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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing_and_public_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Housing and public health</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing_and_public_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Knowledge</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Knowledge-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Knowledge subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moral_standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moral_standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Moral standards</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Moral_standards-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Moral standards subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Moral_standards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sexual_behavior" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_behavior"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Sexual behavior</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_behavior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Victorian era</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 66 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-66" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">66 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoriaanse_tydperk" title="Victoriaanse tydperk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Victoriaanse tydperk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="العصر الفيكتوري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العصر الفيكتوري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%B3mina_victoriana" title="Dómina victoriana – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Dómina victoriana" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktoriya_d%C3%B6vr%C3%BC" title="Viktoriya dövrü – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Viktoriya dövrü" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97" title="ভিক্টোরীয় যুগ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভিক্টোরীয় যুগ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_s%C3%AE-t%C4%81i" title="Victoria sî-tāi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Victoria sî-tāi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0" title="Віктарыянская эпоха – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Віктарыянская эпоха" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0" title="Викторианска епоха – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Викторианска епоха" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88poca_victoriana" title="Època victoriana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Època victoriana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%85%C4%83%D1%80%C4%95" title="Виктория тапхăрĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Виктория тапхăрĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktori%C3%A1nsk%C3%A9_obdob%C3%AD" title="Viktoriánské období – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Viktoriánské období" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ny mw-list-item"><a href="https://ny.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nthawi_ya_Victorian" title="Nthawi ya Victorian – Nyanja" lang="ny" hreflang="ny" data-title="Nthawi ya Victorian" data-language-autonym="Chi-Chewa" data-language-local-name="Nyanja" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Chi-Chewa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oes_Fictoria" title="Oes Fictoria – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Oes Fictoria" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoriatiden" title="Victoriatiden – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Victoriatiden" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktorianisches_Zeitalter" title="Viktorianisches Zeitalter – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Viktorianisches Zeitalter" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_ajastu" title="Victoria ajastu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Victoria ajastu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%89%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AE_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%87%CE%AE" title="Βικτωριανή εποχή – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βικτωριανή εποχή" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89poca_victoriana" title="Época victoriana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Época victoriana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktorina_epoko" title="Viktorina epoko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Viktorina epoko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktoriar_Aroa" title="Viktoriar Aroa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Viktoriar Aroa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%88%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="دوره ویکتوریا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دوره ویکتوریا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89poque_victorienne" title="Époque victorienne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Époque victorienne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiktoriaanske_Tiid" title="Fiktoriaanske Tiid – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Fiktoriaanske Tiid" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9_Victeoiriach" title="Ré Victeoiriach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ré Victeoiriach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89poca_vitoriana" title="Época vitoriana – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Época vitoriana" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B9%85%ED%86%A0%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84_%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80" title="빅토리아 시대 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="빅토리아 시대" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B7%D6%80%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Վիկտորյական դարաշրջան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վիկտորյական դարաշրջան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktorijansko_doba" title="Viktorijansko doba – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Viktorijansko doba" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_Victoria" title="Era Victoria – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Era Victoria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor%C3%ADut%C3%ADmabili%C3%B0" title="Viktoríutímabilið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Viktoríutímabilið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A0_vittoriana" title="Età vittoriana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Età vittoriana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="התקופה הוויקטוריאנית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התקופה הוויקטוריאנית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aevum_Victorianum" title="Aevum Victorianum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Aevum Victorianum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktorijas_laikmets" title="Viktorijas laikmets – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Viktorijas laikmets" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktorijos_epocha" title="Viktorijos epocha – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Viktorijos epocha" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%98%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%82" title="വിക്ടോറിയൻ കാലഘട്ടം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വിക്ടോറിയൻ കാലഘട്ടം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaman_Victoria" title="Zaman Victoria – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Zaman Victoria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoriaans_tijdperk" title="Victoriaans tijdperk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Victoriaans tijdperk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A3%E3%82%AF%E3%83%88%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E6%9C%9D" title="ヴィクトリア朝 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヴィクトリア朝" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktoriatiden" title="Viktoriatiden – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Viktoriatiden" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktoriatida" title="Viktoriatida – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Viktoriatida" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88ra_Victoriana" title="Èra Victoriana – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Èra Victoriana" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%B9%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1" title="وکٹوریائی دور – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="وکٹوریائی دور" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%88%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87" title="د ویکتوریا دوره – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ویکتوریا دوره" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoka_wiktoria%C5%84ska" title="Epoka wiktoriańska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Epoka wiktoriańska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_vitoriana" title="Era vitoriana – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Era vitoriana" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoca_victorian%C4%83" title="Epoca victoriană – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Epoca victoriană" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Викторианска доба – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Викторианска доба" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0" title="Викторианская эпоха – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Викторианская эпоха" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F_%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%BA" title="වික්ටෝරියා යුගය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වික්ටෝරියා යුගය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Victorian era" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktori%C3%A1nska_%C3%A9ra" title="Viktoriánska éra – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Viktoriánska éra" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktorijansko_obdobje" title="Viktorijansko obdobje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Viktorijansko obdobje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%85%DB%8C_%DA%A4%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="سەردەمی ڤیکتۆریا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سەردەمی ڤیکتۆریا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Викторијанско доба – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Викторијанско доба" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktorijansko_doba" title="Viktorijansko doba – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Viktorijansko doba" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktoriaaninen_aikakausi" title="Viktoriaaninen aikakausi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Viktoriaaninen aikakausi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktoriansk_tid" title="Viktoriansk tid – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Viktoriansk tid" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="விக்டோரியா காலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="விக்டோரியா காலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="สมัยวิกตอเรีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สมัยวิกตอเรีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktorya_D%C3%B6nemi" title="Viktorya Dönemi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Viktorya Dönemi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0" title="Вікторіанська епоха – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вікторіанська епоха" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%B9%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1" title="وکٹوریائی دور – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="وکٹوریائی دور" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E5%A4%9A%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3" title="维多利亚时代 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="维多利亚时代" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B6%AD%E5%A4%9A%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="維多利亞時代 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="維多利亞時代" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E5%A4%9A%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3" title="维多利亚时代 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="维多利亚时代" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q182688#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ededed;">Victorian era</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; font-weight: bold;">1837–1901</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Queen_Victoria_-_Winterhalter_1859.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Queen_Victoria_-_Winterhalter_1859.jpg/220px-Queen_Victoria_-_Winterhalter_1859.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Queen_Victoria_-_Winterhalter_1859.jpg/330px-Queen_Victoria_-_Winterhalter_1859.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Queen_Victoria_-_Winterhalter_1859.jpg/440px-Queen_Victoria_-_Winterhalter_1859.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1463" data-file-height="2250" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Painting of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> by <a href="/wiki/Franz_Xaver_Winterhalter" title="Franz Xaver Winterhalter">Franz Xaver Winterhalter</a> (1859)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Monarch(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Victoria</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Leader(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Lamb,_2nd_Viscount_Melbourne" title="William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne">The Viscount Melbourne</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Peel" title="Robert Peel">Sir Robert Peel</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 1st Earl Russell">Lord John Russell</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Smith-Stanley,_14th_Earl_of_Derby" title="Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby">The Earl of Derby</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/George_Hamilton-Gordon,_4th_Earl_of_Aberdeen" title="George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen">The Earl of Aberdeen</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_John_Temple,_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston" title="Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston">The Viscount Palmerston</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Benjamin Disraeli</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">The Marquess of Salisbury</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Primrose,_5th_Earl_of_Rosebery" title="Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery">The Earl of Rosebery</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><b>Chronology</b> <br /><table style="background:var(--background-color-neutral, #eaecf0); color: inherit; border-top: 1px solid #aaa;" width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <td width="50%" style="text-align:left;"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/10px-Arrleft.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/15px-Arrleft.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/20px-Arrleft.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="133" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian era</a></td> <td width="50%" style="text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian era</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><span title="class-skin-invert-image"><img alt="class-skin-invert-image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/10px-Arrright.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="12" class="mw-file-element" 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_003-BRITANNIA_prout_divisa_fuit_temporibus_ANGLO-SAXONUM%2C_praesertim_durante_illorum_HEPTARCHIA_crop.jpeg/300px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_003-BRITANNIA_prout_divisa_fuit_temporibus_ANGLO-SAXONUM%2C_praesertim_durante_illorum_HEPTARCHIA_crop.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="3197" data-file-height="4316" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed {{#if|hlist}}"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_English_history" title="Timeline of English history">Timeline</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_in_the_Napoleonic_Wars" title="United Kingdom in the Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic 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href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">Modern history (political)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">Modern history (social)</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic history of the United Kingdom">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_labour_law_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of labour law in the United Kingdom">Labour law</a></li> <li><a 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periods</a> in <a href="/wiki/History_of_England" title="History of England">English history</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left; padding-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"> </div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="text-align:left; padding-bottom:0;"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Prehistoric Britain</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">until <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 43 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 43–410</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">410–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 7th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 449–1066</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="England in the High Middle Ages">Norman/Angevin</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1066–1216</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="England in the late Middle Ages">Plantagenet</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1216–1485</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Tudor</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1485–1603 </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal; padding-left: 2em;"><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><i>1558–1603</i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Stuart_period" title="Stuart period">Stuart</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1603–1714 </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal; padding-left: 2em;"><a href="/wiki/Jacobean_era" title="Jacobean era">Jacobean</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><i>1603–1625</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal; padding-left: 2em;"><a href="/wiki/Caroline_era" title="Caroline era">Caroline</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><i>1625–1649</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal; padding-left: 2em;">(<a href="/wiki/Interregnum_(England)" title="Interregnum (England)">Interregnum</a>)</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><i>1649–1660</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal; padding-left: 2em;"><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Restoration" title="Stuart Restoration">Restoration</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><i>1660–1714</i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1714–1837 </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal; padding-left: 2em;"><a href="/wiki/Regency_era" title="Regency era">Regency era</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><i>1811–1820</i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Victorian era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1837–1901</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1901–1914</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">First World War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1914–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_Britain" title="Interwar Britain">Interwar Britain</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1919–1939</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">Second World War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1939–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Post-war_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" title="Post-war Britain (1945–1979)">Post-war Britain (political)</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1945–1979</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_post-war_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" title="Social history of post-war Britain (1945–1979)">Post-war Britain (social)</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1945–1979</td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>See also</b></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">Political history (1979–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">Social history (1979–present)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_English_history" title="Timeline of English history">Timeline</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Periods_in_English_history" title="Template:Periods in English history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Periods_in_English_history" title="Template talk:Periods in English history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Periods_in_English_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Periods in English history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Scotland" title="Category:History of Scotland">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scotland" title="History of Scotland">History of <span class="fn org label">Scotland</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Arms of Scotland"><img alt="Arms of Scotland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg/40px-Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg/60px-Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg/80px-Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="599" /></a></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_038-SCOTIA_REGNUM_cum_insulis_adjacentibus.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="SCOTIA REGNUM cum insulis adjacentibus"><img alt="SCOTIA REGNUM cum insulis adjacentibus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_038-SCOTIA_REGNUM_cum_insulis_adjacentibus.jpeg/150px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_038-SCOTIA_REGNUM_cum_insulis_adjacentibus.jpeg" decoding="async" width="150" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_038-SCOTIA_REGNUM_cum_insulis_adjacentibus.jpeg/225px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_038-SCOTIA_REGNUM_cum_insulis_adjacentibus.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_038-SCOTIA_REGNUM_cum_insulis_adjacentibus.jpeg/300px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_038-SCOTIA_REGNUM_cum_insulis_adjacentibus.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="5500" data-file-height="4276" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Eras</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Scotland" title="Prehistoric Scotland">Prehistoric</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_prehistoric_Scotland" title="Timeline of prehistoric Scotland">timeline</a>) 12,000 BC–700 BC <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Iron_Age" title="Scotland in the Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_during_the_Roman_Empire" title="Scotland during the Roman Empire">During the Roman Empire</a> 69–384</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Early Middle Ages">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the High Middle Ages">High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Late Middle Ages">Late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Scotland in the early modern period">Early Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_modern_era" title="Scotland in the modern era">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Scottish_history" title="Timeline of Scottish history">History (timeline)</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_monarchs" title="List of Scottish monarchs">Rule</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Alpin" title="House of Alpin">House of Alpin</a> (843–878; 889–1040)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Moray" title="House of Moray">House of Moray</a> (1040–1058)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Dunkeld" title="House of Dunkeld">House of Dunkeld</a> (1058–1286)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Balliol" title="House of Balliol">House of Balliol</a> (1292–1296)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clan_Bruce" title="Clan Bruce">House of Bruce</a> (1306–1371)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">House of Stuart</a> (1371–1652) (1660–1707)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_under_the_Commonwealth" title="Scotland under the Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a> (1652–1660)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union 1707</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Scotland" title="Scandinavian Scotland">Scandinavian Scotland</a> 793–1468</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Scottish_Independence" title="Wars of Scottish Independence">Wars of independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Scotland" title="Renaissance in Scotland">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_(Scotland)" title="Restoration (Scotland)">Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution_in_Scotland" title="Glorious Revolution in Scotland">Glorious Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Scotland" title="Romanticism in Scotland">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_clan" title="Scottish clan">Clans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Scots_language" title="History of the Scots language">The Scots language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Scotland" title="Economic history of Scotland">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Scotland" title="History of education in Scotland">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Scotland" title="Military history of Scotland">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Scotland" title="Maritime history of Scotland">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Scotland" title="Historiography of Scotland">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Scotland" title="Demographic history of Scotland">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history_of_Scotland" title="Natural history of Scotland">Natural history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Scotland" title="Culture of Scotland">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture in Scotland">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_art" title="Scottish art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_kilt" title="History of the kilt">The Kilt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Scotland" title="Politics of Scotland">Politics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scottish_devolution" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Scottish devolution">Devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_local_government_in_Scotland" title="History of local government in Scotland">Local government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Scottish_National_Party" title="History of the Scottish National Party">Scottish National Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Scottish_Socialist_Party" title="History of the Scottish Socialist Party">Scottish Socialist Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Scotland" title="Sport in Scotland">Sport</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_football_in_Scotland" title="History of football in Scotland">Football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rugby_union_in_Scotland" title="History of rugby union in Scotland">Rugby union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Scotland_national_football_team" title="History of the Scotland national football team">National football team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golf_in_Scotland" title="Golf in Scotland">Golf</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Scotland" title="History of Christianity in Scotland">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scottish Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Scottish_Episcopal_Church" title="History of the Scottish Episcopal Church">Scottish Episcopal Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruption_of_1843" title="Disruption of 1843">Great Disruption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Jews and Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Scotland#History" title="Islam in Scotland">Islam and Muslims</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Edinburgh_history" title="Timeline of Edinburgh history">Edinburgh timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Glasgow_history" title="Timeline of Glasgow history">Glasgow timeline</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/16px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/24px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Scotland" title="Portal:Scotland">Scotland portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Scotland" title="Template:History of Scotland"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Scotland" title="Template talk:History of Scotland"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Scotland" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Scotland"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">history of the United Kingdom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, the <b>Victorian era</b> was the reign of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a>, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. Slightly different definitions are sometimes used. The era followed the <a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian era</a> and preceded the <a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian era</a>, and its later half overlaps with the first part of the <i><a href="/wiki/Belle_%C3%89poque" title="Belle Époque">Belle Époque</a></i> era of continental Europe. </p><p>Various liberalising political reforms took place in the UK, including expanding the electoral franchise. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine</a> caused mass death in <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> early in the period. The British Empire had relatively peaceful relations with the other <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great powers</a>. It participated in various military conflicts mainly against minor powers. The British Empire expanded during this period and was the predominant power in the world. </p><p>Victorian society valued a high standard of personal conduct across all sections of society. The <a href="/wiki/Victorian_morality" title="Victorian morality">emphasis on morality</a> gave impetus to social reform but also placed restrictions on certain groups' liberty. Prosperity rose during the period, but debilitating <a href="/wiki/Undernutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="Undernutrition">undernutrition</a> persisted. Literacy and childhood education became near universal in <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> for the first time. Whilst some attempts were made to improve living conditions, <a href="/wiki/Slum" title="Slum">slum</a> housing and disease remained a severe problem. </p><p>The period saw significant scientific and technological development. Britain was advanced in industry and engineering in particular, but somewhat undeveloped in art and education. Great Britain's population increased rapidly, while Ireland's fell sharply. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology_and_periodisation">Terminology and periodisation</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Periodisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodisation">Periodisation</a></div> <p>In the strictest sense, the Victorian era covers the duration of Victoria's reign as <a href="/wiki/List_of_British_monarchs" title="List of British monarchs">Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland</a>, from her accession on 20 June 1837—after the death of her uncle, <a href="/wiki/William_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="William IV of the United Kingdom">William IV</a>—until her death on 22 January 1901, after which she was succeeded by her eldest son, <a href="/wiki/Edward_VII" title="Edward VII">Edward VII</a>. Her reign lasted 63 years and seven months, a longer period than any of her predecessors. The term 'Victorian' was in contemporaneous usage to describe the era.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlunkett20122_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlunkett20122-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The era can also be understood in a more extensive sense—the 'long Victorian era'—as a period that possessed sensibilities and characteristics distinct from the periods adjacent to it,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which case it is sometimes dated to begin before Victoria's accession—typically from the passage of or agitation for (during the 1830s) the <a href="/wiki/Reform_Act_1832" title="Reform Act 1832">Reform Act 1832</a>, which introduced a wide-ranging change to the <a href="/wiki/Voting_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Voting system">electoral system</a> of <a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Definitions that purport a distinct sensibility or politics to the era have also created scepticism about the worth of the label 'Victorian', though there have also been defences of it.<sup id="cite_ref-hewitt20062_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hewitt20062-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sadleir" title="Michael Sadleir">Michael Sadleir</a> was insistent that "in truth, the Victorian period is three periods, and not one".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He distinguished early Victorianism—the socially and politically unsettled period from 1837 to 1850<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—and late Victorianism (from 1880 onwards), with its new waves of <a href="/wiki/Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">aestheticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from the Victorian heyday: mid-Victorianism, 1851 to 1879. He saw the latter period as characterised by a distinctive mixture of prosperity, domestic <a href="/wiki/Prude" title="Prude">prudery</a>, and complacency<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—what <a href="/wiki/G._M._Trevelyan" title="G. M. Trevelyan">G. M. Trevelyan</a> called the 'mid-Victorian decades of quiet politics and roaring prosperity'.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politics,_diplomacy_and_war"><span id="Politics.2C_diplomacy_and_war"></span>Politics, diplomacy and war</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Political_and_diplomatic_history_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Political and diplomatic history of the Victorian era">Political and diplomatic history of the Victorian era</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cardiganshire_Election_ballot_paper_1880.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cardiganshire_Election_ballot_paper_1880.jpg/220px-Cardiganshire_Election_ballot_paper_1880.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cardiganshire_Election_ballot_paper_1880.jpg/330px-Cardiganshire_Election_ballot_paper_1880.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cardiganshire_Election_ballot_paper_1880.jpg/440px-Cardiganshire_Election_ballot_paper_1880.jpg 2x" data-file-width="776" data-file-height="420" /></a><figcaption>Information circulated by the campaign of <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Pugh_Pugh" title="Lewis Pugh Pugh">Lewis Pugh Pugh</a>, a candidate at the <a href="/wiki/1880_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1880 United Kingdom general election">1880 general election</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cardiganshire_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiganshire (UK Parliament constituency)">Cardiganshire</a> (now known as Ceredigion), explaining to supporters how to vote.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Reform_Act_1832" title="Reform Act 1832">Reform Act</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which made various changes to the electoral system including expanding the franchise, had been passed in 1832.<sup id="cite_ref-greenhavenpress2_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-greenhavenpress2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The franchise was expanded again by the <a href="/wiki/Reform_Act_1867" title="Reform Act 1867">Second Reform Act</a><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1867.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1884" title="Representation of the People Act 1884">Third Reform Act</a> in 1884 introduced a general principle of one vote per household. All these acts and others simplified the electoral system and reduced corruption. Historian Bruce L Kinzer describes these reforms as putting the United Kingdom on the path towards becoming a democracy. The traditional aristocratic ruling class attempted to maintain as much influence as possible while gradually allowing the middle- and working-classes a role in politics. However, all women and a large minority of men remained outside the system into the early 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd></dd></dl><p> Cities were given greater political autonomy and the <a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Trade unions in the United Kingdom">labour movement</a> was legalised.<sup id="cite_ref-NatGeo-20072_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NatGeo-20072-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1845 to 1852, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Potato Famine</a> caused mass starvation, disease and death in Ireland, sparking large-scale emigration.<sup id="cite_ref-kinealyxv2_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kinealyxv2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">Corn Laws</a> were repealed in response to this.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Across the British Empire, reform included rapid expansion, the complete abolition of slavery in the African possessions and the end of <a href="/wiki/Convicts_in_Australia" title="Convicts in Australia">transportation of convicts to Australia</a>. Restrictions on colonial trade were loosened and responsible (i.e. semi-autonomous) government was introduced in some territories.<sup id="cite_ref-Rose-194022_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rose-194022-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Benians-19592_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benians-19592-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D%C3%A9fense_de_Rorke%27s_Drift.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/D%C3%A9fense_de_Rorke%27s_Drift.jpg/220px-D%C3%A9fense_de_Rorke%27s_Drift.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/D%C3%A9fense_de_Rorke%27s_Drift.jpg/330px-D%C3%A9fense_de_Rorke%27s_Drift.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/D%C3%A9fense_de_Rorke%27s_Drift.jpg/440px-D%C3%A9fense_de_Rorke%27s_Drift.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2148" data-file-height="1407" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of the defence of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rorke%27s_Drift" title="Battle of Rorke's Drift">Rorke's Drift</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Zulu_War" title="Anglo-Zulu War">Anglo-Zulu War</a> of 1879 by <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Neuville" title="Alphonse de Neuville">Alphonse de Neuville</a> (1880)</figcaption></figure> <p>Throughout most of the 19th century Britain was the most powerful country in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The period from <a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">1815 to 1914</a>, known as the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Britannica" title="Pax Britannica">Pax Britannica</a>, was a time of relatively peaceful relations between the world's <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great powers</a>. This is particularly true of Britain's interactions with the others.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only war in which the British Empire fought against another major power was the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>, from 1853 to 1856.<sup id="cite_ref-taylor60-612_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-taylor60-612-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rose-194022_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rose-194022-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were various revolts and violent conflicts within the British Empire,<sup id="cite_ref-Rose-194022_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rose-194022-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Benians-19592_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benians-19592-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Britain participated in wars against minor powers.<sup id="cite_ref-swisher248-502_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-swisher248-502-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rose-194022_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rose-194022-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Benians-19592_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benians-19592-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also took part in the diplomatic struggles of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a><sup id="cite_ref-swisher248-502_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-swisher248-502-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rose-194022_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rose-194022-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Benians-19592_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benians-19592-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1840, Queen Victoria married her German cousin <a href="/wiki/Albert,_Prince_Consort" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert, Prince Consort">Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha</a>. The couple had nine children, who themselves married into various royal families, and the queen thus became known as the 'grandmother of Europe'.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_Teach2_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC_Teach2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NatGeo-20072_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NatGeo-20072-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1861, Albert died.<sup id="cite_ref-swisher248-502_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-swisher248-502-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Victoria went into mourning and withdrew from public life for ten years.<sup id="cite_ref-NatGeo-20072_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NatGeo-20072-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1871, with <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">republican</a> sentiments growing in Britain, she began to return to public life. In her later years, her popularity soared as she became a symbol of the British Empire. Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_Teach2_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC_Teach2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Society_and_culture_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Society and culture of the Victorian era">Society and culture of the Victorian era</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family_life">Family life</h3></div> <p>The Victorian era saw a rapidly growing <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a> who became an important cultural influence, to a significant extent replacing the <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a> as British society's dominant class.<sup id="cite_ref-houghton12_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-houghton12-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-On_the_interactions_of_evangelicalism_and_utilitarianism_see_Élie_Halévy2_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-On_the_interactions_of_evangelicalism_and_utilitarianism_see_Élie_Halévy2-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A distinctive middle-class lifestyle developed that influenced what society valued as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-houghton12_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-houghton12-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><i><sup id="cite_ref-Wohl-19782_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wohl-19782-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> Increased importance was placed on the value of the family, and the idea that marriage should be based on romantic love gained popularity.<sup id="cite_ref-K2_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-K2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Boston-20192_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boston-20192-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A clear separation was established between the home and the workplace, which had often not been the case before.<i><sup id="cite_ref-Wohl-19782_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wohl-19782-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> The home was seen as a private environment,<i><sup id="cite_ref-Wohl-19782_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wohl-19782-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> where housewives provided their husbands with a respite from the troubles of the outside world.<sup id="cite_ref-K2_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-K2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within this ideal, women were expected to focus on domestic matters and to rely on men as breadwinners.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Susan_Rubinow_Gorsky2_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Susan_Rubinow_Gorsky2-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women had limited legal rights in most areas of life, and a <a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Feminism in the United Kingdom">feminist</a> movement developed.<sup id="cite_ref-Susan_Rubinow_Gorsky2_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Susan_Rubinow_Gorsky2-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parental authority was seen as important, but children were given <a href="/wiki/Prevention_of_Cruelty_to,_and_Protection_of,_Children_Act_1889" title="Prevention of Cruelty to, and Protection of, Children Act 1889">legal protections against abuse and neglect</a> for the first time towards the end of the period.<sup id="cite_ref-Bilston-20192_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bilston-20192-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Access to education increased rapidly during the 19th century. State-funded schools were established in England and Wales for the first time. Education became compulsory for pre-teenaged children in England, Scotland and Wales. Literacy rates increased rapidly, and had become nearly universal by the end of the century.<sup id="cite_ref-Lloyd-20072_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lloyd-20072-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Private education for wealthier children, boys and more gradually girls, became more formalised over the course of the century.<sup id="cite_ref-Lloyd-20072_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lloyd-20072-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion_and_social_issues">Religion and social issues</h3></div> <p>The growing middle class and strong <a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">evangelical movement</a> placed great emphasis on a respectable and moral code of behaviour. This included features such as charity, personal responsibility, controlled habits,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Child_discipline" title="Child discipline">child discipline</a> and self-criticism.<sup id="cite_ref-On_the_interactions_of_evangelicalism_and_utilitarianism_see_Élie_Halévy2_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-On_the_interactions_of_evangelicalism_and_utilitarianism_see_Élie_Halévy2-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As well as personal improvement, importance was given to social reform.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a> was another philosophy that saw itself as based on science rather than on morality, but also emphasised social progress.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An alliance formed between these two ideological strands.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reformers emphasised causes such as improving the conditions of women and children, giving police reform priority over harsh punishment to prevent crime, religious equality, and political reform in order to establish a democracy.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The political legacy of the reform movement was to link the <a href="/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)" title="Nonconformist (Protestantism)">nonconformists</a> (part of the evangelical movement) in England and Wales with the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal Party</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This continued until the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterians</a> played a similar role as a religious voice for reform in Scotland.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Religion was politically controversial during this era, with Nonconformists pushing for the <a href="/wiki/Disestablishmentarianism" title="Disestablishmentarianism">disestablishment</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Owen_Chadwick2_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Owen_Chadwick2-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonconformists comprised about half of church attendees in England in 1851,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and gradually the legal discrimination that had been established against them outside of Scotland was removed.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legal restrictions on <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholics</a> were also largely <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Relief_Act_1829" title="Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829">removed</a>. The number of Catholics grew in Great Britain due to <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_England_and_Wales#Converts" title="Catholic Church in England and Wales">conversions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_England_and_Wales#Nineteenth_century_and_Irish_immigration" title="Catholic Church in England and Wales">immigration from Ireland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Owen_Chadwick2_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Owen_Chadwick2-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secularism and doubts about the accuracy of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> grew among people with higher levels of education.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Northern English and Scottish academics tended to be more religiously conservative, whilst agnosticism and even atheism (though its promotion was illegal)<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> gained appeal among academics in the south.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis-200732_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-200732-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians refer to a 'Victorian Crisis of Faith', a period when religious views had to readjust to accommodate new scientific knowledge and criticism of the Bible.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Popular_culture">Popular culture</h3></div> <p>A variety of reading materials grew in popularity during the period, including novels,<sup id="cite_ref-British_Library2_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-British_Library2-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> women's magazines,<sup id="cite_ref-BritLib-20202_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritLib-20202-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> children's literature,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and newspapers.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much literature, including <a href="/wiki/Chapbook" title="Chapbook">chapbooks</a>, was distributed on the street.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Music was also very popular, with genres such as <a href="/wiki/Folk_music" title="Folk music">folk music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Broadside_ballad" title="Broadside ballad">broadsides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music_hall" title="Music hall">music halls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brass_band" title="Brass band">brass bands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theatre_music" title="Theatre music">theater music</a> and <a href="/wiki/Choir" title="Choir">choral music</a> having mass appeal. What is now called <a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">classical music</a> was somewhat undeveloped compared to parts of Europe but did have significant support.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">Photography</a> became an increasingly accessible and popular part of everyday life.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many sports were introduced or popularised during the Victorian era.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They became important to male identity.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples included <a href="/wiki/Cricket" title="Cricket">cricket</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Association_football" title="Association football">football</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rugby_football" title="Rugby football">rugby</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tennis" title="Tennis">tennis</a><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Cycling" title="Cycling">cycling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea of women participating in sport did not fit well with the Victorian view of femininity, but their involvement did increase as the period progressed.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the middle classes, many leisure activities such as <a href="/wiki/Tables_game" title="Tables game">table games</a> could be done in the home while <a href="/wiki/Domestic_tourism" title="Domestic tourism">domestic holidays</a> to rural locations such as the <a href="/wiki/Lake_District" title="Lake District">Lake District</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" title="Scottish Highlands">Scottish Highlands</a> were increasingly practical.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The working classes had their own culture separate from that of their richer counterparts, various cheaper forms of entertainment and recreational activities provided by <a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">philanthropy</a>. Trips to resorts such as <a href="/wiki/Blackpool" title="Blackpool">Blackpool</a> were increasingly popular towards the end of period.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially the industrial revolution increased working hours, but over the course of the 19th century a variety of political and economic changes caused them to fall back down to and in some cases below pre-industrial levels, creating more time for leisure.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 159.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 157.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NiddMuseum1_Victorian_Parlour.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Recreation of a Victorian parlour at Nidderdale Museum, Yorkshire"><img alt="Recreation of a Victorian parlour at Nidderdale Museum, Yorkshire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/NiddMuseum1_Victorian_Parlour.jpg/236px-NiddMuseum1_Victorian_Parlour.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/NiddMuseum1_Victorian_Parlour.jpg/354px-NiddMuseum1_Victorian_Parlour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/NiddMuseum1_Victorian_Parlour.jpg/472px-NiddMuseum1_Victorian_Parlour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3147" data-file-height="2400" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Recreation of a Victorian <a href="/wiki/Parlour" title="Parlour">parlour</a> at <a href="/wiki/Nidderdale_Museum" title="Nidderdale Museum">Nidderdale Museum</a>, Yorkshire</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 167.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 165.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Halfpenny_dinners_for_poor_children_in_East_London._Wellcome_L0001135.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cheap meals for poor children in East London (1870)"><img alt="Cheap meals for poor children in East London (1870)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Halfpenny_dinners_for_poor_children_in_East_London._Wellcome_L0001135.jpg/248px-Halfpenny_dinners_for_poor_children_in_East_London._Wellcome_L0001135.jpg" decoding="async" width="166" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Halfpenny_dinners_for_poor_children_in_East_London._Wellcome_L0001135.jpg/372px-Halfpenny_dinners_for_poor_children_in_East_London._Wellcome_L0001135.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Halfpenny_dinners_for_poor_children_in_East_London._Wellcome_L0001135.jpg/496px-Halfpenny_dinners_for_poor_children_in_East_London._Wellcome_L0001135.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3860" data-file-height="2804" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cheap meals for poor children in <a href="/wiki/East_London" title="East London">East London</a> (1870)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 153.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 151.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Leisure_Hour._1855._George-Hardy.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Leisure Hours (1855), depiction of a man resting by George Hardy"><img alt="Leisure Hours (1855), depiction of a man resting by George Hardy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/The_Leisure_Hour._1855._George-Hardy.jpg/227px-The_Leisure_Hour._1855._George-Hardy.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/The_Leisure_Hour._1855._George-Hardy.jpg/341px-The_Leisure_Hour._1855._George-Hardy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/The_Leisure_Hour._1855._George-Hardy.jpg/455px-The_Leisure_Hour._1855._George-Hardy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="950" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Leisure Hours</i> (1855), depiction of a man resting by <a href="/wiki/George_Hardy_(artist)" title="George Hardy (artist)">George Hardy</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy,_industry,_and_trade"><span id="Economy.2C_industry.2C_and_trade"></span>Economy, industry, and trade</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Economy,_industry,_and_trade_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Economy, industry, and trade of the Victorian era">Economy, industry, and trade of the Victorian era</a>; <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Small_Arms_Factory_in_Enfield_-_ILN_1861.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Royal_Small_Arms_Factory_in_Enfield_-_ILN_1861.jpg/220px-Royal_Small_Arms_Factory_in_Enfield_-_ILN_1861.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Royal_Small_Arms_Factory_in_Enfield_-_ILN_1861.jpg/330px-Royal_Small_Arms_Factory_in_Enfield_-_ILN_1861.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Royal_Small_Arms_Factory_in_Enfield_-_ILN_1861.jpg/440px-Royal_Small_Arms_Factory_in_Enfield_-_ILN_1861.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2944" data-file-height="2076" /></a><figcaption>Illustrations of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Small_Arms_Factory" title="Royal Small Arms Factory">Royal Small Arms Factory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enfield,_London" title="Enfield, London">Enfield</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Illustrated_London_News" title="The Illustrated London News">The Illustrated London News</a></i> (1861)</figcaption></figure> <p>Before the Industrial Revolution, daily life had changed little for hundreds of years. The 19th century saw rapid technological development with a wide range of new inventions. This led Great Britain to become the foremost industrial and trading nation of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-Atterbury-2011_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atterbury-2011-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era (1850–1870) as Britain's 'Golden Years',<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hobsbawn-1995_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hobsbawn-1995-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with <a href="/wiki/National_income" class="mw-redirect" title="National income">national income</a> per person increasing by half. This prosperity was driven by increased industrialisation, especially in textiles and machinery, along with exports to the empire and elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-F_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The positive economic conditions, as well as a fashion among employers for providing welfare services to their workers, led to relative social stability.<sup id="cite_ref-F_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Porter_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Chartism" title="Chartism">Chartist</a> movement for working-class men to be given the right to vote, which had been prominent in the early Victorian period, dissipated.<sup id="cite_ref-F_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Government involvement in the economy was limited.<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only in the <a href="/wiki/Postwar_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" class="mw-redirect" title="Postwar Britain (1945–1979)">post-World War II period</a>, around a century later, did the country experience substantial economic growth again.<sup id="cite_ref-Hobsbawn-1995_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hobsbawn-1995-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But whilst industry was well developed, education and the arts were mediocre.<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_80-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wage rates continued to improve in the later 19th century: real wages (after taking inflation into account) were 65 per cent higher in 1901 compared to 1871. Much of the money was saved, as the number of depositors in savings banks rose from 430,000 in 1831 to 5.2 million in 1887, and their deposits from £14 million to over £90 million.<sup id="cite_ref-J_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Child_labour">Child labour</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coaltub.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Coaltub.png/220px-Coaltub.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Coaltub.png 1.5x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="171" /></a><figcaption>This illustration of a child <i>drawer</i> (a type of <a href="/wiki/Hurrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurrier">hurrier</a>) pulling a coal tub was originally published in the Children's Employment Commission (Mines) 1842 report.</figcaption></figure> <p>Children had always played a role in economic life but <a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">exploitation of their labour</a> became especially intense during the Victorian era. Children were put to work in a wide range of occupations, but particularly associated with this period are factories. Employing children had advantages, as they were cheap, had limited ability to resist harsh working conditions, and could enter spaces too small for adults. Some accounts exist of happy upbringings involving child labour, but conditions were generally poor. Pay was low, punishments severe, work was dangerous and disrupted children's development (often leaving them too tired to play even in their free time). Early labour could do lifelong harm; even in the 1960s and '70s, the elderly people of industrial towns were noted for their often unusually short stature, deformed physiques, and diseases associated with unhealthy working conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reformers wanted the children in school; in 1840 only about 20 per cent of the children in London had any schooling.<sup id="cite_ref-cody_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cody-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 1850s, around half of the children in England and Wales were in school (not including <a href="/wiki/Sunday_school" title="Sunday school">Sunday school</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Lloyd-2007_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lloyd-2007-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the 1833 Factory Act onwards, attempts were made to get child labourers into part time education, though this was often difficult to achieve.<sup id="cite_ref-May-1994_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-May-1994-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only in the 1870s and 1880s did children begin to be compelled into school.<sup id="cite_ref-Lloyd-2007_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lloyd-2007-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Work continued to inhibit children's schooling into the early 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Housing_and_public_health">Housing and public health</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Economy,_industry,_and_trade_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Economy, industry, and trade of the Victorian era">Economy, industry, and trade of the Victorian era</a>; <a href="/wiki/Mathematics,_science,_technology_and_engineering_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Mathematics, science, technology and engineering of the Victorian era">Mathematics, science, technology and engineering of the Victorian era</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Demographics of the Victorian era">Demographics of the Victorian era</a></div> <p>19th-century Britain saw a huge population increase accompanied by rapid urbanisation stimulated by the Industrial Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-J2_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J2-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/1901_United_Kingdom_census" title="1901 United Kingdom census">1901 census</a>, more than three out of every four people were classified as living in an urban area, compared to one in five a century earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Richard A. Soloway wrote that "Great Britain had become the most urbanized country in the West."<sup id="cite_ref-:02_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rapid growth in the urban population included the new industrial and manufacturing cities, as well as service centres such as <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a> and London.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure. P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overcrowding was a major problem with seven or eight people frequently sleeping in a single room. Until at least the 1880s, sanitation was inadequate in areas such as water supply and disposal of sewage. This all had a negative effect on health, especially that of the impoverished young. For instance, of the babies born in <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a> in 1851, only 45 per cent survived to age 20.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It had been hoped that there would be a rapid improvement following the Public Baths and Wash-houses Act 1846. This was the first legislation to empower local authorities in England and Wales to fund the building of <a href="/wiki/Baths_and_wash_houses_in_Britain" title="Baths and wash houses in Britain">public baths and wash houses</a> but, since the act was only permissive rather than mandatory, improvement was slow.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conditions were particularly bad in London, where the population rose sharply and poorly maintained, overcrowded dwellings became slum housing. <a href="/wiki/Kellow_Chesney" title="Kellow Chesney">Kellow Chesney</a> wrote of the situation:<sup id="cite_ref-dan2_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dan2-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Hideous slums, some of them acres wide, some no more than crannies of obscure misery, make up a substantial part of the metropolis... In big, once handsome houses, thirty or more people of all ages may inhabit a single room</p></blockquote> <p>Hunger and poor diet was a common aspect of life across the UK in the Victorian period, especially in the 1840s, but the mass starvation seen in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine</a> in Ireland was unique.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Levels of poverty fell significantly during the 19th century from as much as two thirds of the population in 1800 to less than a third by 1901. However, 1890s studies suggested that almost 10% of the urban population lived in a state of desperation lacking the food necessary to maintain basic physical functions. Attitudes towards the poor were often unsympathetic and they were frequently blamed for their situation. In that spirit, the <a href="/wiki/Poor_Law_Amendment_Act_1834" title="Poor Law Amendment Act 1834">Poor Law Amendment Act 1834</a> had been deliberately designed to punish them and would remain the basis for welfare provision into the 20th century. While many people were prone to vices, not least alcoholism, historian Bernard A. Cook argues that the main reason for 19th century poverty was that typical wages for much of the population were simply too low. Barely enough to provide a subsistence living in good times, let alone save up for bad.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_91-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Improvements were made over time to housing along with the management of sewage and water eventually giving the UK the most advanced system of public health protection anywhere in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson-201152_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson-201152-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The quality and safety of household lighting improved over the period with <a href="/wiki/Oil_lamp" title="Oil lamp">oil lamps</a> becoming the norm in the early 1860s, <a href="/wiki/Gas_lighting" title="Gas lighting">gas lighting</a> in the 1890s and <a href="/wiki/Electric_light" title="Electric light">electric lights</a> beginning to appear in the homes of the richest by the end of the period.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medicine advanced rapidly during the 19th century and <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory</a> was developed for the first time. Doctors became more specialised and the number of hospitals grew.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson-201152_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson-201152-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The overall number of deaths fell by about 20%. The life expectancy of women increased from around 42 to 55 and 40 to 56 for men.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:02_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In spite of this, the <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">mortality rate</a> fell only marginally, from 20.8 per thousand in 1850 to 18.2 by the end of the century. Urbanisation aided the spread of diseases and squalid living conditions in many places exacerbated the problem.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson-201152_95-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson-201152-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The population of England, Scotland and Wales grew rapidly during the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various factors are considered contributary to this, including a rising <a href="/wiki/Total_fertility_rate" title="Total fertility rate">fertility rate</a> (though it was falling by the end of the period),<sup id="cite_ref-:02_88-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the lack of a catastrophic pandemic or famine in the island of Great Britain during the 19th century for the first time in history,<sup id="cite_ref-victorian_mortality22_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-victorian_mortality22-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> improved nutrition,<sup id="cite_ref-victorian_mortality22_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-victorian_mortality22-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a lower overall mortality rate.<sup id="cite_ref-victorian_mortality22_99-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-victorian_mortality22-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ireland's population shrank significantly, mostly due to emigration and the Great Famine.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 158px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 156px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Slum_in_Glasgow,_1871.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Slum area in Glasgow (1871)"><img alt="Slum area in Glasgow (1871)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Slum_in_Glasgow%2C_1871.jpg/234px-Slum_in_Glasgow%2C_1871.jpg" decoding="async" width="156" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Slum_in_Glasgow%2C_1871.jpg/351px-Slum_in_Glasgow%2C_1871.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Slum_in_Glasgow%2C_1871.jpg 2x" data-file-width="368" data-file-height="472" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Slum area in <a href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a> (1871)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Llanfyllin_Workhouse_-_geograph.org.uk_-_3098623.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Buildings originally built as Llanfyllin workhouse, a state-funded home for the destitute which operated from 1838 to 1930.[94][95]"><img alt="Buildings originally built as Llanfyllin workhouse, a state-funded home for the destitute which operated from 1838 to 1930.[94][95]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Llanfyllin_Workhouse_-_geograph.org.uk_-_3098623.jpg/400px-Llanfyllin_Workhouse_-_geograph.org.uk_-_3098623.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Llanfyllin_Workhouse_-_geograph.org.uk_-_3098623.jpg/600px-Llanfyllin_Workhouse_-_geograph.org.uk_-_3098623.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Llanfyllin_Workhouse_-_geograph.org.uk_-_3098623.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Buildings originally built as <a href="/wiki/Llanfyllin" title="Llanfyllin">Llanfyllin</a> <a href="/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse">workhouse</a>, a state-funded home for the destitute which operated from 1838 to 1930.<sup id="cite_ref-Llanfyllin,_Montgomeryshire_-_Workhouse_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Llanfyllin,_Montgomeryshire_-_Workhouse-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-A_Victorian_prison_for_the_poor_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A_Victorian_prison_for_the_poor-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 184.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 182.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:-Vignetted_portrait,_woman_holding_a_baby-_MET_DP113912.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Photograph of a mother and baby by Alfred Capel-Cure (c. 1850s or 60s)"><img alt="Photograph of a mother and baby by Alfred Capel-Cure (c. 1850s or 60s)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/-Vignetted_portrait%2C_woman_holding_a_baby-_MET_DP113912.jpg/274px--Vignetted_portrait%2C_woman_holding_a_baby-_MET_DP113912.jpg" decoding="async" width="183" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/-Vignetted_portrait%2C_woman_holding_a_baby-_MET_DP113912.jpg/411px--Vignetted_portrait%2C_woman_holding_a_baby-_MET_DP113912.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/-Vignetted_portrait%2C_woman_holding_a_baby-_MET_DP113912.jpg/548px--Vignetted_portrait%2C_woman_holding_a_baby-_MET_DP113912.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2720" data-file-height="2977" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Photograph of a mother and baby by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Capel-Cure" title="Alfred Capel-Cure">Alfred Capel-Cure</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1850s or 60s</span>)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Knowledge">Knowledge</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science">Science</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mathematics,_science,_technology_and_engineering_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Mathematics, science, technology and engineering of the Victorian era">Mathematics, science, technology and engineering of the Victorian era</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Faraday_Michael_Christmas_lecture_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Faraday_Michael_Christmas_lecture_detail.jpg/220px-Faraday_Michael_Christmas_lecture_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Faraday_Michael_Christmas_lecture_detail.jpg/330px-Faraday_Michael_Christmas_lecture_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Faraday_Michael_Christmas_lecture_detail.jpg/440px-Faraday_Michael_Christmas_lecture_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="915" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> delivering a <a href="/wiki/Royal_Institution_Christmas_Lectures" title="Royal Institution Christmas Lectures">Christmas Lecture at the Royal Institution</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1855</span>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The professionalisation of scientific study began in parts of Europe following the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> but was slow to reach Britain. <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> coined the term 'scientist' in 1833 to refer to those who studied what was generally then known as natural philosophy, but it took a while to catch on. Having been previously dominated by amateurs with a separate income, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> admitted only professionals from 1847 onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British biologist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Henry Huxley</a> indicated in 1852 that it remained difficult to earn a living as a scientist alone.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis-200732_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-200732-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientific knowledge and debates such as that about <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i> (1859), which sought to explain biological evolution by natural selection, gained a high profile in the public consciousness. Simplified (and at times inaccurate) <a href="/wiki/Popular_science" title="Popular science">popular science</a> was increasingly distributed through a variety of publications which caused tension with the professionals.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were significant advances in various fields of research, including <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Katz-2009a_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Katz-2009a-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Elasticity_(physics)" title="Elasticity (physics)">elasticity</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">refrigeration</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis-2007-1_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-2007-1-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis-200732_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-200732-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Baigrie-2007a_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baigrie-2007a-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industry">Industry</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Victorian_Railways_F_Class.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Victorian_Railways_F_Class.jpg/220px-Victorian_Railways_F_Class.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Victorian_Railways_F_Class.jpg/330px-Victorian_Railways_F_Class.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Victorian_Railways_F_Class.jpg/440px-Victorian_Railways_F_Class.jpg 2x" data-file-width="829" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>A railway crew (1873)</figcaption></figure><p>Known as the 'workshop of the world', Britain was uniquely advanced in technology in the mid-19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Engineering, having developed into a profession in the 18th century, gained new profile and prestige in this period.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Victorian era saw methods of communication and transportation develop significantly. In 1837, <a href="/wiki/William_Fothergill_Cooke" title="William Fothergill Cooke">William Fothergill Cooke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a> invented the first <a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegraph system</a>. This system, which used electrical currents to transmit coded messages, quickly spread across Britain, appearing in every town and post office. A worldwide network developed towards the end of the century. In 1876, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">an American</a> patented the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">telephone</a>. A little over a decade later, 26,000 telephones were in service in Britain. Multiple switchboards were installed in every major town and city.<sup id="cite_ref-Atterbury-2011_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atterbury-2011-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> developed early radio broadcasting at the end of the period.<sup id="cite_ref-Baigrie-2007b_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baigrie-2007b-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The railways were important economically in the Victorian era, allowing goods, raw materials, and people to be moved around, stimulating trade and industry. They were also a major employer and industry in their own right.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Moral_standards">Moral standards</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Victorian_morality" title="Victorian morality">Victorian morality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Victorian_era" title="Women in the Victorian era">Women in the Victorian era</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:If_we_lift_our_skirts_they_level_their_eye-glasses_at_our_ankles.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/If_we_lift_our_skirts_they_level_their_eye-glasses_at_our_ankles.png/220px-If_we_lift_our_skirts_they_level_their_eye-glasses_at_our_ankles.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/If_we_lift_our_skirts_they_level_their_eye-glasses_at_our_ankles.png/330px-If_we_lift_our_skirts_they_level_their_eye-glasses_at_our_ankles.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/If_we_lift_our_skirts_they_level_their_eye-glasses_at_our_ankles.png/440px-If_we_lift_our_skirts_they_level_their_eye-glasses_at_our_ankles.png 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2449" /></a><figcaption><i>If we lift our skirts they level their eye-glasses at our ankles</i> (1854), cartoon suggesting that men saw women lifting their dresses as a titillating opportunity to see some of their body shape.</figcaption></figure> <p>Expected standards of personal conduct changed in around the first half of the 19th century, with good manners and self-restraint becoming much more common.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians have suggested various contributing factors, such as Britain's <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">major conflicts with France</a> during the early 19th century, meaning that the distracting temptations of sinful behaviour had to be avoided in order to focus on the war effort, and the evangelical movement's push for moral improvement.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is evidence that the expected standards of moral behaviour were reflected in action as well as rhetoric across all classes of society.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, an analysis suggested that less than 5% of working class couples cohabited before marriage.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Harold_Perkin" title="Harold Perkin">Harold Perkin</a> argued that the change in moral standards led by the middle of the 19th century to 'diminished cruelty to animals, criminals, lunatics, and children (in that order)'.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legal restrictions were placed on cruelty to animals.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rep_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rep-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Restrictions were placed on the working hours of child labourers in the 1830s and 1840s.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further interventions took place throughout the century to increase the level of child protection.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Use of the <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Capital punishment in the United Kingdom">death penalty</a> also decreased.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_113-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crime rates fell significantly in the second half of the 19th century. Sociologist <a href="/wiki/Christie_Davies" title="Christie Davies">Christie Davies</a> linked this change to attempts to morally educate the population, especially at <a href="/wiki/Sunday_school" title="Sunday school">Sunday schools</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_behavior">Sexual behavior</h3></div> <p>Contrary to popular belief, Victorian society understood that both men and women enjoyed <a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">copulation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-draznin2001_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-draznin2001-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chastity was expected of women, whilst attitudes to male sexual behaviour were more relaxed.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The development of police forces led to a rise in prosecutions for illegal <a href="/wiki/Sodomy" title="Sodomy">sodomy</a> in the middle of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Male sexuality became a favourite subject of medical researchers' study.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the first time, all male homosexual acts were outlawed.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Concern about sexual exploitation of adolescent girls increased during the period, especially following the <a href="/wiki/The_Maiden_Tribute_of_Modern_Babylon" title="The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon">white slavery scandal</a>, which contributed to the increasing of the age of consent <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Law_Amendment_Act_1885" title="Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885">from 13 to 16</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At a time when job options for women were limited and generally low-paying, some women, particularly those without familial support, took to prostitution to support themselves. Attitudes in public life and among the general population to prostitution varied. Evidence about prostitutes' situation also varies. One contemporary study argues that the trade was a short-term stepping stone to a different lifestyle for many women, while another, more recent study argues they were subject to physical abuse, financial exploitation, state persecution, and difficult working conditions. Due to worries about <a href="/wiki/Venereal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Venereal disease">venereal disease</a>, especially among soldiers, women suspected of prostitution were for a period between the 1860s and 1880s subject to spot compulsory examinations for <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted infections">sexually transmitted infections</a>, and detainment if they were found to be infected. This caused a great deal of resentment among women in general due to the principle underlying the checks, that women had to be controlled in order to be safe for sexual use by men, and the checks were opposed by some of the earliest feminist campaigning.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/19th-century_London" title="19th-century London">19th-century London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_and_diplomatic_history_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Political and diplomatic history of the Victorian era">Political and diplomatic history of the Victorian era </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_and_culture_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Society and culture of the Victorian era">Society and culture of the Victorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_in_the_Victorian_era" title="Theatre in the Victorian era">Theatre in the Victorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_burlesque" title="Victorian burlesque">Victorian burlesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_erotica" title="Victorian erotica">Victorian erotica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_fashion" title="Victorian fashion">Victorian fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_house" title="Victorian house">Victorian house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_jewellery" title="Victorian jewellery">Victorian jewellery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_masculinity" title="Victorian masculinity">Victorian masculinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_painting" title="Victorian painting">Victorian painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_Turkish_baths" title="Victorian Turkish baths">Victorian Turkish baths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Victorian_era" title="Women in the Victorian era">Women in the Victorian era</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This is the term used for the period covered by Patrick Leary's international academic mailing-list <i>VICTORIA 19th-century British culture & society</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A Scottish Reform Act and Irish Reform Act were passed separately.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A Scottish Reform Act and Irish Reform Act were passed separately.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_(Ireland)_Act_1868" title="Representation of the People (Ireland) Act 1868">Representation of the People (Ireland) Act 1868</a> and <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_(Scotland)_Act_1868" title="Representation of the People (Scotland) Act 1868">Representation of the People (Scotland) Act 1868</a> for equivalent reforms made in those jurisdictions</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Avoiding addictions such as <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcoholism</a> and excessive <a href="/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling">gambling</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">They were a clear majority in Wales. Scotland and Ireland had separate religious cultures.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">These life expectancy figures are rounded to the nearest whole.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlunkett20122-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlunkett20122_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlunkett2012">Plunkett 2012</a>, p. 2.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFPlunkett2012 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hewitt20062-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hewitt20062_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHewitt2006" class="citation journal cs1">Hewitt, Martin (Spring 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/article/204106">"Why the Notion of Victorian Britain Does Make Sense"</a>. <i>Victorian Studies</i>. <b>48</b> (3): 395–438. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2979%2FVIC.2006.48.3.395">10.2979/VIC.2006.48.3.395</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0042-5222">0042-5222</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143482564">143482564</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171030004144/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/204106">Archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Victorian+Studies&rft.atitle=Why+the+Notion+of+Victorian+Britain+Does+Make+Sense&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=395-438&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143482564%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0042-5222&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2979%2FVIC.2006.48.3.395&rft.aulast=Hewitt&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F204106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadleir1945" class="citation book cs1">Sadleir, Michael (1945). <i>Trollope</i>. p. 17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trollope&rft.pages=17&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Sadleir&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadleir1945" class="citation book cs1">Sadleir, Michael (1945). <i>Trollope</i>. pp. 18–19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trollope&rft.pages=18-19&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Sadleir&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadleir1945" class="citation book cs1">Sadleir, Michael (1945). <i>Trollope</i>. pp. 13 and 32.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trollope&rft.pages=13+and+32&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Sadleir&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael1945" class="citation book cs1">Michael, Sadleir (1945). <i>Trollope</i>. pp. 25–30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trollope&rft.pages=25-30&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Michael&rft.aufirst=Sadleir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrevelyan1926" class="citation book cs1">Trevelyan, George Macaulay (1926). <i>History of England</i>. Longmans, Green and Co. p. 650. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/433219629">433219629</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+England&rft.pages=650&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green+and+Co&rft.date=1926&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F433219629&rft.aulast=Trevelyan&rft.aufirst=George+Macaulay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-greenhavenpress2-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-greenhavenpress2_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwisher2000" class="citation book cs1">Swisher, Clarice (2000). <i>Victorian England</i>. 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(30 & 31 Vict. C. 102.): With Appendices Concerning the Antient Rights, the Rights Conferred by the 2 & 3 Will. IV C. 45, Population, Rental, Rating, and the Operation of the Repealed Enactments as to Compound Householders</i></a>. W. Ridgway. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230511230919/https://books.google.com/books?id=OrEDAAAAQAAJ&dq=passed+parliament+date+%22The+Representation+of+the+People+Act+1867,+30+&+31+Vict.+c.+102%22&pg=PA169">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Notes+Upon+%22the+Representation+of+the+People+Act%2C+%271867.%27%22+%2830+%26+31+Vict.+C.+102.%29%3A+With+Appendices+Concerning+the+Antient+Rights%2C+the+Rights+Conferred+by+the+2+%26+3+Will.+IV+C.+45%2C+Population%2C+Rental%2C+Rating%2C+and+the+Operation+of+the+Repealed+Enactments+as+to+Compound+Householders&rft.pub=W.+Ridgway&rft.date=1867&rft.aulast=Anstey&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Chisholm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOrEDAAAAQAAJ%26dq%3Dpassed%2Bparliament%2Bdate%2B%2522The%2BRepresentation%2Bof%2Bthe%2BPeople%2BAct%2B1867%2C%2B30%2B%26pg%3DPA169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinzer2011" class="citation book cs1">Kinzer, Bruce L (2011). 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Routledge. pp. 253–255. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415669726" title="Special:BookSources/9780415669726"><bdi>9780415669726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Elections+and+the+Franchise&rft.btitle=Victorian+Britain+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=253-255&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780415669726&rft.aulast=Kinzer&rft.aufirst=Bruce+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NatGeo-20072-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NatGeo-20072_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NatGeo-20072_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NatGeo-20072_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Geographic2007" class="citation book cs1">National Geographic (2007). <i>Essential Visual History of the World</i>. National Geographic Society. pp. 290–292. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4262-0091-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4262-0091-5"><bdi>978-1-4262-0091-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essential+Visual+History+of+the+World&rft.pages=290-292&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Society&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4262-0091-5&rft.au=National+Geographic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kinealyxv2-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kinealyxv2_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinealy1994" class="citation book cs1">Kinealy, Christine (1994). <i>This Great Calamity</i>. Gill & Macmillan. p. xv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781570981401" title="Special:BookSources/9781570981401"><bdi>9781570981401</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=This+Great+Calamity&rft.pages=xv&rft.pub=Gill+%26+Macmillan&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9781570981401&rft.aulast=Kinealy&rft.aufirst=Christine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLusztig1995" class="citation journal cs1">Lusztig, Michael (July 1995). "Solving Peel's Puzzle: Repeal of the Corn Laws and Institutional Preservation". <i>Comparative Politics</i>. <b>27</b> (4): 393–408. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F422226">10.2307/422226</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/422226">422226</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Politics&rft.atitle=Solving+Peel%27s+Puzzle%3A+Repeal+of+the+Corn+Laws+and+Institutional+Preservation&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=393-408&rft.date=1995-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F422226&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F422226%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Lusztig&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rose-194022-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rose-194022_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rose-194022_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rose-194022_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rose-194022_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rose-194022_18-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLivingston_Schuyler1941" class="citation journal cs1">Livingston Schuyler, Robert (September 1941). "The Cambridge History of the British Empire. Volume II: The Growth of the New Empire, 1783-1870". <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>. <b>56</b> (3): 449. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2143685">10.2307/2143685</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0032-3195">0032-3195</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2143685">2143685</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Science+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+British+Empire.+Volume+II%3A+The+Growth+of+the+New+Empire%2C+1783-1870&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=449&rft.date=1941-09&rft.issn=0032-3195&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2143685%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2143685&rft.aulast=Livingston+Schuyler&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Benians-19592-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Benians-19592_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benians-19592_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benians-19592_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benians-19592_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenians1959" class="citation book cs1">Benians, E. A. (1959). <i>The Cambridge History of the British Empire Vol. iii: The Empire – Commonwealth 1870–1919</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521045124" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521045124"><bdi>978-0521045124</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+British+Empire+Vol.+iii%3A+The+Empire+%E2%80%93+Commonwealth+1870%E2%80%931919&rft.pages=1-16&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=978-0521045124&rft.aulast=Benians&rft.aufirst=E.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandiford2011" class="citation book cs1">Sandiford, Keith A. (2011). "Foreign relations". In Mitchell, Sally (ed.). <i>Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia</i>. Routledge. pp. 307–309. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415669726" title="Special:BookSources/9780415669726"><bdi>9780415669726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Foreign+relations&rft.btitle=Victorian+Britain+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=307-309&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780415669726&rft.aulast=Sandiford&rft.aufirst=Keith+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolland1940" class="citation book cs1">Holland, Rose, John (1940). <i>The Cambridge history of the British empire: volume II: the growth of the new empire, 1783-1870</i>. pp. x–vi. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/81942369">81942369</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+history+of+the+British+empire%3A+volume+II%3A+the+growth+of+the+new+empire%2C+1783-1870&rft.pages=x-vi&rft.date=1940&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F81942369&rft.aulast=Holland&rft.aufirst=Rose%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-taylor60-612-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-taylor60-612_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1954" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, A. J. P. (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.13016"><i>The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918</i></a>. Mumbai: Oxford University Press. pp. 60–61.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Struggle+for+Mastery+in+Europe%3A+1848%E2%80%931918&rft.place=Mumbai&rft.pages=60-61&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=A.+J.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdli.bengal.10689.13016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-swisher248-502-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-swisher248-502_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-swisher248-502_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-swisher248-502_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwisher2000" class="citation book cs1">Swisher, Clarice (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/victorianengland00swis/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>Victorian England</i></a>. Greenhaven Press. pp. 248–250. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780737702217" title="Special:BookSources/9780737702217"><bdi>9780737702217</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Victorian+England&rft.pages=248-250&rft.pub=Greenhaven+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780737702217&rft.aulast=Swisher&rft.aufirst=Clarice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvictorianengland00swis%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC_Teach2-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BBC_Teach2_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BBC_Teach2_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/ks3-gcse-history-queen-victoria-monarchy/z73rnrd">"Queen Victoria: The woman who redefined Britain's monarchy"</a>. <i>BBC Teach</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201127013659/https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/ks3-gcse-history-queen-victoria-monarchy/z73rnrd">Archived</a> from the original on 27 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+Teach&rft.atitle=Queen+Victoria%3A+The+woman+who+redefined+Britain%27s+monarchy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fteach%2Fks3-gcse-history-queen-victoria-monarchy%2Fz73rnrd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-houghton12-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-houghton12_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-houghton12_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoughton2008" class="citation book cs1">Houghton, Walter E. (2008). <i>The Victorian Frame of Mind</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12987%2F9780300194289">10.12987/9780300194289</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300194289" title="Special:BookSources/9780300194289"><bdi>9780300194289</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246119772">246119772</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Victorian+Frame+of+Mind&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A246119772%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12987%2F9780300194289&rft.isbn=9780300194289&rft.aulast=Houghton&rft.aufirst=Walter+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-On_the_interactions_of_evangelicalism_and_utilitarianism_see_Élie_Halévy2-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-On_the_interactions_of_evangelicalism_and_utilitarianism_see_Élie_Halévy2_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-On_the_interactions_of_evangelicalism_and_utilitarianism_see_Élie_Halévy2_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalévy1924" class="citation book cs1">Halévy, Élie (1924). <i>A history of the English people ..</i>. T. F. Unwin. pp. 585–595. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1295721374">1295721374</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+the+English+people+...&rft.pages=585-595&rft.pub=T.+F.+Unwin&rft.date=1924&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1295721374&rft.aulast=Hal%C3%A9vy&rft.aufirst=%C3%89lie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wohl-19782-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wohl-19782_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wohl-19782_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wohl-19782_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWohl1978" class="citation book cs1">Wohl, Anthony S. (1978). <i>The Victorian family: structure and stresses</i>. London: Croom Helm. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780856644382" title="Special:BookSources/9780856644382"><bdi>9780856644382</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Victorian+family%3A+structure+and+stresses&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Croom+Helm&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=9780856644382&rft.aulast=Wohl&rft.aufirst=Anthony+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span><br /><br />: <i>Cited in</i>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kate_Summerscale" title="Kate Summerscale">Summerscale, Kate</a> (2008). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780747582151"><i>The suspicions of Mr. Whicher or the murder at Road Hill House</i></a></span>. London: Bloomsbury. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780747582151/page/109">109–110</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780747596486" title="Special:BookSources/9780747596486"><bdi>9780747596486</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+suspicions+of+Mr.+Whicher+or+the+murder+at+Road+Hill+House&rft.place=London&rft.pages=109-110&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780747596486&rft.aulast=Summerscale&rft.aufirst=Kate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780747582151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span> (novel)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-K2-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-K2_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-K2_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTheodore.2000" class="citation book cs1">Theodore., Hoppen, K. (30 June 2000). <i>The Mid-Victorian Generation 1846-1886</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 316. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-254397-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-254397-4"><bdi>978-0-19-254397-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1016061494">1016061494</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mid-Victorian+Generation+1846-1886&rft.pages=316&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000-06-30&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1016061494&rft.isbn=978-0-19-254397-4&rft.aulast=Theodore.&rft.aufirst=Hoppen%2C+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boston-20192-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Boston-20192_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoston2019" class="citation web cs1">Boston, Michelle (12 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dornsife.usc.edu/news/stories/2948/five-victorian-paintings-break-tradition/">"Five Victorian paintings that break tradition in their celebration of love"</a>. <i>USC Dornsife</i>. University of Southern California. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210210193513/https://dornsife.usc.edu/news/stories/2948/five-victorian-paintings-break-tradition/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USC+Dornsife&rft.atitle=Five+Victorian+paintings+that+break+tradition+in+their+celebration+of+love&rft.date=2019-02-12&rft.aulast=Boston&rft.aufirst=Michelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdornsife.usc.edu%2Fnews%2Fstories%2F2948%2Ffive-victorian-paintings-break-tradition%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobyn_Ryle2012" class="citation book cs1">Robyn Ryle (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CHHz_p-j9hMC&pg=PA342"><i>Questioning gender: a sociological exploration</i></a>. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE/Pine Forge Press. pp. 342–343. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6594-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6594-1"><bdi>978-1-4129-6594-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Questioning+gender%3A+a+sociological+exploration&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+Calif.&rft.pages=342-343&rft.pub=SAGE%2FPine+Forge+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-6594-1&rft.au=Robyn+Ryle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCHHz_p-j9hMC%26pg%3DPA342&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Susan_Rubinow_Gorsky2-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Susan_Rubinow_Gorsky2_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Susan_Rubinow_Gorsky2_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubinow.1992" class="citation book cs1">Rubinow., Gorsky, Susan (1992). <i>Femininity to feminism: women and literature in the Nineteenth century</i>. 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Elizabeth (2004). 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University of Cambridge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210520183852/https://www.gale.com/binaries/content/assets/gale-us-en/primary-sources/intl-gps/intl-gps-essays/full-ghn-contextual-essays/ghn_essay_bln_lloyd3_website.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 20 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=victorianweb.org&rft.atitle=Child+Labor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvictorianweb.org%2Fhistory%2Fhist8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lloyd-2007-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lloyd-2007_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lloyd-2007_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd2007" class="citation web cs1">Lloyd, Amy (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gale.com/binaries/content/assets/gale-us-en/primary-sources/intl-gps/intl-gps-essays/full-ghn-contextual-essays/ghn_essay_bln_lloyd3_website.pdf">"Education, Literacy and the Reading Public"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. University of Cambridge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210520183852/https://www.gale.com/binaries/content/assets/gale-us-en/primary-sources/intl-gps/intl-gps-essays/full-ghn-contextual-essays/ghn_essay_bln_lloyd3_website.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 20 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Education%2C+Literacy+and+the+Reading+Public&rft.pub=University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gale.com%2Fbinaries%2Fcontent%2Fassets%2Fgale-us-en%2Fprimary-sources%2Fintl-gps%2Fintl-gps-essays%2Ffull-ghn-contextual-essays%2Fghn_essay_bln_lloyd3_website.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-May-1994-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-May-1994_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMay1994" class="citation book cs1">May, Trevor (1994). <i>The Victorian Schoolroom</i>. 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(2011). "Poverty". In Mitchell, Sally (ed.). <i>Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia</i>. Routledge. pp. 622–625. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415669726" title="Special:BookSources/9780415669726"><bdi>9780415669726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poverty&rft.btitle=Victorian+Britain+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=622-625&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780415669726&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Bernard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Metcalfe, Richard. (1877) <i>Sanitas sanitatum et omnia sanitas.</i> Vol.1 (All published) London: Co-operative Printing Co.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dan2-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dan2_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hiddenlives.org.uk/articles/poverty.html">"Poverty and Families in the Victorian Era"</a>. <i>www.hiddenlives.org.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081206083852/http://www.hiddenlives.org.uk/articles/poverty.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 December 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hiddenlives.org.uk&rft.atitle=Poverty+and+Families+in+the+Victorian+Era&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hiddenlives.org.uk%2Farticles%2Fpoverty.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman2013" class="citation book cs1">Goodman, Ruth (2013). "Chapter 6: Breakfast: Hunger". <i>How to be a Victorian</i>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-95834-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-241-95834-6"><bdi>978-0-241-95834-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Breakfast%3A+Hunger&rft.btitle=How+to+be+a+Victorian&rft.pub=Penguin.&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-241-95834-6&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robinson-201152-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson-201152_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson-201152_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson-201152_95-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2011" class="citation web cs1">Robinson, Bruce (17 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/victorian_medicine_01.shtml">"Victorian Medicine – From Fluke to Theory"</a>. <i>BBC History</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201108110941/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/victorian_medicine_01.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+History&rft.atitle=Victorian+Medicine+%E2%80%93+From+Fluke+to+Theory&rft.date=2011-02-17&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fbritish%2Fvictorians%2Fvictorian_medicine_01.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoomis2011" class="citation book cs1">Loomis, Abigail A. (2011). "Lighting". In Mitchell, Sally (ed.). <i>Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia</i>. Routledge. pp. 452–453. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415669726" title="Special:BookSources/9780415669726"><bdi>9780415669726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lighting&rft.btitle=Victorian+Britain+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=452-453&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780415669726&rft.aulast=Loomis&rft.aufirst=Abigail+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJefferies2005" class="citation web cs1">Jefferies, Julie (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20060215211500/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_compendia/fom2005/01_FOPM_Population.pdf">"The UK population: past, present and future"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk</i>. pp. 3 to 4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230429012738/https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20060215211500/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_compendia/fom2005/01_FOPM_Population.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 29 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk&rft.atitle=The+UK+population%3A+past%2C+present+and+future&rft.pages=3+to+4&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Jefferies&rft.aufirst=Julie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwebarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk%2Fukgwa%2F20060215211500%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.statistics.gov.uk%2Fdownloads%2Ftheme_compendia%2Ffom2005%2F01_FOPM_Population.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-victorian_mortality22-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-victorian_mortality22_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-victorian_mortality22_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-victorian_mortality22_99-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzreter1988" class="citation journal cs1">Szreter, Simon (1988). "The importance of social intervention in Britain's mortality decline c.1850–1914: A re-interpretation of the role of public health". <i>Social History of Medicine</i>. <b>1</b>: 1–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fshm%2F1.1.1">10.1093/shm/1.1.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34704101">34704101</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+History+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+importance+of+social+intervention+in+Britain%27s+mortality+decline+c.1850%E2%80%931914%3A+A+re-interpretation+of+the+role+of+public+health&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=1-37&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fshm%2F1.1.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A34704101%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Szreter&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepage.tinet.ie/~cronews/geog/census/popcosum.html">"Ireland – Population Summary"</a>. Homepage.tinet.ie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110728111229/http://homepage.tinet.ie/~cronews/geog/census/popcosum.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ireland+%E2%80%93+Population+Summary&rft.pub=Homepage.tinet.ie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhomepage.tinet.ie%2F~cronews%2Fgeog%2Fcensus%2Fpopcosum.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Llanfyllin,_Montgomeryshire_-_Workhouse-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Llanfyllin,_Montgomeryshire_-_Workhouse_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.workhouses.org.uk/Llanfyllin/">"Llanfyllin, Montgomeryshire"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230507044551/https://www.workhouses.org.uk/Llanfyllin/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 May 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Llanfyllin%2C+Montgomeryshire&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.workhouses.org.uk%2FLlanfyllin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-A_Victorian_prison_for_the_poor-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-A_Victorian_prison_for_the_poor_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.powys.org.uk/school1/llanfyllin/workmenu.shtml">"Llanfyllin and district – The Union Workhouse – A Victorian prison for the poor"</a>. Victorian Powys. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230425161039/http://history.powys.org.uk/school1/llanfyllin/workmenu.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 25 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Llanfyllin+and+district+%E2%80%93+The+Union+Workhouse+%E2%80%93+A+Victorian+prison+for+the+poor&rft.pub=Victorian+Powys&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.powys.org.uk%2Fschool1%2Fllanfyllin%2Fworkmenu.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYeo2011" class="citation book cs1">Yeo, Richard R. (2011). "Science". In Mitchell, Sally (ed.). <i>Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia</i>. Routledge. pp. 694–696. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415669726" title="Special:BookSources/9780415669726"><bdi>9780415669726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science&rft.btitle=Victorian+Britain+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=694-696&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780415669726&rft.aulast=Yeo&rft.aufirst=Richard+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Katz-2009a-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Katz-2009a_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz2009" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Victor (2009). "Chapter 23: Probability and Statistics in the Nineteenth Century". <i>A History of Mathematics: An Introduction</i>. Addison-Wesley. pp. 824–830. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-38700-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-38700-4"><bdi>978-0-321-38700-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+23%3A+Probability+and+Statistics+in+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Mathematics%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=824-830&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-321-38700-4&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKline1972" class="citation book cs1">Kline, Morris (1972). "28.7: Systems of Partial Differential Equations". <i>Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times</i>. United States of America: Oxford University Press. pp. 696–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-506136-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-506136-5"><bdi>0-19-506136-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=28.7%3A+Systems+of+Partial+Differential+Equations&rft.btitle=Mathematical+Thought+from+Ancient+to+Modern+Times&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pages=696-7&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-19-506136-5&rft.aulast=Kline&rft.aufirst=Morris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis-2007-1-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lewis-2007-1_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2007" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Christoper (2007). "Chapter 7: Black Bodies, Free Energy, and Absolute Zero". <i>Heat and Thermodynamics: A Historical Perspective</i>. United States of America: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33332-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33332-3"><bdi>978-0-313-33332-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+7%3A+Black+Bodies%2C+Free+Energy%2C+and+Absolute+Zero&rft.btitle=Heat+and+Thermodynamics%3A+A+Historical+Perspective&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33332-3&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Christoper&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baigrie-2007a-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baigrie-2007a_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaigrie2007" class="citation book cs1">Baigrie, Brian (2007). "Chapter 8: Forces and Fields". <i>Electricity and Magnetism: A Historical Perspective</i>. United States of America: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33358-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33358-3"><bdi>978-0-313-33358-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+8%3A+Forces+and+Fields&rft.btitle=Electricity+and+Magnetism%3A+A+Historical+Perspective&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33358-3&rft.aulast=Baigrie&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz2009" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Victor (2009). "21.3: Symbolic Algebra". <i>A History of Mathematics: An Introduction</i>. Addison-Wesley. pp. 738–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-38700-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-38700-4"><bdi>978-0-321-38700-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=21.3%3A+Symbolic+Algebra&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Mathematics%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=738-9&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-321-38700-4&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuchanan2011" class="citation book cs1">Buchanan, R. A. (2011). "Technology and invention". In Mitchell, Sally (ed.). <i>Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia</i>. Routledge. pp. 784–787. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415669726" title="Special:BookSources/9780415669726"><bdi>9780415669726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Technology+and+invention&rft.btitle=Victorian+Britain+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=784-787&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780415669726&rft.aulast=Buchanan&rft.aufirst=R.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuchanan2011" class="citation book cs1">Buchanan, R. A. (2011). "Engineering". 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B. (1 May 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179/ldn.1998.23.1.32">"The Day the Dogs Died in London"</a>. <i>The London Journal</i>. <b>23</b> (1): 32–40. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2Fldn.1998.23.1.32">10.1179/ldn.1998.23.1.32</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0305-8034">0305-8034</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210604043828/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1179/ldn.1998.23.1.32">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(2002), <i>Representing Animals</i>, Indiana University Press, p. 12, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34154-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34154-9"><bdi>978-0-253-34154-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Representing+Animals&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-253-34154-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span>. Chapter: 'A Left-handed Blow: Writing the History of Animals' by Erica Fudge</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/odnb/9780192683120.001.0001/odnb-9780192683120-e-6210">"Cooper, Anthony Ashley, seventh Earl of Shaftesbury (1801–1885)"</a>. <i>Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</i>. 2018. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fodnb%2F9780192683120.013.6210">10.1093/odnb/9780192683120.013.6210</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cooper%2C+Anthony+Ashley%2C+seventh+Earl+of+Shaftesbury+%281801%E2%80%931885%29&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fodnb%2F9780192683120.013.6210&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxforddnb.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Fodnb%2F9780192683120.001.0001%2Fodnb-9780192683120-e-6210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly2014" class="citation book cs1">Kelly, David; et al. 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(5 August 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jhmas/jrm046">"Nineteenth-Century British Psychiatric Writing about Homosexuality before Havelock Ellis: The Missing Story"</a>. <i>Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences</i>. <b>63</b> (1): 65–102. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjhmas%2Fjrm046">10.1093/jhmas/jrm046</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-5045">0022-5045</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18184695">18184695</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Medicine+and+Allied+Sciences&rft.atitle=Nineteenth-Century+British+Psychiatric+Writing+about+Homosexuality+before+Havelock+Ellis%3A+The+Missing+Story&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=65-102&rft.date=2007-08-05&rft.issn=0022-5045&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18184695&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjhmas%2Fjrm046&rft.aulast=Crozier&rft.aufirst=I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Fjhmas%2Fjrm046&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1976" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, F. B. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10314617608595545">"Labouchere's amendment to the Criminal Law Amendment bill"</a>. <i>Historical Studies</i>. <b>17</b> (67): 165–173. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10314617608595545">10.1080/10314617608595545</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2559">0018-2559</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=Labouchere%27s+amendment+to+the+Criminal+Law+Amendment+bill&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=67&rft.pages=165-173&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10314617608595545&rft.issn=0018-2559&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=F.+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1080%2F10314617608595545&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_129-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_129-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2011" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Anna (2011). "Prostitution". In Mitchell, Sally (ed.). <i>Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia</i>. Routledge. pp. 642–645. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415669726" title="Special:BookSources/9780415669726"><bdi>9780415669726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Prostitution&rft.btitle=Victorian+Britain+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=642-645&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780415669726&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Anna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Bibliography of the Victorian era">Bibliography of the Victorian era</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Victorian_era" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Victorian era">Victorian era</a> at Wikiquote</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Victorian_era" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Victorian_era" title="Template:Victorian era"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Victorian_era" title="Template talk:Victorian era"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Victorian_era" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Victorian era"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Victorian_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Victorian era</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #ddddff;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">← Georgian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian era →</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_and_diplomatic_history_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Political and diplomatic history of the Victorian era">Politics and diplomacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Army_during_the_Victorian_Era" title="British Army during the Victorian Era">British Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire#Britain's_imperial_century_(1815–1914)" title="British Empire">British empire</a></li> <li>By location <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1801%E2%80%931923)" title="History of Ireland (1801–1923)">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_century_London" class="mw-redirect" title="19th century London">London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_modern_era#Late_18th_century_and_19th_century" title="Scotland in the modern era">Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Britannia" class="mw-redirect" title="Pax Britannia">Pax Britannia</a></li> <li>Prime ministers <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Lamb,_2nd_Viscount_Melbourne" title="William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne">The Viscount Melbourne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Peel" title="Robert Peel">Sir Robert Peel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 1st Earl Russell">Lord John Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Smith-Stanley,_14th_Earl_of_Derby" title="Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby">The Earl of Derby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Hamilton-Gordon,_4th_Earl_of_Aberdeen" title="George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen">The Earl of Aberdeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_John_Temple,_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston" title="Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston">The Viscount Palmerston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Benjamin Disraeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">The Marquess of Salisbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Primrose,_5th_Earl_of_Rosebery" title="Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery">The Earl of Rosebery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economy, society and knowledge</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Demographics of the Victorian era">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy,_industry,_and_trade_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Economy, industry, and trade of the Victorian era">Economy, industry, and trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics,_science,_technology_and_engineering_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Mathematics, science, technology and engineering of the Victorian era">Mathematics, science, technology and engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_and_culture_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Society and culture of the Victorian era">Society and culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Victorian-era_cosmetics" title="Victorian-era cosmetics">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_erotica" title="Victorian erotica">Erotica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_fashion" title="Victorian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_house" title="Victorian house">Houses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_jewellery" title="Victorian jewellery">Jewellery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_masculinity" title="Victorian masculinity">Masculinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_morality" title="Victorian morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_painting" title="Victorian painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_in_the_Victorian_era" title="Theatre in the Victorian era">Theatre</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_burlesque" title="Victorian burlesque">Burlesque</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Victorian_era" title="Women in the Victorian era">Women</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Bibliography of the Victorian era">Bibliography</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Victorian_era" title="Category:Victorian era">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Queen_Victoria" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Queen_Victoria" title="Template:Queen Victoria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Queen_Victoria" title="Template talk:Queen Victoria"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Queen_Victoria" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Queen Victoria"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Queen_Victoria" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen of the United Kingdom">Queen of the United Kingdom</a> (1837–1901), <a href="/wiki/Empress_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress of India">Empress of India</a> (1876–1901)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_Queen_Victoria" title="Coronation of Queen Victoria">Coronation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1838_Coronation_Honours" title="1838 Coronation Honours">Honours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hackpen_White_Horse" title="Hackpen White Horse">Hackpen White Horse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedding_of_Queen_Victoria_and_Prince_Albert" title="Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert">Wedding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wedding_dress_of_Queen_Victoria" title="Wedding dress of Queen Victoria">Wedding dress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Jubilee_of_Queen_Victoria" title="Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria">Golden Jubilee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1887_Golden_Jubilee_Honours" title="1887 Golden Jubilee Honours">Honours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria_Golden_Jubilee_Medal" title="Queen Victoria Golden Jubilee Medal">Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria_Police_Jubilee_Medal" title="Queen Victoria Police Jubilee Medal">Police Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jubilee_Clock_Tower,_Weymouth" title="Jubilee Clock Tower, Weymouth">Clock Tower, Weymouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clock_Tower,_Brighton" title="Clock Tower, Brighton">Clock Tower, Brighton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jubilee_bust_of_Queen_Victoria" title="Jubilee bust of Queen Victoria">Bust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adelaide_Jubilee_International_Exhibition" title="Adelaide Jubilee International Exhibition">Adelaide Jubilee International Exhibition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_Jubilee_of_Queen_Victoria" title="Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria">Diamond Jubilee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1897_Diamond_Jubilee_Honours" title="1897 Diamond Jubilee Honours">Honours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria_Diamond_Jubilee_Medal" title="Queen Victoria Diamond Jubilee Medal">Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jubilee_Diamond" title="Jubilee Diamond">Jubilee Diamond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jubilee_Tower" title="Jubilee Tower">Jubilee Tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherries_jubilee" title="Cherries jubilee">Cherries jubilee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recessional_(poem)" title="Recessional (poem)">Recessional (poem)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cunningham_Clock_Tower" title="Cunningham Clock Tower">Cunningham Clock Tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devonshire_House_Ball_of_1897" title="Devonshire House Ball of 1897">Devonshire House Ball</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reign</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bedchamber_crisis" title="Bedchamber crisis">Bedchamber crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Queen_Victoria" title="List of prime ministers of Queen Victoria">Prime ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Oxford" title="Edward Oxford">Edward Oxford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_boy_Jones" title="The boy Jones">The boy Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_India" title="Emperor of India">Empress of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Bean" title="John William Bean">John William Bean</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Victorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_morality" title="Victorian morality">Victorian morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_visits_to_Manchester_and_Salford_during_the_reign_of_Queen_Victoria" title="Royal visits to Manchester and Salford during the reign of Queen Victoria">Visits to Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_visits_made_by_Queen_Victoria" title="List of foreign visits made by Queen Victoria">Foreign visits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Queen_Victoria" title="Death and state funeral of Queen Victoria">Death and state funeral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Mausoleum,_Frogmore" title="Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore">Mausoleum</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Albert_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha" title="Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha">Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha</a> (husband)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria,_Princess_Royal" title="Victoria, Princess Royal">Victoria, German Empress</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_VII" title="Edward VII">Edward VII</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Alice_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Princess Alice of the United Kingdom">Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred,_Duke_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha" title="Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha">Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Helena_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Princess Helena of the United Kingdom">Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Louise,_Duchess_of_Argyll" title="Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll">Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Arthur,_Duke_of_Connaught_and_Strathearn" title="Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn">Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Leopold,_Duke_of_Albany" title="Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany">Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Beatrice_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom">Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Edward,_Duke_of_Kent_and_Strathearn" title="Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn">Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Victoria_of_Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld" title="Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld">Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Feodora_of_Leiningen" title="Princess Feodora of Leiningen">Feodora, Princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg</a> (half-sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl,_Prince_of_Leiningen_(1804%E2%80%931856)" title="Karl, Prince of Leiningen (1804–1856)">Carl, 3rd Prince of Leiningen</a> (half-brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descendants_of_Queen_Victoria" title="Descendants of Queen Victoria">Descendants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_descendants_of_Queen_Victoria_and_of_King_Christian_IX" title="Royal descendants of Queen Victoria and of King Christian IX">Royal descendants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kensington_System" title="Kensington System">Kensington System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Conroy" title="John Conroy">John Conroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoire_Conroy" title="Victoire Conroy">Victoire Conroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louise_Lehzen" class="mw-redirect" title="Louise Lehzen">Louise Lehzen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lady_Flora_Hastings" title="Lady Flora Hastings">Lady Flora Hastings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Percy,_Duchess_of_Northumberland" title="Charlotte Percy, Duchess of Northumberland">Charlotte Percy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Davys" title="George Davys">George Davys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_of_Queen_Victoria" title="Legitimacy of Queen Victoria">Legitimacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Honours</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_named_after_Queen_Victoria" title="List of places named after Queen Victoria">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Day" title="Commonwealth Day">Empire Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Order_of_Victoria_and_Albert" title="Royal Order of Victoria and Albert">Royal Family Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Day" title="Victoria Day">Victoria Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Day_(Scotland)" title="Victoria Day (Scotland)">Victoria Day (Scotland)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Cross" title="Victoria Cross">Victoria Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_(plant)" title="Victoria (plant)">Victoria (plant)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_Queen_Victoria" title="Cultural depictions of Queen Victoria">Depictions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Film</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixty_Years_a_Queen" title="Sixty Years a Queen"><i>Sixty Years a Queen</i> (1913)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_in_Dover_(1936_film)" title="Victoria in Dover (1936 film)"><i>Victoria in Dover</i> (1936)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_the_Great" title="Victoria the Great"><i>Victoria the Great</i> (1937)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixty_Glorious_Years" title="Sixty Glorious Years"><i>Sixty Glorious Years</i> (1938)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_in_Dover_(1954_film)" title="Victoria in Dover (1954 film)"><i>Victoria in Dover</i> (1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mrs_Brown" title="Mrs Brown"><i>Mrs Brown</i> (1997)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Young_Victoria" title="The Young Victoria"><i>The Young Victoria</i> (2009)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_%26_Abdul" title="Victoria & Abdul"><i>Victoria & Abdul</i> (2017)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Prince_(film)" title="The Black Prince (film)"><i>The Black Prince</i> (2017)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolittle_(film)" title="Dolittle (film)"><i>Dolittle</i> (2020)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Television</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Happy_and_Glorious_(TV_series)" title="Happy and Glorious (TV series)"><i>Happy and Glorious</i> (1952)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Regina_(film)" title="Victoria Regina (film)"><i>Victoria Regina</i> (1961)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Young_Victoria_(1963_film)" title="The Young Victoria (1963 film)"><i>The Young Victoria</i> (1963)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_%26_Albert_(TV_serial)" title="Victoria & Albert (TV serial)"><i>Victoria & Albert</i> (2001)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Looking_for_Victoria" title="Looking for Victoria"><i>Looking for Victoria</i> (2003)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Upstairs_Downstairs" title="Royal Upstairs Downstairs"><i>Royal Upstairs Downstairs</i> (2011)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_(British_TV_series)" title="Victoria (British TV series)"><i>Victoria</i> (2016–2019)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Stage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_and_Merrie_England" title="Victoria and Merrie England"><i>Victoria and Merrie England</i> (1897)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Regina_(play)" title="Victoria Regina (play)"><i>Victoria Regina</i> (1934)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_and_Albert" title="I and Albert"><i>I and Albert</i> (1972)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Statues and<br />memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statues_of_Queen_Victoria" title="List of statues of Queen Victoria">List of statues</a></li> <li>London <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Memorial,_London" title="Victoria Memorial, London">Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Queen_Victoria,_Kensington_Palace" title="Statue of Queen Victoria, Kensington Palace">Statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Square,_London" title="Victoria Square, London">Square</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_Queen_Victoria,_Leeds" title="Memorial to Queen Victoria, Leeds">Leeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Queen_Victoria,_St_Helens" title="Statue of Queen Victoria, St Helens">St Helens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria_Memorial,_Lancaster" title="Queen Victoria Memorial, Lancaster">Lancaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Queen_Victoria,_Bristol" title="Statue of Queen Victoria, Bristol">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Queen_Victoria,_Weymouth" title="Statue of Queen Victoria, Weymouth">Weymouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Queen_Victoria,_Chester" title="Statue of Queen Victoria, Chester">Chester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Queen_Victoria,_Reading" title="Statue of Queen Victoria, Reading">Reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Monument,_Liverpool" title="Victoria Monument, Liverpool">Liverpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Square,_Birmingham" title="Victoria Square, Birmingham">Birmingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria_Monument,_Birkenhead" title="Queen Victoria Monument, Birkenhead">Birkenhead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Arch,_Dundee" title="Royal Arch, Dundee">Dundee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balmoral_cairns" title="Balmoral cairns">Balmoral cairns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Tower,_Guernsey" title="Victoria Tower, Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Clock_Tower,_Isle_of_Man" title="Victoria Clock Tower, Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li>Valletta <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Queen_Victoria,_Valletta" title="Statue of Queen Victoria, Valletta">Statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Gate_(Valletta)" title="Victoria Gate (Valletta)">Gate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Queen_Victoria_(Winnipeg)" title="Statue of Queen Victoria (Winnipeg)">Winnipeg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Memorial_(Montreal)" title="Victoria Memorial (Montreal)">Montreal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Square,_Montreal" title="Victoria Square, Montreal">Square</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Queen_Victoria_(Victoria,_British_Columbia)" title="Statue of Queen Victoria (Victoria, British Columbia)">Victoria, British Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Queen_Victoria_(Toronto)" title="Statue of Queen Victoria (Toronto)">Toronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Park,_Regina" title="Victoria Park, Regina">Regina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Queen_Victoria,_Bangalore" title="Statue of Queen Victoria, Bangalore">Bangalore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Queen_Victoria,_Hong_Kong" title="Statue of Queen Victoria, Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Garden,_Ahmedabad" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria Garden, Ahmedabad">Ahmedabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Memorial,_Kolkata" title="Victoria Memorial, Kolkata">Kolkata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria_Pavilion" title="Queen Victoria Pavilion">Visakhapatnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria_Memorial,_Penang" title="Queen Victoria Memorial, Penang">Penang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Queen_Victoria,_Sydney" title="Statue of Queen Victoria, Sydney">Sydney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria_Building" title="Queen Victoria Building">Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen%27s_Square,_Sydney" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen's Square, Sydney">Square</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Square,_Adelaide" title="Victoria Square, Adelaide">Adelaide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queens_Gardens,_Brisbane" title="Queens Gardens, Brisbane">Brisbane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria_Gardens" title="Queen Victoria Gardens">Melbourne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Square,_Christchurch" title="Victoria Square, Christchurch">Christchurch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Portraits</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Coronation_of_Queen_Victoria" title="The Coronation of Queen Victoria">The Coronation of Queen Victoria</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Marriage_of_Queen_Victoria" title="The Marriage of Queen Victoria">The Marriage of Queen Victoria</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Poetry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Widow_at_Windsor" class="mw-redirect" title="The Widow at Windsor">"The Widow at Windsor" (1892)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recessional_(poem)" title="Recessional (poem)">"Recessional" (1897)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Songs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_(The_Kinks_song)" title="Victoria (The Kinks song)"><i>Victoria</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choral_Songs_in_honour_of_Her_Majesty_Queen_Victoria" title="Choral Songs in honour of Her Majesty Queen Victoria"><i>Choral Songs</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Stamps</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">British</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penny_Black" title="Penny Black">Penny Black</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penny_Black_VR_official" title="Penny Black VR official">VR official</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penny_Blue" title="Penny Blue">Penny Blue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_penny_blue" title="Two penny blue">Two penny blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penny_Red" title="Penny Red">Penny Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_embossed_postage_stamps" title="British embossed postage stamps">Embossed stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halfpenny_Rose_Red" title="Halfpenny Rose Red">Halfpenny Rose Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Halfpence_Red" title="Three Halfpence Red">Three Halfpence Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penny_Venetian_Red" title="Penny Venetian Red">Penny Venetian Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penny_Lilac" title="Penny Lilac">Penny Lilac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria_Lilac_and_Green_Issue" title="Queen Victoria Lilac and Green Issue">Lilac and Green Issue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jubilee_Issue" title="Jubilee Issue">Jubilee Issue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Colonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalon_head" title="Chalon head">Chalon head</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_12d_black" title="Canada 12d black">Canada 12d black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_2c_Large_Queen_on_laid_paper" title="Canada 2c Large Queen on laid paper">Canada 2c Large Queen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dull_Rose" title="Dull Rose">Ceylon Dull Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverted_Head_4_Annas" title="Inverted Head 4 Annas">India Inverted Head 4 annas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halfpenny_Yellow" title="Halfpenny Yellow">Malta Halfpenny Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritius_%22Post_Office%22_stamps" title="Mauritius "Post Office" stamps">Mauritius "Post Office" stamps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osborne_House" title="Osborne House">Osborne House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria%27s_journals" title="Queen Victoria's journals">Queen Victoria's journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(servant)" title="John Brown (servant)">John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Karim_(the_Munshi)" title="Abdul Karim (the Munshi)">Abdul Karim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria%27s_pets" title="Queen Victoria's pets">Pets</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dash_(spaniel)" title="Dash (spaniel)">Dash</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Diamond_Crown_of_Queen_Victoria" title="Small Diamond Crown of Queen Victoria">Diamond Crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoriana" title="Victoriana">Victoriana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_sponge" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria sponge">Victoria sponge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/William_IV" title="William IV">← William IV</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Edward_VII" title="Edward VII">Edward VII →</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_Kingdom_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_Kingdom_topics" title="Template:United Kingdom topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_Kingdom_topics" title="Template talk:United Kingdom topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_Kingdom_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United Kingdom topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_Kingdom_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_British_history" title="Timeline of British history">Chronology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formation_of_the_United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland">Formation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_England_and_Scotland_Act_1603" title="Union of England and Scotland Act 1603">Union of England and Scotland Act 1603</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Union" title="Treaty of Union">Treaty of Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union 1707</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_with_Scotland_(Amendment)_Act_1707" title="Union with Scotland (Amendment) Act 1707">Union with Scotland (Amendment) Act 1707</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian era</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Victorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">First World War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_Britain" title="Interwar Britain">Interwar</a></li> <li>Second World War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">civilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">military</a></li></ul></li> <li>Postwar <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postwar_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" class="mw-redirect" title="Postwar Britain (1945–1979)">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_Postwar_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social history of Postwar Britain (1945–1979)">social</a></li></ul></li> <li>Since 1979 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">social</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic history of the United Kingdom">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_foreign_relations_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">1814–1919</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of law enforcement in the United Kingdom">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Maritime history of the United Kingdom">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mass_surveillance_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of mass surveillance in the United Kingdom">Mass surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Military history of the United Kingdom">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of taxation in the United Kingdom">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of women in the United Kingdom">Women's history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Geography of the United Kingdom">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Administrative geography of the United Kingdom">Administrative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counties_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Counties of the United Kingdom">Counties of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countries_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Countries of the United Kingdom">Countries of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Dependencies" title="Crown Dependencies">Crown Dependencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">Overseas territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="City status in the United Kingdom">City status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of towns in the United Kingdom">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_that_have_gained_independence_from_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom">Former colonies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Geography of the United Kingdom">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_of_the_British_Isles" title="Terminology of the British Isles">terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Climate of the United Kingdom">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Climate change in the United Kingdom">change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastline_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Coastline of the United Kingdom">Coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Great_Britain" title="Geology of Great Britain">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_and_lochs_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of lakes and lochs of the United Kingdom">Lakes and lochs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_mountains_and_hills_in_the_British_Isles" title="Lists of mountains and hills in the British Isles">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of rivers of the United Kingdom">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of volcanoes in the United Kingdom">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_renewable_resources_produced_and_traded_by_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of renewable resources produced and traded by the United Kingdom">Resources</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Agriculture in the United Kingdom">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Energy in the United Kingdom">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiesel_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiesel in the United Kingdom">biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Coal mining in the United Kingdom">coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Geothermal power in the United Kingdom">geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom">hydraulic frac.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hydroelectricity in the United Kingdom">hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom#Ocean_power" title="Renewable energy in the United Kingdom">marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_oil" title="North Sea oil">North Sea oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Renewable energy in the United Kingdom">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Solar power in the United Kingdom">solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Wind power in the United Kingdom">wind</a></li></ul></li> <li>Fishing <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_England" title="Fishing industry in England">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Scotland" title="Fishing industry in Scotland">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Wales" title="Fishing industry in Wales">Welsh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_and_shooting_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom">Hunting</a></li> <li>Materials <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Forestry in the United Kingdom">forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Mining in the United Kingdom">mining</a></li></ul></li> <li>Wildlife <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Great_Britain" title="Fauna of Great Britain">fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="Flora of Great Britain and Ireland">flora</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Politics of the United Kingdom">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the United Kingdom">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Corruption in the United Kingdom">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devolution_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Devolution in the United Kingdom">Devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Elections in the United Kingdom">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UK_parliamentary_by-elections" title="UK parliamentary by-elections">By-elections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Foreign relations of the United Kingdom">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Human rights in the United Kingdom">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United Kingdom">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciaries_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Judiciaries of the United Kingdom">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Law of the United Kingdom">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Law enforcement in the United Kingdom">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Local government in the United Kingdom">Local government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">Monarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_monarchs" title="List of British monarchs">monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">republicanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_nationality_law" title="British nationality law">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of political parties in the United Kingdom">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_leaders_of_British_political_parties" title="List of female leaders of British political parties">Female party leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_scandals_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of political scandals in the United Kingdom">Political scandals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_Opposition_Shadow_Cabinet_(United_Kingdom)" title="Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet (United Kingdom)">Shadow Cabinet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Government of the United Kingdom">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cabinet of the United Kingdom">Cabinet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_governments" title="List of British governments">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_(United_Kingdom)" title="Civil Service (United Kingdom)">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Departments_of_the_Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Departments of the Government of the United Kingdom">Departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunak_ministry" title="Sunak ministry">Ministers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_government_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of government ministers of the United Kingdom">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/British_Armed_Forces" title="British Armed Forces">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/His_Majesty%27s_Naval_Service" title="His Majesty's Naval Service">His Majesty's Naval Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economy of the United Kingdom">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of banks in the United Kingdom">Banks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budget_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Budget of the United Kingdom">Budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic geography of the United Kingdom">Economic geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade_agreements_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Free trade agreements of the United Kingdom">Free trade agreements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Income in the United Kingdom">Income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Manufacturing in the United Kingdom">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">Pound sterling <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Science and technology in the United Kingdom">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stock_exchanges_in_the_United_Kingdom,_the_British_Crown_Dependencies_and_United_Kingdom_Overseas_Territories" title="List of stock exchanges in the United Kingdom, the British Crown Dependencies and United Kingdom Overseas Territories">Stock exchanges</a> (<a href="/wiki/London_Stock_Exchange" title="London Stock Exchange">London Exchange</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Taxation in the United Kingdom">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Telecommunications in the United Kingdom">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Tourism in the United Kingdom">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Transport in the United Kingdom">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Air transport in the United Kingdom">Air transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bus_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Bus transport">Bus transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Driving in the United Kingdom">Driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Roads in the United Kingdom">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail transport in the United Kingdom">Rail transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Society of the United Kingdom">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cannabis in the United Kingdom">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Crime in the United Kingdom">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Demographics of the United Kingdom">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Drug policy of the United Kingdom">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Education in the United Kingdom">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_inequality_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Environmental inequality in the United Kingdom">Environmental inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Environmental issues in the United Kingdom">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Health in the United Kingdom">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Homelessness in the United Kingdom">Homelessness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_England" title="Homelessness in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Scotland" title="Homelessness in Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Housing in the United Kingdom">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hunger in the United Kingdom">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_immigration_to_the_United_Kingdom" title="Modern immigration to the United Kingdom">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_innovations_and_discoveries" title="List of British innovations and discoveries">Innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Languages of the United Kingdom">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_regions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of British regions by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Mental health in the United Kingdom">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Poverty in the United Kingdom">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prostitution in the United Kingdom">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Public holidays in the United Kingdom">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Racism in the United Kingdom">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_care_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Social care in the United Kingdom">Social care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Social class in the United Kingdom">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Suicide in the United Kingdom">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Universal basic income in the United Kingdom">Universal basic income (UBI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United Kingdom">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Waste in the United Kingdom">Waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Welfare state in the United Kingdom">Welfare state</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Culture of the United Kingdom">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Art of the United Kingdom">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_Save_the_King" title="God Save the King">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cinema of the United Kingdom">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_cuisine" title="British cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wine_from_the_United_Kingdom" title="Wine from the United Kingdom">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_national_identity" title="British national identity">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_literature" title="British literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Mass media in the United Kingdom">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Music of the United Kingdom">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Religion in the United Kingdom">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Sport in the United Kingdom">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_symbols_of_the_United_Kingdom,_the_Channel_Islands_and_the_Isle_of_Man" title="List of national symbols of the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Theatre of the United Kingdom">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_the_British" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereotypes of the British">Stereotypes of the British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the United Kingdom">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglosphere" title="Anglosphere">Anglosphere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Countries_of_the_United_Kingdom" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Countries_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Countries of the United Kingdom">Countries of the United Kingdom</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_England" title="History of England">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_society" title="English society">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_English_history" title="Timeline of English history">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_England" title="Geography of England">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_England" title="Politics of England">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_England" title="Economy of England">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_England" title="Tourism in England">tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_England" title="Education in England">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_England" title="Healthcare in England">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_England" title="Homelessness in England">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_England" title="Culture of England">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_England" title="National symbols of England">Symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Ireland" title="History of Northern Ireland">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland#Geography_and_climate" title="Northern Ireland">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Politics of Northern Ireland">Politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Assembly" title="Northern Ireland Assembly">Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Executive" title="Northern Ireland Executive">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_and_deputy_First_Minister_of_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="First Minister and deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland">First Minister and deputy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Law of Northern Ireland">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Economy of Northern Ireland">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tourist_attractions_in_Ireland" title="List of tourist attractions in Ireland">tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Education in Northern Ireland">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_Social_Care_(Northern_Ireland)" title="Health and Social Care (Northern Ireland)">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Culture of Northern Ireland">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Religion in Northern Ireland">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland#Symbols" title="Northern Ireland">Symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scotland" title="History of Scotland">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Scottish_history" title="Timeline of Scottish history">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Scotland" title="Geography of Scotland">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Scotland" title="Politics of Scotland">Politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Parliament" title="Scottish Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Government" title="Scottish Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_of_Scotland" title="First Minister of Scotland">First Minister</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_law" title="Scots law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Scotland" title="Economy of Scotland">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Scotland" title="Tourism in Scotland">tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Scotland" title="Education in Scotland">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Scotland" title="Healthcare in Scotland">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Scotland" title="Homelessness in Scotland">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Scotland" title="Culture of Scotland">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Scotland" title="National symbols of Scotland">Symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wales" title="History of Wales">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Wales" title="Geography of Wales">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Wales" title="Politics of Wales">Politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senedd" title="Senedd">Senedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Government" title="Welsh Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_of_Wales" title="First Minister of Wales">First Minister</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Wales" title="Economy of Wales">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Wales" title="Tourism in Wales">tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Wales" title="Education in Wales">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Wales" title="Healthcare in Wales">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Wales" title="Culture of Wales">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Wales" title="National symbols of Wales">Symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Outline of the United Kingdom">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_United_Kingdom%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of United Kingdom–related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_Kingdom" title="Category:United Kingdom">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_Kingdom" title="Portal:United Kingdom">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Economic_expansions_and_recessions_in_the_United_States_and_Commonwealth_of_Nations_countries" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_%E2%80%93_Commonwealth_of_Nations_recessions" title="Template:United States – Commonwealth of Nations recessions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_%E2%80%93_Commonwealth_of_Nations_recessions" title="Template talk:United States – Commonwealth of Nations recessions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_%E2%80%93_Commonwealth_of_Nations_recessions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States – Commonwealth of Nations recessions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Economic_expansions_and_recessions_in_the_United_States_and_Commonwealth_of_Nations_countries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_expansions_in_the_United_States" title="List of economic expansions in the United States">Economic expansions</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_States" title="List of recessions in the United States">recessions in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations countries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">Aggregate demand</a>/<a href="/wiki/Aggregate_supply" title="Aggregate supply">Supply</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effective_demand" title="Effective demand">Effective demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_glut" title="General glut">General glut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AD%E2%80%93AS_model" title="AD–AS model">Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overproduction" title="Overproduction">Overproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_thrift" title="Paradox of thrift">Paradox of thrift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_rigidity" title="Nominal rigidity">Price-and-wage stickiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underconsumption" title="Underconsumption">Underconsumption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">Business cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deflation" title="Deflation">Deflation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">Inflation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_inflation" title="Chronic inflation">Chronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_dichotomy" title="Classical dichotomy">Classical dichotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinflation" title="Disinflation">Disinflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money_supply" title="Money supply">Money supply</a>/<a href="/wiki/Demand_for_money" title="Demand for money">demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrality_of_money" title="Neutrality of money">Neutrality of money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_level" title="Price level">Price level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_versus_nominal_value_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Real versus nominal value (economics)">Real and nominal values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velocity_of_money" title="Velocity of money">Velocity of money</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_expansion" title="Economic expansion">Economic expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_recovery" title="Economic recovery">Recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_stagnation" title="Economic stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_expansions_in_the_United_States" title="List of economic expansions in the United States">U.S. expansions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interest_rate" title="Interest rate">Interest rate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_interest_rate" title="Nominal interest rate">Nominal interest rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_interest_rate" title="Real interest rate">Real interest rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yield_curve" title="Yield curve">Yield curve</a>/<a href="/wiki/Inverted_yield_curve" title="Inverted yield curve">Inverted</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">Recession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_sheet_recession" title="Balance sheet recession">Balance sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_recession" title="Global recession">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_recession" title="Rolling recession">Rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_shapes" title="Recession shapes">Shapes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">Stagflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of recessions in the United Kingdom">U.K. recessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_States" title="List of recessions in the United States">U.S. recessions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_(economics)" title="Shock (economics)">Shock</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_shock" title="Demand shock">Demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_shock" title="Supply shock">Supply</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sahm_rule" title="Sahm rule">Sahm rule</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commercial_revolution" title="Commercial revolution">Commercial revolution</a><br />(1000–1760)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Slump_(15th_century)" title="Great Slump (15th century)">Great Slump</a> (1430–1490)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">Slump of 1706</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Frost_of_1709" title="Great Frost of 1709">Great Frost of 1709</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">1st Industrial Revolution</a><br />(1760–1840)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">British credit crisis of 1772–1773</a> <ul><li>1772–1774; <a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773#Effects_in_London" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773#Scotland" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">American Colonies</a></li></ul></li> <li>1785–1788</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_Panic_of_1789" title="Copper Panic of 1789">Copper Panic of 1789</a>/<a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1792" title="Panic of 1792">Panic of 1792</a> (1789–1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1796%E2%80%931797" title="Panic of 1796–1797">Panic of 1796–1797</a> (1796–1799)</li> <li>1802–1804</li> <li>1807–1810</li> <li>1812</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Napoleonic_Depression" title="Post-Napoleonic Depression">Post-Napoleonic Depression</a> (1815–1821)</li> <li>1822–23</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1825" title="Panic of 1825">Panic of 1825</a> (1825–1826)</li> <li>1828–29</li> <li>1833–34</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1837" title="Panic of 1837">Panic of 1837</a> (1836–1838 and 1839–1843)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Early Victorian Britain</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">Civil War-era United States</a><br />(1840–1870)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1845–46</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1847" title="Panic of 1847">Panic of 1847</a> (1847–1848)</li> <li>1853–54</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">Panic of 1857</a> (1857–1858)</li> <li>1860–61</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1866" title="Panic of 1866">Panic of 1866</a> (1865–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Friday_(1869)" title="Black Friday (1869)">Black Friday</a> (1869–1870)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">2nd Industrial Revolution</a><br />(1870–1914)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long_Depression" title="Long Depression">Long Depression</a>/<a href="/wiki/The_Great_Deflation" title="The Great Deflation">Great Deflation</a> <ul><li>1873–1879; <a href="/wiki/Long_Depression#United_Kingdom" title="Long Depression">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Depression#United_States" title="Long Depression">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_of_1882%E2%80%931885" title="Depression of 1882–1885">Depression of 1882–1885</a></li> <li>1887–88</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baring_crisis" title="Baring crisis">Baring crisis</a> (1890–1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893" title="Panic of 1893">Panic of 1893</a> (1893–1897)</li> <li>1899–1900</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1901" title="Panic of 1901">Panic of 1901</a> (1902–1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1907" title="Panic of 1907">Panic of 1907</a> (1907–1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1910%E2%80%9311" title="Panic of 1910–11">Panic of 1910–11</a> (1910–1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_1914" title="Financial crisis of 1914">Financial crisis of 1914</a> (1913–14)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a><br />(1918–1939)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_I_recession" title="Post–World War I recession">Post–World War I recession</a> (1918–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_of_1920%E2%80%931921" title="Depression of 1920–1921">Depression of 1920–1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li>1923–1924</li> <li>1926–1927</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li>1929–1939; <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Australia" title="Great Depression in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Canada" title="Great Depression in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_India" title="Great Depression in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Zealand" title="History of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_South_Africa" title="Great Depression in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Great Depression in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1937%E2%80%931938" title="Recession of 1937–1938">Recession of 1937–1938</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post–WWII expansion</a><br />(1945–1973)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1945</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1949" title="Recession of 1949">Recession of 1949</a> (1948–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1953" title="Recession of 1953">Recession of 1953</a> (1953–1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1958" title="Recession of 1958">Recession of 1958</a> (1957–1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1960%E2%80%931961" title="Recession of 1960–1961">Recession of 1960–1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1969%E2%80%931970" title="Recession of 1969–1970">Recession of 1969–1970</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a 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href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_Americas#Canada" title="Great Recession in the Americas">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#India" title="Great Recession in Asia">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Malysia" title="Great Recession in Asia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Oceania#New_Zealand" title="Great Recession in Oceania">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Pakistan" title="Great Recession in Asia">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Africa" title="Great Recession in Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Sri_Lanka" title="Great Recession in Asia">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Europe#United_Kingdom" title="Great Recession in Europe">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a 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[\"CITEREFChapman_Sharpe2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCook2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCrozier2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDraznin,_Yaffa_Claire2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEisen1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlaser1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodman2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGray2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalevy1924\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalévy1924\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHewitt2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHobsbawn1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolland1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoughton2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJefferies2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKathleen_E.2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKatz2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKelly2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKemp1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKinealy1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKinzer2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKline1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLitzenbergerEileen_Groth_Lyon2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLivingston_Schuyler1941\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd2007\"] = 2,\n 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