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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Misanthropic_forms_of_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Misanthropic_forms_of_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Misanthropic forms of life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Misanthropic_forms_of_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forms_of_human_flaws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forms_of_human_flaws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Forms of human flaws </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forms_of_human_flaws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Causes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arguments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 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Toggle In various disciplines subsection </button> <ul id="toc-In_various_disciplines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_of_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 History of philosophy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature_and_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature_and_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Literature and popular culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature_and_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Related concepts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Related_concepts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Related concepts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Related_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Philosophical_pessimism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_pessimism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Philosophical pessimism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_pessimism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antinatalism_and_human_extinction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antinatalism_and_human_extinction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Antinatalism and human extinction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antinatalism_and_human_extinction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_exceptionalism_and_deep_ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_exceptionalism_and_deep_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Human exceptionalism and deep ecology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_exceptionalism_and_deep_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Misanthropy</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 50 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-50" aria-hidden="true" > 50 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%BA%D8%B6_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="بغض البشرية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بغض البشرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misantrop%C3%ADa" title="Misantropía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Misantropía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizantropiya" title="Mizantropiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mizantropiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Мизантропия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Мизантропия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misantropia" title="Misantropia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Misantropia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misantropie" title="Misantropie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Misantropie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misantropi" title="Misantropi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Misantropi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misanthropie" title="Misanthropie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Misanthropie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misantroopia" title="Misantroopia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Misantroopia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CF%89%CF%80%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Μισανθρωπία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μισανθρωπία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misantrop%C3%ADa" title="Misantropía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Misantropía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizantropeco" title="Mizantropeco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mizantropeco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misantropia" title="Misantropia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Misantropia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="مردم‌ستیزی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مردم‌ستیزی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misanthropie" title="Misanthropie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Misanthropie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misantrop%C3%ADa" title="Misantropía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Misantropía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EA%B0%84%ED%98%90%EC%98%A4" title="인간혐오 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인간혐오" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%BA%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Միզանտրոպիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միզանտրոպիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizantropija" title="Mizantropija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Mizantropija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizantropeso" title="Mizantropeso – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Mizantropeso" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misantropia" title="Misantropia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Misantropia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misantropia" title="Misantropia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Misantropia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%96%D7%A0%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94" title="מיזנתרופיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מיזנתרופיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%97%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98" title="მიზანთროპი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მიზანთროპი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misanthropia" title="Misanthropia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Misanthropia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizantropija" title="Mizantropija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Mizantropija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizantropija" title="Mizantropija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mizantropija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%97%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98" title="მიზანთროპი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მიზანთროპი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misantroop" title="Misantroop – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Misantroop" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%96%93%E4%B8%8D%E4%BF%A1" title="人間不信 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="人間不信" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misantropi" title="Misantropi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Misantropi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misantropia" title="Misantropia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Misantropia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizantropiya" title="Mizantropiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Mizantropiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizantropia" title="Mizantropia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mizantropia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misantropia" title="Misantropia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Misantropia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizantropie" title="Mizantropie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Mizantropie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Мизантропия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мизантропия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacuccu" title="Bacuccu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Bacuccu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misanthropy" title="Misanthropy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Misanthropy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizantropia" title="Mizantropia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Mizantropia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%95%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%86%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="کینەی مرۆیی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کینەی مرۆیی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Мизантропија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Мизантропија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizantropija" title="Mizantropija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mizantropija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ihmisviha" title="Ihmisviha – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ihmisviha" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misantropi" title="Misantropi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Misantropi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizantropi" title="Mizantropi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mizantropi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Мізантропія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мізантропія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">General dislike of humanity</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Misanthrope" redirects here. For the Molière comedy, see <a href="/wiki/Le_Misanthrope" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Misanthrope">Le Misanthrope</a>. For the French metal band, see <a href="/wiki/Misanthrope_(band)" title="Misanthrope (band)">Misanthrope (band)</a>. For the album by American hard rock band DED, see <a href="/wiki/Mis.an.thrope" class="mw-redirect" title="Mis.an.thrope">Mis.an.thrope</a>. For hatred of men, see <a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LeMisanthrope.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/LeMisanthrope.jpg/220px-LeMisanthrope.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="380" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/LeMisanthrope.jpg/330px-LeMisanthrope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/LeMisanthrope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="395" data-file-height="682" /></a><figcaption>Engraving depicting the play <a href="/wiki/Le_Misanthrope" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Misanthrope">Le Misanthrope</a> by <a href="/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re" title="Molière">Molière</a></figcaption></figure> Misanthropy is the general <a href="/wiki/Hatred" title="Hatred">hatred</a>, dislike, or <a href="/wiki/Distrust" title="Distrust">distrust</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human species</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">human behavior</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">human nature</a>. A misanthrope or misanthropist is someone who holds such views or feelings. Misanthropy involves a negative evaluative attitude toward humanity that is based on humankind's <a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">flaws</a>. Misanthropes hold that these flaws characterize all or at least the greater majority of human beings. They claim that there is no easy way to rectify them short of a complete transformation of the dominant way of life. Various types of misanthropy are distinguished in the academic literature based on what attitude is involved, at whom it is directed, and how it is expressed. Either emotions or theoretical judgments can serve as the foundation of the attitude. It can be directed toward all humans without exception or exclude a few idealized people. In this regard, some misanthropes condemn themselves while others consider themselves superior to everyone else. Misanthropy is sometimes associated with a destructive outlook aiming to hurt other people or an attempt to flee society. Other types of misanthropic stances include <a href="/wiki/Activism" title="Activism">activism</a> by trying to improve humanity, <a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">quietism</a> in the form of resignation, and humor mocking the absurdity of the human condition. The negative misanthropic outlook is based on different types of human flaws. <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Moral</a> flaws and <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">unethical</a> decisions are often seen as the foundational factor. They include cruelty, selfishness, injustice, greed, and indifference to the suffering of others. They may result in harm to humans and animals, such as <a href="/wiki/Genocides" class="mw-redirect" title="Genocides">genocides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">factory farming of livestock</a>. Other flaws include intellectual flaws, like <a href="/wiki/Dogmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmatism">dogmatism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">cognitive biases</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Aesthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aesthetic">aesthetic</a> flaws concerning ugliness and lack of sensitivity to <a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">beauty</a>. Many debates in the academic literature discuss whether misanthropy is a valid viewpoint and what its implications are. Proponents of misanthropy usually point to human flaws and the harm they have caused as a sufficient reason for condemning humanity. Critics have responded to this line of thought by claiming that severe flaws concern only a few extreme cases, like mentally ill perpetrators, but not humanity at large. Another objection is based on the claim that humans also have <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtues</a> besides their flaws and that a balanced evaluation might be overall positive. A further criticism rejects misanthropy because of its association with hatred, which may lead to violence, and because it may make people friendless and unhappy. Defenders of misanthropy have responded by claiming that this applies only to some forms of misanthropy but not to misanthropy in general. A related issue concerns the question of the psychological and social factors that cause people to become misanthropes. They include <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">socio-economic inequality</a>, living under an <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian regime">authoritarian regime</a>, and undergoing personal disappointments in life. Misanthropy is relevant in various disciplines. It has been discussed and exemplified by philosophers throughout history, like <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>. Misanthropic outlooks form part of some religious teachings discussing the deep flaws of human beings, like the Christian doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>. Misanthropic perspectives and characters are also found in literature and popular culture. They include <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>'s portrayal of <a href="/wiki/Timon_of_Athens_(person)" title="Timon of Athens (person)">Timon of Athens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re" title="Molière">Molière</a>'s play <a href="/wiki/The_Misanthrope" title="The Misanthrope">The Misanthrope</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gulliver%27s_Travels" title="Gulliver's Travels">Gulliver's Travels</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Jonathan Swift</a>. Misanthropy is closely related to but not identical to <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_pessimism" title="Philosophical pessimism">philosophical pessimism</a>. Some misanthropes promote <a href="/wiki/Antinatalism" title="Antinatalism">antinatalism</a>, the view that humans should abstain from <a href="/wiki/Procreation" class="mw-redirect" title="Procreation">procreation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201534–64-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCormack2020143-2">[2]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition">edit</a>]</div> Misanthropy is traditionally defined as hatred or dislike of <a href="/wiki/Humankind" class="mw-redirect" title="Humankind">humankind</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerriam-Webster_staff2023-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAHD_staff2022a-4">[4]</a> The word originated in the 17th century and has its roots in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> words <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BC%E1%BF%96%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:μῖσος">μῖσος</a> mīsos 'hatred' and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%84%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CF%89%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:ἄνθρωπος">ἄνθρωπος</a> ānthropos 'man, human'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOED_staff2019-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2019-6">[6]</a> In contemporary philosophy, the term is usually understood in a wider sense as a negative evaluation of humanity as a whole based on humanity's <a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">vices</a> and flaws.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper20187-8">[8]</a> This negative evaluation can express itself in various forms, hatred being only one of them. In this sense, misanthropy has a cognitive component based on a negative assessment of humanity and is not just a blind rejection.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper20187-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdyvane2013[httpsphilpapersorgrecEDYRSM_53–65]-9">[9]</a> Misanthropy is usually contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">philanthropy</a>, which refers to the love of humankind and is linked to efforts to increase human well-being, for example, through good will, charitable aid, and donations. Both terms have a range of meanings and do not necessarily contradict each other. In this regard, the same person may be a misanthrope in one sense and a philanthrope in another sense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAHD_staff2022-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh1BZWgpG-w0CpgPA167_167]-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESawaya2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid198FBAAAQBAJpgPA207_207]-12">[12]</a> One central aspect of all forms of misanthropy is that their target is not local but ubiquitous. This means that the negative attitude is not just directed at some individual persons or groups but at humanity as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20226–7-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper201854–6-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201538,_41-15">[15]</a> In this regard, misanthropy is different from other forms of negative discriminatory attitudes directed at a particular group of people. This distinguishes it from the intolerance exemplified by <a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">misogynists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">misandrists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racists</a>, which hold a negative attitude toward women, men, or certain races.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdyvane2013[httpsphilpapersorgrecEDYRSM_53–65]-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson2017190-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilmore2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksids83vH9PGVCcCpgPA12_12]-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdyvane2013[httpsphilpapersorgrecEDYRSM_53–65]-9">[9]</a> According to literature theorist Andrew Gibson, misanthropy does not need to be universal in the sense that a person literally dislikes every human being. Instead, it depends on the person's horizon. For instance, a villager who loathes every other villager without exception is a misanthrope if their horizon is limited to only this village.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson2017145-18">[18]</a> Both misanthropes and their critics agree that negative features and failings are not equally distributed, i.e. that the vices and bad traits are exemplified much more strongly in some than in others. But for misanthropy, the negative assessment of humanity is not based on a few extreme and outstanding cases: it is a condemnation of humanity as a whole that is not just directed at exceptionally bad individuals but includes regular people as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper201854–6-14">[14]</a> Because of this focus on the ordinary, it is sometimes held that these flaws are obvious and trivial but people may ignore them due to intellectual flaws. Some see the flaws as part of <a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">human nature</a> as such.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2022118-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd202066–72-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2023-21">[21]</a> Others also base their view on non-essential flaws, i.e. what humanity has come to be. This includes flaws seen as symptoms of modern civilization in general. Nevertheless, both groups agree that the relevant flaws are "entrenched". This means that there is either no or no easy way to rectify them and nothing short of a complete transformation of the dominant way of life would be required if that is possible at all.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper20187,_13,_54–8-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2022[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid--xZEAAAQBAJ_75–99]4._Misanthropy_and_the_Hatred_of_Humanity-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Types">edit</a>]</div> Various types of misanthropy are distinguished in the academic literature. They are based on what attitude is involved, how it is expressed, and whether the misanthropes include themselves in their negative assessment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsakalakis2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu8P4DwAAQBAJpgPT144_144]-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris202221-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20226–9-26">[26]</a> The differences between them often matter for assessing the arguments for and against misanthropy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20226,_9,_29-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuerido2020152–7-28">[28]</a> An early categorization suggested by <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> distinguishes between positive and negative misanthropes. Positive misanthropes are active enemies of humanity. They wish harm to other people and undertake attempts to hurt them in one form or another. Negative misanthropy, by contrast, is a form of peaceful <a href="/wiki/Anthropophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropophobia">anthropophobia</a> that leads people to isolate themselves. They may wish others well despite seeing serious flaws in them and prefer to not involve themselves in the social context of humanity. Kant associates negative misanthropy with moral disappointment due to previous negative experiences with others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsakalakis2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu8P4DwAAQBAJpgPT144_144]-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilfordStoner2021[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKqMkEAAAQBAJpgPA42_42–3]-29">[29]</a> Another distinction focuses on whether the misanthropic condemnation of humanity is only directed at other people or at everyone including oneself. In this regard, self-inclusive misanthropes are consistent in their attitude by including themselves in their negative assessment. This type is contrasted with self-aggrandizing misanthropes, who either implicitly or explicitly exclude themselves from the general condemnation and see themselves instead as superior to everyone else.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris202221-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20228-30">[30]</a> In this regard, it may be accompanied by an exaggerated sense of <a href="/wiki/Self-worth" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-worth">self-worth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Self-importance" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-importance">self-importance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris202222-31">[31]</a> According to literature theorist Joseph Harris, the self-aggrandizing type is more common. He states that this outlook seems to undermine its own position by constituting a form of <a href="/wiki/Hypocrisy" title="Hypocrisy">hypocrisy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris202220–22-32">[32]</a> A closely related categorization developed by <a href="/wiki/Irving_Babbitt" title="Irving Babbitt">Irving Babbitt</a> distinguishes misanthropes based on whether they allow exceptions in their negative assessment. In this regard, misanthropes of the naked intellect regard humanity as a whole as hopeless. Tender misanthropes exclude a few idealized people from their negative evaluation. Babbitt cites Rousseau and his fondness for natural uncivilized man as an example of tender misanthropy and contrasts it with <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Jonathan Swift</a>'s thorough dismissal of all of humanity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing199357–8-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBabbitt2015[httpswwwgutenbergorgcacheepub50235pg50235-imageshtml_Chapter_VII:_Romantic_Irony]-34">[34]</a> A further way to categorize forms of misanthropy is in relation to the type of attitude involved toward humanity. In this regard, philosopher Toby Svoboda distinguishes the attitudes of dislike, hate, contempt, and judgment. A misanthrope based on dislike harbors a distaste in the form of negative feelings toward other people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20226–7-13">[13]</a> Misanthropy focusing on hatred involves an intense form of dislike. It includes the additional component of wishing ill upon others and at times trying to realize this wish.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20227-35">[35]</a> In the case of contempt, the attitude is not based on feelings and emotions but on a more theoretical outlook. It leads misanthropes to see other people as worthless and look down on them while excluding themselves from this assessment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20227–8-36">[36]</a> If the misanthropic attitude has its foundation in judgment, it is also theoretical but does not distinguish between self and others. It is the view that humanity is in general bad without implying that the misanthrope is in any way better than the rest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20228–9-37">[37]</a> According to Svoboda, only misanthropy based on judgment constitutes a serious philosophical position. He holds that misanthropy focusing on contempt is biased against other people while misanthropy in the form of dislike and hate is difficult to assess since these emotional attitudes often do not respond to objective <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20228–9,_40-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Misanthropic_forms_of_life">Misanthropic forms of life</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Misanthropic forms of life">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pieter_Bruegel_d._%C3%84._035.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting "The Misanthrope" by Pieter Bruegel the Elder" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Pieter_Bruegel_d._%C3%84._035.jpg/220px-Pieter_Bruegel_d._%C3%84._035.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Pieter_Bruegel_d._%C3%84._035.jpg/330px-Pieter_Bruegel_d._%C3%84._035.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Pieter_Bruegel_d._%C3%84._035.jpg/440px-Pieter_Bruegel_d._%C3%84._035.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2536" data-file-height="2505" /></a><figcaption>Misanthropy is often associated with the tendency to avoid social contacts, as portrayed in the painting <a href="/wiki/The_Misanthrope_(Bruegel)" title="The Misanthrope (Bruegel)">The Misanthrope</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder" title="Pieter Bruegel the Elder">Pieter Bruegel the Elder</a>.</figcaption></figure> Misanthropy is usually not restricted to a theoretical opinion but involves an evaluative attitude that calls for a practical response. It can express itself in different forms of life. They come with different dominant emotions and practical consequences for how to lead one's life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper2018110–1-39">[39]</a> These responses to misanthropy are sometimes presented through simplified archetypes that may be too crude to accurately capture the mental life of any single person. Instead, they aim to portray common attitudes among groups of misanthropes. The two responses most commonly linked to misanthropy involve either destruction or fleeing from society. The destructive misanthrope is said to be driven by a hatred of humankind and aims at tearing it down, with violence if necessary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper2018115–6-40">[40]</a> For the fugitive misanthrope, fear is the dominant emotion and leads the misanthrope to seek a <a href="/wiki/Seclusion" title="Seclusion">secluded</a> place in order to avoid the corrupting contact with civilization and humanity as much as possible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdyvane2013[httpsphilpapersorgrecEDYRSM_53–65]-9">[9]</a> The contemporary misanthropic literature has also identified further less-known types of misanthropic lifestyles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b-7">[7]</a> The activist misanthrope is driven by hope despite their negative appraisal of humanity. This hope is a form of <a href="/wiki/Meliorism" title="Meliorism">meliorism</a> based on the idea that it is possible and feasible for humanity to transform itself and the activist tries to realize this ideal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda202214,_115-41">[41]</a> A weaker version of this approach is to try to improve the world incrementally to avoid some of the worst outcomes without the hope of fully solving the basic problem.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda202214-42">[42]</a> Activist misanthropes differ from <a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">quietist</a> misanthropes, who take a pessimistic approach toward what the person can do for bringing about a transformation or significant improvements. In contrast to the more drastic reactions of the other responses mentioned, they resign themselves to quiet acceptance and small-scale avoidance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper2018118–9-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b-7">[7]</a> A further approach is focused on <a href="/wiki/Humor" class="mw-redirect" title="Humor">humor</a> based on mockery and ridicule at the <a href="/wiki/Absurdity" title="Absurdity">absurdity</a> of the human condition. An example is that humans hurt each other and risk future self-destruction for trivial concerns like a marginal increase in profit. This way, humor can act both as a mirror to portray the terrible truth of the situation and as its palliative at the same time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda2022117–8-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forms_of_human_flaws">Forms of human flaws</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Forms of human flaws">edit</a>]</div> A core aspect of misanthropy is that its negative attitude toward humanity is based on human flaws.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper20187,_47–8-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b-7">[7]</a> Various misanthropes have provided extensive lists of flaws, including cruelty, greed, selfishness, wastefulness, dogmatism, self-deception, and insensitivity to beauty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper20183,_8,_48-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201539–42-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b-7">[7]</a> These flaws can be categorized in many ways. It is often held that moral flaws constitute the most serious case.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2022[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid--xZEAAAQBAJ_75–99]4._Misanthropy_and_the_Hatred_of_Humanity-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201534–36,_55-48">[48]</a> Other flaws discussed in the contemporary literature include intellectual flaws, aesthetic flaws, and spiritual flaws.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper20187,_13,_48-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2022[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid--xZEAAAQBAJ_75–99]4._Misanthropy_and_the_Hatred_of_Humanity-23">[23]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mass_Grave_at_Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp_-_Fritz_Klein_-_IWM_BU4260.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of a mass grave at the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Mass_Grave_at_Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp_-_Fritz_Klein_-_IWM_BU4260.jpg/220px-Mass_Grave_at_Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp_-_Fritz_Klein_-_IWM_BU4260.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Mass_Grave_at_Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp_-_Fritz_Klein_-_IWM_BU4260.jpg/330px-Mass_Grave_at_Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp_-_Fritz_Klein_-_IWM_BU4260.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Mass_Grave_at_Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp_-_Fritz_Klein_-_IWM_BU4260.jpg/440px-Mass_Grave_at_Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp_-_Fritz_Klein_-_IWM_BU4260.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1767" data-file-height="1766" /></a><figcaption>Moral flaws of human beings are exemplified in harm done to humans by other humans, like the mass killings during the Holocaust.</figcaption></figure> Moral flaws are usually understood as tendencies to violate moral norms or as mistaken attitudes toward what is the good.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHurka2020[httpswwwreproutledgecomarticlesthematicvirtues-and-vicesv-2_Virtues_and_vices]-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHurka2001[httpsphilpapersorgrecTHOVAH_195–212]-51">[51]</a> They include cruelty, indifference to the suffering of others, selfishness, moral laziness, cowardice, injustice, greed, and ingratitude. The harm done because of these flaws can be divided into three categories: harm done directly to humans, harm done directly to other animals, and harm done indirectly to both humans and other animals by harming the environment. Examples of these categories include the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">factory farming</a> of livestock, and pollution causing <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201539–48-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2022[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid--xZEAAAQBAJ_75–99]4._Misanthropy_and_the_Hatred_of_Humanity-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20224–5-53">[53]</a> In this regard, it is not just relevant that human beings cause these forms of harm but also that they are morally responsible for them. This is based on the idea that they can understand the consequences of their actions and could act differently. However, they decide not to, for example, because they ignore the long-term well-being of others in order to get short-term personal benefits.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20223,_5-54">[54]</a> Intellectual flaws concern cognitive capacities. They can be defined as what leads to false beliefs, what obstructs <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, or what violates the demands of <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a>. They include intellectual vices, like arrogance, wishful thinking, and dogmatism. Further examples are stupidity, gullibility, and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biases" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive biases">cognitive biases</a>, like the <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Self-serving_bias" title="Self-serving bias">self-serving bias</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">hindsight bias</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Anchoring_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchoring bias">anchoring bias</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadison2017[httpsphilpapersorgrecMADOTN_1–6]-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELitvakLerner200989–90cognitive_bias-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHurka2020[httpswwwreproutledgecomarticlesthematicvirtues-and-vicesv-2_Virtues_and_vices]-50">[50]</a> Intellectual flaws can work in tandem with all kinds of vices: they may deceive someone about having a vice. This prevents the affected person from addressing it and improving themselves, for instance, by being mindless and failing to recognize it. They also include forms of self-deceit, wilful ignorance, and being in denial about something.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper201850–51-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda202218-58">[58]</a> Similar considerations have prompted some traditions to see intellectual failings, like ignorance, as the root of all evil.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHackforth1946[httpsphilpapersorgrecHACMEA_118–]-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon2023-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahathera1964[httpswwwaccesstoinsightorglibauthorsnyanatilokawheel394htmlch2_II._Kamma_and_Rebirth]-61">[61]</a> Aesthetic flaws are usually not given the same importance as moral and intellectual flaws, but they also carry some weight for misanthropic considerations. These flaws relate to <a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">beauty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ugliness" class="mw-redirect" title="Ugliness">ugliness</a>. They concern ugly aspects of human life itself, like defecation and aging. Other examples are ugliness caused by human activities, like pollution and litter, and inappropriate attitudes toward aesthetic aspects, like being insensitive to beauty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201556–58-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper20187,_48-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2022[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid--xZEAAAQBAJ_75–99]4._Misanthropy_and_the_Hatred_of_Humanity-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Causes">edit</a>]</div> Various psychological and social factors have been identified in the academic literature as possible causes of misanthropic sentiments. The individual factors by themselves may not be able to fully explain misanthropy but can show instead how it becomes more likely.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuerido2020152–7-28">[28]</a> For example, disappointments and disillusionments in life can cause a person to adopt a misanthropic outlook.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2022195-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1847[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6YNKAQAAMAAJpgPA191_191]-65">[65]</a> In this regard, the more idealistic and <a href="/wiki/Optimism" title="Optimism">optimistic</a> the person initially was, the stronger this reversal and the following negative outlook tend to be.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2022195-64">[64]</a> This type of psychological explanation is found as early as <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Phaedo" title="Phaedo">Phaedo</a>. In it, <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> considers a person who trusts and admires someone without knowing them sufficiently well. He argues that misanthropy may arise if it is discovered later that the admired person has serious flaws. In this case, the initial attitude is reversed and universalized to apply to all others, leading to general distrust and contempt toward other humans. Socrates argues that this becomes more likely if the admired person is a close friend and if it happens more than once.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShakespeare2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmcQ0AAAAQBAJpgPT208_208]-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1989[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnsdfdzRSLYACpgPA134_134]-67">[67]</a> This form of misanthropy may be accompanied by a feeling of <a href="/wiki/Self-righteousness" title="Self-righteousness">moral superiority</a> in which the misanthrope considers themselves to be better than everyone else.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2022195-64">[64]</a> Other types of negative personal experiences in life may have a similar effect. <a href="/wiki/Andrew_William_Gibson" title="Andrew William Gibson">Andrew Gibson</a> uses this line of thought to explain why some philosophers became misanthropes. He uses the example of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> to explain how a politically unstable environment and the frequent wars can foster a misanthropic attitude. Regarding <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a>, he states that being forced to flee one's home at an early age and never finding a place to call home afterward can have a similar effect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuerido2020152–7-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson201798–9,_107–8-68">[68]</a> Another psychological factor concerns negative attitudes toward the human body, especially in the form of general revulsion from sexuality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson201713,_119,_207-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuerido2020152–7-28">[28]</a> Besides the psychological causes, some wider social circumstances may also play a role. Generally speaking, the more negative the circumstances are, the more likely misanthropy becomes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson2017119-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuerido2020152–7-28">[28]</a> For instance, according to political scientist Eric M. Uslaner, <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">socio-economic inequality</a> in the form of unfair distribution of wealth increases the tendency to adopt a misanthropic perspective. This has to do with the fact that inequality tends to undermine trust in the government and others. Uslaner suggests that it may be possible to overcome or reduce this source of misanthropy by implementing policies that build trust and promote a more equal distribution of wealth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuerido2020152–7-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoogheStolle2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlR3GAAAAQBAJpgPA185_185]-71">[71]</a> The political <a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">regime</a> is another relevant factor. This specifically concerns <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_regimes" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian regimes">authoritarian regimes</a> using all means available to repress their population and stay in power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson201713,_62,_207-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsakalakis2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu8P4DwAAQBAJpgPT142_142]-73">[73]</a> For example, it has been argued that the severe forms of repression of the <a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a> in the late 17th century made it more likely for people to adopt a misanthropic outlook because their freedom was denied.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuerido2020152–7-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson201761,_207-74">[74]</a> <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a> may have the opposite effect since it allows more personal freedom due to its more optimistic outlook on human nature. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson201713,_62,_207-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsakalakis2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu8P4DwAAQBAJpgPT142_142]-73">[73]</a> Empirical studies often use questions related to trust in other people to measure misanthropy. This concerns specifically whether the person believes that others would be fair and helpful.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1997170–196-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenberg1956690–695-76">[76]</a> In an empirical study on misanthropy in American society, Tom W. Smith concludes that factors responsible for an increased misanthropic outlook are low socioeconomic status, being from racial and ethnic minorities, and having experienced recent negative events in one's life. In regard to religion, misanthropy is higher for people who do not attend church and for fundamentalists. Some factors seem to play no significant role, like gender, having undergone a divorce, and never having been married.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1997170–196-75">[75]</a> Another study by Morris Rosenberg finds that misanthropy is linked to certain political outlooks. They include being skeptical about <a href="/wiki/Free_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Free speech">free speech</a> and a tendency to support authoritarian policies. This concerns, for example, tendencies to suppress political and religious liberties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1997170–196-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenberg1956690–695-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arguments">Arguments</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Arguments">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battery_hens_-Bastos,_Sao_Paulo,_Brazil-31March2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of battery hens in Brazil" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Battery_hens_-Bastos%2C_Sao_Paulo%2C_Brazil-31March2007.jpg/180px-Battery_hens_-Bastos%2C_Sao_Paulo%2C_Brazil-31March2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Battery_hens_-Bastos%2C_Sao_Paulo%2C_Brazil-31March2007.jpg/270px-Battery_hens_-Bastos%2C_Sao_Paulo%2C_Brazil-31March2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Battery_hens_-Bastos%2C_Sao_Paulo%2C_Brazil-31March2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="321" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>Misanthropes often focus on the harm done by humans to animals on a large scale, as in factory farming.</figcaption></figure> Various discussions in the academic literature concern the question of whether misanthropy is an accurate assessment of humanity and what the consequences of adopting it are. Many proponents of misanthropy focus on human flaws together with examples of when they exercise their negative influences. They argue that these flaws are so severe that misanthropy is an appropriate response.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Special importance in this regard is usually given to moral faults.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20223,_13-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201555-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b-7">[7]</a> This is based on the idea that humans do not merely cause a great deal of suffering and destruction but are also morally responsible for them. The reason is that they are intelligent enough to understand the consequences of their actions and could potentially make balanced long-term decisions instead of focusing on personal short-term gains.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20223,_5-54">[54]</a> Proponents of misanthropy sometimes focus on extreme individual manifestations of human flaws, like mass killings ordered by dictators. Others emphasize that the problem is not limited to a few cases, for example, that many ordinary people are complicit in their manifestation by supporting the political leaders committing them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201537,_41–42-80">[80]</a> A closely related argument is to claim that the underlying flaws are there in everyone, even if they reach their most extreme manifestation only in a few.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b-7">[7]</a> Another approach is to focus not on the grand extreme cases but on the ordinary small-scale manifestations of human flaws in everyday life, such as lying, cheating, breaking promises, and being ungrateful.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201543-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020a[httpsphilpapersorgrecKIDHHN_505–508]-82">[82]</a> Some arguments for misanthropy focus not only on general tendencies but on actual damage caused by humans in the past.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20224–5-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper201880-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201538–9-84">[84]</a> This concerns, for instance, damages done to the <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Environmental_disaster" title="Environmental disaster">ecological catastrophes</a> resulting in <a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">mass extinctions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20221,_5-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism">Criticism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Criticism">edit</a>]</div> Various theorists have criticized misanthropy. Some opponents acknowledge that there are extreme individual manifestations of human flaws, like mentally ill perpetrators, but claim that these cases do not reflect humanity at large and cannot justify the misanthropic attitude. For instance, while there are cases of extreme human brutality, like the mass killings committed by dictators and their forces, listing such cases is not sufficient for condemning humanity at large.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201539–41-86">[86]</a> Some critics of misanthropy acknowledge that humans have various flaws but state that they present just one side of humanity while evaluative attitudes should take all sides into account. This line of thought is based on the idea that humans possess equally important <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtues</a> that make up for their shortcomings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201551–52-87">[87]</a> For example, accounts that focus only on the great wars, cruelties, and tragedies in human history ignore its positive achievements in the sciences, arts, and humanities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson201764-88">[88]</a> Another explanation given by critics is that the negative assessment should not be directed at humanity but at some social forces. These forces can include <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">patriarchy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_fundamentalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious fundamentalism">religious fundamentalism</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda202213,_69-89">[89]</a> Supporters of this argument would adopt an opposition to one of these social forces rather than a misanthropic opposition to humanity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda202269–70-90">[90]</a> Some objections to misanthropy are based not on whether this attitude appropriately reflects the negative value of humanity but on the costs of accepting such a position. The costs can affect both the individual misanthrope and the society at large. This is especially relevant if misanthropy is linked to hatred, which may turn easily into violence against social institutions and other humans and may result in harm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGraw2014[httpscoreacukdownloadpdf48504306pdf_1–2]1._Introduction-91">[91]</a> Misanthropy may also deprive the person of most pleasures by making them miserable and friendless.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShklar19845._Misanthropy_(p._192)-92">[92]</a> Another form of criticism focuses more on the theoretical level and claims that misanthropy is an inconsistent and self-contradictory position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson20174–5-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuerido2020152–7-28">[28]</a> An example of this inconsistency is the misanthrope's tendency to denounce the social world while still being engaged in it and being unable to fully leave it behind.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson20174,_60-94">[94]</a> This criticism applies specifically to misanthropes who exclude themselves from the negative evaluation and look down on others with contempt from an arrogant position of <a href="/wiki/Inflated_ego" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflated ego">inflated ego</a> but it may not apply to all types of misanthropy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2022202–2-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson201763-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20228-30">[30]</a> A closely related objection is based on the claim that misanthropy is an unnatural attitude and should therefore be seen as an aberration or a pathological case.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson201765-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_various_disciplines">In various disciplines</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: In various disciplines">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_philosophy">History of philosophy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: History of philosophy">edit</a>]</div> Misanthropy has been discussed and exemplified by philosophers throughout history. One of the earliest cases was the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">pre-Socratic philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a>. He is often characterized as a solitary person who is not fond of social interactions with others. A central factor to his negative outlook on human beings was their lack of comprehension of the true nature of reality. This concerns especially cases in which they remain in a state of ignorance despite having received a thorough explanation of the issue in question.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyal1989[httpwwwjstororgstable24353851_131–148]-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMark2010-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAva200480-100">[100]</a> Another early discussion is found in Plato's Phaedo, where misanthropy is characterized as the result of frustrated expectations and excessively naïve optimism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnJAFnvm2fg4C_95]-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShakespeare2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmcQ0AAAAQBAJpgPT208_208]-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1989[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnsdfdzRSLYACpgPA134_134]-67">[67]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diogenes_looking_for_a_man_-_attributed_to_JHW_Tischbein.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting of Diogenes search for an honest man" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Diogenes_looking_for_a_man_-_attributed_to_JHW_Tischbein.jpg/220px-Diogenes_looking_for_a_man_-_attributed_to_JHW_Tischbein.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Diogenes_looking_for_a_man_-_attributed_to_JHW_Tischbein.jpg/330px-Diogenes_looking_for_a_man_-_attributed_to_JHW_Tischbein.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Diogenes_looking_for_a_man_-_attributed_to_JHW_Tischbein.jpg/440px-Diogenes_looking_for_a_man_-_attributed_to_JHW_Tischbein.jpg 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>The cynic philosopher Diogenes had a negative image of the people around him and cared little for social conventions. For example, he used to walk around with a lamp in full daylight in his unsuccessful attempt to find a man he would consider honest or worthy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeroulanos2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidknv1DwAAQBAJpgPA203_203]-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENavia1996-103">[103]</a></figcaption></figure> Various reflections on misanthropy are also found in the <a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">cynic school of philosophy</a>. There it is argued, for instance, that humans keep on reproducing and multiplying the evils they are attempting to flee. An example given by the first-century philosopher <a href="/wiki/Dio_Chrysostom" title="Dio Chrysostom">Dio Chrysostom</a> is that humans move to cities to defend themselves against outsiders but this process thwarts their initial goal by leading to even more violence due to high crime rates within the city. <a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a> is a well-known cynic misanthrope. He saw other people as hypocritical and superficial. He openly rejected all kinds of societal norms and values, often provoking others by consciously breaking conventions and behaving rudely.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson201714–6-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuerido2020152–7-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArruzzaNikulin2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidyLWPDQAAQBAJpgPA119_119]-105">[105]</a> Thomas Hobbes is an example of misanthropy in early <a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">modern philosophy</a>. His negative outlook on humanity is reflected in many of his works. For him, humans are egoistic and violent: they act according to their self-interest and are willing to pursue their goals at the expense of others. In their natural state, this leads to a never-ending war in which "<a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">every man to every man ... is an enemy</a>". He saw the establishment of an authoritative state characterized by the strict enforcement of laws to maintain order as the only way to tame the violent human nature and avoid <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_war" title="Perpetual war">perpetual war</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson201793,_95,_98-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2023-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEByrne1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFcEy8SF63TgCpgPA112_112]-108">[108]</a> A further type of misanthropy is found in <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>. He idealizes the harmony and simplicity found in nature and contrasts them with the confusion and disorder found in humanity, especially in the form of society and institutions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson2017110–1-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper201819-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing199358–9-111">[111]</a> For instance, he claims that "Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson2017112-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnsRrONAvdnYCpgPA147_147]-113">[113]</a> This negative outlook was also reflected in his lifestyle: he lived solitary and preferred to be with plants rather than humans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson2017111-114">[114]</a> Arthur Schopenhauer is often mentioned as a prime example of misanthropy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda202212,_15-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson2017101-116">[116]</a> According to him, everything in the world, including humans and their activities, is an expression of one underlying will. This will is blind, which causes it to continuously engage in futile struggles. On the level of human life, this "presents itself as a continual deception" since it is driven by pointless <a href="/wiki/Desire" title="Desire">desires</a>. They are mostly egoistic and often result in <a href="/wiki/Injustice" title="Injustice">injustice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">suffering</a> to others. Once they are satisfied, they only give rise to new pointless desires and more suffering.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson2017101–3-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda202215–6-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETroxell2023-119">[119]</a> In this regard, Schopenhauer dismisses most things that are typically considered precious or meaningful in human life, like romantic love, individuality, and liberty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson2017104–5-120">[120]</a> He holds that the best response to the human condition is a form of <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">asceticism</a> by denying the expression of the will. This is only found in rare humans and "the dull majority of men" does not live up to this ideal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson2017105–6-121">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, who was strongly influenced by Schopenhauer, is also often cited as an example of misanthropy. He saw man as a decadent and "sick animal" that shows no progress over other animals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper20182-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVilla2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidWc3xDwAAQBAJpgPA127_127]-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkerson2023-124">[124]</a> He even expressed a negative attitude toward apes since they are more similar to human beings than other animals, for example, with regard to cruelty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper201862-125">[125]</a> For Nietzsche, a noteworthy flaw of human beings is their tendency to create and enforce systems of <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral rules</a> that favor weak people and suppress true greatness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVilla2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidWc3xDwAAQBAJpgPA127_127]-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidVuQiiM-ntHwCpgPA67_67]-126">[126]</a> He held that the human being is something to be overcome and used the term <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cbermensch" title="Übermensch">Übermensch</a> to describe an ideal individual who has transcended traditional moral and societal norms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2021[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_ic9EAAAQBAJpgPR32_xxxii]-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrillaert2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7YFFSa5YE5wCpgPA245_245]-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Michiel_Coxie_-_Original_Sin_-_WGA05581.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting "Original Sin" by Michael Coxcie" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Michiel_Coxie_-_Original_Sin_-_WGA05581.jpg/130px-Michiel_Coxie_-_Original_Sin_-_WGA05581.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="357" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Michiel_Coxie_-_Original_Sin_-_WGA05581.jpg/195px-Michiel_Coxie_-_Original_Sin_-_WGA05581.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Michiel_Coxie_-_Original_Sin_-_WGA05581.jpg/260px-Michiel_Coxie_-_Original_Sin_-_WGA05581.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Focus on the sinful nature of human beings is one form of misanthropy. According to <a href="/wiki/Christian_doctrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian doctrine">Christian doctrine</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a> of <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a> is responsible when they ate from the forbidden tree.</figcaption></figure> Some misanthropic views are also found in religious teachings. In <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, for instance, this is linked to the <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sinful</a> nature of humans and the widespread manifestation of sin in everyday life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson201728–9-129">[129]</a> Common forms of sin are discussed in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins" title="Seven deadly sins">seven deadly sins</a>. Examples are an excessive sense of self-importance in the form of <a href="/wiki/Pride_(sin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pride (sin)">pride</a> and strong sexual cravings constituting <a href="/wiki/Lust_(sin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lust (sin)">lust</a>. They also include the tendency to follow <a href="/wiki/Greed_(sin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Greed (sin)">greed</a> for material possessions as well as being <a href="/wiki/Envy" title="Envy">envious</a> of the possessions of others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKastenbaum2003[httpswwwencyclopediacomphilosophy-and-religionchristianitychristianity-generalseven-deadly-sins_Seven_Deadly_Sins]-130">[130]</a> According to the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>, this flaw is found in every human being since the doctrine states that human nature is already tainted by sin from birth by inheriting it from Adam and Eve's rebellion against God's authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson201728–9-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaleThorson2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidc91CuCqCM80CpgPT54_46]-131">[131]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a>'s theology of <a href="/wiki/Total_depravity" title="Total depravity">Total depravity</a> has been described by some theologians as misanthropic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarvis2019[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbwiaDwAAQBAJpgPA8_8]-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlger1882[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcSFOAAAAcAAJpgPA109_109]-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodliff2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsdXYDwAAQBAJpgPA108_108]-134">[134]</a> Misanthropic perspectives can also be discerned in various <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> teachings. For example, <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a> had a negative outlook on the widespread flaws of human beings, including lust, hatred, delusion, sorrow, and despair.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper20184-135">[135]</a> These flaws are identified with some form of craving or attachment (<a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">taṇhā</a>) and cause suffering (<a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">dukkha</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper20186–7-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2vgbURej-qACpgPA91_91]-137">[137]</a> Buddhists hold that it is possible to overcome these failings in the process of achieving <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a> or enlightenment. However, this is seen as a difficult achievement, meaning that these failings apply to most human beings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper201856-138">[138]</a> However, there are also many religious teachings opposed to misanthropy, such as the emphasis on kindness and helping others. In Christianity, this is found in the concept of <a href="/wiki/Agape" title="Agape">agape</a>, which involves selfless and unconditional love in the form of compassion and a willingness to help others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECatholic_University_of_America1967[httpswwwencyclopediacomphilosophy-and-religionchristianityearly-christianityagape_Agape]-139">[139]</a> Buddhists see the practice of loving kindness (<a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">metta</a>) as a central aspect that implies a positive intention of compassion and the expression of kindness toward all sentient beings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAung1996E12-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2vgbURej-qACpgPA138_138]-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature_and_popular_culture">Literature and popular culture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Literature and popular culture">edit</a>]</div> Many examples of misanthropy are also found in literature and popular culture. <a href="/wiki/Timon_of_Athens" title="Timon of Athens">Timon of Athens</a> by <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> is a famous portrayal of the life of the Ancient Greek <a href="/wiki/Timon_of_Athens_(person)" title="Timon of Athens (person)">Timon</a>, who is widely known for his extreme misanthropic attitude. Shakespeare depicts him as a wealthy and generous gentleman. However, he becomes disillusioned with his ungrateful friends and humanity at large. This way, his initial philanthropy turns into an unrestrained hatred of humanity, which prompts him to leave society in order to live in a forest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris202227–30-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson20171–2-143">[143]</a> <a href="/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re" title="Molière">Molière</a>'s play <a href="/wiki/The_Misanthrope" title="The Misanthrope">The Misanthrope</a> is another famous example. Its protagonist, Alceste, has a low opinion of the people around him. He tends to focus on their flaws and openly criticizes them for their superficiality, insincerity, and hypocrisy. He rejects most social conventions and thereby often offends others, for example, by refusing to engage in social niceties like polite small talk.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson20172–4-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris202258-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawcroft2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidewxREAAAQBAJpgPA132_132]-146">[146]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Jonathan_Swift_-_Francis_Bindon_.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Portrait of Jonathan Swift by Francis Bindon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Portrait_of_Jonathan_Swift_-_Francis_Bindon_.PNG/220px-Portrait_of_Jonathan_Swift_-_Francis_Bindon_.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Portrait_of_Jonathan_Swift_-_Francis_Bindon_.PNG 1.5x" data-file-width="283" data-file-height="347" /></a><figcaption>Jonathan Swift is well known for his often explicit pronouncements of misanthropy.</figcaption></figure> The author <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Jonathan Swift</a> had a reputation for being misanthropic. In some statements, he openly declares that he hates and detests "that animal called man".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson201714-147">[147]</a> Misanthropy is also found in many of his works. An example is <a href="/wiki/Gulliver%27s_Travels" title="Gulliver's Travels">Gulliver's Travels</a>, which tells the adventures of the protagonist Gulliver, who journeys to various places, like an island inhabited by tiny people and a land ruled by intelligent horses. Through these experiences of the contrast between humans and other species, he comes to see more and more the deep flaws of humanity, leading him to develop a revulsion toward other human beings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson201784–5-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanFirdaus2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddiLPYfA--XMCpgPA115_115]-149">[149]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_Scrooge" title="Ebenezer Scrooge">Ebenezer Scrooge</a> from <a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a>'s <a href="/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol" title="A Christmas Carol">A Christmas Carol</a> is an often-cited example of misanthropy. He is described as a cold-hearted, solitary miser who detests Christmas. He is greedy, selfish, and has no regard for the well-being of others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlfmqz6ybAVECpgPA16_16]-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPirson2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3YswDwAAQBAJpgPA58_58]-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECornog1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcyD059eY2RYCpgPA357_357]-152">[152]</a> Other writers associated with misanthropy include <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Flaubert" title="Gustave Flaubert">Gustave Flaubert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_Larkin" title="Philip Larkin">Philip Larkin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteegmuller1982[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidvFzQdS8N_5ICpgPR14_xiv]-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaban1992-154">[154]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Joker" class="mw-redirect" title="The Joker">The Joker</a> from the <a href="/wiki/DC_Universe" title="DC Universe">DC Universe</a> is an example of misanthropy in popular culture. He is one of the main antagonists of <a href="/wiki/Batman" title="Batman">Batman</a> and acts as an agent of chaos. He believes that people are selfish, cruel, irrational, and hypocritical. He is usually portrayed as a <a href="/wiki/Sociopath" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociopath">sociopath</a> with a twisted sense of humor who uses violent means to expose and bring down organized society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeBird2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidpHwCEAAAQBAJpgPA164_164]-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonohoo2023-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolus2019[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7bamDwAAQBAJpgPA24_24]-157">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_concepts">Related concepts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Related concepts">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophical_pessimism">Philosophical pessimism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Philosophical pessimism">edit</a>]</div> Misanthropy is closely related but not identical to <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_pessimism" title="Philosophical pessimism">philosophical pessimism</a>. Philosophical pessimism is the view that life is not worth living or that the world is a bad place, for example, because it is meaningless and full of suffering.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2014[httpsphilpapersorgrecSMIPPA-6_1–3]Introduction-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins2020[httpsphilpapersorgrecJENTPO-28_20–41]-159">[159]</a> This view is exemplified by Arthur Schopenhauer and <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Mainl%C3%A4nder" title="Philipp Mainländer">Philipp Mainländer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernández2006[httpsphilpapersorgrecFERSP-2_646–664]-160">[160]</a> Philosophical pessimism is often accompanied by misanthropy if the proponent holds that humanity is also bad and partially responsible for the negative value of the world. However, the two views do not require each other and can be held separately.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper20185–6-161">[161]</a> A non-misanthropic pessimist may hold, for instance, that humans are just victims of a terrible world but not to blame for it. Eco-misanthropists, by contrast, may claim that the world and its nature are valuable but that humanity exerts a negative and destructive influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerber2002[httpsphilpapersorgrecGERWIS-3_41–55]-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antinatalism_and_human_extinction">Antinatalism and human extinction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Antinatalism and human extinction">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Humanity is a moral disaster. There would have been much less destruction had we never evolved. The fewer humans there are in the future, the less destruction there will still be. </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">—<a href="/wiki/David_Benatar" title="David Benatar">David Benatar</a>, "The Misanthropic Argument for Anti-natalism"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201555-79">[79]</a></cite></div> </div> <a href="/wiki/Antinatalism" title="Antinatalism">Antinatalism</a> is the view that coming into existence is bad and that humans have a duty to abstain from procreation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetz2012[httpsphilpapersorgrecMETAFD_1–9]-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201534–35-164">[164]</a> A central argument for antinatalism is called the misanthropic argument. It sees the deep flaws of humans and their tendency to cause harm as a reason for avoiding the creation of more humans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201555–56-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar2015a-166">[166]</a> These harms include <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocides</a>, factory farming, and <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">damages done to the environment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2018-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201539,_44,_48-168">[168]</a> This argument contrasts with philanthropic arguments, which focus on the future suffering of the human about to come into existence. They argue that the only way to avoid their future suffering is to prevent them from being born.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201555–56-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar2015a-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda202214-42">[42]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement" title="Voluntary Human Extinction Movement">Voluntary Human Extinction Movement</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Euthanasia" title="Church of Euthanasia">Church of Euthanasia</a> are well-known examples of social movements in favor of antinatalism and <a href="/wiki/Human_extinction" title="Human extinction">human extinction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStibbe2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcrjlCAAAQBAJpgPA13_13]-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCormack2020143-2">[2]</a> Antinatalism is commonly endorsed by misanthropic thinkers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda202214-42">[42]</a> However, there are numerous other ways that could lead to the involuntary extinction of the human species, with various suggestions having been made about threats to the long-term survival of the human species, including nuclear wars, <a href="/wiki/Self-replicating" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-replicating">self-replicating</a> <a href="/wiki/Nanorobot" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanorobot">nanorobots</a>, or super-<a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBostrom2003[httpswwwencyclopediacomsocial-sciencesencyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-mapsextinction-human_Extinction,_Human]-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeslie1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbookspgPA25_25–26]-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordijnCutter2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQ0u6BAAAQBAJpgPA123_123]-172">[172]</a> While such cases can be seen as terrible scenarios for all life, misanthropes may instead interpret them as reasons for hope that the dominance of humanity in history will eventually come to an end.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda2022107-173">[173]</a> A similar sentiment is expressed by <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>. He states in relation to the existence of human life on earth and its misdeeds that they are "a passing nightmare; in time the earth will become again incapable of supporting life, and peace will return."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda2022107–108-174">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_exceptionalism_and_deep_ecology">Human exceptionalism and deep ecology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Human exceptionalism and deep ecology">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Human_exceptionalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Human exceptionalism">Human exceptionalism</a> is the claim that human beings have unique importance and are exceptional compared to all other species. It is often based on the claim that they stand out because of their special capacities, like <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>, rationality, and <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESrinivasanKasturirangan2016126–227-175">[175]</a> In religious contexts, it is frequently explained in relation to a unique role that God foresaw for them or that they were created in God's image.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurst2022[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbookspgPA1_1]-176">[176]</a> Human exceptionalism is usually combined with the claim that human <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">well-being</a> matters more than the well-being of other species. This line of thought can be used to draw various ethical conclusions. One is the claim that humans have the right to rule the planet and impose their will on other species. Another is that inflicting harm on other species may be morally acceptable if it is done with the purpose of promoting human well-being and excellence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESrinivasanKasturirangan2016126–227-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20229-177">[177]</a> Generally speaking, the position of human exceptionalism is at odds with misanthropy in relation to the value of humanity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20229-177">[177]</a> But this is not necessarily the case and it may be possible to hold both positions at the same time. One way to do this is to claim that humanity is exceptional because of a few rare individuals but that the average person is bad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson201764–65-178">[178]</a> Another approach is to hold that human beings are exceptional in a negative sense: given their destructive and harmful history, they are much worse than any other species.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20229-177">[177]</a> Theorists in the field of <a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">deep ecology</a> are also often critical of human exceptionalism and tend to favor a misanthropic perspective.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaloneTruongGray2017-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESale1988-180">[180]</a> Deep ecology is a philosophical and social movement that stresses the <a href="/wiki/Axiology#Intrinsic_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">inherent value</a> of nature and advocates a radical change in human behavior toward nature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2011-181">[181]</a> Various theorists have criticized deep ecology based on the claim that it is misanthropic by privileging other species over humans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESale1988-180">[180]</a> For example, the deep ecology movement <a href="/wiki/Earth_First!" title="Earth First!">Earth First!</a> faced severe criticism when they praised the <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Africa" title="HIV/AIDS in Africa">AIDS epidemic in Africa</a> as a solution to the problem of human overpopulation in their newsletter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHay200266-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2005-183">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asociality" title="Asociality">Asociality</a> – lack of motivation to engage in social interaction</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a> – rejection of <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder" title="Antisocial personality disorder">Antisocial personality disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmicism" title="Cosmicism">Cosmicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_isolation" title="Emotional isolation">Emotional isolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatred_(video_game)" title="Hatred (video game)">Hatred (video game)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 23em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201534–64-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenatar201534–64_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBenatar2015">Benatar 2015</a>, pp. 34–64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCormack2020143-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacCormack2020143_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacCormack2020143_2-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacCormack2020">MacCormack 2020</a>, p. 143. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerriam-Webster_staff2023-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerriam-Webster_staff2023_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMerriam-Webster_staff2023">Merriam-Webster staff 2023</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAHD_staff2022a-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAHD_staff2022a_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAHD_staff2022a">AHD staff 2022a</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOED_staff2019-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOED_staff2019_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOED_staff2019">OED staff 2019</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2019-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2019_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarper2019">Harper 2019</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b_7-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b_7-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b_7-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b_7-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b_7-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b_7-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b_7-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b_7-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b_7-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b_7-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b_7-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b_7-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2020b_7-15">p</a> <a href="#CITEREFKidd2020b">Kidd 2020b</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper20187-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooper20187_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooper20187_8-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCooper2018">Cooper 2018</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdyvane2013[httpsphilpapersorgrecEDYRSM_53–65]-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdyvane2013[httpsphilpapersorgrecEDYRSM_53–65]_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdyvane2013[httpsphilpapersorgrecEDYRSM_53–65]_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdyvane2013[httpsphilpapersorgrecEDYRSM_53–65]_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdyvane2013[httpsphilpapersorgrecEDYRSM_53–65]_9-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFEdyvane2013">Edyvane 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/EDYRSM">53–65</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAHD_staff2022-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAHD_staff2022_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAHD_staff2022">AHD staff 2022</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELim2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh1BZWgpG-w0CpgPA167_167]-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELim2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh1BZWgpG-w0CpgPA167_167]_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLim2006">Lim 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h1BZWgpG-w0C&pg=PA167">167</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESawaya2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid198FBAAAQBAJpgPA207_207]-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawaya2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid198FBAAAQBAJpgPA207_207]_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSawaya2014">Sawaya 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=198FBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA207">207</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20226–7-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESvoboda20226–7_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESvoboda20226–7_13-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSvoboda2022">Svoboda 2022</a>, pp. 6–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper201854–6-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooper201854–6_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooper201854–6_14-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCooper2018">Cooper 2018</a>, pp. 54–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201538,_41-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenatar201538,_41_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBenatar2015">Benatar 2015</a>, pp. 38, 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson2017190-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibson2017190_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibson2017">Gibson 2017</a>, p. 190. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilmore2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksids83vH9PGVCcCpgPA12_12]-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilmore2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksids83vH9PGVCcCpgPA12_12]_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilmore2010">Gilmore 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s83vH9PGVCcC&pg=PA12">12</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson2017145-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibson2017145_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibson2017">Gibson 2017</a>, p. 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2022118-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris2022118_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris2022">Harris 2022</a>, p. 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd202066–72-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd202066–72_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKidd2020">Kidd 2020</a>, pp. 66–72. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2023-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2023_21-0">^</a> <a 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display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><a href="#CITEREFCooper2018">Cooper 2018</a>, pp. 4, 7, 54</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><a href="#CITEREFBenatar2015">Benatar 2015</a>, p. 55</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFQuerido2020">Querido 2020</a>, pp. 152–7</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFGibson2017">Gibson 2017</a>, p. 13</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20223,_13-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESvoboda20223,_13_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSvoboda2022">Svoboda 2022</a>, pp. 3, 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201555-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenatar201555_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenatar201555_79-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBenatar2015">Benatar 2015</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201537,_41–42-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenatar201537,_41–42_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBenatar2015">Benatar 2015</a>, pp. 37, 41–42. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201543-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenatar201543_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBenatar2015">Benatar 2015</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd2020a[httpsphilpapersorgrecKIDHHN_505–508]-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd2020a[httpsphilpapersorgrecKIDHHN_505–508]_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKidd2020a">Kidd 2020a</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/KIDHHN">505–508</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper201880-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooper201880_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCooper2018">Cooper 2018</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201538–9-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenatar201538–9_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBenatar2015">Benatar 2015</a>, pp. 38–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20221,_5-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESvoboda20221,_5_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSvoboda2022">Svoboda 2022</a>, pp. 1, 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201539–41-86"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenatar201539–41_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBenatar2015">Benatar 2015</a>, pp. 39–41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenatar201551–52-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenatar201551–52_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBenatar2015">Benatar 2015</a>, pp. 51–52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson201764-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibson201764_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibson2017">Gibson 2017</a>, p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda202213,_69-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESvoboda202213,_69_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSvoboda2022">Svoboda 2022</a>, pp. 13, 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda202269–70-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESvoboda202269–70_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSvoboda2022">Svoboda 2022</a>, pp. 69–70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGraw2014[httpscoreacukdownloadpdf48504306pdf_1–2]1._Introduction-91"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGraw2014[httpscoreacukdownloadpdf48504306pdf_1–2]1._Introduction_91-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcGraw2014">McGraw 2014</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/48504306.pdf">1–2</a>, 1. 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href="#CITEREFKing1993">King 1993</a>, pp. 58–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson2017112-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibson2017112_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibson2017">Gibson 2017</a>, p. 112. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnsRrONAvdnYCpgPA147_147]-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnsRrONAvdnYCpgPA147_147]_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2010">Williams 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nsRrONAvdnYC&pg=PA147">147</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson2017111-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibson2017111_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibson2017">Gibson 2017</a>, p. 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda202212,_15-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESvoboda202212,_15_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSvoboda2022">Svoboda 2022</a>, pp. 12, 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson2017101-116"><a 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href="#CITEREFCornog1998">Cornog 1998</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cyD059eY2RYC&pg=PA357">357</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteegmuller1982[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidvFzQdS8N_5ICpgPR14_xiv]-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteegmuller1982[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidvFzQdS8N_5ICpgPR14_xiv]_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteegmuller1982">Steegmuller 1982</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vFzQdS8N_5IC&pg=PR14">xiv</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaban1992-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaban1992_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaban1992">Raban 1992</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeBird2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidpHwCEAAAQBAJpgPA164_164]-155"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeBird2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidpHwCEAAAQBAJpgPA164_164]_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeeBird2020">Lee & Bird 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pHwCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA164">164</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonohoo2023-156"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonohoo2023_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonohoo2023">Donohoo 2023</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolus2019[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7bamDwAAQBAJpgPA24_24]-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBolus2019[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7bamDwAAQBAJpgPA24_24]_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBolus2019">Bolus 2019</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7bamDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24">24</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2014[httpsphilpapersorgrecSMIPPA-6_1–3]Introduction-158"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2014[httpsphilpapersorgrecSMIPPA-6_1–3]Introduction_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2014">Smith 2014</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/SMIPPA-6">1–3</a>, Introduction. </li> <li 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Cutter 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q0u6BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123">123</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda2022107-173"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESvoboda2022107_173-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSvoboda2022">Svoboda 2022</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda2022107–108-174"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESvoboda2022107–108_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSvoboda2022">Svoboda 2022</a>, pp. 107–108. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESrinivasanKasturirangan2016126–227-175">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESrinivasanKasturirangan2016126–227_175-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESrinivasanKasturirangan2016126–227_175-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSrinivasanKasturirangan2016">Srinivasan & Kasturirangan 2016</a>, pp. 126–227. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurst2022[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbookspgPA1_1]-176"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurst2022[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbookspgPA1_1]_176-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDurst2022">Durst 2022</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=books&pg=PA1">1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESvoboda20229-177">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESvoboda20229_177-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESvoboda20229_177-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESvoboda20229_177-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSvoboda2022">Svoboda 2022</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson201764–65-178"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibson201764–65_178-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibson2017">Gibson 2017</a>, pp. 64–65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaloneTruongGray2017-179"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaloneTruongGray2017_179-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaloneTruongGray2017">Malone, Truong & Gray 2017</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESale1988-180">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESale1988_180-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESale1988_180-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSale1988">Sale 1988</a>. </li> <li 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li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAHD_staff2022" class="citation web cs1">AHD staff (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=philanthropy&submit.x=58&submit.y=14">"The American Heritage Dictionary entry: philanthropy"</a>. 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Oxford University Press. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198033288" title="Special:BookSources/9780198033288"><bdi>9780198033288</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Defense+of+Sentimentality&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004-08-26&rft.isbn=9780198033288&rft.aulast=Solomon&rft.aufirst=Robert+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMisanthropy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSrinivasanKasturirangan2016" class="citation journal cs1">Srinivasan, Krithika; Kasturirangan, Rajesh (October 2016). "Political ecology, development, and human exceptionalism". Geoforum. 75: 126–227. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.geoforum.2016.07.011">10.1016/j.geoforum.2016.07.011</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11820%2F92518b23-6ace-42ed-852a-1cf93f65a898">20.500.11820/92518b23-6ace-42ed-852a-1cf93f65a898</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148390374">148390374</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geoforum&rft.atitle=Political+ecology%2C+development%2C+and+human+exceptionalism&rft.volume=75&rft.pages=126-227&rft.date=2016-10&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.11820%2F92518b23-6ace-42ed-852a-1cf93f65a898&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A148390374%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.geoforum.2016.07.011&rft.aulast=Srinivasan&rft.aufirst=Krithika&rft.au=Kasturirangan%2C+Rajesh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMisanthropy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteegmuller1982" class="citation book cs1">Steegmuller, Francis, ed. (1982). The Letters of Gustave Flaubert: 1857-1880. Harvard University Press. p. xiv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674526406" title="Special:BookSources/0674526406"><bdi>0674526406</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Letters+of+Gustave+Flaubert%3A+1857-1880&rft.pages=xiv&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0674526406&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMisanthropy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStern1993" class="citation book cs1">Stern, Paul (1993). Socratic Rationalism and Political Philosophy: An Interpretation of Plato's Phaedo. SUNY Press. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791415733" title="Special:BookSources/9780791415733"><bdi>9780791415733</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Socratic+Rationalism+and+Political+Philosophy%3A+An+Interpretation+of+Plato%27s+Phaedo&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780791415733&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMisanthropy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStibbe2015" class="citation book cs1">Stibbe, Arran (2015). Ecolinguistics: Language, Ecology and the Stories We Live By. Routledge. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317511908" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317511908"><bdi>978-1317511908</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ecolinguistics%3A+Language%2C+Ecology+and+the+Stories+We+Live+By&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1317511908&rft.aulast=Stibbe&rft.aufirst=Arran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMisanthropy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSvoboda2022" class="citation book cs1">Svoboda, Toby (29 April 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/SVOAPD">A Philosophical Defense of Misanthropy</a>. Taylor & Francis Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781032029986" title="Special:BookSources/9781032029986"><bdi>9781032029986</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Philosophical+Defense+of+Misanthropy&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis+Limited&rft.date=2022-04-29&rft.isbn=9781032029986&rft.aulast=Svoboda&rft.aufirst=Toby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FSVOAPD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMisanthropy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2005" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Bron (2005). Jones, Lindsay (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/earth-first-0">Encyclopedia of Religion</a>. 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Retrieved 8 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Schopenhauer%2C+Arthur&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Troxell&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fschopenh%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMisanthropy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTsakalakis2020" class="citation book cs1">Tsakalakis, Thomas (15 October 2020). Political Correctness: A Sociocultural Black Hole. 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Princeton University Press. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691218175" title="Special:BookSources/9780691218175"><bdi>9780691218175</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Socratic+Citizenship&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2020-09-01&rft.isbn=9780691218175&rft.aulast=Villa&rft.aufirst=Dana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMisanthropy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite1989" class="citation book cs1">White, David A. (1989). Myth and Metaphysics in Plato's Phaedo. Susquehanna University Press. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780945636014" title="Special:BookSources/9780945636014"><bdi>9780945636014</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Myth+and+Metaphysics+in+Plato%27s+Phaedo&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=Susquehanna+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780945636014&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMisanthropy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilfordStoner2021" class="citation book cs1">Wilford, Paul T.; Stoner, Samuel A. (4 June 2021). Kant and the Possibility of Progress: From Modern Hopes to Postmodern Anxieties. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 42–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812297799" title="Special:BookSources/9780812297799"><bdi>9780812297799</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant+and+the+Possibility+of+Progress%3A+From+Modern+Hopes+to+Postmodern+Anxieties&rft.pages=42-3&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2021-06-04&rft.isbn=9780812297799&rft.aulast=Wilford&rft.aufirst=Paul+T.&rft.au=Stoner%2C+Samuel+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMisanthropy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkerson2023" class="citation web cs1">Wilkerson, Dale (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/nietzsch/#H1">"Nietzsche, Friedrich: 1. Life"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 8 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Nietzsche%2C+Friedrich%3A+1.+Life&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Wilkerson&rft.aufirst=Dale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fnietzsch%2F%23H1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMisanthropy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2010" class="citation book cs1">Williams, David Lay (1 November 2010). Rousseau's Platonic Enlightenment. Penn State Press. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780271045511" title="Special:BookSources/9780271045511"><bdi>9780271045511</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau%27s+Platonic+Enlightenment&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Penn+State+Press&rft.date=2010-11-01&rft.isbn=9780271045511&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=David+Lay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMisanthropy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2023" class="citation web cs1">Williams, Garrath (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/">"Hobbes, Thomas: Moral and Political Philosophy"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 8 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Hobbes%2C+Thomas%3A+Moral+and+Political+Philosophy&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Garrath&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fhobmoral%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMisanthropy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYeroulanos2016" class="citation book cs1">Yeroulanos, Marinos (30 June 2016). A Dictionary of Classical Greek Quotations. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781786730497" title="Special:BookSources/9781786730497"><bdi>9781786730497</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Classical+Greek+Quotations&rft.pages=203&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2016-06-30&rft.isbn=9781786730497&rft.aulast=Yeroulanos&rft.aufirst=Marinos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMisanthropy" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Misanthropy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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href="/wiki/Template:Philosophical_pessimism" title="Template:Philosophical pessimism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophical_pessimism" title="Template talk:Philosophical pessimism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophical_pessimism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophical pessimism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophical_pessimism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_pessimism" title="Philosophical pessimism">Philosophical pessimism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophical_pessimists" title="List of philosophical pessimists">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hegesias_of_Cyrene" title="Hegesias of Cyrene">Hegesias of Cyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Giacomo Leopardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Bahnsen" title="Julius Bahnsen">Julius Bahnsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olga_Pl%C3%BCmacher" title="Olga Plümacher">Olga Plümacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Mainl%C3%A4nder" title="Philipp Mainländer">Philipp Mainländer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_von_Hartmann" title="Eduard von Hartmann">Eduard von Hartmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Taubert" title="Agnes Taubert">Agnes Taubert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Wessel_Zapffe" title="Peter Wessel Zapffe">Peter Wessel Zapffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Cioran" title="Emil Cioran">Emil Cioran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julio_Cabrera_(philosopher)" title="Julio Cabrera (philosopher)">Julio Cabrera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Benatar" title="David Benatar">David Benatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drew_Dalton" title="Drew Dalton">Drew Dalton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antinatalism" title="Antinatalism">Antinatalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">Duḥkha</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Misanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_evil" title="Radical evil">Radical evil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation (Arthur Schopenhauer)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Moral_Works" title="Small Moral Works">Small Moral Works (Giacomo Leopardi)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Tragical_as_World_Law_and_Humour_as_Aesthetic_Shape_of_the_Metaphysical&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Tragical as World Law and Humour as Aesthetic Shape of the Metaphysical (page does not exist)">The Tragical as World Law and Humour as Aesthetic Shape of the Metaphysical</a> (Julius Bahnsen)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_the_Unconscious" title="Philosophy of the Unconscious">Philosophy of the Unconscious (Eduard von Hartmann)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Philosophy_of_Redemption" class="mw-redirect" title="The Philosophy of Redemption">The Philosophy of Redemption</a> (<a href="/wiki/Philipp_Mainl%C3%A4nder" title="Philipp Mainländer">Philipp Mainländer</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Messiah" title="The Last Messiah">The Last Messiah (Peter Wessel Zapffe)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Short_History_of_Decay_(book)" title="A Short History of Decay (book)">A Short History of Decay (Emil Cioran)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Human_Predicament" title="The Human Predicament">The Human Predicament (David Benatar)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discomfort_and_Moral_Impediment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Discomfort and Moral Impediment (page does not exist)">Discomfort and Moral Impediment</a> (<a href="/wiki/Julio_Cabrera_(philosopher)" title="Julio Cabrera (philosopher)">Julio Cabrera</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Matter_of_Evil:_From_Speculative_Realism_to_Ethical_Pessimism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Matter of Evil: From Speculative Realism to Ethical Pessimism (page does not exist)">The Matter of Evil: From Speculative Realism to Ethical Pessimism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Drew_Dalton" title="Drew Dalton">Dalton, Drew M.</a>)</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_pessimism_as_authors" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Category:Philosophers of pessimism as authors">Works by philosophical pessimists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pessimism:_A_History_and_a_Criticism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pessimism: A History and a Criticism (page does not exist)">Pessimism: A History and a Criticism</a> (James Sully)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Philosophy_of_Disenchantement&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Philosophy of Disenchantement (page does not exist)">The Philosophy of Disenchantement</a> (Edgar Saltus)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Conspiracy_Against_the_Human_Race" title="The Conspiracy Against the Human Race">The Conspiracy Against the Human Race: A Contrivance of Horror</a> (Thomas Ligotti)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-Natalism:_Rejectionist_Philosophy_from_Buddhism_to_Benatar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anti-Natalism: Rejectionist Philosophy from Buddhism to Benatar (page does not exist)">Anti-Natalism: Rejectionist Philosophy from Buddhism to Benatar</a>, (Ken Coates)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weltschmerz:_Pessimism_in_German_Philosophy,_1860%E2%80%931900&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weltschmerz: Pessimism in German Philosophy, 1860–1900 (page does not exist)">Weltschmerz: Pessimism in German Philosophy, 1860–1900</a> (Frederick C. Beiser)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Depressive_Realism:_Interdisciplinary_perspectives&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Depressive Realism: Interdisciplinary perspectives (page does not exist)">Depressive Realism: Interdisciplinary perspectives</a> (Colin Feltham)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dark_Matters:_Pessimism_and_the_Problem_of_Suffering&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dark Matters: Pessimism and the Problem of Suffering (page does not exist)">Dark Matters: Pessimism and the Problem of Suffering</a> (Mara van der Lugt)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antinatalism" title="Antinatalism">Antinatalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depressive_realism" title="Depressive realism">Depressive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophical_pessimism" title="History of philosophical pessimism">History of philosophical pessimism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Misanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_pessimism" title="Philosophical pessimism">Philosophical pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benatar%27s_asymmetry_argument" title="Benatar's asymmetry argument">Benatar's asymmetry argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weltschmerz" title="Weltschmerz">Weltschmerz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_animal_suffering" title="Wild animal suffering">Wild animal suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophical_pessimists" title="List of philosophical pessimists">List of philosophical pessimists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q219645#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85085971">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb123149191">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb123149191">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007538769305171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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