 2008.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Van_Deburg" title="William L. Van Deburg">Van Deburg, William</a>. <i>Slavery and Race in American Popular Culture</i>. <a href="/wiki/Madison,_Wisconsin" title="Madison, Wisconsin">Madison</a>: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin_Press" title="University of Wisconsin Press">University of Wisconsin Press</a>, 1984.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Documentary_films">Documentary films</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tracesofthetrade.org/">"Traces of the Trade"</a>. <i>Traces of the Trade</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 19,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Traces+of+the+Trade&rft.atitle=Traces+of+the+Trade&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tracesofthetrade.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Slavery_in_the_United_States" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikisource has original works on the topic: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Slavery_in_the_United_States" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Slavery_in_the_United_States" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://guides.loc.gov/slavery-in-america">Slavery in America: A Resource Guide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/slave-narratives-from-the-federal-writers-project-1936-to-1938/">"Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers' Project, 1936 to 1938"</a>, Library of Congress</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/voices-remembering-slavery/">"Voices Remembering Slavery: Freed People Tell Their Stories"</a>, audio interviews of former slaves, 1932–1975, Library of Congress</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.uncg.edu/slavery/">Digital Library on American Slavery</a> at <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_at_Greensboro" title="University of North Carolina at Greensboro">University of North Carolina at Greensboro</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abolitionseminar.org/lesson-plans/">The Abolitionist Seminar</a>, summaries, lesson plans, documents and illustrations for schools; focus on United States</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051227154013/http://americanabolitionist.liberalarts.iupui.edu/index.htm">American Abolitionism</a>, summaries and documents; focus on United States</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wnet/slavery">"Slavery and the Making of America"</a>, <a href="/wiki/WNET" title="WNET">WNET</a> (4-part series)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/slavery">Slavery in America</a> at the History Channel</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eh.net/encyclopedia/slavery-in-the-united-states/">"Slavery in the United States"</a>, <i>Economic History Encyclopedia</i>, March 26, 2008</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/">North American Slave Narratives</a>, <i>Documenting the American South</i>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Round_Wilson_Library" title="Louis Round Wilson Library">Louis Round Wilson Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slavevoyages.org/">The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database</a> has information on almost 36,000 slaving voyages</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yatlagniappe.com/2016/05/04/100-iconic-photos-of-new-orleans-through-the-ages/">1850: New Orleans woman and child she held in slavery</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/14/magazine/slavery-capitalism.html">American Capitalism Is Brutal. You Can Trace That to the Plantation</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Magazine" title="The New York Times Magazine">The New York Times Magazine</a></i>. August 14, 2019.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/bib/">The Bibliography of Slavery and World Slaving</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Virginia" title="University of Virginia">University of Virginia</a>: a searchable database of 25,000 scholarly works on slavery and the slave trade in all western European languages.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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title="Template:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slavery_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slavery in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Alabama" title="History of slavery in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Alaska" title="History of slavery in Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Arizona" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Arkansas" title="History of slavery in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_California" title="History of slavery in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Colorado" title="History of slavery in Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Connecticut" title="History of slavery in Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Delaware" title="History of slavery in Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Florida" title="History of slavery in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Hawaii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Hawaii (page does not exist)">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Idaho&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Idaho (page does not exist)">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Illinois" title="History of slavery in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Indiana" title="History of slavery in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Iowa" title="History of slavery in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Kansas" title="History of slavery in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Kentucky" title="History of slavery in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Louisiana" title="History of slavery in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Maine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Maine (page does not exist)">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Maryland" title="History of slavery in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Massachusetts" title="History of slavery in Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Michigan" title="History of slavery in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Minnesota" title="History of slavery in Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Mississippi" title="History of slavery in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Missouri" title="History of slavery in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Montana" title="History of slavery in Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Nebraska" title="History of slavery in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Nevada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Nevada (page does not exist)">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Hampshire" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Jersey" title="History of slavery in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Mexico" title="History of slavery in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_North_Carolina" title="History of slavery in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_North_Dakota" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Oklahoma" title="History of slavery in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Oregon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Oregon (page does not exist)">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Pennsylvania" title="History of slavery in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Rhode_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_South_Carolina" title="History of slavery in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_South_Dakota" title="History of slavery in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Tennessee" title="History of slavery in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Texas" title="History of slavery in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Utah" title="History of slavery in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Vermont" title="History of slavery in Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Virginia" title="History of slavery in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Washington_(state)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Washington (state) (page does not exist)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_West_Virginia" title="History of slavery in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Wisconsin" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Wyoming&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Wyoming (page does not exist)">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_district" title="Federal district">Federal district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Puerto_Rico" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands#Danish_period" title="United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery among Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_Spain" title="Slavery in New Spain">Slavery in New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">Slavery in New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_British_America" title="Indentured servitude in British America">Indentured servitude in British America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">Slave trade in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_markets_and_slave_jails_in_the_United_States" title="Slave markets and slave jails in the United States">Slave markets and slave jails in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidnapping_into_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Kidnapping into slavery in the United States">Kidnapping into slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">Slave states and free states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_labor_on_United_States_military_installations_1799%E2%80%931863" title="Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863">Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_American_colleges_and_universities" title="Slavery at American colleges and universities">Slavery at American colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_American_slavery" title="Glossary of American slavery">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of slavery in the United States">Bibliography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural and<br />social history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_proslavery_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="American proslavery movement">American proslavery movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_as_a_positive_good_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery as a positive good in the United States">Slavery as a positive good in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treatment_of_the_slaves_in_the_United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treatment of the slaves in the United States (page does not exist)">Treatment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_health_on_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="Slave health on plantations in the United States">Health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-literacy_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-literacy laws in the United States">Mandatory illiteracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_quarters_in_the_United_States" title="Slave quarters in the United States">Slave quarters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">Domestic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_slave_traders" class="mw-redirect" title="List of American slave traders">List of American slave traders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runaway_slave_ad" class="mw-redirect" title="Runaway slave ad">Runaway slave ad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freedmen%27s_towns" title="List of freedmen's towns">Freedmen's towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Canadians" title="Black Canadians">Black Canadians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">List of abolitionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_system" title="Gang system">Gang system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_system" title="Task system">Task system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">Planter class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="List of plantations in the United States">List of plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">Amerindian slave ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_slave_owners" title="African-American slave owners">African-American slave owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">American Colonization Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Law and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Slavery and the United States Constitution">Slavery and the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_slave_court_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="American slave court cases">American slave court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Freedom_suits_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Freedom suits in the United States">Freedom suits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_and_free_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave and free states">Slave and free states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_by_state" title="History of slavery in the United States by state">History of slavery by U.S. state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1793" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1793">Fugitive Slave Act of 1793</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves</a> (1808)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gag_rule_(United_States)" title="Gag rule (United States)">Gag rule (1836–1840)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullifier_Party" title="Nullifier Party">Nullifier Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-Eaters" title="Fire-Eaters">Fire-Eaters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_to_reopen_the_transatlantic_slave_trade" title="Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade">Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_owned_slaves" title="List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves">Presidents and slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">George Washington and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Thomas Jefferson and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_and_slavery" title="James Madison and slavery">James Madison and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">John Quincy Adams and abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tyler_and_slavery" title="John Tyler and slavery">John Tyler and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor_and_slavery" title="Zachary Taylor and slavery">Zachary Taylor and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Abraham Lincoln and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson_and_slavery" title="Andrew Johnson and slavery">Andrew Johnson and slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_owned_slaves" title="List of vice presidents of the United States who owned slaves">Vice presidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_United_States_Congress_who_owned_slaves" title="List of members of the United States Congress who owned slaves">Members of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Justices_who_owned_slaves" title="List of United States Supreme Court Justices who owned slaves">Supreme Court Justices</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Marriage,<br />sexual slavery<br />and procreation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">Female slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States#Sexual_relations_and_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Sexual relations and rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">Slave breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pla%C3%A7age" title="Plaçage">Plaçage</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_family" title="Shadow family">Shadow family</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War and after</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery during the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="End of slavery in the United States">End of slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation_in_the_United_States" title="Compensated emancipation in the United States">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraband_(American_Civil_War)" title="Contraband (American Civil War)">Contraband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">Colored Troops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_reunification_ads_after_emancipation" title="Family reunification ads after emancipation">Family reunification ads after emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_town" title="Freedmen's town">Freedmen's town</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freedmen%27s_towns" title="List of freedmen's towns">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Underground_Railroad" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Underground_Railroad" title="Template:Underground Railroad"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Underground_Railroad" title="Template talk:Underground Railroad"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Underground_Railroad" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Underground Railroad"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Underground_Railroad" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Underground_Railroad_people" title="Category:Underground Railroad people">People</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Brinkley_(Underground_Railroad)" title="William Brinkley (Underground Railroad)">William Brinkley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist,_born_1771)" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist, born 1771)">Owen Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Burris" title="Samuel Burris">Samuel Burris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_Coffin" title="Levi Coffin">Levi Coffin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dillingham" title="Richard Dillingham">Richard Dillingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Fairbank" title="Calvin Fairbank">Calvin Fairbank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_S._Flint" title="Isaac S. Flint">Isaac S. Flint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Garrett" title="Thomas Garrett">Thomas Garrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Harper" class="mw-redirect" title="Frances Harper">Frances Harper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Smith_Haviland" title="Laura Smith Haviland">Laura Smith Haviland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hudson_(pioneer)" title="David Hudson (pioneer)">David Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Hughes_(underground_railroad)" title="Daniel Hughes (underground railroad)">Daniel Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peg_Leg_Joe" title="Peg Leg Joe">Peg Leg Joe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cooper_Nell" title="William Cooper Nell">William Cooper Nell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Forten_Purvis" title="Harriet Forten Purvis">Harriet Forten Purvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Purvis" title="Robert Purvis">Robert Purvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rankin_(abolitionist)" title="John Rankin (abolitionist)">John Rankin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetty_Reckless" title="Hetty Reckless">Hetty Reckless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Smith" title="Gerrit Smith">Gerrit Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Still" title="William Still">William Still</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Ellis_Stowe" title="Calvin Ellis Stowe">Calvin Ellis Stowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Beecher_Stowe" title="Harriet Beecher Stowe">Harriet Beecher Stowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Turner_Torrey" title="Charles Turner Torrey">Charles Turner Torrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delia_Webster" title="Delia Webster">Delia Webster</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ursa_major_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Ursa_major_icon.svg/110px-Ursa_major_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Ursa_major_icon.svg/165px-Ursa_major_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Ursa_major_icon.svg/220px-Ursa_major_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="140" data-file-height="110" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Underground_Railroad_locations" title="Category:Underground Railroad locations">Places</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Underground_Railroad_sites" title="List of Underground Railroad sites">List of Underground Railroad sites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Houses_on_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Category:Houses on the Underground Railroad">houses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Churches_on_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Category:Churches on the Underground Railroad">churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad_in_Indiana" title="Underground Railroad in Indiana">Underground Railroad in Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Methodist_Episcopal_Church,_Salem_Chapel" title="British Methodist Episcopal Church, Salem Chapel">British Methodist Episcopal Church, Salem Chapel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emeline_and_Samuel_Hawkins" title="Emeline and Samuel Hawkins">Emeline and Samuel Hawkins</a> flight (1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_incident" title="Pearl incident"><i>Pearl</i> incident</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_raid_in_Cass_County_(1847)" title="Kentucky raid in Cass County (1847)">Kentucky raid in Cass County</a> (1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_Modlin#The_South_Bend_Fugitive_Slave_Case" title="Wright Modlin">The South Bend Fugitive Slave Case</a> (1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiana_Riot" title="Christiana Riot">Christiana Riot</a> (1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Rescue" title="Jerry Rescue">Jerry Rescue</a> (1851)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></i> (1852 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Glover" title="Joshua Glover">Joshua Glover rescue</a> (1854)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred:_A_Tale_of_the_Great_Dismal_Swamp" title="Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp">Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp</a></i> (1856 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover_Eight" title="Dover Eight">Dover Eight</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlin%E2%80%93Wellington_Rescue" title="Oberlin–Wellington Rescue">Oberlin–Wellington Rescue</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilly_Escape" title="Tilly Escape">Tilly Escape</a> (1856)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Maria_Jackson" title="Ann Maria Jackson">Ann Maria Jackson and her seven children</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a> (1865)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">opponents of slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_abolitionists" title="List of African-American abolitionists">African-American opponents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism#Abolitionist_publications" title="Abolitionism">publications</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugitive slave laws">Fugitive slave laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">1850</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quilts_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Quilts of the Underground Railroad">Quilts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_Underground_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse Underground Railroad">Reverse Underground Railroad</a></li> <li>Signals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lawn_jockey" title="Lawn jockey">lawn jockey</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">Songs of the Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(Still)" title="The Underground Railroad (Still)"><i>The Underground Railroad Records</i></a> (1872 book)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Underground_Railroad_Freedom_Center" title="National Underground Railroad Freedom Center">National Underground Railroad Freedom Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Memorial_(Boston)" title="Harriet Tubman Memorial (Boston)"><i>Harriet Tubman Memorial</i> (Boston)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_National_Historical_Park" title="Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park">Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_State_Park" title="Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad State Park">Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad State Park</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_Visitor_Center" title="Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad Visitor Center">visitor center</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls_Underground_Railroad_Heritage_Center" title="Niagara Falls Underground Railroad Heritage Center">Niagara Falls Underground Railroad Heritage Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad_Bicycle_Route" title="Underground Railroad Bicycle Route">Underground Railroad Bicycle Route</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Railroad_to_Freedom:_A_Story_of_the_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="The Railroad to Freedom: A Story of the Civil War">The Railroad to Freedom: A Story of the Civil War</a></i> (1932 book)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Woman_Called_Moses" title="A Woman Called Moses">A Woman Called Moses</a></i> (1978 miniseries)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roots_of_Resistance:_The_Story_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Roots of Resistance: The Story of the Underground Railroad">Roots of Resistance</a></i> (1989 documentary)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Quest_for_Freedom" title="The Quest for Freedom">The Quest for Freedom</a></i> (1992 film)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Freedom:_The_Underground_Railroad" title="Freedom: The Underground Railroad">Freedom: The Underground Railroad</a></i> (2013 board game)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_North_Star_(2016_film)" title="The North Star (2016 film)">The North Star</a></i> (2016 film)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Underground_(TV_series)" title="Underground (TV series)">Underground</a></i> (2016 TV series)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harriet_(film)" title="Harriet (film)">Harriet</a></i> (2019 film)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(miniseries)" title="The Underground Railroad (miniseries)">The Underground Railroad</a></i> (2021 miniseries)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slavery in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Slavery in Canada</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Slave_narratives" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slave_narrative" title="Template:Slave narrative"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slave_narrative" title="Template talk:Slave narrative"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slave_narrative" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slave narrative"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slave_narratives" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narratives</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Narrative_Collection" title="Slave Narrative Collection">Slave Narrative Collection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individuals<br />by continent<br />of enslavement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Adams_(sailor)" title="Robert Adams (sailor)">Robert Adams</a> (c. 1790–?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Berg_(1714-1761)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Berg (1714-1761)">Marcus Berg</a> (1714-1761)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bok" title="Francis Bok">Francis Bok</a> (b. 1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Brassard" title="Isaac Brassard">Isaac Brassard</a> (1620–1702)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felice_Caronni" title="Felice Caronni">Felice Caronni </a> (1747–1815)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Leander_Cathcart" title="James Leander Cathcart">James Leander Cathcart</a> (1767–1843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93lafur_Egilsson" title="Ólafur Egilsson">Ólafur Egilsson</a> (1564–1639)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petro_Kilekwa" title="Petro Kilekwa">Petro Kilekwa</a> (late 19th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Marsh" title="Elizabeth Marsh">Elizabeth Marsh</a> (1735–1785)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_ter_Meetelen" title="Maria ter Meetelen">Maria ter Meetelen</a> (1704–?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mende_Nazer" title="Mende Nazer">Mende Nazer</a> (b. 1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hark_Olufs" title="Hark Olufs">Hark Olufs</a> (1708–1754)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pellow" title="Thomas Pellow">Thomas Pellow</a> (1705–?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Pitts_(author)" title="Joseph Pitts (author)">Joseph Pitts</a> (1663 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1735</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu%C3%B0r%C3%AD%C3%B0ur_S%C3%ADmonard%C3%B3ttir" title="Guðríður Símonardóttir">Guðríður Símonardóttir</a> (1598–1682)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Qaurtier" title="Antoine Qaurtier">Antoine Qaurtier</a> (1632–1702)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Matth%C3%A4us_Wolfgang" title="Andreas Matthäus Wolfgang">Andreas Matthäus Wolfgang</a> (1660–1736)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Wolffgang" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Georg Wolffgang">Johann Georg Wolffgang</a> (1644–1744)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brigitta_Scherzenfeldt" title="Brigitta Scherzenfeldt">Brigitta Scherzenfeldt</a> (1684–1736)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=V%C3%A1clav_Vratislav&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Václav Vratislav (page does not exist)">Václav Vratislav</a> (1576–1635)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovisa_von_Burghausen" title="Lovisa von Burghausen">Lovisa von Burghausen</a> (1698–1733)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olaudah_Equiano" title="Olaudah Equiano">Olaudah Equiano</a> (c. 1745 Nigeria – 31 March 1797 Eng)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukawsaw_Gronniosaw" title="Ukawsaw Gronniosaw">Ukawsaw Gronniosaw</a> (c. 1705 Bornu – 1775 Eng)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Marteilhe" title="Jean Marteilhe">Jean Marteilhe</a> (1684-1777)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roustam_Raza" title="Roustam Raza">Roustam Raza</a> (1783–1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunzio_Otello_Francesco_Gioacchino" title="Nunzio Otello Francesco Gioacchino">Nunzio Otello Francesco Gioacchino</a> (1792 – fl. 1828)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">Ottoman Empire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Schiltberger" title="Johann Schiltberger">Johann Schiltberger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Mihailovi%C4%87" title="Konstantin Mihailović">Konstantin Mihailović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_of_Hungary" title="George of Hungary">George of Hungary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">North America:<br />Canada</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marie-Joseph_Ang%C3%A9lique" title="Marie-Joseph Angélique">Marie-Joseph Angélique</a> (c. 1710 Portugal – 1734 Montreal)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Jewitt" title="John R. Jewitt">John R. Jewitt</a> (1783 England – 1821 United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">North America:<br />Caribbean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Francisco_Manzano" title="Juan Francisco Manzano">Juan Francisco Manzano</a> (1797–1854, Cuba)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esteban_Montejo" title="Esteban Montejo">Esteban Montejo</a> (1860–1965, Cuba)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Prince" title="Mary Prince">Mary Prince</a> (c. 1788 Bermuda – after 1833)</li> <li>Venerable <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Toussaint" title="Pierre Toussaint">Pierre Toussaint</a> (1766 Saint-Dominque – June 30, 1853 NY)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcos_Xiorro" title="Marcos Xiorro">Marcos Xiorro</a> (c. 1819 – ???, Puerto Rico)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">North America:<br />United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Aleckson" title="Sam Aleckson">Sam Aleckson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan_Anderson" title="Jordan Anderson">Jordan Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Anderson" title="William J. Anderson">William J. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Maurice_Arter" title="Jared Maurice Arter">Jared Maurice Arter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Bayley" title="Solomon Bayley">Solomon Bayley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polly_Berry" title="Polly Berry">Polly Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Bibb" title="Henry Bibb">Henry Bibb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Black" title="Leonard Black">Leonard Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a> (1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Box_Brown" title="Henry Box Brown">Henry "Box" Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(fugitive_slave)" title="John Brown (fugitive slave)">John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wells_Brown" title="William Wells Brown">William Wells Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Bruner" title="Peter Bruner">Peter Bruner</a> (1845 KY – 1938 OH)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_and_William_Craft" title="Ellen and William Craft">Ellen and William Craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Crafts" title="Hannah Crafts">Hannah Crafts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucinda_Davis" title="Lucinda Davis">Lucinda Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah_Davis_(Baptist_minister)" title="Noah Davis (Baptist minister)">Noah Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Delaney" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucy Delaney">Lucy Delaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo" title="Ayuba Suleiman Diallo">Ayuba Suleiman Diallo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Drumgoold" title="Kate Drumgoold">Kate Drumgoold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan_Winston_Early" title="Jordan Winston Early">Jordan Winston Early</a> (1814 – after 1894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Jane_Woodson_Early" title="Sarah Jane Woodson Early">Sarah Jane Woodson Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Fossett" title="Peter Fossett">Peter Fossett</a> (1815 <a href="/wiki/Monticello" title="Monticello">Monticello</a>–1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_George_(Baptist)" title="David George (Baptist)">David George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Grandy" title="Moses Grandy">Moses Grandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lear_Green" title="Lear Green">Lear Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Green_(former_slave)" title="William Green (former slave)">William Green</a> (19th century <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">MD</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Grimes_(ex-slave)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Grimes (ex-slave)">William Grimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Henson" title="Josiah Henson">Josiah Henson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fountain_Hughes" title="Fountain Hughes">Fountain Hughes</a> (1848/1854 VA – 1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_ibn_Said" title="Omar ibn Said">Omar ibn Said</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Andrew_Jackson" title="John Andrew Jackson">John Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_James_(minister)" title="Thomas James (minister)">Thomas James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jea" title="John Jea">John Jea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Jennings_(slave)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Jennings (slave)">Paul Jennings</a> (1799–1874)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Keckley" title="Elizabeth Keckley">Elizabeth Keckley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_King" title="Boston King">Boston King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunsford_Lane" title="Lunsford Lane">Lunsford Lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Vance_Lewis" title="J. Vance Lewis">J. Vance Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jermain_Wesley_Loguen" title="Jermain Wesley Loguen">Jermain Wesley Loguen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mars" title="James Mars">James Mars</a> (1790–1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Northup" title="Solomon Northup">Solomon Northup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensbury_Washington_Offley" title="Greensbury Washington Offley">Greensbury Washington Offley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Parker_(abolitionist)" title="John Parker (abolitionist)">John Parker</a> (1827 VA – 1900)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Parker_(abolitionist)" title="William Parker (abolitionist)">William Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Robinson_(soldier,_born_1753)" title="James Robinson (soldier, born 1753)">James Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Roper" title="Moses Roper">Moses Roper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Singleton" title="William Henry Singleton">William Henry Singleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lindsay_Smith" title="James Lindsay Smith">James Lindsay Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_Smith" title="Venture Smith">Venture Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austin_Steward" title="Austin Steward">Austin Steward</a> (1793 VA – 1860)</li> <li>Venerable <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Toussaint" title="Pierre Toussaint">Pierre Toussaint</a> (1766 Saint-Dominque – 1853 NY)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_Turnage" title="Wallace Turnage">Wallace Turnage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethany_Veney" title="Bethany Veney">Bethany Veney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_Willis" title="Wallace Willis">Wallace Willis</a> (19th century Indian Territory)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_E._Wilson" title="Harriet E. Wilson">Harriet E. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamba_Zembola" title="Zamba Zembola">Zamba Zembola</a> (b. c. 1780 Congo)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahommah_Gardo_Baquaqua" title="Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua">Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua</a> (1845–1847, Brazil)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Bur%C3%ADa" title="Miguel de Buría">Miguel de Buría</a> (? Puerto Rico – 1555 Venezuela)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osifekunde" title="Osifekunde">Osifekunde</a> (c. 1795 Nigeria – ? Brazil)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-fiction books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Interesting_Narrative_of_the_Life_of_Olaudah_Equiano" title="The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano">The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano</a></i> (1789)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Narrative_of_Robert_Adams" title="The Narrative of Robert Adams">The Narrative of Robert Adams</a></i> (1816)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Slavery_as_It_Is" class="mw-redirect" title="American Slavery as It Is">American Slavery as It Is</a></i> (1839)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Narrative_of_the_Life_of_Frederick_Douglass,_an_American_Slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave">Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave</a></i> (1845)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Life_of_Josiah_Henson,_Formerly_a_Slave,_Now_an_Inhabitant_of_Canada,_as_Narrated_by_Himself" title="The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself">The Life of Josiah Henson</a></i> (1849)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Years_a_Slave" title="Twelve Years a Slave">Twelve Years a Slave</a></i> (1853)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/My_Bondage_and_My_Freedom" title="My Bondage and My Freedom">My Bondage and My Freedom</a></i> (1855)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Incidents_in_the_Life_of_a_Slave_Girl" title="Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl">Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl</a></i> (1861)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(Still)" title="The Underground Railroad (Still)">The Underground Railroad Records</a></i> (1872)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Life_and_Times_of_Frederick_Douglass" title="Life and Times of Frederick Douglass">Life and Times of Frederick Douglass</a></i> (1881)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Up_from_Slavery" title="Up from Slavery">Up from Slavery</a></i> (1901)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slave_Narrative_Collection" title="Slave Narrative Collection">Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States</a></i> (1936–38)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Peculiar_Institution" title="The Peculiar Institution">The Peculiar Institution</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Community" title="The Slave Community">The Slave Community</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Barracoon:_The_Story_of_the_Last_%22Black_Cargo%22" title="Barracoon: The Story of the Last "Black Cargo"">Barracoon: The Story of the Last "Black Cargo"</a></i> (2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Novels_about_slavery" title="Category:Novels about slavery">Fiction/novels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Oroonoko" title="Oroonoko">Oroonoko</a></i> (1688)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sab_(novel)" title="Sab (novel)">Sab</a></i> (1841)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></i> (1852)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Heroic_Slave" title="The Heroic Slave">The Heroic Slave</a></i> (1852)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clotel" title="Clotel">Clotel</a></i> (1853)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Bondwoman%27s_Narrative" title="The Bondwoman's Narrative">The Bondwoman's Narrative</a></i> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1853</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1861</span>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred:_A_Tale_of_the_Great_Dismal_Swamp" title="Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp">Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp</a></i> (1856)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Our_Nig" title="Our Nig">Our Nig</a></i> (1859)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jubilee_(novel)" title="Jubilee (novel)">Jubilee</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Confessions_of_Nat_Turner" title="The Confessions of Nat Turner">The Confessions of Nat Turner</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roots:_The_Saga_of_an_American_Family" title="Roots: The Saga of an American Family">Roots: The Saga of an American Family</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Underground_to_Canada" title="Underground to Canada">Underground to Canada</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kindred_(novel)" title="Kindred (novel)">Kindred</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dessa_Rose" title="Dessa Rose">Dessa Rose</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Beloved_(novel)" title="Beloved (novel)">Beloved</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage_(novel)" title="Middle Passage (novel)">Middle Passage</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Queen:_The_Story_of_an_American_Family" title="Queen: The Story of an American Family">Queen: The Story of an American Family</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hang_a_Thousand_Trees_with_Ribbons" title="Hang a Thousand Trees with Ribbons">Hang a Thousand Trees with Ribbons</a></i> (1996)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ama:_A_Story_of_the_Atlantic_Slave_Trade" title="Ama: A Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade">Ama: A Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Walk_Through_Darkness" title="Walk Through Darkness">Walk Through Darkness</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Known_World" title="The Known World">The Known World</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unburnable" title="Unburnable">Unburnable</a></i> (2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Negroes_(novel)" title="The Book of Negroes (novel)">The Book of Negroes</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(novel)" title="The Underground Railroad (novel)">The Underground Railroad</a></i> (2016)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Young adult books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amos_Fortune,_Free_Man" title="Amos Fortune, Free Man">Amos Fortune, Free Man</a></i> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/I,_Juan_de_Pareja" title="I, Juan de Pareja">I, Juan de Pareja</a></i> (1965)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Copper_Sun" title="Copper Sun">Copper Sun</a></i> (2006)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Essays</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/To_a_Southern_Slaveholder" title="To a Southern Slaveholder">To a Southern Slaveholder</a>" (1848)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Key_to_Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin">A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></i> (1853)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plays</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Escape;_or,_A_Leap_for_Freedom" title="The Escape; or, A Leap for Freedom">The Escape; or, A Leap for Freedom</a></i> (1858)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Octoroon" title="The Octoroon">The Octoroon</a></i> (1859)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Omar_(opera)" title="Omar (opera)">Omar</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documentaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Unchained_Memories" title="Unchained Memories">Unchained Memories</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass_and_the_White_Negro" title="Frederick Douglass and the White Negro">Frederick Douglass and the White Negro</a></i> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">African-American literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Tom_novels" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Tom novels">Anti-Tom novels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captivity_narrative" title="Captivity narrative">Captivity narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_literature" title="Caribbean literature">Caribbean literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">Films featuring slavery</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">Songs of the Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_surviving_American_enslaved_people" class="mw-redirect" title="List of last surviving American enslaved people">List of last surviving American enslaved people</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Negroes" title="Book of Negroes">Book of Negroes</a></i> (1783)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Plantation_Record_and_Account_Book" title="Cotton Plantation Record and Account Book">Cotton Plantation Record and Account Book</a></i> (1847)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slave-Trading_in_the_Old_South" title="Slave-Trading in the Old South">Slave-Trading in the Old South</a></i> (1931)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Johnson_(Mount_Vernon)" title="Sarah Johnson (Mount Vernon)">Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon</a></i> (2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">Slave Songs of the United States</a></i> (1867)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Amazing_Grace:_An_Anthology_of_Poems_about_Slavery" title="Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems about Slavery">Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems about Slavery</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Hemingses_of_Monticello" title="The Hemingses of Monticello">The Hemingses of Monticello</a></i> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_jurists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_firsts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">Lynching victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">Topics related to the African diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Gullah_people_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gullah_topics" title="Template:Gullah topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gullah_topics" title="Template talk:Gullah topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gullah_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gullah topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gullah_people_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah people</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%;text-align:center;">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Film and television</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Conrack" title="Conrack">Conrack</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_House_Divided:_Denmark_Vesey%27s_Rebellion" title="A House Divided: Denmark Vesey's Rebellion">A House Divided: Denmark Vesey's Rebellion</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Soldier%27s_Story" title="A Soldier's Story">A Soldier's Story</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Glory_(1989_film)" title="Glory (1989 film)">Glory</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daughters_of_the_Dust" title="Daughters of the Dust">Daughters of the Dust</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gullah_Gullah_Island" title="Gullah Gullah Island">Gullah Gullah Island</a></i> (1994–2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bruh_Rabbit_and_the_Tar_Baby_Girl" title="Bruh Rabbit and the Tar Baby Girl">Bruh Rabbit and the Tar Baby Girl</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vibration_Cooking" title="Vibration Cooking">Vibration Cooking</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Religion and folklore</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-American_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-American religion">Afro-American religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Church_(African_American)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Church (African American)">Black church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boo_Hag" class="mw-redirect" title="Boo Hag">Boo Hag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_Africans" title="Flying Africans">Flying Africans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(folk_magic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoodoo (folk magic)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mojo_(African-American_culture)" title="Mojo (African-American culture)">Mojo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cat_bone" title="Black cat bone">Black cat bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goofer_dust" title="Goofer dust">Goofer dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haint_blue" title="Haint blue">Haint blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_foot_powder" title="Hot foot powder">Hot foot powder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Conqueror" title="John the Conqueror">John the Conqueror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbit%27s_foot" title="Rabbit's foot">Rabbit's foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_shout" title="Ring shout">Ring shout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_and_Seventh_Books_of_Moses" title="Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses">Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Music and culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charleston_red_rice" title="Charleston red rice">Charleston red rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah/Geechee_Cultural_Heritage_Corridor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gullah/Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor">Gullah/Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">Kumbaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Row_the_Boat_Ashore" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Row the Boat Ashore">Michael Row the Boat Ashore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranky_Tanky" title="Ranky Tanky">Ranky Tanky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_Hive/Exodus" title="Robot Hive/Exodus">Robot Hive/Exodus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Related culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">African-American culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Africa" title="Culture of Africa">Culture of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg/100px-Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg/150px-Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg/200px-Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1452" data-file-height="1161" /></a></span><br /> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gullah_basket.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Gullah_basket.JPG/100px-Gullah_basket.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Gullah_basket.JPG/150px-Gullah_basket.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Gullah_basket.JPG/200px-Gullah_basket.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3796" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%;text-align:center;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">History topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilali_Document" title="Bilali Document">Bilali Document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Landing" title="Igbo Landing">Igbo Landing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Royal_Experiment" title="Port Royal Experiment">Port Royal Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stono_Rebellion" title="Stono Rebellion">Stono Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaufort,_South_Carolina" title="Beaufort, South Carolina">Beaufort, South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daufuskie_Island" title="Daufuskie Island">Daufuskie Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eulonia,_Georgia" title="Eulonia, Georgia">Eulonia, Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Isles_of_Georgia" title="Golden Isles of Georgia">Golden Isles of Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapelo_Island" title="Sapelo Island">Sapelo Island</a> (protected site) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hog_Hammock,_Georgia" title="Hog Hammock, Georgia">Hog Hammock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Lowcountry" title="South Carolina Lowcountry">South Carolina Lowcountry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Related history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African-American history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline of African-American history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Angola" title="History of Angola">History of Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Benin" title="History of Benin">History of Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Republic of the Congo">History of Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ghana" title="History of Ghana">History of Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guinea-Bissau" title="History of Guinea-Bissau">History of Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liberia" title="History of Liberia">History of Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nigeria" title="History of Nigeria">History of Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Senegambia_Confederation" title="Senegambia Confederation">Senegambia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Senegal" title="History of Senegal">History of Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Gambia" title="History of the Gambia">History of the Gambia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sierra_Leone" title="History of Sierra Leone">History of Sierra Leone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bunce_Island" title="Bunce Island">Bunce Island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History of the United States</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slavery in the United States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Related ethnic groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambundu" title="Ambundu">Ambundu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baga_people" title="Baga people">Baga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fula_people" title="Fula people">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jola_people" title="Jola people">Jola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissi_people" title="Kissi people">Kissi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_people" title="Kongo people">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kpelle_people" title="Kpelle people">Kpelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limba_people_(Sierra_Leone)" title="Limba people (Sierra Leone)">Limba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandinka_people" title="Mandinka people">Mandinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mende_people" title="Mende people">Mende</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susu_people" title="Susu people">Susu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temne_people" title="Temne people">Temne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai_people" title="Vai people">Vai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolof_people" title="Wolof people">Wolof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_people" title="Serer people">Serer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Serer-Laalaa" title="Serer-Laalaa">Laalaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer-Ndut_people" title="Serer-Ndut people">Ndut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niominka_people" title="Niominka people">Niominka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer-Noon" title="Serer-Noon">Noon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palor_people" title="Palor people">Palor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saafi_people" title="Saafi people">Saafi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toucouleur_people" title="Toucouleur people">Toucouleur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Gullah" title="Category:Gullah">Category</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Plantation_agriculture_in_the_Southeastern_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Plantation_agriculture_in_the_Southeastern_United_States" title="Template:Plantation agriculture in the Southeastern United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Plantation_agriculture_in_the_Southeastern_United_States" title="Template talk:Plantation agriculture in the Southeastern United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Plantation_agriculture_in_the_Southeastern_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Plantation agriculture in the Southeastern United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Plantation_agriculture_in_the_Southeastern_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Plantation agriculture in the Southeastern United States</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">The plantation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">Planter class</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_planter" title="Ancient planter">Ancient planter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_economy" title="Plantation economy">Plantation economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantation complexes in the Southern United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_house" title="Plantation house">Plantation house</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cash crops</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">Cotton</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_Cotton" title="King Cotton">King Cotton</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">Hemp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigo_dye" title="Indigo dye">Indigo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">Sugarcane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">Tobacco</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Slavery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slavery in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_negro" class="mw-redirect" title="House negro">House negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">Slave breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_health_on_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="Slave health on plantations in the United States">Slave health on plantations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment of the enslaved in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li>Slave trade <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Slave_trade">Internal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interregional_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Interregional slave trade">Interregional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugitive slave laws">Fugitive slave laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other labor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convict_leasing" title="Convict leasing">Convict leasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharecropping#United_States" title="Sharecropping">Sharecropping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="List of plantations in the United States">Lists of plantations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Alabama" title="List of plantations in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Plantations_in_Florida" title="Category:Plantations in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plantations_of_Leon_County,_Florida" title="Plantations of Leon County, Florida">Leon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="List of plantations in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Kentucky" title="List of plantations in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Louisiana" title="List of plantations in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Mississippi" title="List of plantations in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_North_Carolina" title="List of plantations in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_South_Carolina" title="List of plantations in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Virginia" title="List of plantations in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_West_Virginia" title="List of plantations in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="American_Civil_War" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;;background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:American_Civil_War" title="Template:American Civil War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:American_Civil_War" title="Template talk:American Civil War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:American_Civil_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:American Civil War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="American_Civil_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Origins" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Origins</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_leading_to_the_American_Civil_War" title="Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War">Timeline leading to the War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_states_(American_Civil_War)" title="Border states (American Civil War)">Border states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas-Nebraska_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Kansas-Nebraska Act">Kansas-Nebraska Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%E2%80%93Douglas_debates" title="Lincoln–Douglas debates">Lincoln–Douglas debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">Panic of 1857</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Popular sovereignty in the United States">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States" title="Secession in the United States">Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Declaration_of_Secession" title="South Carolina Declaration of Secession">South Carolina Declaration of Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">States' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_Lincoln%27s_75,000_volunteers" title="President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers">President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slavery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-Eaters" title="Fire-Eaters">Fire-Eaters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">Fugitive slave laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations in the American South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_as_a_positive_good_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery as a positive good in the United States">Positive good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves in the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony" title="Susan B. Anthony">Susan B. Anthony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_G._Birney" title="James G. Birney">James G. Birney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lane_Debates_on_Slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Lane Debates on Slavery">Lane Debates on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Parish_Lovejoy" title="Elijah Parish Lovejoy">Elijah Parish Lovejoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Sella_Martin" title="J. Sella Martin">J. Sella Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Lysander Spooner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Luther_Stearns" title="George Luther Stearns">George Luther Stearns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Thaddeus Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner" title="Charles Sumner">Charles Sumner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caning_of_Charles_Sumner" title="Caning of Charles Sumner">Caning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="CombatantsTheatersCampaignsBattlesStates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Combatants</li><li>Theaters</li><li>Campaigns</li><li>Battles</li><li>States</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Combatants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_army" title="Union army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Navy" title="Union Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Revenue_Cutter_Service" title="United States Revenue Cutter Service">Revenue Cutter Service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Navy" title="Confederate States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Marine_Corps" title="Confederate States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Theaters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Eastern theater of the American Civil War">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Western theater of the American Civil War">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_seaboard_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Lower seaboard theater of the American Civil War">Lower Seaboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Mississippi_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Trans-Mississippi theater of the American Civil War">Trans-Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_coast_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Pacific coast theater of the American Civil War">Pacific Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_blockade" title="Union blockade">Union naval blockade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Major <a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Campaigns of the American Civil War">campaigns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaconda_Plan" title="Anaconda Plan">Anaconda Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_runners_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Blockade runners of the American Civil War">Blockade runners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_campaign" title="New Mexico campaign">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson%27s_Valley_campaign" title="Jackson's Valley campaign">Jackson's Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsula_campaign" title="Peninsula campaign">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Virginia_campaign" title="Northern Virginia campaign">Northern Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_campaign" title="Maryland campaign">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stones_River" title="Battle of Stones River">Stones River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicksburg_campaign" title="Vicksburg campaign">Vicksburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tullahoma_campaign" title="Tullahoma campaign">Tullahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettysburg_campaign" title="Gettysburg campaign">Gettysburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morgan%27s_Raid" title="Morgan's Raid">Morgan's Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bristoe_campaign" title="Bristoe campaign">Bristoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoxville_campaign" title="Knoxville campaign">Knoxville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_campaign" title="Red River campaign">Red River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overland_Campaign" title="Overland Campaign">Overland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_campaign" title="Atlanta campaign">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_campaigns_of_1864" title="Valley campaigns of 1864">Valley 1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Hundred_campaign" title="Bermuda Hundred campaign">Bermuda Hundred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Petersburg" title="Siege of Petersburg">Richmond-Petersburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin%E2%80%93Nashville_campaign" title="Franklin–Nashville campaign">Franklin–Nashville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price%27s_Missouri_Expedition" title="Price's Missouri Expedition">Price's Missouri Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman%27s_March_to_the_Sea" title="Sherman's March to the Sea">Sherman's March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_of_the_Carolinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaign of the Carolinas">Carolinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_campaign_(1865)" title="Mobile campaign (1865)">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appomattox_campaign" title="Appomattox campaign">Appomattox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Major <a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Civil_War_battles" title="List of American Civil War battles">battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Battle of Fort Sumter">Fort Sumter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Bull_Run" title="First Battle of Bull Run">1st Bull Run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wilson%27s_Creek" title="Battle of Wilson's Creek">Wilson's Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Donelson" title="Battle of Fort Donelson">Fort Donelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pea_Ridge" title="Battle of Pea Ridge">Pea Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hampton_Roads" title="Battle of Hampton Roads">Hampton Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh" title="Battle of Shiloh">Shiloh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Forts_Jackson_and_St._Philip" title="Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip">New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Corinth" title="Siege of Corinth">Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Seven_Pines" title="Battle of Seven Pines">Seven Pines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_Battles" title="Seven Days Battles">Seven Days</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bull_Run" title="Second Battle of Bull Run">2nd Bull Run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam" title="Battle of Antietam">Antietam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Perryville" title="Battle of Perryville">Perryville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg" title="Battle of Fredericksburg">Fredericksburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stones_River" title="Battle of Stones River">Stones River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville" title="Battle of Chancellorsville">Chancellorsville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg" title="Battle of Gettysburg">Gettysburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vicksburg" title="Siege of Vicksburg">Vicksburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chickamauga" title="Battle of Chickamauga">Chickamauga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattanooga_campaign" title="Chattanooga campaign">Chattanooga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Wilderness" title="Battle of the Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Pillow" title="Battle of Fort Pillow">Fort Pillow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Spotsylvania_Court_House" title="Battle of Spotsylvania Court House">Spotsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cold_Harbor" title="Battle of Cold Harbor">Cold Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Atlanta" title="Battle of Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Crater" title="Battle of the Crater">Crater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mobile_Bay" title="Battle of Mobile Bay">Mobile Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Franklin_(1864)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Franklin (1864)">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nashville" title="Battle of Nashville">Nashville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Five_Forks" title="Battle of Five Forks">Five Forks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Involvement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">States and<br />territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Alabama in the American Civil War">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Arkansas in the American Civil War">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Arizona" title="Confederate Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="California in the American Civil War">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Colorado in the American Civil War">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Connecticut in the American Civil War">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakota_Territory#Dakota_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Dakota Territory">Dakota Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C.,_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware#Delaware_in_the_Civil_War" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Florida in the American Civil War">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Georgia in the American Civil War">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaii_and_the_American_Civil_War" title="Hawaii and the American Civil War">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Idaho in the American Civil War">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Illinois in the American Civil War">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Indian Territory in the American Civil War">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Indiana in the American Civil War">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iowa_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Iowa in the American Civil War">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Kansas in the American Civil War">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Kentucky in the American Civil War">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Louisiana in the American Civil War">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maine_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Maine in the American Civil War">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Maryland in the American Civil War">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Massachusetts in the American Civil War">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Michigan in the American Civil War">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota#Civil_War_era_and_Dakota_War_of_1862" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Mississippi in the American Civil War">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Missouri in the American Civil War">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montana_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Montana in the American Civil War">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Nebraska Territory in the American Civil War">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Nevada in the American Civil War">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire#Civil_War:_1861–1865" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New Jersey in the American Civil War">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New Mexico Territory in the American Civil War">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New York in the American Civil War">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="North Carolina in the American Civil War">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Ohio in the American Civil War">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Oregon in the American Civil War">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Pennsylvania in the American Civil War">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Rhode Island in the American Civil War">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="South Carolina in the American Civil War">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Tennessee in the American Civil War">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Texas in the American Civil War">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Utah in the American Civil War">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermont_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Vermont in the American Civil War">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Virginia in the American Civil War">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington in the American Civil War">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="West Virginia in the American Civil War">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Wisconsin in the American Civil War">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Atlanta in the American Civil War">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charleston_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Charleston in the American Civil War">Charleston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattanooga_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Chattanooga in the American Civil War">Chattanooga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New Orleans in the American Civil War">New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richmond_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Richmond in the American Civil War">Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C.,_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War">Washington, D.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winchester,_Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Winchester, Virginia in the American Civil War">Winchester</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Leaders" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military_leadership_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military leadership in the American Civil War">Leaders</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Confederate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_H._Anderson_(general)" title="Richard H. Anderson (general)">R. H. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._G._T._Beauregard" title="P. G. T. Beauregard">Beauregard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braxton_Bragg" title="Braxton Bragg">Bragg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Buchanan" title="Franklin Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Cooper_(general)" title="Samuel Cooper (general)">Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jubal_Early" title="Jubal Early">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_S._Ewell" title="Richard S. Ewell">Ewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Bedford_Forrest" title="Nathan Bedford Forrest">Forrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Gorgas" title="Josiah Gorgas">Gorgas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Hill" title="A. P. Hill">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bell_Hood" title="John Bell Hood">Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson" title="Stonewall Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Sidney_Johnston" title="Albert Sidney Johnston">A. S. Johnston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Johnston" title="Joseph E. Johnston">J. E. Johnston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Longstreet" title="James Longstreet">Longstreet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hunt_Morgan" title="John Hunt Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_S._Mosby" title="John S. Mosby">Mosby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonidas_Polk" title="Leonidas Polk">Polk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterling_Price" title="Sterling Price">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raphael_Semmes" title="Raphael Semmes">Semmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Kirby_Smith" title="Edmund Kirby Smith">E. K. Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._E._B._Stuart" title="J. E. B. Stuart">Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Taylor_(Confederate_general)" title="Richard Taylor (Confederate general)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Wheeler" title="Joseph Wheeler">Wheeler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Civilian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judah_P._Benjamin" title="Judah P. Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Bocock" title="Thomas S. Bocock">Bocock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Breckinridge" title="John C. Breckinridge">Breckinridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._T._Hunter" title="Robert M. T. Hunter">Hunter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Mallory" title="Stephen Mallory">Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Memminger" title="Christopher Memminger">Memminger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Seddon" title="James Seddon">Seddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_H._Stephens" title="Alexander H. Stephens">Stephens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Anderson_(Civil_War)" title="Robert Anderson (Civil War)">Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_Carlos_Buell" title="Don Carlos Buell">Buell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Burnside" title="Ambrose Burnside">Burnside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Butler" title="Benjamin Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Francis_Du_Pont" title="Samuel Francis Du Pont">Du Pont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Farragut" title="David Farragut">Farragut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Hull_Foote" title="Andrew Hull Foote">Foote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Fr%C3%A9mont" title="John C. Frémont">Frémont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Halleck" title="Henry Halleck">Halleck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooker" title="Joseph Hooker">Hooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Jackson_Hunt" title="Henry Jackson Hunt">Hunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._McClellan" title="George B. McClellan">McClellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irvin_McDowell" title="Irvin McDowell">McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Meade" title="George Meade">Meade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_C._Meigs" title="Montgomery C. Meigs">Meigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Ord" title="Edward Ord">Ord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Pope_(military_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Pope (military officer)">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Dixon_Porter" title="David Dixon Porter">D. D. Porter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rosecrans" title="William Rosecrans">Rosecrans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Sheridan" title="Philip Sheridan">Sheridan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman" title="William Tecumseh Sherman">Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Thomas" title="George Henry Thomas">Thomas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Civilian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Adams_Sr." title="Charles Francis Adams Sr.">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Chase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ericsson" title="John Ericsson">Ericsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannibal_Hamlin" title="Hannibal Hamlin">Hamlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Pinkerton" title="Allan Pinkerton">Pinkerton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">Seward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Stanton" title="Edwin Stanton">Stanton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Wade" title="Benjamin Wade">Wade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gideon_Welles" title="Gideon Welles">Welles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Aftermath" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Aftermath</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15th Amendment</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Claims" title="Alabama Claims">Alabama Claims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooks%E2%80%93Baxter_War" title="Brooks–Baxter War">Brooks–Baxter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpetbagger" title="Carpetbagger">Carpetbaggers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colfax_massacre" title="Colfax massacre">Colfax riot of 1873</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_colonies" title="Confederate colonies">Confederate refugees</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederados" title="Confederados">Confederados</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_riot_of_1874" class="mw-redirect" title="Election riot of 1874">Eufaula riot of 1874</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman%27s_Savings_Bank" title="Freedman's Savings Bank">Freedman's Savings Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_Acts" title="Homestead Acts">Homestead Acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Homestead_Act_of_1866" title="Southern Homestead Act of 1866">Southern Homestead Act of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_Culture_Act" title="Timber Culture Act">Timber Culture Act</a> of 1873</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment of Andrew Johnson">Impeachment of Andrew Johnson</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_trial_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson">trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efforts_to_impeach_Andrew_Johnson" title="Efforts to impeach Andrew Johnson">efforts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Timeline of the impeachment of Andrew Johnson">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_impeachment_inquiry_into_Andrew_Johnson" title="First impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson">first inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_impeachment_inquiry_into_Andrew_Johnson" title="Second impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson">second inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_impeachment_managers_investigation" title="1868 impeachment managers investigation">impeachment managers investigation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirk%E2%80%93Holden_war" title="Kirk–Holden war">Kirk–Holden war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knights_of_the_White_Camelia" title="Knights of the White Camelia">Knights of the White Camelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic violence">Ethnic violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_riots_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="Memphis riots of 1866">Memphis riots of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meridian_race_riot_of_1871" title="Meridian race riot of 1871">Meridian riot of 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_massacre_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans massacre of 1866">New Orleans riot of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulaski_riot" title="Pulaski riot">Pulaski (Tennessee) riot of 1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_civil_disturbances_of_1876" title="South Carolina civil disturbances of 1876">South Carolina riots of 1876</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Acts" title="Reconstruction Acts">Reconstruction acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Act_of_1867" title="Habeas Corpus Act of 1867">Habeas Corpus Act of 1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Act_of_1870" title="Enforcement Act of 1870">Enforcement Act of 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Enforcement_Act" title="Second Enforcement Act">Enforcement Act of February 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Enforcement_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Enforcement Act">Enforcement Act of April 1871</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_military_districts" title="Reconstruction military districts">Reconstruction military districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Treaties" title="Reconstruction Treaties">Reconstruction Treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Smith_Council" title="Fort Smith Council">Indian Council at Fort Smith</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalawag" title="Scalawag">Scalawags</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_civil_disturbances_of_1876" title="South Carolina civil disturbances of 1876">South Carolina riots of 1876</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Claims_Commission" title="Southern Claims Commission">Southern Claims Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Post-<br />Reconstruction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commemoration_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Commemoration of the American Civil War">Commemoration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_Centennial" title="American Civil War Centennial">Centennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Discovery_Trail" title="Civil War Discovery Trail">Civil War Discovery Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Roundtable" title="Civil War Roundtable">Civil War Roundtables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Trails_Program" title="Civil War Trails Program">Civil War Trails Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Trust" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil War Trust">Civil War Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_History_Month" title="Confederate History Month">Confederate History Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Memorial_Day" title="Confederate Memorial Day">Confederate Memorial Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_Day" title="Memorial Day">Decoration Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_reenactment" title="American Civil War reenactment">Historical reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee_Day" title="Robert E. Lee Day">Robert E. Lee Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Memorial_Hall" title="Confederate Memorial Hall">Confederate Memorial Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disenfranchisement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_issues_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="Historiographic issues about the American Civil War">Historiographic issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy" title="Lost Cause of the Confederacy">Lost Cause mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_display_of_the_Confederate_battle_flag" title="Modern display of the Confederate battle flag">Modern display of the Confederate flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Confederate_Veterans" title="Sons of Confederate Veterans">Sons of Confederate Veterans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Union_Veterans_of_the_Civil_War" title="Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War">Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Historical_Society" title="Southern Historical Society">Southern Historical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Confederate_Veterans" title="United Confederate Veterans">United Confederate Veterans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Daughters_of_the_Confederacy" title="United Daughters of the Confederacy">United Daughters of the Confederacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Children of the Confederacy">Children of the Confederacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">Wilmington insurrection of 1898</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Monuments<br />and memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Union_Civil_War_monuments_and_memorials" title="List of Union Civil War monuments and memorials">List</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_the_Grand_Army_of_the_Republic" title="List of memorials to the Grand Army of the Republic">Grand Army of the Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Abraham_Lincoln" title="List of memorials to Abraham Lincoln">memorials to Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Confederate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Confederate_monuments_and_memorials" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Confederate monuments and memorials">List</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_artworks_in_the_United_States_Capitol" title="Confederate artworks in the United States Capitol">artworks in Capitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Jefferson_Davis" title="List of memorials to Jefferson Davis">memorials to Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Robert_E._Lee" title="List of memorials to Robert E. Lee">memorials to Lee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Confederate_monuments_and_memorials" title="Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials">Removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Cemeteries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ladies%27_Memorial_Association" title="Ladies' Memorial Association">Ladies' Memorial Associations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Era_National_Cemeteries_MPS" title="Civil War Era National Cemeteries MPS">U.S. national cemeteries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Veterans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1913_Gettysburg_reunion" title="1913 Gettysburg reunion">1913 Gettysburg reunion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_Gettysburg_reunion" title="1938 Gettysburg reunion">1938 Gettysburg reunion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Memorial_Hall" title="Confederate Memorial Hall">Confederate Memorial Hall</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Veteran" title="Confederate Veteran">Confederate Veteran</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic" title="Grand Army of the Republic">Grand Army of the Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_Order_of_the_Loyal_Legion_of_the_United_States" title="Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States">Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_soldiers%27_home" title="Old soldiers' home">Old soldiers' homes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Cross_of_Honor" title="Southern Cross of Honor">Southern Cross of Honor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Confederate_Veterans" title="United Confederate Veterans">United Confederate Veterans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Related_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of weapons in the American Civil War">Arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Campaign_Medal" title="Civil War Campaign Medal">Campaign Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cavalry in the American Civil War">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Home_Guard" title="Confederate Home Guard">Confederate Home Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_railroads_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Confederate railroads in the American Civil War">Confederate railroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_revolving_cannon" title="Confederate revolving cannon">Confederate revolving cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_artillery_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Field artillery in the American Civil War">Field artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Civil_War_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients">Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Medicine in the American Civil War">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of naval battles of the American Civil War">Naval battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_Records_of_the_Union_and_Confederate_Armies" title="Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies">Official Records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partisan_Ranger_Act" title="Partisan Ranger Act">Partisan rangers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_prison_camps" title="American Civil War prison camps">POW camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foods_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Foods of the American Civil War">Rations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_Corps_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Signal Corps in the American Civil War">Signal Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_point_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Turning point of the American Civil War">Turning point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_Corps_Badges" title="American Civil War Corps Badges">Union corps badges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Army_Balloon_Corps" title="Union Army Balloon Corps">U.S. Balloon Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Guard_(Union)" title="Home Guard (Union)">U.S. Home Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Railroad" title="United States Military Railroad">U.S. Military Railroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress_Joint_Committee_on_the_Conduct_of_the_War" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War">Committee on the Conduct of the War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_presidential_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederate States presidential election">Confederate States presidential election of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Act_of_1861" title="Confiscation Act of 1861">Confiscation Act of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Act_of_1862" title="Confiscation Act of 1862">Confiscation Act of 1862</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copperhead_(politics)" title="Copperhead (politics)">Copperheads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Diplomacy of the American Civil War">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Suspension_Act_(1863)" title="Habeas Corpus Suspension Act (1863)">Habeas Corpus Act of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hampton_Roads_Conference" title="Hampton Roads Conference">Hampton Roads Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="National Union Party (United States)">National Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_politicians_killed_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of politicians killed in the American Civil War">Politicians killed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trent_Affair" title="Trent Affair">Trent Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_League" title="Union League">Union Leagues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_United_States_presidential_election" title="1864 United States presidential election">U.S. Presidential Election of 1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Democrat" title="War Democrat">War Democrats</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Music of the American Civil War">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_Hymn_of_the_Republic" title="Battle Hymn of the Republic">Battle Hymn of the Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixie_(song)" title="Dixie (song)">Dixie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Body" title="John Brown's Body">John Brown's Body</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Lincoln_Portrait" class="mw-redirect" title="A Lincoln Portrait">A Lincoln Portrait</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marching_Through_Georgia" title="Marching Through Georgia">Marching Through Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland,_My_Maryland" title="Maryland, My Maryland">Maryland, My Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/When_Johnny_Comes_Marching_Home" title="When Johnny Comes Marching Home">When Johnny Comes Marching Home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daar_kom_die_Alibama" title="Daar kom die Alibama">Daar kom die Alibama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">By ethnicity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="German Americans in the American Civil War">German Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Irish Americans in the American Civil War">Irish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Americans_in_the_Civil_War" title="Italian Americans in the Civil War">Italian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catawba_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Catawba in the American Civil War">Catawba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cherokee in the American Civil War">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Choctaw in the American Civil War">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Seminole in the American Civil War">Seminole</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltimore_riot_of_1861" title="Baltimore riot of 1861">Baltimore riot of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_battlefield_preservation" title="American Civil War battlefield preservation">Battlefield preservation</a></li> <li><a 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title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Names of the American Civil War">Naming the war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_gold_hoax" title="Civil War gold hoax">New York City Gold Hoax of 1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_draft_riots" title="New York City draft riots">New York City riots of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographers_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Photographers of the American Civil War">Photographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_bread_riots" title="Southern bread riots">Richmond riots of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Salt in the American Civil War">Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_cases_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Supreme Court cases of the American Civil War">Supreme Court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_token" title="Civil War token">Tokens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Sanitary_Commission" title="United States Sanitary Commission">U.S. Sanitary Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_American_Civil_War_soldiers" title="List of female American Civil War soldiers">Women soldiers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_and_television_shows_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of films and television shows about the American Civil War">List of films and television shows about the American Civil War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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