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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bonds_in_chemical_formulas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bonds_in_chemical_formulas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Bonds in chemical formulas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bonds_in_chemical_formulas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strong_chemical_bonds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strong_chemical_bonds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Strong chemical bonds</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Strong_chemical_bonds-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Strong chemical bonds subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Strong_chemical_bonds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ionic_bond" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ionic_bond"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Ionic bond</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ionic_bond-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Covalent_bond" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Covalent_bond"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Covalent bond</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Covalent_bond-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Single_and_multiple_bonds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Single_and_multiple_bonds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Single and multiple bonds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Single_and_multiple_bonds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coordinate_covalent_bond_(dipolar_bond)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coordinate_covalent_bond_(dipolar_bond)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Coordinate covalent bond (dipolar bond)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coordinate_covalent_bond_(dipolar_bond)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metallic_bonding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metallic_bonding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Metallic bonding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metallic_bonding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intermolecular_bonding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intermolecular_bonding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Intermolecular bonding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intermolecular_bonding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories_of_chemical_bonding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories_of_chemical_bonding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Theories of chemical bonding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theories_of_chemical_bonding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Chemical bond</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 103 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-103" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">103 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemiese_binding" title="Chemiese binding – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Chemiese binding" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B7%D8%A9_%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="رابطة كيميائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رابطة كيميائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enllaz_qu%C3%ADmicu" title="Enllaz químicu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Enllaz químicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimy%C9%99vi_rabit%C9%99" title="Kimyəvi rabitə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kimyəvi rabitə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%A8" title="রাসায়নিক বন্ধন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রাসায়নিক বন্ধন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho%C3%A0-ha%CC%8Dk_kiat-ha%CC%8Dp" title="Hoà-ha̍k kiat-ha̍p – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hoà-ha̍k kiat-ha̍p" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8C" title="Хімічная сувязь – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Хімічная сувязь" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8C" title="Хімічная сувязь – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Хімічная сувязь" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%80%D1%8A%D0%B7%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Химична връзка – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Химична връзка" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemijska_veza" title="Hemijska veza – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Hemijska veza" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enlla%C3%A7_qu%C3%ADmic" title="Enllaç químic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Enllaç químic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5_%C3%A7%D1%8B%D1%85%C4%83%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Химилле çыхăну – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Химилле çыхăну" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemick%C3%A1_vazba" title="Chemická vazba – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Chemická vazba" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bondio_cemegol" title="Bondio cemegol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Bondio cemegol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemisk_binding" title="Kemisk binding – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kemisk binding" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemihkala%C5%A1_%C4%8Danus" title="Kemihkalaš čanus – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Kemihkalaš čanus" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemische_Bindung" title="Chemische Bindung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chemische Bindung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keemiline_side" title="Keemiline side – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keemiline side" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%B4%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Χημικός δεσμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χημικός δεσμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enlace_(qu%C3%ADmica)" title="Enlace (química) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Enlace (química)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemia_ligo" title="Kemia ligo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kemia ligo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotura_kimiko" title="Lotura kimiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Lotura kimiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="پیوند شیمیایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پیوند شیمیایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liaison_chimique" title="Liaison chimique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Liaison chimique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasc_ceimiceach" title="Nasc ceimiceach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Nasc ceimiceach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiangley_kemmigagh" title="Kiangley kemmigagh – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Kiangley kemmigagh" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enlace_qu%C3%ADmico" title="Enlace químico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Enlace químico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%94%ED%95%99_%EA%B2%B0%ED%95%A9" title="화학 결합 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="화학 결합" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BA" title="Քիմիական կապ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քիմիական կապ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A7" title="रासायनिक आबंध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रासायनिक आबंध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemijska_veza" title="Kemijska veza – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kemijska veza" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemiala_ligilo" title="Kemiala ligilo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kemiala ligilo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Njik%E1%BB%8D_kem%E1%BB%8Bkal" title="Njikọ kemịkal – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Njikọ kemịkal" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikatan_kimia" title="Ikatan kimia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ikatan kimia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umnqalo_wevanga" title="Umnqalo wevanga – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umnqalo wevanga" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efnatengi" title="Efnatengi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Efnatengi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legame_chimico" title="Legame chimico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Legame chimico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A9%D7%A8_%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99" title="קשר כימי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קשר כימי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronc%C3%A8n_kimia" title="Roncèn kimia – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Roncèn kimia" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A7" title="ರಾಸಾಯನಿಕ ಬಂಧ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ರಾಸಾಯನಿಕ ಬಂಧ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%91%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="ქიმიური ბმა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ქიმიური ბმა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Химиялық байланыстар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Химиялық байланыстар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muungo_kemia" title="Muungo kemia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Muungo kemia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyezon_chimik" title="Lyezon chimik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Lyezon chimik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ly%C3%A8zon_chimik" title="Lyèzon chimik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Lyèzon chimik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%88" title="Химиялык байланыш – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Химиялык байланыш" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinculum_chemicum" title="Vinculum chemicum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Vinculum chemicum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B6%C4%ABmisk%C4%81_saite" title="Ķīmiskā saite – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ķīmiskā saite" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheminis_ry%C5%A1ys" title="Cheminis ryšys – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Cheminis ryšys" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligam_chimich" title="Ligam chimich – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Ligam chimich" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A9miai_k%C3%B6t%C3%A9s" title="Kémiai kötés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kémiai kötés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Хемиска врска – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Хемиска врска" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="രാസബന്ധനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="രാസബന്ധനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A7" title="रासायनिक बंध – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="रासायनिक बंध" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikatan_kimia" title="Ikatan kimia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ikatan kimia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%80%EA%AF%A6%EA%AF%83%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%80%EA%AF%A6%EA%AF%9C_%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%84%EA%AF%A8%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯀꯦꯃꯤꯀꯦꯜ ꯂꯤꯄꯨꯟ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯀꯦꯃꯤꯀꯦꯜ ꯂꯤꯄꯨꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu%C3%A1-h%C5%8Fk-gi%C3%B4ng" title="Huá-hŏk-giông – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Huá-hŏk-giông" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BE" title="Химийн холбоо – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Химийн холбоо" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemische_binding" title="Chemische binding – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Chemische binding" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E7%B5%90%E5%90%88" title="化学結合 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="化学結合" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjemisk_binding" title="Kjemisk binding – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjemisk binding" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjemisk_binding" title="Kjemisk binding – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kjemisk binding" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligam_quimic" title="Ligam quimic – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ligam quimic" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidhoo_keemikaalaa" title="Hidhoo keemikaalaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Hidhoo keemikaalaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimyoviy_bog%CA%BB" title="Kimyoviy bogʻ – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Kimyoviy bogʻ" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A3%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%8B%E0%A9%9C" title="ਰਸਾਇਣਕ ਜੋੜ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਰਸਾਇਣਕ ਜੋੜ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimikal_ban" title="Kimikal ban – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Kimikal ban" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%96%E1%9F%90%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%92%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%B8" title="សម្ព័ន្ធគីមី – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="សម្ព័ន្ធគីមី" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheemsch_Binnen" title="Cheemsch Binnen – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Cheemsch Binnen" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi%C4%85zanie_chemiczne" title="Wiązanie chemiczne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wiązanie chemiczne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liga%C3%A7%C3%A3o_qu%C3%ADmica" title="Ligação química – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ligação química" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leg%C4%83tur%C4%83_chimic%C4%83" title="Legătură chimică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Legătură chimică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8C" title="Химическая связь – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Химическая связь" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%84_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%88_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%A7_%DB%81%DB%92_%D8%9F" title="کیمیکل بانڈ کیا ہے ؟ – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="کیمیکل بانڈ کیا ہے ؟" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lidhja_kimike" title="Lidhja kimike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lidhja kimike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%B6%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B0%E0%B6%B1" title="රසායනික බන්ධන – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="රසායනික බන්ධන" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Chemical bond" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AA%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%8A" title="ڪيميائي بانڊ – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ڪيميائي بانڊ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemick%C3%A1_v%C3%A4zba" title="Chemická väzba – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Chemická väzba" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemi%C4%8Dna_vez" title="Kemična vez – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kemična vez" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="بەندی کیمیایی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بەندی کیمیایی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Хемијска веза – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хемијска веза" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemijska_veza" title="Hemijska veza – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Hemijska veza" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beungkeut_kimia" title="Beungkeut kimia – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Beungkeut kimia" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemiallinen_sidos" title="Kemiallinen sidos – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kemiallinen sidos" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Association of atoms to form chemical compounds</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Molecular_binding" title="Molecular binding">Molecular binding</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dihydrogen-phase-3D-balls.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Dihydrogen-phase-3D-balls.png/300px-Dihydrogen-phase-3D-balls.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Dihydrogen-phase-3D-balls.png/450px-Dihydrogen-phase-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Dihydrogen-phase-3D-balls.png/600px-Dihydrogen-phase-3D-balls.png 2x" data-file-width="2104" data-file-height="982" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Covalent_bonding" class="mw-redirect" title="Covalent bonding">Covalent bonding</a> of two <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> atoms to form a hydrogen molecule, <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span>. In (a) the two nuclei are surrounded by a cloud of two electrons in the <a href="/wiki/Bonding_molecular_orbital" title="Bonding molecular orbital">bonding orbital</a> that holds the molecule together. (b) shows hydrogen's <a href="/wiki/Antibonding_molecular_orbital" title="Antibonding molecular orbital">antibonding orbital</a>, which is higher in energy and is normally not occupied by any electrons.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>chemical bond</b> is the association of <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystals</a>, and other structures. The bond may result from the <a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">electrostatic force</a> between oppositely charged ions as in <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bonding" title="Ionic bonding">ionic bonds</a> or through the sharing of electrons as in <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bonds</a>, or some combination of these effects. Chemical bonds are described as having different strengths: there are "strong bonds" or "primary bonds" such as <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic bond">ionic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metallic_bonding" title="Metallic bonding">metallic</a> bonds, and "weak bonds" or "secondary bonds" such as <a href="/wiki/Dipole%E2%80%93dipole_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Dipole–dipole interaction">dipole–dipole interactions</a>, the <a href="/wiki/London_dispersion_force" title="London dispersion force">London dispersion force</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">hydrogen bonding</a>. </p><p>Since opposite <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charges</a> attract, the negatively charged <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> surrounding the nucleus and the positively charged <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> within a <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a> attract each other. Electrons shared between two <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nuclei</a> will be attracted to both of them. "Constructive <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanical" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum mechanical">quantum mechanical</a> <a href="/wiki/Wavefunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Wavefunction">wavefunction</a> <a href="/wiki/Wave_interference" title="Wave interference">interference</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-Levine_Head-Gordon_2020_p._1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levine_Head-Gordon_2020_p.-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> stabilizes the paired nuclei (see <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Theories_of_chemical_bonding"> Theories of chemical bonding</a>). Bonded nuclei maintain an optimal distance (the bond distance) balancing attractive and repulsive effects explained quantitatively by <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The atoms in <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a> and other forms of matter are held together by chemical bonds, which determine the structure and properties of matter. </p><p>All bonds can be described by <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum theory</a>, but, in practice, simplified rules and other theories allow chemists to predict the strength, directionality, and polarity of bonds.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Octet_rule" title="Octet rule">octet rule</a> and <a href="/wiki/VSEPR_theory" title="VSEPR theory">VSEPR theory</a> are examples. More sophisticated theories are <a href="/wiki/Valence_bond_theory" title="Valence bond theory">valence bond theory</a>, which includes <a href="/wiki/Orbital_hybridization" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbital hybridization">orbital hybridization</a><sup id="cite_ref-Frank_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frank-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Resonance_(chemistry)" title="Resonance (chemistry)">resonance</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Pauling_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pauling-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_orbital_theory" title="Molecular orbital theory">molecular orbital theory</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which includes the <a href="/wiki/Linear_combination_of_atomic_orbitals" title="Linear combination of atomic orbitals">linear combination of atomic orbitals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ligand_field_theory" title="Ligand field theory">ligand field theory</a>. <a href="/wiki/Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">Electrostatics</a> are used to describe bond polarities and the effects they have on chemical substances. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview_of_main_types_of_chemical_bonds">Overview of main types of chemical bonds</h2></div> <p>A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms. This attraction may be seen as the result of different behaviors of the outermost or <a href="/wiki/Valence_electron" title="Valence electron">valence electrons</a> of atoms. These behaviors merge into each other seamlessly in various circumstances, so that there is no clear line to be drawn between them. However it remains useful and customary to differentiate between different types of bond, which result in different properties of <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Condensed matter">condensed matter</a>. </p><p>In the simplest view of a <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bond</a>, one or more electrons (often a pair of electrons) are drawn into the space between the two atomic nuclei. Energy is released by bond formation.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is not as a result of reduction in potential energy, because the attraction of the two electrons to the two protons is offset by the electron-electron and proton-proton repulsions. Instead, the release of energy (and hence stability of the bond) arises from the reduction in kinetic energy due to the electrons being in a more spatially distributed (i.e. longer <a href="/wiki/De_Broglie_wavelength" class="mw-redirect" title="De Broglie wavelength">de Broglie wavelength</a>) orbital compared with each electron being confined closer to its respective nucleus.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These bonds exist between two particular identifiable atoms and have a direction in space, allowing them to be shown as single connecting lines between atoms in drawings, or modeled as sticks between spheres in models. </p><p>In a <a href="/wiki/Polar_covalent_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar covalent bond">polar covalent bond</a>, one or more electrons are unequally shared between two nuclei. Covalent bonds often result in the formation of small collections of better-connected atoms called <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>, which in solids and liquids are bound to other molecules by forces that are often much weaker than the covalent bonds that hold the molecules internally together. Such weak intermolecular bonds give organic molecular substances, such as waxes and oils, their soft bulk character, and their low melting points (in liquids, molecules must cease most structured or oriented contact with each other). When covalent bonds link long chains of atoms in large molecules, however (as in polymers such as <a href="/wiki/Nylon" title="Nylon">nylon</a>), or when covalent bonds extend in networks through solids that are not composed of discrete molecules (such as <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a> or <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Silicate_minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicate minerals">silicate minerals</a> in many types of rock) then the structures that result may be both strong and tough, at least in the direction oriented correctly with networks of covalent bonds.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, the melting points of such covalent polymers and networks increase greatly. </p><p>In a simplified view of an <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic bond"><i>ionic</i> bond</a>, the bonding electron is not shared at all, but transferred. In this type of bond, the outer <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">atomic orbital</a> of one atom has a vacancy which allows the addition of one or more electrons. These newly added electrons potentially occupy a lower energy-state (effectively closer to more nuclear charge) than they experience in a different atom. Thus, one nucleus offers a more tightly bound position to an electron than does another nucleus, with the result that one atom may transfer an electron to the other. This transfer causes one atom to assume a net positive charge, and the other to assume a net negative charge. The <i>bond</i> then results from electrostatic attraction between the positive and negatively charged <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a>. Ionic bonds may be seen as extreme examples of polarization in covalent bonds. Often, such bonds have no particular orientation in space, since they result from equal electrostatic attraction of each ion to all ions around them. Ionic bonds are strong (and thus ionic substances require high temperatures to melt) but also brittle, since the forces between ions are short-range and do not easily bridge cracks and fractures. This type of bond gives rise to the physical characteristics of crystals of classic mineral salts, such as table salt. </p><p>A less often mentioned type of bonding is <a href="/wiki/Metallic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallic bond"><i>metallic</i> bonding</a>. In this type of bonding, each atom in a metal donates one or more electrons to a "sea" of electrons that reside between many metal atoms. In this sea, each electron is free (by virtue of its <a href="/wiki/Wave_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave nature">wave nature</a>) to be associated with a great many atoms at once. The bond results because the metal atoms become somewhat positively charged due to loss of their electrons while the electrons remain attracted to many atoms, without being part of any given atom. Metallic bonding may be seen as an extreme example of <a href="/wiki/Delocalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Delocalization">delocalization</a> of electrons over a large system of covalent bonds, in which every atom participates. This type of bonding is often very strong (resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a> of metals). However, metallic bonding is more collective in nature than other types, and so they allow metal crystals to more easily deform, because they are composed of atoms attracted to each other, but not in any particularly-oriented ways. This results in the malleability of metals. The cloud of electrons in metallic bonding causes the characteristically good electrical and thermal conductivity of metals, and also their shiny <a href="/wiki/Lustre_(mineralogy)" title="Lustre (mineralogy)">lustre</a> that reflects most frequencies of white light. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory" title="History of molecular theory">History of molecular theory</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Electron_dot.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Electron_dot.svg/300px-Electron_dot.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Electron_dot.svg/450px-Electron_dot.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Electron_dot.svg/600px-Electron_dot.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="351" data-file-height="304" /></a><figcaption>Examples of <a href="/wiki/Lewis_structure" title="Lewis structure">Lewis dot diagrams</a> used to represent electrons in the chemical bonds between atoms, here showing <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> (C), <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> (H), and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> (O). Lewis diagrams were developed in 1916 by <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</a> to describe chemical bonding and are still widely used today. Each line segment or pair of dots represents a pair of electrons. Pairs located between atoms represent bonds.</figcaption></figure> <p>Early speculations about the nature of the <b>chemical bond</b>, from as early as the 12th century, supposed that certain types of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_species" title="Chemical species">chemical species</a> were joined by a type of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_affinity" title="Chemical affinity">chemical affinity</a>. In 1704, <a href="/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newton" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Isaac Newton">Sir Isaac Newton</a> famously outlined his atomic bonding theory, in "Query 31" of his <i><a href="/wiki/Opticks" title="Opticks">Opticks</a></i>, whereby <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> attach to each other by some "<a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a>". Specifically, after acknowledging the various popular theories in vogue at the time, of how atoms were reasoned to attach to each other, i.e. "hooked atoms", "glued together by rest", or "stuck together by conspiring motions", Newton states that he would rather infer from their cohesion, that "particles attract one another by some <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a>, which in immediate contact is exceedingly strong, at small distances performs the chemical operations, and reaches not far from the particles with any sensible effect." </p><p>In 1819, on the heels of the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">voltaic pile</a>, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jakob_Berzelius" class="mw-redirect" title="Jöns Jakob Berzelius">Jöns Jakob Berzelius</a> developed a theory of chemical combination stressing the electronegative and electropositive characters of the combining atoms. By the mid 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Frankland" title="Edward Frankland">Edward Frankland</a>, <a href="/wiki/August_Kekul%C3%A9" title="August Kekulé">F.A. Kekulé</a>, A.S. Couper, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Butlerov" title="Alexander Butlerov">Alexander Butlerov</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Kolbe" title="Hermann Kolbe">Hermann Kolbe</a>, building on the <a href="/wiki/Radical_(chemistry)" title="Radical (chemistry)">theory of radicals</a>, developed the <a href="/wiki/Valence_(chemistry)" title="Valence (chemistry)">theory of valency</a>, originally called "combining power", in which compounds were joined owing to an attraction of positive and negative poles. In 1904, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Abegg" title="Richard Abegg">Richard Abegg</a> proposed <a href="/wiki/Abegg%27s_rule" title="Abegg's rule">his rule</a> that the difference between the maximum and minimum valencies of an element is often eight. At this point, valency was still an empirical number based only on chemical properties. </p><p>However the nature of the atom became clearer with <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a>'s 1911 discovery that of an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a> surrounded by electrons in which he quoted Nagaoka rejected Thomson's model on the grounds that opposite charges are impenetrable. In 1904, Nagaoka proposed an alternative <a href="/wiki/Planetary_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Planetary model">planetary model</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> in which a positively charged center is surrounded by a number of revolving electrons, in the manner of Saturn and its rings.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nagaoka's model made two predictions: </p> <ul><li>a very massive atomic center (in analogy to a very massive planet)</li> <li>electrons revolving around the nucleus, bound by electrostatic forces (in analogy to the rings revolving around Saturn, bound by gravitational forces.)</li></ul> <p>Rutherford mentions Nagaoka's model in his 1911 paper in which the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a> is proposed.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the 1911 Solvay Conference, in the discussion of what could regulate energy differences between atoms, Max Planck stated: "The intermediaries could be the electrons."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These nuclear models suggested that electrons determine chemical behavior. </p><p>Next came <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">1913 model</a> of a nuclear atom with electron orbits. In 1916, chemist <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</a> developed the concept of <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">electron-pair bonds</a>, in which two atoms may share one to six electrons, thus forming the <a href="/wiki/Single_electron_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Single electron bond">single electron bond</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Single_bond" title="Single bond">single bond</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Double_bond" title="Double bond">double bond</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Triple_bond" title="Triple bond">triple bond</a>; in Lewis's own words, "An electron may form a part of the shell of two different atoms and cannot be said to belong to either one exclusively."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also in 1916, <a href="/wiki/Walther_Kossel" title="Walther Kossel">Walther Kossel</a> put forward a theory similar to Lewis' only his model assumed complete transfers of electrons between atoms, and was thus a model of <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic bond">ionic bonding</a>. Both Lewis and Kossel structured their bonding models on that of <a href="/wiki/Abegg%27s_rule" title="Abegg's rule">Abegg's rule</a> (1904). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> also proposed <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model_of_the_chemical_bond" title="Bohr model of the chemical bond">a model of the chemical bond</a> in 1913. According to his model for a <a href="/wiki/Diatomic_molecule" title="Diatomic molecule">diatomic molecule</a>, the electrons of the atoms of the molecule form a rotating ring whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the molecule and equidistant from the atomic nuclei. The <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_equilibrium" title="Dynamic equilibrium">dynamic equilibrium</a> of the molecular system is achieved through the balance of forces between the forces of attraction of nuclei to the plane of the ring of electrons and the forces of mutual repulsion of the nuclei. The Bohr model of the chemical bond took into account the <a href="/wiki/Coulomb_repulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Coulomb repulsion">Coulomb repulsion</a> – the electrons in the ring are at the maximum distance from each other.<sup id="cite_ref-Pais_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pais-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1927, the first mathematically complete quantum description of a simple chemical bond, i.e. that produced by one electron in the hydrogen molecular ion, <a href="/wiki/Dihydrogen_cation" title="Dihydrogen cation">H<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup></a>, was derived by the Danish physicist <a href="/wiki/%C3%98yvind_Burrau" title="Øyvind Burrau">Øyvind Burrau</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This work showed that the quantum approach to chemical bonds could be fundamentally and quantitatively correct, but the mathematical methods used could not be extended to molecules containing more than one electron. A more practical, albeit less quantitative, approach was put forward in the same year by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Heitler" title="Walter Heitler">Walter Heitler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_London" title="Fritz London">Fritz London</a>. The Heitler–London method forms the basis of what is now called <a href="/wiki/Valence_bond_theory" title="Valence bond theory">valence bond theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-London_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-London-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1929, the <a href="/wiki/Linear_combination_of_atomic_orbitals_molecular_orbital_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method">linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method</a> (LCAO) approximation was introduced by Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Lennard-Jones" title="John Lennard-Jones">John Lennard-Jones</a>, who also suggested methods to derive electronic structures of molecules of F<sub>2</sub> (<a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a>) and O<sub>2</sub> (<a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>) molecules, from basic quantum principles. This <a href="/wiki/Molecular_orbital" title="Molecular orbital">molecular orbital</a> theory represented a covalent bond as an orbital formed by combining the quantum mechanical <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger</a> atomic orbitals which had been hypothesized for electrons in single atoms. The equations for bonding electrons in multi-electron atoms could not be solved to mathematical perfection (i.e., <i>analytically</i>), but approximations for them still gave many good qualitative predictions and results. Most quantitative calculations in modern <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">quantum chemistry</a> use either valence bond or molecular orbital theory as a starting point, although a third approach, <a href="/wiki/Density_functional_theory" title="Density functional theory">density functional theory</a>, has become increasingly popular in recent years. </p><p>In 1933, H. H. James and A. S. Coolidge carried out a calculation on the dihydrogen molecule that, unlike all previous calculation which used functions only of the distance of the electron from the atomic nucleus, used functions which also explicitly added the distance between the two electrons.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With up to 13 adjustable parameters they obtained a result very close to the experimental result for the dissociation energy. Later extensions have used up to 54 parameters and gave excellent agreement with experiments. This calculation convinced the scientific community that quantum theory could give agreement with experiment. However this approach has none of the physical pictures of the valence bond and molecular orbital theories and is difficult to extend to larger molecules. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bonds_in_chemical_formulas">Bonds in chemical formulas</h2></div> <p>Because atoms and molecules are three-dimensional, it is difficult to use a single method to indicate orbitals and bonds. In <b><a href="/wiki/Molecular_formula" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular formula">molecular formulas</a></b> the chemical bonds (binding orbitals) between atoms are indicated in different ways depending on the type of discussion. Sometimes, some details are neglected. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a> one is sometimes concerned only with the <a href="/wiki/Functional_group" title="Functional group">functional group</a> of the molecule. Thus, the molecular formula of <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> may be written in <a href="/wiki/Conformational_isomerism" title="Conformational isomerism">conformational</a> form, three-dimensional form, full two-dimensional form (indicating every bond with no three-dimensional directions), compressed two-dimensional form (CH<sub>3</sub>–CH<sub>2</sub>–OH), by separating the functional group from another part of the molecule (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH), or by its atomic constituents (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>O), according to what is discussed. Sometimes, even the non-bonding valence shell electrons (with the two-dimensional approximate directions) are marked, e.g. for elemental carbon <sub>.</sub><sup>'</sup>C<sup>'</sup>. Some chemists may also mark the respective orbitals, e.g. the hypothetical ethene<sup>−4</sup> anion (<sub>\</sub><sup>/</sup>C=C<sub>/</sub><sup>\</sup> <sup>−4</sup>) indicating the possibility of bond formation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Strong_chemical_bonds">Strong chemical bonds</h2></div> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="3"><b>Typical <a href="/wiki/Bond_length" title="Bond length">bond lengths</a> in pm<br />and bond <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energies</a> in kJ/mol.</b><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><small>Bond lengths can be converted to <a href="/wiki/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m" class="mw-redirect" title="Ångström">Å</a><br />by division by 100 (1 Å = 100 pm).<br /></small> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Bond </th> <th>Length<br />(pm) </th> <th>Energy<br />(kJ/mol) </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">H — <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>H–H</td> <td>74</td> <td>436 </td></tr> <tr> <td>H–O</td> <td>96</td> <td>467 </td></tr> <tr> <td>H–F</td> <td>92</td> <td>568 </td></tr> <tr> <td>H–Cl</td> <td>127</td> <td>432 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">C — <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">Carbon</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>C–H</td> <td>109</td> <td>413 </td></tr> <tr> <td>C–C</td> <td>154</td> <td>347 </td></tr> <tr> <td>C–C=</td> <td>151</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>=C–C≡</td> <td>147</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>=C–C=</td> <td>148</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>C=C</td> <td>134</td> <td>614 </td></tr> <tr> <td>C≡C</td> <td>120</td> <td>839 </td></tr> <tr> <td>C–N</td> <td>147</td> <td>308 </td></tr> <tr> <td>C–O</td> <td>143</td> <td>358 </td></tr> <tr> <td>C=O</td> <td></td> <td>745 </td></tr> <tr> <td>C≡O</td> <td></td> <td>1,072 </td></tr> <tr> <td>C–F</td> <td>134</td> <td>488 </td></tr> <tr> <td>C–Cl</td> <td>177</td> <td>330 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">N — <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>N–H</td> <td>101</td> <td>391 </td></tr> <tr> <td>N–N</td> <td>145</td> <td>170 </td></tr> <tr> <td>N≡N</td> <td>110</td> <td>945 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">O — <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>O–O</td> <td>148</td> <td>146 </td></tr> <tr> <td>O=O</td> <td>121</td> <td>495 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">F, Cl, Br, I — <a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">Halogens</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>F–F</td> <td>142</td> <td>158 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cl–Cl</td> <td>199</td> <td>243 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Br–H</td> <td>141</td> <td>366 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Br–Br</td> <td>228</td> <td>193 </td></tr> <tr> <td>I–H</td> <td>161</td> <td>298 </td></tr> <tr> <td>I–I</td> <td>267</td> <td>151 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Strong chemical bonds are the <i>intramolecular</i> forces that hold atoms together in <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>. A strong chemical bond is formed from the transfer or sharing of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> between atomic centers and relies on the <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_attraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic attraction">electrostatic attraction</a> between the protons in nuclei and the electrons in the orbitals. </p><p>The types of strong bond differ due to the difference in <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">electronegativity</a> of the constituent elements. Electronegativity is the tendency for an <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> of a given <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a> to attract shared electrons when forming a chemical bond, where the higher the associated electronegativity then the more it attracts electrons. Electronegativity serves as a simple way to quantitatively estimate the <a href="/wiki/Bond_energy" title="Bond energy">bond energy</a>, which characterizes a bond along the continuous scale from <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bonding" class="mw-redirect" title="Covalent bonding">covalent</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bonding" title="Ionic bonding">ionic bonding</a>. A large difference in electronegativity leads to more polar (ionic) character in the bond. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ionic_bond">Ionic bond</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bonding" title="Ionic bonding">Ionic bonding</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NaCl_octahedra.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/NaCl_octahedra.svg/220px-NaCl_octahedra.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/NaCl_octahedra.svg/330px-NaCl_octahedra.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/NaCl_octahedra.svg/440px-NaCl_octahedra.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="1001" /></a><figcaption>Crystal structure of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> (NaCl) with sodium <a href="/wiki/Cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation">cations</a> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><span class="tmp-color" style="color:purple">Na<sup>+</sup></span>) in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:purple">purple</span> and <a href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">chloride</a> anions (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:green">Cl<sup>−</sup></span>) in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:green">green</span>. The yellow stipples represent the <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic force">electrostatic force</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> of opposite charge.</figcaption></figure> <p>Ionic bonding is a type of electrostatic interaction between atoms that have a large electronegativity difference. There is no precise value that distinguishes ionic from covalent bonding, but an electronegativity difference of over 1.7 is likely to be ionic while a difference of less than 1.7 is likely to be covalent.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ionic bonding leads to separate positive and negative <a href="/wiki/Ions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ions">ions</a>. Ionic charges are commonly between −3<a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">e</a> to +3<a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">e</a>. Ionic bonding commonly occurs in <a href="/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)" title="Salt (chemistry)">metal salts</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> (table salt). A typical feature of ionic bonds is that the species form into ionic crystals, in which no ion is specifically paired with any single other ion in a specific directional bond. Rather, each species of ion is surrounded by ions of the opposite charge, and the spacing between it and each of the oppositely charged ions near it is the same for all surrounding atoms of the same type. It is thus no longer possible to associate an ion with any specific other single ionized atom near it. This is a situation unlike that in covalent crystals, where covalent bonds between specific atoms are still discernible from the shorter distances between them, as measured via such techniques as <a href="/wiki/X-ray_diffraction" title="X-ray diffraction">X-ray diffraction</a>. </p><p>Ionic crystals may contain a mixture of covalent and ionic species, as for example salts of complex acids such as <a href="/wiki/Sodium_cyanide" title="Sodium cyanide">sodium cyanide</a>, NaCN. X-ray diffraction shows that in NaCN, for example, the bonds between sodium <a href="/wiki/Cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation">cations</a> (Na<sup>+</sup>) and the cyanide <a href="/wiki/Anion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anion">anions</a> (CN<sup>−</sup>) are <i>ionic</i>, with no <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> ion associated with any particular <a href="/wiki/Cyanide" title="Cyanide">cyanide</a>. However, the bonds between the <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> (C) and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> (N) atoms in cyanide are of the <i>covalent</i> type, so that each carbon is strongly bound to <i>just one</i> nitrogen, to which it is physically much closer than it is to other carbons or nitrogens in a sodium cyanide crystal. </p><p>When such crystals are melted into liquids, the ionic bonds are broken first because they are non-directional and allow the charged species to move freely. Similarly, when such salts dissolve into water, the ionic bonds are typically broken by the interaction with water but the covalent bonds continue to hold. For example, in solution, the cyanide ions, still bound together as single CN<sup>−</sup> ions, move independently through the solution, as do sodium ions, as Na<sup>+</sup>. In water, charged ions move apart because each of them are more strongly attracted to a number of water molecules than to each other. The attraction between ions and water molecules in such solutions is due to a type of weak <a href="/wiki/Intermolecular_force" title="Intermolecular force">dipole-dipole</a> type chemical bond. In melted ionic compounds, the ions continue to be attracted to each other, but not in any ordered or crystalline way. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Covalent_bond">Covalent bond</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">Covalent bond</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Covalent.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Covalent.svg/160px-Covalent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Covalent.svg/240px-Covalent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Covalent.svg/320px-Covalent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="334" data-file-height="402" /></a><figcaption>Non-polar covalent bonds in <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> (CH<sub>4</sub>). The <a href="/wiki/Lewis_structure" title="Lewis structure">Lewis structure</a> shows electrons shared between C and H atoms.</figcaption></figure> <p>Covalent bonding is a common type of bonding in which two or more atoms share <a href="/wiki/Valence_electrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Valence electrons">valence electrons</a> more or less equally. The simplest and most common type is a <a href="/wiki/Single_bond" title="Single bond">single bond</a> in which two atoms share two electrons. Other types include the <a href="/wiki/Double_bond" title="Double bond">double bond</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Triple_bond" title="Triple bond">triple bond</a>, <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond#One-_and_three-electron_bonds" title="Covalent bond">one- and three-electron bonds</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Three-center_two-electron_bond" title="Three-center two-electron bond">three-center two-electron bond</a> and <a href="/wiki/Three-center_four-electron_bond" title="Three-center four-electron bond">three-center four-electron bond</a>. </p><p>In non-polar covalent bonds, the electronegativity difference between the bonded atoms is small, typically 0 to 0.3. Bonds within most <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a> are described as covalent. The figure shows methane (CH<sub>4</sub>), in which each hydrogen forms a covalent bond with the carbon. See <a href="/wiki/Sigma_bond" title="Sigma bond">sigma bonds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pi_bond" title="Pi bond">pi bonds</a> for LCAO descriptions of such bonding.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Molecules that are formed primarily from non-polar covalent bonds are often <a href="/wiki/Miscibility" title="Miscibility">immiscible</a> in water or other <a href="/wiki/Polar_solvent" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar solvent">polar solvents</a>, but much more soluble in <a href="/wiki/Non-polar_solvent" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-polar solvent">non-polar solvents</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Hexane" title="Hexane">hexane</a>. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Polar_covalent_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar covalent bond">polar covalent bond</a> is a covalent bond with a significant <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bonding" title="Ionic bonding">ionic character</a>. This means that the two shared electrons are closer to one of the atoms than the other, creating an imbalance of charge. Such bonds occur between two atoms with moderately different electronegativities and give rise to <a href="/wiki/Dipole#Molecular_dipoles" title="Dipole">dipole–dipole interactions</a>. The electronegativity difference between the two atoms in these bonds is 0.3 to 1.7. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Single_and_multiple_bonds">Single and multiple bonds</h4></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Single_bond" title="Single bond">single bond</a> between two atoms corresponds to the sharing of one pair of electrons. The Hydrogen (H) atom has one valence electron. Two Hydrogen atoms can then form a molecule, held together by the shared pair of electrons. Each H atom now has the noble gas electron configuration of helium (He). The pair of shared electrons forms a single covalent bond. The electron density of these two bonding electrons in the region between the two atoms increases from the density of two non-interacting H atoms. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pi-Bond.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Pi-Bond.svg/220px-Pi-Bond.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Pi-Bond.svg/330px-Pi-Bond.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Pi-Bond.svg/440px-Pi-Bond.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Two p-orbitals forming a pi-bond.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Double_bond" title="Double bond">double bond</a> has two shared pairs of electrons, one in a sigma bond and one in a <a href="/wiki/Pi_bond" title="Pi bond">pi bond</a> with electron density concentrated on two opposite sides of the internuclear axis. A <a href="/wiki/Triple_bond" title="Triple bond">triple bond</a> consists of three shared electron pairs, forming one sigma and two pi bonds. An example is nitrogen. <a href="/wiki/Quadruple_bond" title="Quadruple bond">Quadruple</a> and higher bonds are very rare and occur only between certain <a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">transition metal</a> atoms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coordinate_covalent_bond_(dipolar_bond)"><span id="Coordinate_covalent_bond_.28dipolar_bond.29"></span>Coordinate covalent bond (dipolar bond)</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NH3-BF3-adduct-bond-lengthening-2D.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/NH3-BF3-adduct-bond-lengthening-2D.png/220px-NH3-BF3-adduct-bond-lengthening-2D.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/NH3-BF3-adduct-bond-lengthening-2D.png/330px-NH3-BF3-adduct-bond-lengthening-2D.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/NH3-BF3-adduct-bond-lengthening-2D.png/440px-NH3-BF3-adduct-bond-lengthening-2D.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="516" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Adduct" title="Adduct">Adduct</a> of ammonia and boron trifluoride</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Coordinate_covalent_bond" title="Coordinate covalent bond">coordinate covalent bond</a> is a covalent bond in which the two shared bonding electrons are from the same one of the atoms involved in the bond. For example, <a href="/wiki/Boron_trifluoride" title="Boron trifluoride">boron trifluoride</a> (BF<sub>3</sub>) and <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> (NH<sub>3</sub>) form an <a href="/wiki/Adduct" title="Adduct">adduct</a> or <a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">coordination complex</a> F<sub>3</sub>B←NH<sub>3</sub> with a B–N bond in which a <a href="/wiki/Lone_pair" title="Lone pair">lone pair</a> of electrons on N is shared with an empty atomic orbital on B. BF<sub>3</sub> with an empty orbital is described as an electron pair acceptor or <a href="/wiki/Lewis_acids_and_bases" title="Lewis acids and bases">Lewis acid</a>, while NH<sub>3</sub> with a lone pair that can be shared is described as an electron-pair donor or <a href="/wiki/Lewis_base" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis base">Lewis base</a>. The electrons are shared roughly equally between the atoms in contrast to ionic bonding. Such bonding is shown by an arrow pointing to the Lewis acid. (In the Figure, solid lines are bonds in the plane of the diagram, <a href="/wiki/Skeletal_formula#Stereochemistry" title="Skeletal formula">wedged bonds</a> point towards the observer, and dashed bonds point away from the observer.) </p><p><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Transition metal complex">Transition metal complexes</a> are generally bound by coordinate covalent bonds. For example, the ion Ag<sup>+</sup> reacts as a Lewis acid with two molecules of the Lewis base NH<sub>3</sub> to form the complex ion Ag(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup>, which has two Ag←N coordinate covalent bonds. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metallic_bonding">Metallic bonding</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metallic_bonding" title="Metallic bonding">Metallic bonding</a></div> <p>In metallic bonding, bonding electrons are delocalized over a lattice of atoms. By contrast, in ionic compounds, the locations of the binding electrons and their charges are static. The free movement or delocalization of bonding electrons leads to classical metallic properties such as <a href="/wiki/Lustre_(mineralogy)" title="Lustre (mineralogy)">luster</a> (surface light <a href="/wiki/Reflectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Reflectivity">reflectivity</a>), <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conductivity">electrical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">thermal conductivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">ductility</a>, and high <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Intermolecular_bonding">Intermolecular bonding</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Intermolecular_force" title="Intermolecular force">Intermolecular force</a></div> <p>There are several types of weak bonds that can be formed between two or more molecules which are not covalently bound. <a href="/wiki/Intermolecular_force" title="Intermolecular force">Intermolecular forces</a> cause molecules to attract or repel each other. Often, these forces influence physical characteristics (such as the <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a>) of a substance. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force" title="Van der Waals force">Van der Waals forces</a> are interactions between <a href="/wiki/Electron_configuration#Open_and_closed_shells" title="Electron configuration">closed-shell</a> molecules. They include both Coulombic interactions between partial charges in <a href="/wiki/Chemical_polarity" title="Chemical polarity">polar</a> molecules, and <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle#Stability_of_matter" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli repulsions</a> between closed electrons shells.<sup id="cite_ref-Atkins_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atkins-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 696">: 696 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Intermolecular_force#Keesom_force_(permanent_dipole_–_permanent_dipole)" title="Intermolecular force">Keesom forces</a> are the forces between the permanent <a href="/wiki/Dipole#Molecular_dipoles" title="Dipole">dipoles</a> of two polar molecules.<sup id="cite_ref-Atkins_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atkins-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 701">: 701 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/London_dispersion_force" title="London dispersion force">London dispersion forces</a> are the forces between induced dipoles of different molecules.<sup id="cite_ref-Atkins_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atkins-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 703">: 703 </span></sup> There can also be an interaction between a permanent dipole in one molecule and an induced dipole in another molecule.<sup id="cite_ref-Atkins_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atkins-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 702">: 702 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">Hydrogen bonds</a> of the form A--H•••B occur when A and B are two highly electronegative atoms (usually N, O or F) such that A forms a highly polar covalent bond with H so that H has a partial positive charge, and B has a <a href="/wiki/Lone_pair" title="Lone pair">lone pair</a> of electrons which is attracted to this partial positive charge and forms a hydrogen bond.<sup id="cite_ref-Atkins_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atkins-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 702">: 702 </span></sup> Hydrogen bonds are responsible for the high boiling points of water and <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> with respect to their heavier analogues. In some cases a similar <a href="/wiki/Halogen_bond" title="Halogen bond">halogen bond</a> can be formed by a halogen atom located between two electronegative atoms on different molecules. </p><p>At short distances, repulsive forces between atoms also become important.<sup id="cite_ref-Atkins_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atkins-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 705-6">: 705-6 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories_of_chemical_bonding">Theories of chemical bonding</h2></div> <p>In the (unrealistic) limit of "pure" <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic bond">ionic bonding</a>, electrons are perfectly localized on one of the two atoms in the bond. Such bonds can be understood by <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">classical physics</a>. The force between the atoms depends on <a href="/wiki/Isotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotropic">isotropic</a> continuum electrostatic potentials. The magnitude of the force is in simple proportion to the product of the two ionic charges according to <a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb's law</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Covalent bonds are better understood by <a href="/wiki/Valence_bond_theory" title="Valence bond theory">valence bond (VB) theory</a> or <a href="/wiki/Molecular_orbital_theory" title="Molecular orbital theory">molecular orbital (MO) theory</a>. The properties of the atoms involved can be understood using concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation number">oxidation number</a>, <a href="/wiki/Formal_charge" title="Formal charge">formal charge</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">electronegativity</a>. The electron density within a bond is not assigned to individual atoms, but is instead delocalized between atoms. In valence bond theory, bonding is conceptualized as being built up from electron pairs that are localized and shared by two atoms via the overlap of atomic orbitals. The concepts of <a href="/wiki/Orbital_hybridisation" title="Orbital hybridisation">orbital hybridization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Resonance_(chemistry)" title="Resonance (chemistry)">resonance</a> augment this basic notion of the electron pair bond. In molecular orbital theory, bonding is viewed as being delocalized and apportioned in orbitals that extend throughout the molecule and are adapted to its symmetry properties, typically by considering <a href="/wiki/Linear_combination_of_atomic_orbitals_molecular_orbital_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method">linear combinations of atomic orbitals</a> (LCAO). Valence bond theory is more chemically intuitive by being spatially localized, allowing attention to be focused on the parts of the molecule undergoing chemical change. In contrast, molecular orbitals are more "natural" from a quantum mechanical point of view, with orbital energies being physically significant and directly linked to experimental ionization energies from <a href="/wiki/Photoelectron_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoelectron spectroscopy">photoelectron spectroscopy</a>. Consequently, valence bond theory and molecular orbital theory are often viewed as competing but complementary frameworks that offer different insights into chemical systems. As approaches for electronic structure theory, both MO and VB methods can give approximations to any desired level of accuracy, at least in principle. However, at lower levels, the approximations differ, and one approach may be better suited for computations involving a particular system or property than the other.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Unlike the spherically symmetrical Coulombic forces in pure ionic bonds, covalent bonds are generally directed and <a href="/wiki/Anisotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anisotropic">anisotropic</a>. These are often classified based on their symmetry with respect to a molecular plane as <a href="/wiki/Sigma_bond" title="Sigma bond">sigma bonds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pi_bond" title="Pi bond">pi bonds</a>. In the general case, atoms form bonds that are intermediate between ionic and covalent, depending on the relative <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">electronegativity</a> of the atoms involved. Bonds of this type are known as <a href="/wiki/Polar_covalent_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar covalent bond">polar covalent bonds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Levine_Head-Gordon_2020_p.-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Levine_Head-Gordon_2020_p._1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLevineHead-Gordon2020" class="citation journal cs1">Levine, Daniel S.; Head-Gordon, Martin (2020-09-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7524788">"Clarifying the quantum mechanical origin of the covalent chemical bond"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>11</b> (1). 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(2005). <i>Inorganic Chemistry</i> (2nd ed.). Pearson Prentice-Hal. p. 100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0130-39913-2" title="Special:BookSources/0130-39913-2"><bdi>0130-39913-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inorganic+Chemistry&rft.pages=100&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice-Hal&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0130-39913-2&rft.aulast=Housecroft&rft.aufirst=Catherine+E.&rft.au=Sharpe%2C+Alan+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+bond" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRioux,_F.2001" class="citation journal cs1">Rioux, F. (2001). "The Covalent Bond in H<sub>2</sub>". <i>The Chemical Educator</i>. <b>6</b> (5): 288–290. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00897010509a">10.1007/s00897010509a</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:97871973">97871973</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Chemical+Educator&rft.atitle=The+Covalent+Bond+in+H%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3E&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=288-290&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00897010509a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A97871973%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Rioux%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+bond" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHousecroftSharpe2005" class="citation book cs1">Housecroft, Catherine E.; Sharpe, Alan G. (2005). <i>Inorganic Chemistry</i> (2nd ed.). Pearson Prentice-Hal. p. 100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0130-39913-2" title="Special:BookSources/0130-39913-2"><bdi>0130-39913-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inorganic+Chemistry&rft.pages=100&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice-Hal&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0130-39913-2&rft.aulast=Housecroft&rft.aufirst=Catherine+E.&rft.au=Sharpe%2C+Alan+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+bond" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._Bryson2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bill_Bryson" title="Bill Bryson">B. 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Kuhn, Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, Vol. 1 (1969), pp. vi, 211-290 (81 pages), University of California Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Original Proceedings of the 1911 Solvay Conference published 1912. THÉORIE DU RAYONNEMENT ET LES QUANTA. RAPPORTS ET DISCUSSIONS DELA Réunion tenue à Bruxelles, du 30 octobre au 3 novembre 1911, Sous les Auspices dk M. E. SOLVAY. Publiés par MM. P. LANGEVIN et M. de BROGLIE. Translated from the French, p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1916" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Lewis, Gilbert N.</a> (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/papers/corr216.3-lewispub-19160400.html">"The Atom and the Molecule"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Chemical_Society" title="Journal of the American Chemical Society">Journal of the American Chemical Society</a></i>. <b>38</b> (4): 772. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja02261a002">10.1021/ja02261a002</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:95865413">95865413</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Atom+and+the+Molecule&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=772&rft.date=1916&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja02261a002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A95865413%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Gilbert+N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fosulibrary.oregonstate.edu%2Fspecialcollections%2Fcoll%2Fpauling%2Fbond%2Fpapers%2Fcorr216.3-lewispub-19160400.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+bond" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itis.arezzo.it/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=221%3Athe-atom-and-the-molecule-&catid=106%3Apagine-html&Itemid=98">a copy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210418014936/http://www.itis.arezzo.it/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=221%3Athe-atom-and-the-molecule-&catid=106%3Apagine-html&Itemid=98">Archived</a> 2021-04-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pais-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pais_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPais1986" class="citation book cs1">Pais, Abraham (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/inwardboundofmat00pais_0/page/228"><i>Inward Bound: Of Matter and Forces in the Physical World</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/inwardboundofmat00pais_0/page/228">228–230</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-851971-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-851971-3"><bdi>978-0-19-851971-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inward+Bound%3A+Of+Matter+and+Forces+in+the+Physical+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=228-230&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-19-851971-3&rft.aulast=Pais&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finwardboundofmat00pais_0%2Fpage%2F228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+bond" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSvidzinskyMarlan_O._ScullyDudley_R._Herschbach2005" class="citation journal cs1">Svidzinsky, Anatoly A.; Marlan O. Scully; <a href="/wiki/Dudley_R._Herschbach" title="Dudley R. Herschbach">Dudley R. Herschbach</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/content/102/34/11985.full.pdf">"Bohr's 1913 molecular model revisited"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>102</b> (34): 11985–11988. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0508161">physics/0508161</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PNAS..10211985S">2005PNAS..10211985S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0505778102">10.1073/pnas.0505778102</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1186029">1186029</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16103360">16103360</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180718233029/http://www.pnas.org/content/102/34/11985.full.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2018-07-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Bohr%27s+1913+molecular+model+revisited&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=34&rft.pages=11985-11988&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1186029%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005PNAS..10211985S&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fphysics%2F0508161&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16103360&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0505778102&rft.aulast=Svidzinsky&rft.aufirst=Anatoly+A.&rft.au=Marlan+O.+Scully&rft.au=Dudley+R.+Herschbach&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pnas.org%2Fcontent%2F102%2F34%2F11985.full.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+bond" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaidler,_K._J.1993" class="citation book cs1">Laidler, K. J. (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldofphysicalc0000laid"><i>The World of Physical Chemistry</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldofphysicalc0000laid/page/346">346</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-855919-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-855919-1"><bdi>978-0-19-855919-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+of+Physical+Chemistry&rft.pages=346&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-19-855919-1&rft.au=Laidler%2C+K.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldofphysicalc0000laid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+bond" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-London-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-London_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeitlerLondon1927" class="citation journal cs1">Heitler, W.; London, F. 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"The Ground State of the Hydrogen Molecule". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Chemical_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Chemical Physics">Journal of Chemical Physics</a></i>. <b>1</b> (12): 825–835. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1933JChPh...1..825J">1933JChPh...1..825J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1749252">10.1063/1.1749252</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Physics&rft.atitle=The+Ground+State+of+the+Hydrogen+Molecule&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=825-835&rft.date=1933&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.1749252&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1933JChPh...1..825J&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=H.H.&rft.au=Coolidge%2C+A+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+bond" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Chemical_Bonding/Fundamentals_of_Chemical_Bonding/Bond_Energies">"Bond Energies"</a>. Chemistry Libre Texts. 2 October 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-02-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bond+Energies&rft.pub=Chemistry+Libre+Texts&rft.date=2013-10-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchem.libretexts.org%2FBookshelves%2FPhysical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps%2FSupplemental_Modules_%28Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry%29%2FChemical_Bonding%2FFundamentals_of_Chemical_Bonding%2FBond_Energies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+bond" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkinsLoretta_Jones1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Atkins" title="Peter Atkins">Atkins, Peter</a>; Loretta Jones (1997). <i>Chemistry: Molecules, Matter and Change</i>. New York: W.H. Freeman & Co. pp. 294–295. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3107-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3107-8"><bdi>978-0-7167-3107-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry%3A+Molecules%2C+Matter+and+Change&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=294-295&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman+%26+Co.&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3107-8&rft.aulast=Atkins&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Loretta+Jones&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+bond" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStreitwieserHeathcockKosower1992" class="citation book cs1">Streitwieser, Andrew; Heathcock, Clayton H.; Kosower, Edward M. (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoor00stre_0/page/250"><i>Introduction to organic chemistry</i></a></span>. Heathcock, Clayton H., Kosower, Edward M. (4th ed.). New York: Macmillan. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoor00stre_0/page/250">250</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0024181701" title="Special:BookSources/978-0024181701"><bdi>978-0024181701</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/24501305">24501305</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+organic+chemistry.&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=250&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F24501305&rft.isbn=978-0024181701&rft.aulast=Streitwieser&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Heathcock%2C+Clayton+H.&rft.au=Kosower%2C+Edward+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontoor00stre_0%2Fpage%2F250&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+bond" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Atkins-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Atkins_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Atkins_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Atkins_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Atkins_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Atkins_23-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Atkins_23-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkinsde_Paula2002" class="citation book cs1">Atkins, Peter; de Paula, Julio (2002). <i>Physical Chemistry</i> (7th ed.). W.H.Freeman. pp. 696–706. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-3539-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-3539-3"><bdi>0-7167-3539-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physical+Chemistry&rft.pages=696-706&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.H.Freeman&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7167-3539-3&rft.aulast=Atkins&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=de+Paula%2C+Julio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+bond" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOuelletteRawn2015" class="citation web cs1">Ouellette, Robert J.; Rawn, J. David (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/polar-covalent-bond">"Polar Covalent Bond"</a>. Science Direct<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 September</span> 2023</span>. <q>A polar covalent bond exists when atoms with different electronegativities share electrons in a covalent bond.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Polar+Covalent+Bond&rft.pub=Science+Direct&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Ouellette&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft.au=Rawn%2C+J.+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Ftopics%2Fchemistry%2Fpolar-covalent-bond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+bond" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Chemical_bond" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Chemical_bonding" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Chemical bonding">Chemical bonding</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>W. Locke (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/vchemlib/course/mo_theory/main.html">Introduction to Molecular Orbital Theory</a>. Retrieved May 18, 2005.</li> <li>Carl R. Nave (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/chemical/bond.html">HyperPhysics</a>. Retrieved May 18, 2005.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/index.html">Linus Pauling and the Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History</a>. 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href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">IR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy" title="Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy">UV-Vis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">NMR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_ionization" title="Electron ionization">EI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry" title="Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry">ICP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption/ionization" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization">MALDI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">GC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titration" title="Titration">Titration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_chemistry" title="Wet chemistry">Wet chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">Calorimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elemental_analysis" title="Elemental analysis">Elemental analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">Theoretical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">Mathematical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_modelling" title="Molecular modelling">Molecular modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_mechanics" title="Molecular mechanics">Molecular mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_dynamics" title="Molecular dynamics">Molecular dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_geometry" title="Molecular geometry">Molecular geometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VSEPR_theory" title="VSEPR theory">VSEPR theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spectroelectrochemistry" title="Spectroelectrochemistry">Spectroelectrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemistry" title="Photoelectrochemistry">Photoelectrochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">Thermochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">Chemical thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science" title="Interface and colloid science">Interface and colloid science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micromeritics" title="Micromeritics">Micromeritics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryochemistry" title="Cryochemistry">Cryochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonochemistry" title="Sonochemistry">Sonochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_chemistry" title="Structural chemistry">Structural chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">Femtochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">Chemical kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">Photochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_chemistry" title="Spin chemistry">Spin chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_chemistry" title="Microwave chemistry">Microwave chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_chemistry" title="Equilibrium chemistry">Equilibrium chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanochemistry" title="Mechanochemistry">Mechanochemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">Coordination chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetochemistry" title="Magnetochemistry">Magnetochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organolanthanide_chemistry" title="Organolanthanide chemistry">Organolanthanide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom cluster">Cluster chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramic chemistry">Ceramic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">Stereochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkane_stereochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkane stereochemistry">Alkane stereochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_organic_chemistry" title="Physical organic chemistry">Physical organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic reactions">Organic reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">Organic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrosynthetic_analysis" title="Retrosynthetic analysis">Retrosynthetic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantioselective_synthesis" title="Enantioselective synthesis">Enantioselective synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">Total synthesis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semisynthesis" title="Semisynthesis">Semisynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fullerene_chemistry" title="Fullerene chemistry">Fullerene chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemistry">Petrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_covalent_chemistry" title="Dynamic covalent chemistry">Dynamic covalent chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry" title="Bioorthogonal chemistry">Bioorthogonal chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganic_chemistry" title="Bioorganic chemistry">Bioorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganometallic_chemistry" title="Bioorganometallic chemistry">Bioorganometallic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Bioinorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_chemistry" title="Biophysical chemistry">Biophysical chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">Radiochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">Radiation chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stellar_chemistry" title="Stellar chemistry">Stellar chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogeochemistry" title="Photogeochemistry">Photogeochemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">Environmental chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Atmospheric chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean chemistry">Ocean chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_chemistry" title="Clay chemistry">Clay chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbochemistry" title="Carbochemistry">Carbochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Food chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrate chemistry">Carbohydrate chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_physical_chemistry" title="Food physical chemistry">Food physical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_chemistry" title="Agricultural chemistry">Agricultural chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_chemistry" title="Soil chemistry">Soil chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry_education" title="Chemistry education">Chemistry education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amateur_chemistry" title="Amateur chemistry">Amateur chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_chemistry" title="General chemistry">General chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry" title="Clandestine chemistry">Clandestine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_chemistry" title="Forensic chemistry">Forensic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Forensic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_chemistry" title="Post-mortem chemistry">Post-mortem chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanochemistry" title="Nanochemistry">Nanochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">Supramolecular chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">Chemical synthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">Green chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Click_chemistry" title="Click chemistry">Click chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatorial_chemistry" title="Combinatorial chemistry">Combinatorial chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">Stoichiometry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">Polymer science</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">Timeline of chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">of element discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_central_science" title="The central science">The central science</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">Chemical compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">Chemical substance</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Chemistry" title="Category:Chemistry">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Chemistry" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Chemistry">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chemical_bonds" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chemical_bonds" title="Template:Chemical bonds"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chemical_bonds" title="Template talk:Chemical bonds"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chemical_bonds" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chemical bonds"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chemical_bonds" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chemical bonds</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Intramolecular_force" title="Intramolecular force">Intramolecular</a><br />(strong)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">Covalent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_deficiency" title="Electron deficiency">Electron deficiency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three-center_two-electron_bond" title="Three-center two-electron bond">3c–2e</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-center_two-electron_bond" title="Four-center two-electron bond">4c–2e</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-center_two-electron_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight-center two-electron bond">8c–2e</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypervalent_molecule" title="Hypervalent molecule">Hypervalence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three-center_four-electron_bond" title="Three-center four-electron bond">3c–4e</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agostic_interaction" title="Agostic interaction">Agostic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bent_bond" title="Bent bond">Bent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coordinate_covalent_bond" title="Coordinate covalent bond">Coordinate (dipolar)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pi_backbonding" title="Pi backbonding">Pi backbond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93ligand_multiple_bond" title="Metal–ligand multiple bond">Metal–ligand multiple bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge-shift_bond" title="Charge-shift bond">Charge-shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hapticity" title="Hapticity">Hapticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conjugated_system" title="Conjugated system">Conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperconjugation" title="Hyperconjugation">Hyperconjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromaticity" title="Aromaticity">Aromaticity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homoaromaticity" title="Homoaromaticity">homo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicycloaromaticity" title="Bicycloaromaticity">bicyclo</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metallic_bonding" title="Metallic bonding">Metallic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metal_aromaticity" title="Metal aromaticity">Metal aromaticity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionic_bonding" title="Ionic bonding">Ionic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ligatio-covalens.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Ligatio-covalens.svg/200px-Ligatio-covalens.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Ligatio-covalens.svg/300px-Ligatio-covalens.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Ligatio-covalens.svg/400px-Ligatio-covalens.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="597" data-file-height="265" /></a></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chemfm_carbon_monoxide_3_1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Chemfm_carbon_monoxide_3_1.svg/200px-Chemfm_carbon_monoxide_3_1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Chemfm_carbon_monoxide_3_1.svg/300px-Chemfm_carbon_monoxide_3_1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Chemfm_carbon_monoxide_3_1.svg/400px-Chemfm_carbon_monoxide_3_1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="99" data-file-height="56" /></a></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pi-Bond.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Pi-Bond.svg/200px-Pi-Bond.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Pi-Bond.svg/300px-Pi-Bond.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Pi-Bond.svg/400px-Pi-Bond.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Intermolecular_force" title="Intermolecular force">Intermolecular</a><br />(weak)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force" title="Van der Waals force">Van der Waals<br />forces</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/London_dispersion_force" title="London dispersion force">London dispersion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">Hydrogen</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low-barrier_hydrogen_bond" title="Low-barrier hydrogen bond">Low-barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resonance-assisted_hydrogen_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Resonance-assisted hydrogen bond">Resonance-assisted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetric_hydrogen_bond" title="Symmetric hydrogen bond">Symmetric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydrogen_bond" title="Dihydrogen bond">Dihydrogen bonds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%E2%80%93H%C2%B7%C2%B7%C2%B7O_interaction" title="C–H···O interaction">C–H···O interaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-covalent_interactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-covalent interactions">Noncovalent</a><br />other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanically_interlocked_molecular_architectures" title="Mechanically interlocked molecular architectures">Mechanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halogen_bond" title="Halogen bond">Halogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcogen_bond" title="Chalcogen bond">Chalcogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallophilic_interaction" title="Metallophilic interaction">Metallophilic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aurophilicity" title="Aurophilicity">aurophilic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercalation_(chemistry)" title="Intercalation (chemistry)">Intercalation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stacking_(chemistry)" title="Stacking (chemistry)">Stacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cation%E2%80%93pi_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation–pi interaction">Cation–pi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cation%E2%80%93pi_interaction#Anion–π_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation–pi interaction">Anion–pi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_bridge_(protein_and_supramolecular)" title="Salt bridge (protein and supramolecular)">Salt bridge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bond_cleavage" title="Bond cleavage">Bond cleavage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heterolysis_(chemistry)" title="Heterolysis (chemistry)">Heterolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homolysis_(chemistry)" title="Homolysis (chemistry)">Homolysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electron_counting" title="Electron counting">Electron counting</a> rules</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aromaticity" title="Aromaticity">Aromaticity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%BCckel%27s_rule" title="Hückel's rule">Hückel's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baird%27s_rule" title="Baird's rule">Baird's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6bius_aromaticity" title="Möbius aromaticity">Möbius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spherical_aromaticity" title="Spherical aromaticity">spherical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyhedral_skeletal_electron_pair_theory" title="Polyhedral skeletal electron pair theory">Polyhedral skeletal electron pair theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemmis_mno_rules" title="Jemmis mno rules">Jemmis mno rules</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chemical_bonding_theory" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chemical_bonding_theory" title="Template:Chemical bonding theory"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chemical_bonding_theory" title="Template talk:Chemical bonding theory"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chemical_bonding_theory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chemical bonding theory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chemical_bonding_theory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chemical bonding</a> theory</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">Atomic orbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_quantum_mechanics" title="Introduction to quantum mechanics">Introduction to quantum mechanics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of bonds</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By symmetry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sigma_bond" title="Sigma bond">Sigma (σ)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pi_bond" title="Pi bond">Pi (π)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_bond" title="Delta bond">Delta (δ)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phi_bond" title="Phi bond">Phi (φ)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By <a href="/wiki/Bond_order" title="Bond order">multiplicity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single_bond" title="Single bond">1 (single)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_bond" title="Double bond">2 (double)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_bond" title="Triple bond">3 (triple)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadruple_bond" title="Quadruple bond">4 (quadruple)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintuple_bond" title="Quintuple bond">5 (quintuple)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextuple_bond" title="Sextuple bond">6 (sextuple)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Triplet_state" title="Triplet state">Triplet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singlet_state" title="Singlet state">Singlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exchange_interaction" title="Exchange interaction">Exchange-coupled</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Valence_bond_theory" title="Valence bond theory">Valence bond theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_hybridisation" title="Orbital hybridisation">Hybrid orbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resonance_(chemistry)" title="Resonance (chemistry)">Resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_structure" title="Lewis structure">Lewis structure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Constituent units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">Covalent bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lone_pair" title="Lone pair">Lone pair</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Molecular_orbital_theory" title="Molecular orbital theory">Molecular orbital theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_orbital" title="Molecular orbital">Molecular orbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_combination_of_atomic_orbitals" title="Linear combination of atomic orbitals">LCAO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_orbital_diagram" title="Molecular orbital diagram">MO diagram</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Constituent units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonding_molecular_orbital" title="Bonding molecular orbital">Bonding MO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-bonding_orbital" title="Non-bonding orbital">Non-bonding MO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antibonding_molecular_orbital" title="Antibonding molecular orbital">Antibonding MO</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" 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