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<span>Technology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Technology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Technology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-PCs_at_home" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#PCs_at_home"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>PCs at home</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-PCs_at_home-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_performance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_performance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>High performance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High_performance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-MSX" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#MSX"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>MSX</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-MSX-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radio_frequency_interference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_frequency_interference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Radio frequency interference</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_frequency_interference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception_and_sociological_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception_and_sociological_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Reception and sociological impact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reception_and_sociological_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_in_the_21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_in_the_21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Use in the 21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_in_the_21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_home_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_home_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notable home computers</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notable_home_computers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notable home computers subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notable_home_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1970s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1970s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>1970s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1970s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1980s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1980s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>1980s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1980s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>1990s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Home computer</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">42 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimcomputer" title="Heimcomputer – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Heimcomputer" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A8_%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B2%D9%84%D9%8A" title="حاسوب منزلي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حاسوب منزلي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinador_domestico" title="Ordinador domestico – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Ordinador domestico" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="হোম কম্পিউটার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="হোম কম্পিউটার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BF%E2%80%99%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Хатні камп’ютар – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Хатні камп’ютар" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinador_dom%C3%A8stic" title="Ordinador domèstic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ordinador domèstic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dom%C3%A1c%C3%AD_po%C4%8D%C3%ADta%C4%8D" title="Domácí počítač – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Domácí počítač" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hjemmecomputer" title="Hjemmecomputer – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Hjemmecomputer" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimcomputer" title="Heimcomputer – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Heimcomputer" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koduarvuti" title="Koduarvuti – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Koduarvuti" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computadora_dom%C3%A9stica" title="Computadora doméstica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Computadora doméstica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="رایانه خانگی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رایانه خانگی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinateur_domestique" title="Ordinateur domestique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ordinateur domestique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%80%EC%A0%95%EC%9A%A9_%EC%BB%B4%ED%93%A8%ED%84%B0" title="가정용 컴퓨터 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="가정용 컴퓨터" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku%C4%87no_ra%C4%8Dunalo" title="Kućno računalo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kućno računalo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computator_domestic" title="Computator domestic – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Computator domestic" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimilist%C3%B6lva" title="Heimilistölva – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Heimilistölva" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computer" title="Home computer – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Home computer" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nam%C5%B3_kompiuteris" title="Namų kompiuteris – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Namų kompiuteris" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computer" title="Home computer – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Home computer" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer_rumah" title="Komputer rumah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Komputer rumah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homecomputer" title="Homecomputer – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Homecomputer" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9B%E3%83%93%E3%83%BC%E3%83%91%E3%82%BD%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3" title="ホビーパソコン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ホビーパソコン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hjemmedatamaskin" title="Hjemmedatamaskin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Hjemmedatamaskin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimedatamaskin" title="Heimedatamaskin – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Heimedatamaskin" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer_domowy" title="Komputer domowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Komputer domowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computador_dom%C3%A9stico" title="Computador doméstico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Computador doméstico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Домашний компьютер – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Домашний компьютер" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computer" title="Home computer – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Home computer" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dom%C3%A1ci_po%C4%8D%C3%ADta%C4%8D" title="Domáci počítač – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Domáci počítač" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi%C5%A1ni_ra%C4%8Dunalnik" title="Hišni računalnik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Hišni računalnik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D1%9B%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Кућни рачунар – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Кућни рачунар" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku%C4%87no_ra%C4%8Dunalo" title="Kućno računalo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kućno računalo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotitietokone" title="Kotitietokone – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kotitietokone" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemdator" title="Hemdator – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Hemdator" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99" title="คอมพิวเตอร์ครัวเรือน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="คอมพิวเตอร์ครัวเรือน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ev_bilgisayar%C4%B1" title="Ev bilgisayarı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ev bilgisayarı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%27%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Домашній комп'ютер – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Домашній комп'ютер" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%B4%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%81" title="بیتی شمارندہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بیتی شمارندہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1y_t%C3%ADnh_gia_%C4%91%C3%ACnh" title="Máy tính gia đình – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Máy tính gia đình" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%B6%E7%94%A8%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6" title="家用電腦 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="家用電腦" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%B6%E7%94%A8%E7%94%B5%E8%84%91" title="家用电脑 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="家用电脑" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Class of microcomputers</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is primarily about a certain class of <a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computers</a> from the late 1970s to mid-1980s. See <a href="/wiki/Home_server" title="Home server">home server</a> and <a href="/wiki/Home_automation" title="Home automation">home automation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Desktop_computer" title="Desktop computer">desktop computer</a> for other uses of a computer in a home.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cpc464.computer.750pix.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Cpc464.computer.750pix.jpg/220px-Cpc464.computer.750pix.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Cpc464.computer.750pix.jpg/330px-Cpc464.computer.750pix.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Cpc464.computer.750pix.jpg/440px-Cpc464.computer.750pix.jpg 2x" data-file-width="646" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>Children playing <i><a href="/wiki/Paperboy_(video_game)" title="Paperboy (video game)">Paperboy</a></i> on an <a href="/wiki/Amstrad_CPC" title="Amstrad CPC">Amstrad CPC 464</a> in 1988</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CoCo3system.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/CoCo3system.jpg/220px-CoCo3system.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/CoCo3system.jpg/330px-CoCo3system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/CoCo3system.jpg/440px-CoCo3system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1166" data-file-height="808" /></a><figcaption>The often sprawling nature of a well-outfitted home computer is evident with this <a href="/wiki/TRS-80_Color_Computer" title="TRS-80 Color Computer">Tandy Color Computer 3</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Home_or_Personal_Computers_from_1977_-_Commodore_PET_2001,_Apple_II,_TRS-80_Model_I,_together_called_%27Trinity77%27_(edited_image).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Home_or_Personal_Computers_from_1977_-_Commodore_PET_2001%2C_Apple_II%2C_TRS-80_Model_I%2C_together_called_%27Trinity77%27_%28edited_image%29.jpg/411px-Home_or_Personal_Computers_from_1977_-_Commodore_PET_2001%2C_Apple_II%2C_TRS-80_Model_I%2C_together_called_%27Trinity77%27_%28edited_image%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="411" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Home_or_Personal_Computers_from_1977_-_Commodore_PET_2001%2C_Apple_II%2C_TRS-80_Model_I%2C_together_called_%27Trinity77%27_%28edited_image%29.jpg/617px-Home_or_Personal_Computers_from_1977_-_Commodore_PET_2001%2C_Apple_II%2C_TRS-80_Model_I%2C_together_called_%27Trinity77%27_%28edited_image%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Home_or_Personal_Computers_from_1977_-_Commodore_PET_2001%2C_Apple_II%2C_TRS-80_Model_I%2C_together_called_%27Trinity77%27_%28edited_image%29.jpg/822px-Home_or_Personal_Computers_from_1977_-_Commodore_PET_2001%2C_Apple_II%2C_TRS-80_Model_I%2C_together_called_%27Trinity77%27_%28edited_image%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3973" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption>The computers <i><a href="/wiki/Byte_(magazine)" title="Byte (magazine)">Byte (magazine)</a></i> retrospectively called the "1977 Trinity" (L-R): Commodore PET 2001-8, Apple II, TRS-80 Model I.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </figcaption></figure> <p><b>Home computers</b> were a class of <a href="/wiki/Microcomputer" title="Microcomputer">microcomputers</a> that entered the market in 1977 and became common during the 1980s. They were marketed to consumers as affordable and accessible computers that, for the first time, were intended for the use of a single, non-technical user. These computers were a distinct market segment that typically cost much less than business, scientific, or engineering-oriented computers of the time, such as those running <a href="/wiki/CP/M" title="CP/M">CP/M</a> or the <a href="/wiki/IBM_PC" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM PC">IBM PC</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and were generally less powerful in terms of <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">memory</a> and expandability. However, a home computer often had better <a href="/wiki/Video_display_controller" title="Video display controller">graphics</a> and sound than contemporary business computers. Their most common uses were <a href="/wiki/Word_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Word processing">word processing</a>, playing <a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">video games</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">programming</a>. </p><p>Home computers were usually sold already manufactured in stylish metal or plastic enclosures. However, some home computers also came as commercial <a href="/wiki/Electronic_kit" title="Electronic kit">electronic kits</a>, like the <a href="/wiki/ZX80" title="ZX80">Sinclair ZX80</a>, which were both home and home-built computers since the purchaser could assemble the unit from a kit. </p><p>Advertisements in the popular press for early home computers were rife with possibilities for their practical use in the home, from cataloging recipes to <a href="/wiki/Personal_finance" title="Personal finance">personal finance</a> to <a href="/wiki/Home_automation" title="Home automation">home automation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but these were seldom realized in practice. For example, using a typical 1980s home computer as a home automation appliance would require the computer to be kept powered on at all times and dedicated to this task. Personal finance and database use required tedious <a href="/wiki/Data_entry_clerk" title="Data entry clerk">data entry</a>. </p><p>By contrast, advertisements in the specialty computer press often simply listed specifications, assuming a knowledgeable user who already had applications in mind.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If no packaged software was available for a particular application, the home computer user could program one—provided they had invested the requisite hours to learn <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">computer programming</a>, as well as the idiosyncrasies of their system.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since most systems arrived with the <a href="/wiki/BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a> programming language included on the system <a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">ROM</a>, it was easy for users to get started creating their own simple applications. Many users found programming to be a fun and rewarding experience, and an excellent introduction to the world of digital technology.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The line between 'business' and 'home' computer market segments vanished completely once <a href="/wiki/IBM_PC_compatibles" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM PC compatibles">IBM PC compatibles</a> became commonly used in the home, since now both categories of computers typically use the same processor architectures, peripherals, operating systems, and applications. Often, the only difference may be the sales outlet through which they are purchased. Another change from the home computer era is that the once-common endeavor of writing one's own software programs has almost vanished from home computer use.<sup id="cite_ref-reimer_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reimer-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_computer&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mary_Allen_Wilkes_-_LINC_at_Home_-_1965.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Mary_Allen_Wilkes_-_LINC_at_Home_-_1965.jpg/220px-Mary_Allen_Wilkes_-_LINC_at_Home_-_1965.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Mary_Allen_Wilkes_-_LINC_at_Home_-_1965.jpg/330px-Mary_Allen_Wilkes_-_LINC_at_Home_-_1965.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Mary_Allen_Wilkes_-_LINC_at_Home_-_1965.jpg/440px-Mary_Allen_Wilkes_-_LINC_at_Home_-_1965.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1903" data-file-height="1911" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mary_Allen_Wilkes" title="Mary Allen Wilkes">Mary Allen Wilkes</a> working on the <a href="/wiki/LINC" title="LINC">LINC</a> at home in 1965; thought to be the first home computer user</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Altair_8800_Computer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Altair_8800_Computer.jpg/220px-Altair_8800_Computer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Altair_8800_Computer.jpg/330px-Altair_8800_Computer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Altair_8800_Computer.jpg/440px-Altair_8800_Computer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1495" data-file-height="1349" /></a><figcaption>The 1974 <a href="/wiki/Micro_Instrumentation_and_Telemetry_Systems" title="Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems">MITS</a> <a href="/wiki/Altair_8800" title="Altair 8800">Altair 8800</a> home computer (atop extra 8-inch <a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">floppy disk</a> drive): one of the earliest computers affordable and marketed to private / home use from 1975, but many buyers got a kit, to be hand-<a href="/wiki/Solder" title="Solder">soldered</a> and assembled.</figcaption></figure> <p>As early as 1965, some experimental projects, such as Jim Sutherland's <a href="/wiki/ECHO_IV" title="ECHO IV">ECHO IV</a>, explored the possible utility of a computer in the home.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1969, the <a href="/wiki/Honeywell_316#Kitchen_Computer" title="Honeywell 316">Honeywell Kitchen Computer</a> was marketed as a luxury gift item, and would have inaugurated the era of home computing, but none were sold.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Computers became affordable for the general public in the 1970s due to the mass production of the <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a>, starting in 1971. <a href="/wiki/Category:Early_microcomputers" title="Category:Early microcomputers">Early microcomputers</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Altair_8800" title="Altair 8800">Altair 8800</a> had front-mounted switches and diagnostic lights (nicknamed "<a href="/wiki/Blinkenlights" title="Blinkenlights">blinkenlights</a>") to control and indicate internal system status, and were often sold in <a href="/wiki/Electronic_kit" title="Electronic kit">kit</a> form to hobbyists. These kits would contain an empty <a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">printed circuit board</a> which the buyer would fill with the <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a>, other individual electronic components, wires and connectors, and then hand-<a href="/wiki/Solder" title="Solder">solder</a> all the connections.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While two early home computers (<a href="/wiki/ZX80" title="ZX80">Sinclair ZX80</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acorn_Atom" title="Acorn Atom">Acorn Atom</a>) could be bought either in kit form or assembled, most home computers were only sold pre-assembled. They were enclosed in plastic or metal cases similar in appearance to <a href="/wiki/Typewriter" title="Typewriter">typewriter</a> or <a href="/wiki/High_fidelity" title="High fidelity">hi-fi</a> equipment enclosures, which were more familiar and attractive to consumers than the industrial metal card-cage enclosures used by the Altair and similar computers. The keyboard - a feature lacking on the Altair - was usually built into the same case as the <a href="/wiki/Motherboard" title="Motherboard">motherboard</a>. Ports for plug-in peripheral devices such as a video display, <a href="/wiki/Cassette_tape" title="Cassette tape">cassette tape</a> recorders, <a href="/wiki/Joystick" title="Joystick">joysticks</a>, and (later) disk drives were either built-in or available on <a href="/wiki/Expansion_card" title="Expansion card">expansion cards</a>. Although the <a href="/wiki/Apple_II" title="Apple II">Apple II</a> had internal expansion slots, most other home computer models' expansion arrangements were through externally-accessible 'expansion ports' that also served as a place to plug in cartridge-based games. Usually, the manufacturer would sell peripheral devices designed to be compatible with their computers as extra-cost accessories. Peripherals and software were not often interchangeable between different brands of home computer, or even between successive models of the same brand. </p><p>To save the cost of a dedicated monitor, the home computer would often connect through an <a href="/wiki/RF_modulator" title="RF modulator">RF modulator</a> to the family <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">TV</a> set, which served as both video display and sound system.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rise of the home computer also led to a fundamental shift during the early 1980s in where and how computers were purchased. Traditionally, microcomputers were obtained by <a href="/wiki/Mail_order" title="Mail order">mail order</a> or were purchased in person at general electronics retailers like <a href="/wiki/RadioShack" title="RadioShack">RadioShack</a>. <a href="/wiki/Silicon_Valley" title="Silicon Valley">Silicon Valley</a>, in the vanguard of the personal computer revolution, was the first place to see the appearance of new retail stores dedicated to selling only computer hardware, computer software, or both, and also the first place where such stores began to specialize in particular platforms.<sup id="cite_ref-Markoff_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markoff-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1982, an estimated 621,000 home computers were in American households, at an average sales price of <span style="white-space: nowrap">US$530</span> (equivalent to $1,673 in 2023).<sup id="cite_ref-blundell198301_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blundell198301-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the success of the <a href="/wiki/RadioShack" title="RadioShack">Radio Shack</a> <a href="/wiki/TRS-80" title="TRS-80">TRS-80</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Commodore_PET" title="Commodore PET">Commodore PET</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Apple_II_(1977_computer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Apple II (1977 computer)">original Apple II</a> in 1977, almost every manufacturer of <a href="/wiki/Consumer_electronics" title="Consumer electronics">consumer electronics</a> rushed to introduce a home computer. Large numbers of new machines of all types began to appear during the late 1970s and early 1980s. <a href="/wiki/Mattel" title="Mattel">Mattel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coleco" title="Coleco">Coleco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Timex_Group_USA" title="Timex Group USA">Timex</a>, none of which had any prior connection to the computer industry, all had short-lived home computer lines in the early 1980s. Some home computers were more successful. The <a href="/wiki/BBC_Micro" title="BBC Micro">BBC Micro</a>, <a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum">Sinclair ZX Spectrum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atari_8-bit_computers" title="Atari 8-bit computers">Atari 8-bit computers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Commodore_64" title="Commodore 64">Commodore 64</a> sold many units over several years and attracted third-party software development. </p><p>Almost universally, home computers had a <a href="/wiki/BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a> <a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a> combined with a <a href="/wiki/Line_editor" title="Line editor">line editor</a> in permanent <a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">read-only memory</a>, which one could use to type in BASIC programs and execute them immediately, or save them to tape or disk. In <a href="/wiki/Direct_mode" title="Direct mode">direct mode</a>, the BASIC interpreter was also used as the <a href="/wiki/User_interface" title="User interface">user interface</a>, and given tasks such as loading, saving, managing, and running files.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One exception was the <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_Ace" title="Jupiter Ace">Jupiter Ace</a>, which had a <a href="/wiki/Forth_(programming_language)" title="Forth (programming language)">Forth</a> interpreter instead of BASIC. A built-in programming language was seen as a requirement for any computer of the era, and was the main feature setting home computers apart from <a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">video game consoles</a>. </p><p>Still, home computers competed in the same market as the consoles. A home computer was often seen as simply a higher-end purchase than a console, adding abilities and productivity potential to what would still be mainly a gaming device. A <a href="/wiki/North_American_video_game_crash_of_1983#Competition_from_home_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="North American video game crash of 1983">common marketing tactic</a> was to show a computer system and console playing games side by side, then emphasizing the computer's greater ability by showing it running user-created programs, education software, word processing, spreadsheet, and other applications, while the game console showed a blank screen or continued playing the same repetitive game. Another capability home computers had that game consoles of the time lacked was the ability to access remote services over telephone lines by adding a <a href="/wiki/Serial_port" title="Serial port">serial port</a> interface, a <a href="/wiki/Modem" title="Modem">modem</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Communication_software" title="Communication software">communication software</a>. Though it could be costly, it permitted the computer user to access services like <a href="/wiki/Compuserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Compuserve">Compuserve</a>, and private or corporate <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_board_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulletin board systems">bulletin board systems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viewdata" title="Viewdata">viewdata</a> services to post or read messages, or to download or upload software. Some enthusiasts with computers equipped with large storage capacity and a dedicated phone line operated bulletin boards of their own. This capability anticipated the internet by nearly 20 years. </p><p>Some game consoles offered "programming packs" consisting of a version of BASIC in a <a href="/wiki/ROM_cartridge" title="ROM cartridge">ROM cartridge</a>. Atari's <a href="/wiki/BASIC_Programming" title="BASIC Programming">BASIC Programming</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Atari_2600" title="Atari 2600">Atari 2600</a> was one of these. For the <a href="/wiki/ColecoVision" title="ColecoVision">ColecoVision</a> console, <a href="/wiki/Coleco" title="Coleco">Coleco</a> even announced an expansion module which would convert it into a full-fledged computer system. The <a href="/wiki/Magnavox_Odyssey%C2%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnavox Odyssey²">Magnavox Odyssey²</a> console had a built-in keyboard to support its C7420 Home Computer Module. Among <a href="/wiki/Third_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Third generation of video game consoles">third-generation consoles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nintendo" title="Nintendo">Nintendo</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Family_Computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Family Computer">Family Computer</a> offered <a href="/wiki/Family_BASIC" title="Family BASIC">Family BASIC</a> (sold only in Japan), which included a keyboard that could be connected to an external tape recorder to load and store programs. </p><p>Books of <a href="/wiki/Type-in_program" title="Type-in program">type-in program</a> listings like <a href="/wiki/BASIC_Computer_Games" title="BASIC Computer Games">BASIC Computer Games</a> were available, dedicated for the BASICs of most models of computer, with titles along the lines of <i>64 Amazing BASIC Games for the Commodore 64</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While most of the programs in these books were short and simple games or <a href="/wiki/Demo_(computer_programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Demo (computer programming)">demos</a>, some titles, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Compute!" title="Compute!">Compute!</a></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s <a href="/wiki/SpeedScript" title="SpeedScript">SpeedScript</a> series, contained productivity software that rivaled commercial packages. To avoid the tedious process of typing in a program listing from a book, these books would sometimes include a mail-in offer from the author to obtain the programs on disk or cassette for a few dollars. Before the Internet, and before most computer owners had a <a href="/wiki/Modem" title="Modem">modem</a>, books were a popular and low-cost means of software distribution—one that had the advantage of incorporating its own documentation. These books also served a role in familiarizing new computer owners with the concepts of programming; some titles added suggested modifications to the program listings for the user to carry out. Applying a <a href="/wiki/Patch_(computing)" title="Patch (computing)">patch</a> to modify software to be compatible with one's system, or writing a <a href="/wiki/Utility_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Utility program">utility program</a> to fit one's needs, was a skill every advanced computer owner was expected to have.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the peak years of the home computer market, scores of models were produced, usually as individual design projects with little or no thought given to compatibility between different manufacturers, or even within product lines of the same manufacturer.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Except for the Japanese <a href="/wiki/MSX" title="MSX">MSX</a> standard,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the concept of a <a href="/wiki/Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">computer platform</a> was still forming, with most companies considering rudimentary BASIC language and disk format compatibility sufficient to claim a model as "compatible". Things were different in the business world, where cost-conscious small business owners had been using <a href="/wiki/CP/M" title="CP/M">CP/M</a> running on <a href="/wiki/Z80" class="mw-redirect" title="Z80">Z80</a>-based computers from <a href="/wiki/Osborne_Computer_Corporation" title="Osborne Computer Corporation">Osborne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kaypro" title="Kaypro">Kaypro</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Morrow_(computers)" title="George Morrow (computers)">Morrow Designs</a>, and a host of other manufacturers. For many of these businesses, the development of the microcomputer made <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Business_software" title="Business software">business software</a> affordable where they had not been before. </p><p>Introduced in August 1981, the <a href="/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer" title="IBM Personal Computer">IBM Personal Computer</a> would eventually supplant CP/M as the standard platform used in business. This was largely due to the IBM name and the system's <a href="/wiki/16_bit" class="mw-redirect" title="16 bit">16 bit</a> <a href="/wiki/Open_architecture" title="Open architecture">open architecture</a>, which expanded maximum memory tenfold, and also encouraged production of <a href="/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM PC compatible">third-party clones</a>. In the late 1970s, the 6502-based Apple II had carved out a niche for itself in business, thanks to the industry's first <a href="/wiki/Killer_application" title="Killer application">killer app</a>, <a href="/wiki/VisiCalc" title="VisiCalc">VisiCalc</a>, released in 1979. However, the Apple II would quickly be displaced for office use by IBM PC compatibles running <a href="/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3" title="Lotus 1-2-3">Lotus 1-2-3</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Apple_Computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Apple Computer">Apple Computer</a>'s 1980 <a href="/wiki/Apple_III" title="Apple III">Apple III</a> was underwhelming, and although the 1984 release of the <a href="/wiki/Macintosh" class="mw-redirect" title="Macintosh">Macintosh</a> introduced the modern <a href="/wiki/Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">GUI</a> to the market, it was not common until <a href="/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM PC compatible">IBM-compatible</a> computers adopted it.<sup id="cite_ref-nerds_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nerds-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout the 1980s, businesses large and small adopted the PC platform, leading, by the end of the decade, to sub-US$1000 <a href="/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer_XT" title="IBM Personal Computer XT">IBM PC XT</a>-class <a href="/wiki/White_box_(computer_hardware)" title="White box (computer hardware)">white box</a> machines, usually <a href="/wiki/Outsourcing" title="Outsourcing">built in Asia and sold by US companies</a> like <a href="/wiki/Dell" title="Dell">PCs Limited</a>. </p><p>In 1980, <a href="/wiki/Wayne_Green" title="Wayne Green">Wayne Green</a>, the publisher of <i><a href="/wiki/Kilobaud_Microcomputing" title="Kilobaud Microcomputing">Kilobaud Microcomputing</a></i>, recommended that companies avoid the term "home computer" in their advertising, as it "I feel is self-limiting for sales...I prefer the term "microcomputers" since it doesn't limit the uses of the equipment in the imagination of the prospective customers".<sup id="cite_ref-green198007_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-green198007-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the exception of Tandy,<sup id="cite_ref-ferrell198807_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ferrell198807-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> most computer companies – even those with a majority of sales to home users – agreed, avoiding the term "home computer" because of its association with the image of, as <i>Compute!</i> wrote, "a low-powered, low-end machine primarily suited for playing games". Apple consistently avoided stating that it was a home-computer company, and described the <a href="/wiki/Apple_IIc" title="Apple IIc">IIc</a> as "a serious computer for the serious home user", despite competing against IBM's <a href="/wiki/IBM_PCjr" title="IBM PCjr">PCjr</a> home computer. <a href="/wiki/John_Sculley" title="John Sculley">John Sculley</a> denied that his company sold home computers; rather, he said, Apple sold "computers for use in the home".<sup id="cite_ref-wp19831106_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wp19831106-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sanger19840517_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sanger19840517-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-halfhill198612_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-halfhill198612-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1990, the company reportedly refused to support joysticks on its low-cost <a href="/wiki/Macintosh_LC" title="Macintosh LC">Macintosh LC</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macintosh_IIsi" title="Macintosh IIsi">IIsi</a> computers to prevent customers from considering them as "game machines".<sup id="cite_ref-cgw199012_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cgw199012-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the Apple II and Atari computers are functionally similar, Atari's home-oriented marketing resulted in a game-heavy library with much less business software.<sup id="cite_ref-aw1984_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aw1984-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the late 1980s, many <a href="/wiki/Mass_merchant" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass merchant">mass merchants</a> sold <a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">video game consoles</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Nintendo_Entertainment_System" title="Nintendo Entertainment System">Nintendo Entertainment System</a>, but no longer sold home computers.<sup id="cite_ref-harris19870512_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harris19870512-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Toward the end of the 1980s, clones also became popular with non-corporate customers. Inexpensive, highly-compatible clones succeeded where the PCjr had failed. Replacing the hobbyists who had made up the majority of the home computer market were, as <i>Compute!</i> described them, "people who want to take work home from the office now and then, play a game now and then, learn more about computers, and help educate their children". By 1986, industry experts predicted an "MS-DOS Christmas", and the magazine stated that clones threatened Commodore, Atari, and Apple's domination of the home-computer market.<sup id="cite_ref-halfhill198612_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-halfhill198612-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The declining cost of IBM compatibles on the one hand, and the greatly-increased graphics, sound, and storage abilities of <a href="/wiki/History_of_video_game_consoles_(fourth_generation)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of video game consoles (fourth generation)">fourth generation</a> video game consoles such as the <a href="/wiki/Sega_Genesis" title="Sega Genesis">Sega Genesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Super_Nintendo_Entertainment_System" title="Super Nintendo Entertainment System">Super Nintendo Entertainment System</a> on the other, combined to cause the market segment for home computers to vanish by the early 1990s in the US. In Europe, the home computer remained a distinct presence for a few years more, with the low-end models of the <a href="/wiki/16-bit" class="mw-redirect" title="16-bit">16-bit</a> Amiga and Atari ST families being the dominant players, but by the mid-1990s, even the European market had dwindled.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Dutch government even ran a program that allowed businesses to sell computers tax-free to its employees, often accompanied by home training programs. Naturally, these businesses chose to equip their employees with the same systems they themselves were using. Today, a computer bought for home use anywhere will be very similar to those used in offices; made by the same manufacturers, with compatible peripherals, operating systems, and application software. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology">Technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_computer&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:C64c_system.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/C64c_system.jpg/220px-C64c_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/C64c_system.jpg/330px-C64c_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/C64c_system.jpg/440px-C64c_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1246" data-file-height="890" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Commodore_64" title="Commodore 64">Commodore 64</a> system, showing the basic layout of a typical home computer system of the era. Pictured are the CPU/keyboard unit, floppy disk drive, and dedicated color monitor. Many systems also had a <a href="/wiki/Dot_matrix_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Dot matrix printer">dot matrix printer</a> for producing paper output.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kc85-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Kc85-3.jpg/220px-Kc85-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Kc85-3.jpg/330px-Kc85-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Kc85-3.jpg/440px-Kc85-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1930" data-file-height="1099" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/East_German" class="mw-redirect" title="East German">East German</a> <a href="/wiki/KC_85" title="KC 85">KC 85/3</a> with its keyboard placed on top, released by VEB Mikroelektronik Mühlhausen 1986 and based on a <a href="/wiki/Zilog_Z80" title="Zilog Z80">Zilog Z80</a> clone</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bk0010-01-sideview.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bk0010-01-sideview.jpg/220px-Bk0010-01-sideview.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bk0010-01-sideview.jpg/330px-Bk0010-01-sideview.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bk0010-01-sideview.jpg/440px-Bk0010-01-sideview.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="851" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> <a href="/wiki/Electronika_BK#Electronika_BK-0010.01" title="Electronika BK">Electronika BK0010.01</a> home computer was based on the <a href="/wiki/1801_series_CPU" title="1801 series CPU">К1801ВМ1</a> (Soviet <a href="/wiki/LSI-11" class="mw-redirect" title="LSI-11">LSI-11</a>-compatible CPU) and was, basically, a variation of <a href="/wiki/PDP-11" title="PDP-11">PDP-11</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Many home computers were superficially similar. Most had a keyboard integrated into the same case as the <a href="/wiki/Motherboard" title="Motherboard">motherboard</a>, or, more frequently, a <a href="/wiki/Mainboard" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainboard">mainboard</a>. While the expandable home computers appeared from the very start (the <a href="/wiki/Apple_II" title="Apple II">Apple II</a> offered as many as seven expansion slots) as the whole segment was generally aimed <a href="/wiki/Downmarket" class="mw-redirect" title="Downmarket">downmarket</a>, few offers were priced or positioned high enough to allow for such expandability. Some systems have only one expansion port, often realized in the form of cumbersome "sidecar" systems, such as on the <a href="/wiki/TI-99/4" class="mw-redirect" title="TI-99/4">TI-99/4</a>, or required finicky and unwieldy <a href="/wiki/Ribbon_cable" title="Ribbon cable">ribbon cables</a> to connect the expansion modules. </p><p>Sometimes they were equipped with a cheap <a href="/wiki/Membrane_keyboard" title="Membrane keyboard">membrane</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chiclet_keyboard" title="Chiclet keyboard">chiclet keyboard</a> in the early days, although full-travel keyboards quickly became universal due to overwhelming consumer preference. Most systems could use an <a href="/wiki/RF_modulator" title="RF modulator">RF modulator</a> to display 20–40 column text output on a home television. Indeed, the use of a television set as a display almost defines the pre-PC home computer. Although dedicated <a href="/wiki/Composite_video" title="Composite video">composite</a> or "<a href="/wiki/Monochrome_monitor" title="Monochrome monitor">green screen</a>" computer displays were available for this market segment and offered a sharper display, a monitor was often a later purchase made only after users had bought a <a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">floppy disk</a> drive, printer, modem, and the other pieces of a full system. The reason for this was that while those TV-monitors had difficulty displaying the clear and readable 80-column text that became the industry standard at the time, the only consumers who <i>really</i> needed that were the power users utilizing the machine for business purposes, while the average casual consumer would use the system for games only and was content with the lower resolution, for which a TV worked fine. An important exception was the <a href="/wiki/Radio_Shack" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio Shack">Radio Shack</a> <a href="/wiki/TRS-80" title="TRS-80">TRS-80</a>, the first mass-marketed computer for home use, which included its own 64-column display monitor and full-travel keyboard as standard features. </p><p>This "<a href="/wiki/Peripheral" title="Peripheral">peripherals</a> sold separately" approach is another defining characteristic of the home computer era. A first-time computer buyer who brought a base C-64 system home and hooked it up to their TV would find they needed to buy a <a href="/wiki/Disk_drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Disk drive">disk drive</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Commodore_1541" title="Commodore 1541">Commodore 1541</a> was the only fully-compatible model) or <a href="/wiki/Commodore_Datasette" title="Commodore Datasette">Datasette</a> before they could make use of it as anything but a game machine or <a href="/wiki/TV_Typewriter" title="TV Typewriter">TV Typewriter</a>. </p><p>In the early part of the 1980s, the dominant <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessors</a> used in home computers were the <a href="/wiki/8-bit" class="mw-redirect" title="8-bit">8-bit</a> <a href="/wiki/MOS_Technology" title="MOS Technology">MOS Technology</a> <a href="/wiki/MOS_Technology_6502" title="MOS Technology 6502">6502</a> (Apple, Commodore, Atari, <a href="/wiki/BBC_Micro" title="BBC Micro">BBC Micro</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Zilog_Z80" title="Zilog Z80">Zilog Z80</a> (<a href="/wiki/TRS-80" title="TRS-80">TRS-80</a>, <a href="/wiki/ZX81" title="ZX81">ZX81</a>, <a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum">ZX Spectrum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commodore_128" title="Commodore 128">Commodore 128</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amstrad_CPC" title="Amstrad CPC">Amstrad CPC</a>). One exception was the <a href="/wiki/TI-99/4" class="mw-redirect" title="TI-99/4">TI-99/4</a>, announced in 1979 with a 16-bit <a href="/wiki/TMS9900" title="TMS9900">TMS9900</a> CPU.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The TI was originally to use the 8-bit 9985 processor designed especially for it, but this project was cancelled. However, the <a href="/wiki/Glue_logic" title="Glue logic">glue logic</a> needed to retrofit the 16-bit CPU to an 8-bit 9985 system negated the advantages of the more powerful CPU.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another exception was the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika">Elektronika</a> <a href="/wiki/Elektronika_BK" class="mw-redirect" title="Elektronika BK">BK</a> series of 1984, which used the fully-16-bit and powerful for the time <a href="/wiki/1801_series_CPU" title="1801 series CPU">1801 series CPU</a>, offering a full <a href="/wiki/PDP-11" title="PDP-11">PDP-11</a> compatibility and a fully functional <a href="/wiki/Q-Bus" title="Q-Bus">Q-Bus</a> slot, though at the cost of very anemic <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a> and graphics. The <a href="/wiki/Motorola" title="Motorola">Motorola</a> <a href="/wiki/6809" class="mw-redirect" title="6809">6809</a> was used by the Radio Shack <a href="/wiki/TRS-80_Color_Computer" title="TRS-80 Color Computer">TRS-80 Color Computer</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fujitsu" title="Fujitsu">Fujitsu</a> <a href="/wiki/FM-7" title="FM-7">FM-7</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dragon_32/64" title="Dragon 32/64">Dragon 32/64</a>. </p><p>Processor <a href="/wiki/Clock_rate" title="Clock rate">clock rates</a> were typically 1–2 MHz for 6502 and 6809-based CPUs and 2–4 MHz for Z80-based systems (yielding roughly equal performance), but this aspect was not emphasized by users or manufacturers, as the systems' limited RAM capacity, graphics abilities, and storage options had a more perceivable effect on performance than CPU speed. For low-price computers, the cost of RAM memory chips contributed greatly to the final product price to the consumer, and fast CPUs demanded expensive, fast memory. As a result, designers kept clock rates only adequate. In some cases, like the Atari and Commodore 8-bit machines, coprocessors were added to speed processing of graphics and audio data. For these computers, clock rate was considered a technical detail of interest only to users needing accurate timing for their own programs. To economize on component cost, often the same <a href="/wiki/Crystal_oscillator" title="Crystal oscillator">crystal</a> used to produce color television-compatible signals was also divided down and used for the processor clock. This meant processors rarely operated at their full rated speed, and had the side-effect that <a href="/wiki/PAL" title="PAL">European</a> and <a href="/wiki/NTSC" title="NTSC">North American</a> versions of the same home computer operated at slightly different speeds and different video resolution due to different television standards. </p><p>Initially, many home computers used the then-ubiquitous <a href="/wiki/Compact_Cassette" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact Cassette">compact audio cassette</a> as a storage mechanism. A rough analogy to how this worked would be to place a recorder on the phone line as a file was uploaded by <a href="/wiki/Modem" title="Modem">modem</a> to "save" it, and playing the recording back through the modem to "load".<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most cassette implementations were notoriously slow and unreliable, but 8" drives were too bulky for home use, and early 5.25" form-factor drives were priced for business use, out of reach of most home buyers.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An innovative alternative was the <a href="/wiki/Exatron_Stringy_Floppy" title="Exatron Stringy Floppy">Exatron Stringy Floppy</a>, a continuous-loop tape drive which was much faster than a <a href="/wiki/Datacassette" class="mw-redirect" title="Datacassette">data cassette</a> drive and could perform much like a floppy disk drive. It was available for the <a href="/wiki/TRS-80" title="TRS-80">TRS-80</a> and some others. A closely-related technology was the <a href="/wiki/ZX_Microdrive" title="ZX Microdrive">ZX Microdrive</a>, developed by <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Research" title="Sinclair Research">Sinclair Research</a> in the UK, for their <a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum">ZX Spectrum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_QL" title="Sinclair QL">QL</a> home computers. </p><p>Eventually, mass production of 5.25" drives resulted in lower prices, and after about 1984, they pushed cassette drives out of the US home computer market. 5.25" floppy disk drives would remain standard until the end of the 8-bit era. Though external 3.5" drives were made available for home computer systems toward the latter part of the 1980s, almost all software sold for 8-bit home computers remained on 5.25" disks. 3.5" drives were used for data storage, with the exception of the Japanese <a href="/wiki/MSX" title="MSX">MSX</a> standard, on which 5.25" floppies were never popular. Standardization of disk formats was not common; sometimes, even different models from the same manufacturer used different disk formats. Almost universally, the floppy disk drives available for 8-bit home computers were housed in external cases, with their own controller boards and power supplies contained within. Only the later, advanced 8-bit home computers housed their drives within the main unit; these included the <a href="/wiki/TRS-80_Model_III" class="mw-redirect" title="TRS-80 Model III">TRS-80 Model III</a>, <a href="/wiki/TRS-80_Model_4" title="TRS-80 Model 4">TRS-80 Model 4</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apple_IIc" title="Apple IIc">Apple IIc</a>, <a href="/wiki/MSX2" class="mw-redirect" title="MSX2">MSX2</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Commodore_128D" class="mw-redirect" title="Commodore 128D">Commodore 128D</a>. The later 16-bit machines, such as the <a href="/wiki/Atari_ST" title="Atari ST">Atari 1040ST</a> (not the 520ST), <a href="/wiki/Amiga" title="Amiga">Amiga</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tandy_1000" title="Tandy 1000">Tandy 1000</a>, did house floppy drive(s) internally. At any rate, to expand any computer with additional floppy drives, external units would have to be plugged in. </p><p>Toward the end of the home computer era, drives for a number of home computer models appeared offering disk-format compatibility with the IBM PC. The disk drives sold with the Commodore 128, Amiga, and Atari ST were all able to read and write PC disks, which themselves were undergoing the transition from 5.25" to 3.5" format at the time (though 5.25" drives remained common on PCs until the late 1990s, due to existence of the large software and data archives on five-inch floppies). 5.25" drives were made available for the ST, Amiga, and Macintosh, otherwise 3.5" based systems with no other use for a 5.25" format. <a href="/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">Hard drives</a> were never popular on home computers, remaining an expensive, niche product mainly for <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_board_system" title="Bulletin board system">BBS</a> <a href="/wiki/Sysop" title="Sysop">sysops</a> and the few business users. </p><p>Various <a href="/wiki/Copy_protection" title="Copy protection">copy protection</a> schemes were developed for floppy disks; most were broken in short order. Many users would only tolerate copy protection for games, as wear and tear on disks was a significant issue in an entirely floppy-based system. The ability to make a "working backup" disk of vital application software was seen as important. Copy programs that advertised their ability to copy or even remove common protection schemes were a common category of <a href="/wiki/Utility_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Utility program">utility software</a> in this pre-<a href="/wiki/Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act" title="Digital Millennium Copyright Act">DMCA</a> era. </p><p>In another defining characteristic of the home computer, instead of a <a href="/wiki/Command-line_interface" title="Command-line interface">command line</a>, the <a href="/wiki/BASIC_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="BASIC programming language">BASIC</a> <a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computer_software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreter (computer software)">interpreter</a> served double duty as a user interface. Coupled to a character-based <a href="/wiki/Visual_editor" title="Visual editor">screen</a> or <a href="/wiki/Line_editor" title="Line editor">line editor</a>, BASIC's file management commands could be entered in <a href="/wiki/Direct_mode" title="Direct mode">direct mode</a>. In contrast to modern computers, home computers most often had their <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> (OS) stored in <a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">ROM</a> chips. This made startup times very fast (no more than a few seconds), but made OS upgrades difficult or impossible without buying a new unit. Usually, only the most severe bugs were fixed by issuing new ROMs to replace the old ones at the user's cost. In addition, the small size and limited scope of home computer "operating systems" (really little more than what today would be called a kernel) left little room for bugs to hide. </p><p>Although modern operating systems include extensive <a href="/wiki/Application_programming_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Application programming interface">programming libraries</a> to ease development and promote standardization, home computer operating systems provided little support to application programs. Professionally-written software often <a href="/wiki/Bank_switching" title="Bank switching">switched out</a> the ROM-based OS anyway to free the <a href="/wiki/Address_space" title="Address space">address space</a> it occupied and maximize RAM capacity. This gave the program full control of the hardware and allowed the programmer to optimize performance for a specific task. Games would often turn off unused I/O ports, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Interrupts" class="mw-redirect" title="Interrupts">interrupts</a> that served them. As <a href="/wiki/Computer_multitasking" title="Computer multitasking">multitasking</a> was never common on home computers, this practice went largely unnoticed by users. Most software even lacked an exit command, requiring a reboot to use the system for something else. </p><p>In an enduring reflection of their early cassette-oriented nature, most home computers loaded their <a href="/wiki/Disk_operating_system" title="Disk operating system">disk operating system</a> (DOS) separately from the main OS. The DOS was only used for disk and file-related commands and was not required to perform other computing functions. One exception was <a href="/wiki/Commodore_DOS" title="Commodore DOS">Commodore DOS</a>, which was not loaded into the computer's main memory at all – Commodore disk drives contained a 6502 processor and ran DOS from internal ROM. While this gave Commodore systems some advanced capabilities – a utility program could <a href="/wiki/Sideload" class="mw-redirect" title="Sideload">sideload</a> a disk copy routine onto the drive and return control to the user while the drive copied the disk on its own – it also made Commodore drives more expensive and difficult to clone. </p><p>Many home computers had a <a href="/wiki/ROM_cartridge" title="ROM cartridge">cartridge</a> interface which accepted ROM-based software. This was also used for expansion or upgrades such as <a href="/wiki/Fast_loader" title="Fast loader">fast loaders</a>. Application software on cartridge did exist, which loaded instantly and eliminated the need for <a href="/wiki/Disk_swapping" title="Disk swapping">disk swapping</a> on single-drive setups, but the vast majority of cartridges were games.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="PCs_at_home">PCs at home</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_computer&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: PCs at home"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> <a href="/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer" title="IBM Personal Computer">Personal Computer</a> (ubiquitously known as the PC) in 1981, the market for computers meant for the corporate, business, and government sectors came to be dominated by the new machine and its <a href="/wiki/MS-DOS" title="MS-DOS">MS-DOS</a> operating system. Even basic PCs cost thousands of dollars and were far out of reach for typical home computer users. However, in the following years, technological advances and improved manufacturing capabilities (mainly greater use of robotics and relocation of production plants to lower-wage locations in Asia) permitted several computer companies to offer lower-cost, PC-style machines that would become competitive with many 8-bit home-market pioneers like Radio Shack, Commodore, Atari, Texas Instruments, and Sinclair. PCs could never become as affordable as these because the same price-reducing measures were available to all computer makers. Furthermore, software and peripherals for PC-style computers tended to cost more than those for 8-bit computers because of the <a href="/wiki/Anchoring" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchoring">anchoring</a> effect caused by the pricey IBM PC. As well, PCs were inherently more expensive since they could not use the home TV set as a video display. Nonetheless, the overall reduction in manufacturing costs narrowed the price difference between old 8-bit technology and new PCs. Despite their higher absolute prices, PCs were perceived by many to be better values for their utility as superior productivity tools and their access to industry-standard software. Another advantage was the 8088/8086's wide, 20-bit address bus. The PC could access more than 64 kilobytes of memory relatively inexpensively (8-bit CPUs, which generally had multiplexed 16-bit address buses, required complicated, tricky memory management techniques like <a href="/wiki/Bank-switching" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank-switching">bank-switching</a>). Similarly, the default PC floppy was double-sided, with about twice the storage capacity of floppy disks used by 8-bit home computers. PC drives tended to cost less because they were most often built-in, requiring no external case, controller, or power supply. The faster clock rates and wider buses available to later Intel CPUs compensated somewhat for the custom graphics and sound chips of the Commodores and Ataris. In time, the growing popularity of home PCs spurred many software publishers to offer gaming and children's software titles.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many decision-makers in the computer industry believed there could be a viable market for office workers who used PC/DOS computers at their jobs and would appreciate an ability to bring diskettes of data home on weeknights and weekends to continue work after-hours on their "home" computers. So, the ability to run industry-standard <a href="/wiki/MS-DOS" title="MS-DOS">MS-DOS</a> software on affordable, user-friendly PCs was anticipated as a source of new sales. Furthermore, many in the industry felt that MS-DOS would eventually (inevitably, it seemed) come to dominate the computer business entirely, and some manufacturers felt the need to offer individual customers PC-style products suitable for the home market. </p><p>In early 1984, market colossus IBM produced the <a href="/wiki/PCjr" class="mw-redirect" title="PCjr">PCjr</a> as a PC/DOS-compatible machine aimed squarely at the home user. It proved a spectacular failure because IBM deliberately limited its capabilities and expansion possibilities in order to avoid cannibalizing sales of the profitable PC. IBM management believed that if they made the PCjr too powerful, too many buyers would prefer it over the bigger, more expensive PC. Poor reviews in the computer press and poor sales doomed the PCjr. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tandy_Corporation" title="Tandy Corporation">Tandy Corporation</a> capitalized on IBM's blunder with its PCjr-compatible <a href="/wiki/Tandy_1000" title="Tandy 1000">Tandy 1000</a> in November. Like the PCjr, it was pitched as a home, education, and small-business computer, featuring joystick ports, better sound and graphics (same as the PCjr but with enhancements), combined with near-PC/DOS compatibility (unlike Tandy's earlier <a href="/wiki/Tandy_2000" title="Tandy 2000">Tandy 2000</a>). The improved Tandy 1000 video hardware became a standard of its own, known as <a href="/wiki/Tandy_Graphics_Adapter" title="Tandy Graphics Adapter">Tandy Graphics Adapter</a> or TGA. Later, Tandy produced Tandy 1000 variants in form factors and price-points even more suited to the home computer market, comprised particularly by the Tandy 1000 EX<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and HX<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> models (later supplanted by the 1000 RL<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), which came in cases resembling the original Apple IIs (CPU, keyboard, expansion slots, and power supply in a slimline cabinet) but also included floppy disk drives. The proprietary <a href="/wiki/Deskmate" title="Deskmate">Deskmate</a> productivity suite came bundled with the Tandy 1000s. Deskmate was suited to use by computer novices with its point-and-click (though not graphical) user interface. From the launch of the Tandy 1000 series, their manufacture were price-competitive because of Tandy's use of high-density <a href="/wiki/ASIC" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIC">ASIC</a> chip technology, which allowed their engineers to integrate many hardware features into the motherboard (obviating the need for circuit cards in expansion slots as with other brands of PC). Tandy never transferred its manufacturing operation to Asia; all Tandy desktop computers were built in the USA (this was not true of the laptop and pocket computers, nor peripherals). </p><p>In 1985, the <a href="/wiki/Seiko_Epson" class="mw-redirect" title="Seiko Epson">Epson</a> corporation, a popular and respected producer of inexpensive dot-matrix printers and business computers (the <a href="/wiki/QX-10" class="mw-redirect" title="QX-10">QX-10</a> and <a href="/wiki/QX-16" class="mw-redirect" title="QX-16">QX-16</a>), introduced its low-cost <a href="/wiki/Epson_Equity" title="Epson Equity">Epson Equity</a><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PC. Its designers took minor shortcuts, such as few expansion slots and a lack of a socket for an <a href="/wiki/Intel_8087" title="Intel 8087">8087</a> math chip, but Epson did bundle some utility programs that offered decent turnkey functionality for novice users. While not a high performer, the Equity was a reliable and compatible design for half the price of a similarly-configured IBM PC. Epson often promoted sales by bundling one of their printers with it at cost. The Equity I sold well enough to warrant the furtherance of the Equity line with the follow-on Equity II and Equity III. </p><p>In 1986, UK home computer maker <a href="/wiki/Amstrad" title="Amstrad">Amstrad</a> began producing their <a href="/wiki/Amstrad_PC1512" class="mw-redirect" title="Amstrad PC1512">PC1512</a><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PC-compatible for sale in the UK. Later they would market the machine in the US as the PC6400. In June 1987, an improved model was produced as the PC1640. These machines had fast <a href="/wiki/Intel_8086" title="Intel 8086">8086</a> CPUs, enhanced <a href="/wiki/Color_Graphics_Adapter" title="Color Graphics Adapter">CGA</a> graphics, and were feature-laden for their modest prices. They had joystick adapters built into their keyboards and shipped with a licensed version of the <a href="/wiki/Digital_Research" title="Digital Research">Digital Research</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Graphics_Environment_Manager" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphics Environment Manager">GEM</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Graphical_User_Interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphical User Interface">GUI</a> for the MS-DOS operating system. They became marginal successes in the home market. </p><p>In 1987, longtime small computer maker <a href="/wiki/Zenith_Data_Systems" title="Zenith Data Systems">Zenith</a> introduced a low-cost PC they called the <a href="/wiki/Zenith_Eazy_PC" title="Zenith Eazy PC">EaZy PC</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was positioned as an "appliance" computer much like the original Apple Macintosh: turnkey startup, built-in monochrome video monitor, and lacking expansion slots, requiring proprietary add-ons available only from Zenith, but instead with the traditional MS-DOS <a href="/wiki/Command-line_interface" title="Command-line interface">Command-line interface</a>. The EaZy PC used a turbo NEC V40 CPU (up-rated 8088) which was rather slow for its time, but the video monitor did feature 400-pixel vertical resolution. This unique computer failed for the same reasons as did IBM's PCjr: poor performance and expandability, and a price too high for the home market. </p><p>Another company that offered low-cost PCs for home use was <a href="/wiki/Leading_Edge_Hardware_Products" class="mw-redirect" title="Leading Edge Hardware Products">Leading Edge</a>, with their Model M and <a href="/wiki/Leading_Edge_Model_D" title="Leading Edge Model D">Model D</a> computers. These were configured like full-featured business PCs, yet still could compete in the home market on price because Leading Edge had access to low-cost hardware from their Asian manufacturing partners <a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi" title="Mitsubishi">Mitsubishi</a> with the Model M and <a href="/wiki/Dongbu_Daewoo_Electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Dongbu Daewoo Electronics">Daewoo</a> with the Model D. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Leading_Edge_Word_Processor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leading Edge Word Processor (page does not exist)">LEWP</a> was bundled with the Model D. It was favorably reviewed by the computer press and sold very well.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the mid '80s, the market for inexpensive PCs for use in the home market was expanding at such a rate that the two leaders in the US, <a href="/wiki/Commodore_PC_compatible_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Commodore PC compatible systems">Commodore</a> and Atari, themselves felt compelled to enter the market with their own lines. They were only marginally successful compared to other companies that made only PCs.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Still, later prices of <a href="/wiki/White_box_(computer_hardware)" title="White box (computer hardware)">white box</a> PC clone computers by various manufacturers became competitive with the higher-end home computers (see below). Throughout the 1980s, costs and prices continued to be driven down by: advanced circuit design and manufacturing, multi-function expansion cards, <a href="/wiki/Shareware" title="Shareware">shareware</a> applications such as <a href="/wiki/PC-Talk" title="PC-Talk">PC-Talk</a>, <a href="/wiki/PC-Write" title="PC-Write">PC-Write</a>, and <a href="/wiki/PC-File" title="PC-File">PC-File</a>, greater hardware reliability, and more user-friendly software that demanded less customer support services. The increasing availability of faster processor and memory chips, inexpensive <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_Graphics_Adapter" title="Enhanced Graphics Adapter">EGA</a> and <a href="/wiki/VGA" class="mw-redirect" title="VGA">VGA</a> video cards, <a href="/wiki/Sound_cards" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound cards">sound cards</a>, and joystick adapters also bolstered the viability of PC/DOS computers as alternatives to specially-made computers and game consoles for the home. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High_performance">High performance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_computer&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: High performance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From about 1985, the high end of the home computer market began to be dominated by "next-generation" home computers using the 16-bit <a href="/wiki/Motorola" title="Motorola">Motorola</a> <a href="/wiki/Motorola_68000" title="Motorola 68000">68000</a> chip, which enabled the greatly-increased abilities of the <a href="/wiki/Amiga" title="Amiga">Amiga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atari_ST" title="Atari ST">Atari ST</a> series (in the UK, the <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_QL" title="Sinclair QL">Sinclair QL</a> was built around the <a href="/wiki/Motorola_68008" title="Motorola 68008">Motorola 68008</a> with its external 8-bit bus). Graphics resolutions approximately doubled to give roughly <a href="/wiki/NTSC" title="NTSC">NTSC</a>-class resolution, and color palettes increased from dozens to hundreds or thousands of colors available. The Amiga was built with a custom <a href="/wiki/Chipset" title="Chipset">chipset</a> with dedicated graphics and sound <a href="/wiki/Coprocessor" title="Coprocessor">coprocessors</a> for high-performance video and audio. The Amiga found use as a workstation for <a href="/wiki/Desktop_video" title="Desktop video">desktop video</a>, a first for a stand-alone computer, costing far less than dedicated motion-video processing equipment costing many thousands of dollars. Stereo sound became standard for the first time; the Atari ST gained popularity as an affordable alternative for <a href="/wiki/MIDI" title="MIDI">MIDI</a> equipment for the production of music. </p><p>Clock rates on the 68000-based systems were approximately <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7006800000000000000♠"></span>8 <a href="/wiki/Megahertz" class="mw-redirect" title="Megahertz">MHz</a></span> with RAM capacities of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7006204800000000000♠"></span>256 <a href="/wiki/Kilobyte" title="Kilobyte">kB</a></span> (for the base Amiga 1000<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) up to <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7006819200000000000♠"></span>1024 kB</span> (<span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7006800000000000000♠"></span>1 <a href="/wiki/Megabyte" title="Megabyte">MB</a></span>, a milestone, first seen on the Atari 1040ST). These systems used 3.5" floppy disks from the beginning, but 5.25" drives were made available to facilitate data exchange with IBM PC compatibles. The Amiga and ST both had <a href="/wiki/Graphical_User_Interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphical User Interface">GUIs</a> with windowing technology. These were inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Macintosh" class="mw-redirect" title="Macintosh">Macintosh</a>, but at a list price of <span style="white-space: nowrap">US$2,495</span> (equivalent to $7,100 in 2023), the Macintosh itself was too expensive for most households. The Amiga in particular had true <a href="/wiki/Computer_multitasking" title="Computer multitasking">multitasking</a> capability, and unlike all other low-cost computers of the era, could run multiple applications in their own windows. </p><p>The second generation of <a href="/wiki/MSX" title="MSX">MSX</a> computers (MSX2) achieved the performance of high-performance computers using a high-speed video processor (<a href="/wiki/Yamaha_V9938" title="Yamaha V9938">Yamaha V9938</a>) capable of handling resolutions of 512<span class="nowrap"> × </span>424 pixels, and 256 simultaneous colors from a palette of 512. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="MSX">MSX</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_computer&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: MSX"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/MSX" title="MSX">MSX</a> was a standard for a home computing architecture that was intended and hoped to become a universal platform for home computing. It was conceived, engineered and marketed by <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Japan" title="Microsoft Japan">Microsoft Japan</a> with <a href="/wiki/ASCII_Corporation" title="ASCII Corporation">ASCII Corporation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Computers conforming to the MSX standard were produced by most all major Japanese electronics manufacturers, as well as two Korean ones and several others in Europe and South America. Some 5 million units are known to have been sold in Japan alone. They sold in smaller numbers throughout the world. Due to the "price wars" being waged in the USA home computer market during the 1983-85 period, MSX computers were never marketed to any great extent in the USA. Eventually more advanced mainstream home computers and game consoles obsoleted the MSX machines. </p><p>The MSX computers were built around the <a href="/wiki/Zilog_Z80" title="Zilog Z80">Zilog Z80</a> 8-bit processor, assisted with dedicated video graphics and audio coprocessors supplied by <a href="/wiki/Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a>, and <a href="/wiki/General_Instrument" title="General Instrument">General Instrument</a>. MSX computers received a great deal of software support from the traditional Japanese publishers of game software. <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/MSX-DOS" title="MSX-DOS">MSX-DOS</a> operating system, a version of their popular <a href="/wiki/MS-DOS" title="MS-DOS">MS-DOS</a> adapted to the architecture of these machines, that was also able to run <a href="/wiki/CP/M" title="CP/M">CP/M</a> software directly </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radio_frequency_interference">Radio frequency interference</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_computer&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Radio frequency interference"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the first wave of game consoles and computers landed in American homes, the United States <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) began receiving complaints of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_interference" title="Electromagnetic interference">electromagnetic interference</a> to television reception. By 1979 the FCC demanded that home computer makers submit samples for radio frequency interference testing. It was found that "first generation" home computers emitted too much radio frequency noise for household use. The <a href="/wiki/Atari_800" class="mw-redirect" title="Atari 800">Atari 400 and 800</a> were designed with heavy RF shielding to meet the new requirements. Between 1980 and 1982 regulations governing RF emittance from home computers were phased in.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some companies appealed to the FCC to waive the requirements for home computers, while others (with compliant designs) objected to the waiver. Eventually techniques to <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_compatibility" title="Electromagnetic compatibility">suppress interference</a> became standardized.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception_and_sociological_impact">Reception and sociological impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_computer&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Reception and sociological impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article <b>may not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Home_computer&action=edit">improve this article</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Home_computer" title="Talk:Home computer">talk page</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_wizard" title="Wikipedia:Article wizard">create a new article</a>, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Microcomputer_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcomputer revolution">Microcomputer revolution</a></div> <p>In 1977, referring to computers used in home automation at the dawn of the home computer era, <a href="/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation" title="Digital Equipment Corporation">Digital Equipment Corporation</a> CEO <a href="/wiki/Ken_Olsen" title="Ken Olsen">Ken Olsen</a> is quoted as saying "There is no reason for any individual to have a computer in his home."<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite Olsen's warning, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, from about 1977 to 1983, it was widely predicted<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that computers would soon revolutionize many aspects of home and family life as they had business practices in the previous decades.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mothers would keep their recipe catalog in <a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Kitchen Computer">"kitchen computer"</a> databases and turn to a medical database for help with child care, fathers would use the family's computer to manage family finances and track automobile maintenance. Children would use online encyclopedias<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for school work and would be avid <a href="/wiki/History_of_video_games#Gaming_computers" title="History of video games">video gamers</a>. The computer would even be tasked with <a href="/wiki/Babysitting" title="Babysitting">babysitting</a> younger children.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Home_automation" title="Home automation">Home automation</a> would bring about the <a href="/wiki/Home_automation" title="Home automation">intelligent home</a> of the 1980s. Using <a href="/wiki/Videotex" title="Videotex">Videotex</a>, <a href="/wiki/NAPLPS" title="NAPLPS">NAPLPS</a> or some sort of vaguely conceptualized computer technology, television would gain interactivity. It would be possible to do the week's grocery shopping through the television.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "personalized newspaper" (to be displayed on the television screen) was another commonly predicted application.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Morning coffee would be brewed automatically under computer control.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same household computer would control the home's lighting and temperature. <a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">Robots</a> would take the garbage out, and be programmed to perform new tasks via the home computer. Electronics were expensive, so it was generally assumed that each home would have only one computer for the entire family to use.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Home control would be performed in a <a href="/wiki/Computer_multitasking" title="Computer multitasking">multitasking</a> <a href="/wiki/Time-sharing" title="Time-sharing">time-sharing</a> arrangement, with interfaces to the various devices it was expected to control. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1023981488">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .rquote{width:auto!important;float:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote rquote" style="float: right; width: 33%;"><p>When the computer revolution was unofficially announced in the early 1980s, all indications were that it would change the world. Experts predicted that within five years, every household would have a computer. Dad would run his business on it. Mom would store her recipes on it. The kids would do their homework on it. Today only 15% of American homes have a computer – and the other 85% don't seem the least bit interested. There is a general feeling that the home computer was a fad and that there is really no practical purpose for a computer in the home.<sup id="cite_ref-gutman198709_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gutman198709-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i><a href="/wiki/Commodore_Power_Play" class="mw-redirect" title="Commodore Power Play">Commodore Magazine</a></i>, September 1987</cite></div></blockquote> <p>All this was predicted to be commonplace by the end of the 1980s, but by 1987 <a href="/wiki/Dan_Gutman" title="Dan Gutman">Dan Gutman</a> wrote that the predicted revolution was "in shambles", with only 15% of American homes owning a computer.<sup id="cite_ref-gutman198709_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gutman198709-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Virtually every aspect that was foreseen would be delayed to later years or would be entirely surpassed by later technological developments. The home computers of the early 1980s could not multitask,<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which meant that using one as a home automation or entertainment appliance would require it be kept powered on at all times and dedicated exclusively for this use. Even if the computers could be used for multiple purposes simultaneously as today, other technical limitations predominated; memory capacities were too small to hold entire encyclopedias or databases of financial records;<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> floppy disk-based storage was inadequate in both capacity and speed for multimedia work;<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the home computers' graphics chips could only display blocky, unrealistic images and blurry, jagged text that would be difficult to read a newspaper from.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although CD-ROM technology was introduced in 1985 with much promise for its future use, the drives were prohibitively expensive and only interfaced with IBM PCs and compatibles.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Boston_Phoenix" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston Phoenix">Boston Phoenix</a></i> stated in 1983 that "people are catching on to the fact that 'applications' like balancing your checkbook and filing kitchen recipes are actually faster and easier to do with a pocket calculator and a box of index cards".<sup id="cite_ref-mitchell19830906_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mitchell19830906-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>inCider</i> observed that "companies cannot live by dilettantes alone".<sup id="cite_ref-whitmore198311_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whitmore198311-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gutman wrote that when the first computer boom ended in 1984, "Suddenly, everybody was saying that the home computer was a fad, just another <a href="/wiki/Hula_hoop" title="Hula hoop">hula hoop</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-gutman198712_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gutman198712-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Robert Lydon, publisher of <i>Personal Computing</i>, stated in 1985 that the home market "never really existed. It was a fad. Just about everyone who was going to buy a computer for their home has done it", and predicted that Apple would cease to exist within two years.<sup id="cite_ref-robbeloth198510_11_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-robbeloth198510_11-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A backlash set in; computer users were "<a href="/wiki/Geeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Geeks">geeks</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Nerd" title="Nerd">nerds</a>" or worse, "<a href="/wiki/Hacker_(term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacker (term)">hackers</a>". The <a href="/wiki/Video_game_crash_of_1983" title="Video game crash of 1983">video game crash of 1983</a> soured many on home computer technology as users saw large investments in 'the technology of the future' turn into dead-ends when manufacturers pulled out of the market or went out of business. The computers that were bought for use in the family room were either forgotten in closets or relegated to basements and children's bedrooms to be used exclusively for games and the occasional <a href="/wiki/Book_report" title="Book report">book report</a>. Home computers of the 1980s have been called "a technology in search of a use".<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1984 Tandy executive Steve Leininger, designer of the TRS-80 Model I, admitted that "As an industry we haven't found any compelling reason to buy a computer for the home" other than for word processing.<sup id="cite_ref-needle19840716_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needle19840716-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 1985 study found that, during a typical week, 40% of adult computer owners did not use their computers at all. Usage rates among children were higher, with households reporting that only 16-20% of children aged 6––17 did not use the computer during a typical week.<sup id="cite_ref-nsf.gov_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nsf.gov-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It would take another 10 years for technology to mature, for the <a href="/wiki/Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">graphical user interface</a> to make the computer approachable for non-technical users, and for the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> to provide a compelling reason for most people to want a computer in their homes. Separate 1998 studies found that 75% of Americans with Internet access accessed primarily from home and that not having Internet access at home inhibited Internet use.<sup id="cite_ref-nsf.gov_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nsf.gov-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While computers did enter the home in the '90s, and were commonly called "personal" or "home" computers, machines commonly used in the home during this decade were large <a href="/wiki/Desktop_computer" title="Desktop computer">desktops</a>, often shared amongst all members of a family through usage of multiple <a href="/wiki/User_(computing)" title="User (computing)">user accounts.</a> </p><p>It wouldn't be until the 2000s and 2010s that many of the dreams of the home computer revolution were fully realized, though often in unanticipated ways. The cost of computer systems dropped precipitously, allowing individuals to access their own personal computing hardware, with shared desktop machines leaving the home during the 2010s. With better network connectivity and speed, resources such as encyclopedias, recipe catalogs and medical databases moved online and are now accessed over the Internet, with local storage solutions like floppy disks and CD-ROM's falling out of use for these purposes during those decades. Television never gained substantial interactivity on its own; newer forms of interactive media consumption such as <a href="/wiki/Livestreaming" class="mw-redirect" title="Livestreaming">live streaming</a> and on demand content instead evolved from Internet video platforms and gradually replaced traditional broadcasting models. As of the 2020s, interactive media consumption is done on screens of all sizes, with the traditional television only largely replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Smart_TV" title="Smart TV">smart TV</a>, an Internet-connected computer with the form factor of a traditional television set, in the later 2010s, after the technologies had matured. The promises of <a href="/wiki/Home_automation" title="Home automation">home automation</a> were realized by small <a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">embedded</a> devices, not home computers, and the dream of user-controlled, interactive home automation was only realized in the 2010s as these embedded devices began to be connected to externally managed <a href="/wiki/Cloud_computing" title="Cloud computing">cloud</a> servers <a href="/wiki/Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things">over the Internet</a>. Throughout the 2000s, robots such as <a href="/wiki/Roomba" title="Roomba">Roomba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aibo" class="mw-redirect" title="Aibo">Aibo</a> began to make inroads into the home, but remained a niche product throughout the 2010s, limited largely to tasks such as cleaning. </p><p>This delay was not out of keeping with other technologies newly introduced to an unprepared public. Early <a href="/wiki/Motorist" class="mw-redirect" title="Motorist">motorists</a> were widely derided with the cry of "Get a horse!"<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until the <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobile</a> was accepted. <a href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</a> languished in research labs for decades before regular public broadcasts began. In an example of changing applications for technology, before the invention of radio, the telephone was used to distribute opera and news reports, whose subscribers were denounced as "illiterate, blind, bedridden and incurably lazy people".<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, the acceptance of computers into daily life today is a product of continuing refinement of both technology and perception. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_in_the_21st_century">Use in the 21st century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_computer&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Use in the 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Retrocomputing" title="Retrocomputing">Retrocomputing</a> is the use of vintage hardware, possibly performing modern tasks such as surfing the web and email. As programming techniques evolved and these systems were well-understood after decades of use, it became possible to write software giving home computers capabilities undreamed of by their designers. The <a href="/wiki/Contiki" title="Contiki">Contiki</a> OS implements a GUI and <a href="/wiki/TCP/IP" class="mw-redirect" title="TCP/IP">TCP/IP</a> stack on the Apple II, Commodore 8-bit and Atari ST (16-bit) platforms, allowing these home computers to function as both internet clients and servers.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Commodore 64 has been repackaged as the <a href="/wiki/C-One" title="C-One">C-One</a> and <a href="/wiki/C64_Direct-to-TV" title="C64 Direct-to-TV">C64 Direct-to-TV</a>, both designed by <a href="/wiki/Jeri_Ellsworth" title="Jeri Ellsworth">Jeri Ellsworth</a> with modern enhancements.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout the 1990s and 1st decade of the 21st century, many home computer systems were available inexpensively at garage sales and on <a href="/wiki/EBay" title="EBay">eBay</a>. Many enthusiasts started to collect home computers, with older and rarer systems being much sought after. Sometimes the collections turned into a <a href="/wiki/Virtual_museum" title="Virtual museum">virtual museum</a> presented on web sites.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As their often-inexpensively manufactured hardware ages and the supply of replacement parts dwindles, it has become popular among enthusiasts<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to <a href="/wiki/Emulator" title="Emulator">emulate</a> these machines, recreating their software environments<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on modern computers. One of the more well-known emulators is the <a href="/wiki/Multi_Emulator_Super_System" title="Multi Emulator Super System">Multi Emulator Super System</a> (MESS) which can emulate most of the better-known home computers. A more or less complete list of home computer emulators can be found in the <a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_system_emulators#8-bit_systems" title="List of computer system emulators">List of computer system emulators</a> article. Games for many 8 and 16 bit home computers became available for the <a href="/wiki/Wii" title="Wii">Wii</a> <a href="/wiki/Virtual_Console" title="Virtual Console">Virtual Console</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_home_computers">Notable home computers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_computer&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notable home computers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information on home computer models: <a href="/wiki/List_of_home_computers" title="List of home computers">List of home computers</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Market_share_of_personal_computer_vendors" title="Market share of personal computer vendors">Market share of personal computer vendors</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apple-II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Apple-II.jpg/250px-Apple-II.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Apple-II.jpg/375px-Apple-II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Apple-II.jpg/500px-Apple-II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>The 1977 <a href="/wiki/Apple_II" title="Apple II">Apple II</a> with two <a href="/wiki/Disk_II" title="Disk II">Disk II</a> disk drives and an Apple monitor</figcaption></figure> <p>The time line below describes many of the most popular or significant home computers of the late 1970s and of the 1980s. </p><p>The most popular home computers in the USA up to 1985 were: the <a href="/wiki/TRS-80" title="TRS-80">TRS-80</a> (1977), various models of the <a href="/wiki/Apple_II" title="Apple II">Apple II</a> (first introduced in 1977), the <a href="/wiki/Atari_800" class="mw-redirect" title="Atari 800">Atari 400/800</a> (1979) and its follow-up models, the <a href="/wiki/VIC-20" title="VIC-20">VIC-20</a> (1980), and the <a href="/wiki/Commodore_64" title="Commodore 64">Commodore 64</a> (1982). The VIC-20 was the first computer of any type to sell over one million units, and the 64 is still the highest-selling single model of personal computer ever, with over 17 million produced before production stopped in 1994 – a 12-year run with only minor changes.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At one point in 1983 Commodore was selling as many 64s as the rest of the industry's computers combined.<sup id="cite_ref-mitchell19830906_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mitchell19830906-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British market was different, as relatively high prices and lower disposable incomes reduced the appeal of most American products. <i>New Scientist</i> stated in 1977 that "the price of an American kit in dollars rapidly translates into the same figure in pounds sterling by the time it has reached the shores of Britain".<sup id="cite_ref-valery19770519_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valery19770519-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Commodore 64 was also popular, but a <i><a href="/wiki/BYTE" class="mw-redirect" title="BYTE">BYTE</a></i> columnist stated in 1985:<sup id="cite_ref-pountain198501_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pountain198501-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It's not easy for a U.K. citizen to write about home computers for an American magazine. We use the term to refer to an altogether different object on our side of the Atlantic. </p><p>In the U.S.A., an Apple II is a home computer; the IBM PC in its smaller configurations is a home computer; the Macintosh is a home computer. Home computers use floppy disks for mass storage and perform useful functions like word processing and income tax preparation as well as playing games. </p><p> In the U.K., those computers would be considered rather expensive as business computers, let alone for home use. Home computers typically cost less than £200 (about $250) and use cassette tape recorders for mass storage. We have various manufacturers of our own, some unheard of in the U.S.A. ... Even when we do have machines in common (the Commodore 64), I suspect that the vast majority of U.S. users buy the disk drive, while the majority of U.K. users have only the cassette deck.</p></blockquote> <p>Many of the British-made systems like Sinclair's <a href="/wiki/ZX81" title="ZX81">ZX81</a> and <a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum">ZX Spectrum</a>, and later the <a href="/wiki/Amstrad" title="Amstrad">Amstrad/Schneider</a> <a href="/wiki/Amstrad_CPC" title="Amstrad CPC">CPC</a> were much more widely used in Europe than US systems. A few low-cost British Sinclair models were sold in the US by <a href="/wiki/Timex_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Timex Corporation">Timex Corporation</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Timex_Sinclair_1000" title="Timex Sinclair 1000">Timex Sinclair 1000</a> and the ill-fated <a href="/wiki/Timex_Sinclair_2068" title="Timex Sinclair 2068">Timex Sinclair 2068</a>, but neither established a strong following. The only transatlantic success was the Commodore 64, which competed favorably price-wise with the British systems, and was the most popular system in Europe as in the USA.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Until the introduction of the IBM PC in 1981, computers such as the Apple II and TRS 80 also found considerable use in office work.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1983 IBM introduced the PCjr in an attempt to continue their business computer success in the home computer market, but incompatibilities between it and the standard PC kept users away.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Assisted by a large <a href="/wiki/Public_domain_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Public domain software">public domain software</a> library and promotional offers from Commodore, the PET had a sizable presence in the North American education market until that segment was largely ceded to the Apple II as Commodore focused on the C-64's success in the mass retail market.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1970s">1970s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_computer&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 1970s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Three microcomputers were the prototypes for what would later become the home computer market segment; but when introduced they sold as much to hobbyists and small businesses as to the home. </p> <ul><li>June 1977: <a href="/wiki/Apple_II" title="Apple II">Apple II</a> (North America), color graphics, eight expansion slots; one of the first computers to use a typewriter-like plastic case design.<sup id="cite_ref-Wired_Jun_2007_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wired_Jun_2007-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>August 1977: <a href="/wiki/TRS-80" title="TRS-80">TRS-80</a> (N. Am.), first home computer for less than US$600, used a dedicated monitor for US <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) rules compliance.<sup id="cite_ref-CW_Aug_1977_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CW_Aug_1977-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>October 1977: <a href="/wiki/Commodore_PET" title="Commodore PET">Commodore PET</a> (N. Am.), first <a href="/wiki/All-in-one_PC" class="mw-redirect" title="All-in-one PC">all-in-one</a> computer: keyboard/screen/tape storage built into stamped <a href="/wiki/Sheet_metal" title="Sheet metal">sheet metal</a> enclosure.<sup id="cite_ref-Byte_Feb_1978_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Byte_Feb_1978-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1977 <a href="/wiki/Compucolor" title="Compucolor">Compucolor II</a>, although shipments did not start until the next year. The Compucolor II was smaller, less expensive than first model which was an upgrade kit for the company's color computer terminal, turning the Intecolor 8001 into the Compucolor 8001 and used the newly introduced 5.25-inch floppy disks instead of the former 8-inch models.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The following computers also introduced significant advancements to the home computer segment: </p> <ul><li>1979: <a href="/wiki/TI-99/4" class="mw-redirect" title="TI-99/4">TI-99/4</a>, first home computer with a 16-bit processor and first to add hardware supported <a href="/wiki/Sprite_(computer_graphics)" title="Sprite (computer graphics)">sprite</a> graphics</li> <li>1979: <a href="/wiki/Atari_8-bit_computers" title="Atari 8-bit computers">Atari 8-bit computers</a> (N. Am.), first computers with custom chip set and programmable video chip and built-in audio output</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1980s">1980s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_computer&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 1980s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Commodore-64-Computer-FL.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Commodore-64-Computer-FL.jpg/220px-Commodore-64-Computer-FL.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Commodore-64-Computer-FL.jpg/330px-Commodore-64-Computer-FL.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Commodore-64-Computer-FL.jpg/440px-Commodore-64-Computer-FL.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4600" data-file-height="2600" /></a><figcaption>No computer has sold more units than the <a href="/wiki/Commodore_64" title="Commodore 64">Commodore 64</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KC85-1_Arbeitsplatz_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/KC85-1_Arbeitsplatz_1.jpg/220px-KC85-1_Arbeitsplatz_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/KC85-1_Arbeitsplatz_1.jpg/330px-KC85-1_Arbeitsplatz_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/KC85-1_Arbeitsplatz_1.jpg/440px-KC85-1_Arbeitsplatz_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>The East German <a href="/wiki/Robotron_KC_87" title="Robotron KC 87">Robotron KC 85/1</a>: it featured very low production quotas and a complete lack of sales channels for private consumers.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>January 1980: Sinclair <a href="/wiki/ZX80" title="ZX80">ZX80</a>, available in the United Kingdom for less than a hundred pounds</li> <li>1980: <a href="/wiki/VIC-20" title="VIC-20">VIC-20</a> (N. Am.), under US$300; first computer of any kind to pass one million sold.</li> <li>1980: <a href="/wiki/TRS-80_Color_Computer" title="TRS-80 Color Computer">TRS-80 Color Computer</a> (N. Am.), <a href="/wiki/Motorola_6809" title="Motorola 6809">Motorola 6809</a>, optional <a href="/wiki/OS-9" title="OS-9">OS-9</a> multi-user multi-tasking.</li> <li>July 1980: <a href="/wiki/TRS-80_Model_III" class="mw-redirect" title="TRS-80 Model III">TRS-80 Model III</a> (N. Am.), essentially a TRS-80 Model I repackaged in an all-in-one cabinet, to comply with FCC regulations for radiofrequency interference, to eliminate cable clutter, and use only one electrical outlet. Some enhancements like extended character set, repeating keys, and real time clock.</li> <li>June 1981: <a href="/wiki/TI-99/4A" title="TI-99/4A">TI-99/4A</a>, based on the less successful TI-99/4.</li> <li>1981: <a href="/wiki/ZX81" title="ZX81">ZX81</a> (Europe), £49.95 in kit form; £69.95 pre-built, released as <a href="/wiki/Timex_Sinclair_1000" title="Timex Sinclair 1000">Timex Sinclair 1000</a> in US in 1982.</li> <li>1981: <a href="/wiki/BBC_Micro" title="BBC Micro">BBC Micro</a> (Europe), premier educational computer in the UK for a decade; advanced <a href="/wiki/BBC_BASIC" title="BBC BASIC">BBC BASIC</a> with integrated 6502 machine code assembler, and a large number of I/O ports, ~ 1.5 million sold.</li> <li>April 1982: <a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum">ZX Spectrum</a> (Europe), best-selling British home computer; catalysed the UK software industry, widely cloned by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.</li> <li>June 1982: <a href="/wiki/MicroBee" title="MicroBee">MicroBee</a> (Australia), initially as a kit, then as a finished unit.</li> <li>August 1982: <a href="/wiki/Dragon_32/64" title="Dragon 32/64">Dragon 32</a> (UK) became, for a short time, the best-selling home micro in the United Kingdom.</li> <li>August 1982: <a href="/wiki/Commodore_64" title="Commodore 64">Commodore 64</a> (N. Am.), custom graphic & <a href="/wiki/Synthesizer" title="Synthesizer">synthesizer</a> <a href="/wiki/SID_chip" class="mw-redirect" title="SID chip">chipset</a>, best-selling computer model of all time: ~ 17 million sold.</li> <li>Jan. 1983: <a href="/wiki/Apple_IIe" title="Apple IIe">Apple IIe</a>, Apple II enhanced. Reduced component count and production costs enabled high-volume production, until 1993.</li> <li>April 1983: <a href="/wiki/TRS-80_Model_4" title="TRS-80 Model 4">TRS-80 Model 4</a>, major upgrade compatible with Model III. Ran industry-standard <a href="/wiki/CP/M" title="CP/M">CP/M</a>, updated TRSDOS 6, 4 MHz speed, 128KB RAM max, 80x24 screen, 640x240 high-res option. In September the transportable "luggable" Model 4P unveiled.</li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/Acorn_Electron" title="Acorn Electron">Acorn Electron</a> A stripped down 'sibling' of the BBC microcomputer with limited functionality. The Electron recovered from a slow start to become one of the more popular home computers of that era in the UK.</li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/Sanyo_PHC-25" title="Sanyo PHC-25">Sanyo PHC-25</a>, with 16k of RAM, one of a number of Sanyo models</li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/Coleco_Adam" title="Coleco Adam">Coleco Adam</a>, one of the few home computers to be sold only as a complete system with storage device and printer; cousin to the <a href="/wiki/ColecoVision" title="ColecoVision">ColecoVision</a> game console.</li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/MSX" title="MSX">MSX</a> (Japan, Korea, the Arab League, Europe, N+S. Am., USSR), a computer 'reference design' by <a href="/wiki/ASCII_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASCII (company)">ASCII</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>, produced by several companies: ~ 5 million sold in Japan.</li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/VTech_Laser_200" title="VTech Laser 200">VTech Laser 200</a>, entry level computer aimed at being the cheapest on market, also sold as Salora Fellow, Texet TX8000 & Dick Smith VZ 200.</li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/Oric_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Oric 1">Oric 1</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oric_Atmos" class="mw-redirect" title="Oric Atmos">Oric Atmos</a> (Europe), a home computer equipped with a full travel keyboard and an extended version of Microsoft BASIC in ROM.</li> <li>January 1984: The <a href="/wiki/Macintosh_128K" title="Macintosh 128K">Macintosh</a> is introduced, providing many consumers their first look at a <a href="/wiki/Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">graphical user interface</a>, which would eventually replace the home computer as it was known.</li> <li>April 1984: <a href="/wiki/Apple_IIc" title="Apple IIc">Apple IIc</a>, Apple II compact. No expansion slots, and built-in ports for pseudo-<a href="/wiki/Plug_and_play" title="Plug and play">plug and play</a> ease of use. The Apple II most geared to home use, to complement the Apple IIe's dominant education market share.</li> <li>March 1984: <a href="/wiki/IBM_PCjr" title="IBM PCjr">IBM PCjr</a>, designed, priced and marketed as a home computer for kids and teens but purchased mostly by business customers who wanted an inexpensive IBM compatible PC.</li> <li>1984: <a href="/wiki/Tiki_100" title="Tiki 100">Tiki 100</a> (Norway), Zilog Z80-based home/educational computer made by <a href="/wiki/Tiki_Data" title="Tiki Data">Tiki Data</a>.</li> <li>June 1984: <a href="/wiki/Amstrad" title="Amstrad">Amstrad/Schneider</a> <a href="/wiki/Amstrad_CPC" title="Amstrad CPC">CPC</a>, a very popular system in the UK which sold also well in Europe.</li> <li>1985: TRS-80 Model 4D: updated Model 4 with double-sided drives and <a href="/wiki/Deskmate" title="Deskmate">Deskmate</a> productivity suite.</li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/Elektronika_BK" class="mw-redirect" title="Elektronika BK">Elektronika BK</a>-0010, one of the first 16-bit home computers; made in <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a>.</li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/Robotron_KC_87" title="Robotron KC 87">Robotron KC 85/1</a> (Europe), one of the few 8-bit general-purpose microcomputers produced in <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a>. As the KC line of computers, with the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Amstrad_CPC#KC_compact" title="Amstrad CPC">KC compact</a>, was not available for sale to the general public due to the strict prioritization of 'societal users' over consumers, they are not genuine 'home computers'.</li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/Atari_ST" title="Atari ST">Atari ST</a> (N. Am.), first with a graphical user interface (<a href="/wiki/Graphics_Environment_Manager" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphics Environment Manager">GEM</a>) for less than US$1000; also 1 <a href="/wiki/Mebibyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Mebibyte">MB</a> <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a> and 16-bit Motorola 68000 processor for under US$1000.</li> <li>1985: MSX2, the second generation of MSX Computers is launched worldwide. They achieved the performance of high-performance computers using a high-speed video processor (<a href="/wiki/Yamaha_V9938" title="Yamaha V9938">Yamaha V9938</a>) capable of handling resolutions of 512x424 pixels, and 256 simultaneous colors from a palette of 512</li> <li>June 1985: <a href="/wiki/Commodore_128" title="Commodore 128">Commodore 128</a> (N. Am.) Final, most advanced 8-bit Commodore, retained full C64 compatibility while adding <a href="/wiki/CP/M" title="CP/M">CP/M</a> in a complex multi-mode architecture</li> <li>July 1985: <a href="/wiki/Amiga_1000" title="Amiga 1000">Amiga 1000</a> (N. Am.), <a href="/wiki/Original_Amiga_chipset" class="mw-redirect" title="Original Amiga chipset">custom chip set</a> for graphics and digital audio; <a href="/wiki/Computer_multitasking" title="Computer multitasking">multitasking</a> <a href="/wiki/AmigaOS" title="AmigaOS">OS</a> with both <a href="/wiki/GUI" class="mw-redirect" title="GUI">GUI</a> and <a href="/wiki/Command_line_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Command line interface">CLI</a> interfaces; 16-bit Motorola 68000 processor. Initially designed as a game console but repositioned as a home computer.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1986: <a href="/wiki/Apple_IIGS" title="Apple IIGS">Apple IIGS</a>, fifth and most advanced model in the <a href="/wiki/Apple_II" title="Apple II">Apple II</a>, with greatly enhanced graphics and sound abilities. Used a 16-bit 65C816 CPU, the same as used in the <a href="/wiki/Super_Nintendo_Entertainment_System" title="Super Nintendo Entertainment System">Super Nintendo Entertainment System</a>.</li> <li>June 1987: <a href="/wiki/Acorn_Archimedes" title="Acorn Archimedes">Acorn Archimedes</a> (Europe), launched with an 8 MHz <a href="/wiki/32-bit" class="mw-redirect" title="32-bit">32-bit</a> <a href="/wiki/ARM_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="ARM architecture">ARM</a>2 microprocessor, with between 512 KB and 4 MB of RAM, and an optional 20 or 40 MB hard drive.</li> <li>October 1987: <a href="/wiki/Amiga_500" title="Amiga 500">Amiga 500</a> (N. Am.), Amiga 1000 repackaged into a C64-like housing with keyboard and motherboard in the same enclosure, along with a 3.5" floppy disk drive. Introduced at the same time as the more expandable <a href="/wiki/Amiga_2000" title="Amiga 2000">Amiga 2000</a>.</li> <li>1988 - The MSX2+ is launched in Japan. It is able to show more than 19,000 simultaneous colors on screen thanks to hardware-based graphic compression.</li> <li>1989: <a href="/wiki/SAM_Coup%C3%A9" title="SAM Coupé">SAM Coupé</a> (Europe), based on 6 MHz Z80 microprocessor; marketed as a logical upgrade from the ZX Spectrum.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1990s">1990s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_computer&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 1990s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>December 1991: The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.msx.org/wiki/MSX_turbo_R">MSX TurboR</a> is launched in Japan only. This is the last generation of MSX computers that was put to market by a household electronic brand. It is also the first MSX based on a 16 bit CPU: The Ascii <a href="/wiki/R800_(CPU)" class="mw-redirect" title="R800 (CPU)">R800</a> processor.</li> <li>1992: <a href="/wiki/Atari_Falcon" title="Atari Falcon">Atari Falcon</a> (N. Am.), the final home computer from Atari, it shipped with a digital signal processor.</li> <li>October 1992: <a href="/wiki/Amiga_1200" title="Amiga 1200">Amiga 1200</a> (N. Am.), the final home computer from Commodore, it sold well in Europe.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_computer&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_toy" title="Educational toy">Educational toy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_magazines" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer magazines">Computer magazines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware_(1960s%E2%80%93present)" title="History of computing hardware (1960s–present)">History of computing hardware (1960s–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_personal_computers" title="History of personal computers">History of personal computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homebuilt_computer" title="Homebuilt computer">Homebuilt computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honeywell_316" title="Honeywell 316">Honeywell 316</a> a "home computer" from 1969</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keyboard_computer" title="Keyboard computer">Keyboard computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raspberry_Pi" title="Raspberry Pi">Raspberry Pi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_home_computers" title="List of home computers">List of home computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_home_computers_by_category" class="mw-redirect" title="List of home computers by category">List of home computers by category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_home_computers_by_video_hardware" title="List of home computers by video hardware">List of home computers by video hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_video_game_consoles" class="mw-redirect" title="List of video game consoles">List of video game consoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_the_IBM_PC_on_the_personal_computer_market" title="Influence of the IBM PC on the personal computer market">Influence of the IBM PC on the personal computer market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microprocessor_development_board" title="Microprocessor development board">Microprocessor development board</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_early_microcomputers" title="List of early microcomputers">List of early microcomputers</a>, first microprocessor based systems used by hobbyists</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">Personal computer</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pirates_of_Silicon_Valley" title="Pirates of Silicon Valley">Pirates of Silicon Valley</a></i> – <a href="/wiki/Docu-fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Docu-fiction">docu-fiction</a> focused on Apple and Microsoft evolution</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Triumph_of_the_Nerds" title="Triumph of the Nerds">Triumph of the Nerds</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_Display_Controller" class="mw-redirect" title="Video Display Controller">Video Display Controller</a>, chips that were used to create the video graphics of many early home computers</li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_computer&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080618072507/http://www.byte.com/art/9509/sec7/art15.htm">"Most Important Companies"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Byte_(magazine)" title="Byte (magazine)">Byte</a></i>. September 1995. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.byte.com/art/9509/sec7/art15.htm">the original</a> on 2008-06-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-11-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Byte&rft.atitle=Most+Important+Companies&rft.date=1995-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.byte.com%2Fart%2F9509%2Fsec7%2Fart15.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/2006/TECH/biztech/08/11/ibmpcanniversary/">"IBM PC turns 25"</a>. <i>CNN</i>. <q>Several popular home computers existed before the 1981 IBM PC launch. But the regimented business world considered Apple, Commodore, and Radio Shack's Tandy products "toys."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=IBM+PC+turns+25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2006%2FTECH%2Fbiztech%2F08%2F11%2Fibmpcanniversary%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zK2IQmSW4a4">Video of old TV Ad for Atari Home computers</a> from <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140130180451/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zK2IQmSW4a4">Archived</a> January 30, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wotsit.thingy.com/haj/old-computer-ads.html">"Home computer ads"</a>. Wotsit.thingy.com. 2001-02-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-04-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Home+computer+ads&rft.pub=Wotsit.thingy.com&rft.date=2001-02-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwotsit.thingy.com%2Fhaj%2Fold-computer-ads.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theoldcomputer.com/libraries/tv-adverts/">"The Old Computer - Retro TV Commercials, Old Computer Commercials, computer adverts"</a>. <i>www.theoldcomputer.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.theoldcomputer.com&rft.atitle=The+Old+Computer+-+Retro+TV+Commercials%2C+Old+Computer+Commercials%2C+computer+adverts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theoldcomputer.com%2Flibraries%2Ftv-adverts%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wotsit.thingy.com/haj/ads-images/size2/vic20-may82.jpg">"May 1982 VIC-20 ad"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=May+1982+VIC-20+ad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwotsit.thingy.com%2Fhaj%2Fads-images%2Fsize2%2Fvic20-may82.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801191422/http://oldcomputers.net/oldads/80s/ace1200ad.jpg">"Franklin ACE2000 ad"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oldcomputers.net/oldads/80s/ace1200ad.jpg">the original</a> on 2020-08-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-01-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Franklin+ACE2000+ad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foldcomputers.net%2Foldads%2F80s%2Face1200ad.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140503202111/http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/computing/software/the-golden-age-of-basic">"The Golden Age of Basic"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/computing/software/the-golden-age-of-basic">the original</a> on May 3, 2014. <q>Let's not kid ourselves in a haze of nostalgia—there are very good reasons why things like Scratch and Processing were created, the same reasons why many, if not most, of those 8-bit machines wound up being used solely to play games. Tapping out Basic programs often meant a lot of effort with nothing to show for it other than that Great Sphinx of computer messages: "SYNTAX ERROR."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Golden+Age+of+Basic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectrum.ieee.org%2Ftech-talk%2Fcomputing%2Fsoftware%2Fthe-golden-age-of-basic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://time.com/69316/basic/">"Fifty Years of BASIC, the Programming Language That Made Computers Personal"</a>. 29 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fifty+Years+of+BASIC%2C+the+Programming+Language+That+Made+Computers+Personal&rft.date=2014-04-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftime.com%2F69316%2Fbasic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/12/08/commodore.feedback.irpt/index.html">"CNN.com readers recall the life-changing Commodore 64"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=CNN.com+readers+recall+the+life-changing+Commodore+64&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2007%2FUS%2F12%2F08%2Fcommodore.feedback.irpt%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-reimer-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-reimer_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeremy_Reimer2005" class="citation news cs1">Jeremy Reimer (December 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120606003537/http://www.jeremyreimer.com/total_share.html">"Personal Computer Market Share: 1975–2004"</a>. <i>Ars Technica</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jeremyreimer.com/total_share.html">the original</a> on June 6, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-02-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&rft.atitle=Personal+Computer+Market+Share%3A+1975%E2%80%932004&rft.date=2005-12&rft.au=Jeremy+Reimer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jeremyreimer.com%2Ftotal_share.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Brin2006" class="citation web cs1">David Brin (14 September 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.salon.com/2006/09/14/basic_2/">"Why Johnny can't code"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-04-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+Johnny+can%27t+code&rft.date=2006-09-14&rft.au=David+Brin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.salon.com%2F2006%2F09%2F14%2Fbasic_2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpicer2000" class="citation web cs1">Spicer, Dag (2000-08-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://drdobbs.com/184404040">"Dag Spier,<i>If You Can't Stand the Coding, Stay Out of the Kitchen</i>, <i>Dr. Dobb's Journal</i>, August 12, 2000"</a>. Drdobbs.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-04-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dag+Spier%2CIf+You+Can%27t+Stand+the+Coding%2C+Stay+Out+of+the+Kitchen%2C+Dr.+Dobb%27s+Journal%2C+August+12%2C+2000&rft.pub=Drdobbs.com&rft.date=2000-08-12&rft.aulast=Spicer&rft.aufirst=Dag&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdrdobbs.com%2F184404040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170825102524/https://www.computer.org/cms/Computer.org/ComputingNow/computingthen/atty/1994/ATTY-1994-2-Echo.pdf">"James Tomayko "Anecdotes: Electronic Computer for Home Operation, The First Home Computer"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computer.org/cms/Computer.org/ComputingNow/computingthen/atty/1994/ATTY-1994-2-Echo.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2017-08-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-04-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+Tomayko+%22Anecdotes%3A+Electronic+Computer+for+Home+Operation%2C+The+First+Home+Computer%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computer.org%2Fcms%2FComputer.org%2FComputingNow%2Fcomputingthen%2Fatty%2F1994%2FATTY-1994-2-Echo.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140801120754/http://jdh.oxfordjournals.org/content/23/2/163.full.pdf">[1]</a> Paul Atkinson, <i>The Curious Case of the Kitchen Computer: Products and Non-Products in Design History</i>, from <i>Journal of Design History</i>, Vol. 23 No.2 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093.jdh%2Fepq010">10.1093.jdh/epq010</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.virtualaltair.com/virtualaltair.com/mits0011.asp">"Ed Roberts Interview"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ed+Roberts+Interview&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.virtualaltair.com%2Fvirtualaltair.com%2Fmits0011.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oldcomputers.net/ti994.html">Texas Instruments TI-99/4 computer</a>: At the start, the TI99/4 could not offer an RF-modulator certified by United States <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC), and had to use an expensive modified TV instead.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Markoff-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Markoff_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkoff1982" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Markoff" title="John Markoff">Markoff, John</a> (June 7, 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XDAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA26">"Personal computers are selling fast on 'the strip'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>InfoWorld</i>. p. 27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=InfoWorld&rft.atitle=Personal+computers+are+selling+fast+on+%27the+strip%27&rft.pages=27&rft.date=1982-06-07&rft.aulast=Markoff&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXDAEAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-blundell198301-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-blundell198301_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlundell,_Gregory_S.1983" class="citation magazine cs1">Blundell, Gregory S. (January 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1983-01/1983_01_BYTE_08-01_Looking_Ahead#page/n175/mode/2up">"Personal Computers in the Eighties"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BYTE" class="mw-redirect" title="BYTE">BYTE</a></i>. p. 166<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BYTE&rft.atitle=Personal+Computers+in+the+Eighties&rft.pages=166&rft.date=1983-01&rft.au=Blundell%2C+Gregory+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fbyte-magazine-1983-01%2F1983_01_BYTE_08-01_Looking_Ahead%23page%2Fn175%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120908164043/http://www.websters-dictionary-online.org/definition/english/Mi/Microsoft+Basic.html">"Dictionary – Definition of Microsoft Basic"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.websters-dictionary-online.org/definition/english/Mi/Microsoft+Basic.html">the original</a> on 2012-09-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dictionary+%E2%80%93+Definition+of+Microsoft+Basic&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.websters-dictionary-online.org%2Fdefinition%2Fenglish%2FMi%2FMicrosoft%2BBasic.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121021081826/http://www.btinternet.com/~pweighill/music/books/">"C64 Type-In Books"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.btinternet.com/~pweighill/music/books/">the original</a> on 2012-10-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=C64+Type-In+Books&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.btinternet.com%2F~pweighill%2Fmusic%2Fbooks%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://10print.org/">"10 PRINT CHR$(205.5+RND(1)); : GOTO 10"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=10+PRINT+CHR%24%28205.5%2BRND%281%29%29%3B+%3A+GOTO+10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F10print.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.old-computers.com/MUSEUM/year.asp?st=1&y=1982">"SYSTEMS RELEASED IN ~ 1982 ~"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SYSTEMS+RELEASED+IN+~+1982+~&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.old-computers.com%2FMUSEUM%2Fyear.asp%3Fst%3D1%26y%3D1982&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://msx.gnu-linux.net/historie.html">"about the history of the MSX standard"</a>. Msx.gnu-linux.net<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-04-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=about+the+history+of+the+MSX+standard&rft.pub=Msx.gnu-linux.net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmsx.gnu-linux.net%2Fhistorie.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lowendmac.com/orchard/06/visicalc-origin-bricklin.html">"VisiCalc and the Rise of the Apple II"</a>. lowendmac.com. 25 September 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-11-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=VisiCalc+and+the+Rise+of+the+Apple+II&rft.pub=lowendmac.com&rft.date=2006-09-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flowendmac.com%2Forchard%2F06%2Fvisicalc-origin-bricklin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nerds-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nerds_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pbs.org/nerds/part3.html">"PBS Triumph of the Nerds Television Program Transcripts: Part III"</a>. PBS (Public Broadcasting System)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PBS+Triumph+of+the+Nerds+Television+Program+Transcripts%3A+Part+III&rft.pub=PBS+%28Public+Broadcasting+System%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fnerds%2Fpart3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-green198007-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-green198007_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen,_Wayne1980" class="citation news cs1">Green, Wayne (July 1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/kilobaudmagazine-1980-07/Kilobaud_Microcomputing_1980_July#page/n5/mode/2up">"Publisher's Remarks"</a>. <i>Kilobaud</i>. p. 6<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kilobaud&rft.atitle=Publisher%27s+Remarks&rft.pages=6&rft.date=1980-07&rft.au=Green%2C+Wayne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fkilobaudmagazine-1980-07%2FKilobaud_Microcomputing_1980_July%23page%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ferrell198807-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ferrell198807_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerrell,_Keith1988" class="citation news cs1">Ferrell, Keith (July 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/1988-07-compute-magazine/Compute_Issue_098_1988_Jul#page/n89/mode/2up">"Windows on John Roach"</a>. <i>Compute!</i>. pp. 88–89<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Compute%21&rft.atitle=Windows+on+John+Roach&rft.pages=88-89&rft.date=1988-07&rft.au=Ferrell%2C+Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2F1988-07-compute-magazine%2FCompute_Issue_098_1988_Jul%23page%2Fn89%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wp19831106-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wp19831106_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3360554//">"IBM PCjr leads the way for industry"</a>. <i>The Pantagraph</i>. The Washington Post. 1983-11-06. pp. E6<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Pantagraph&rft.atitle=IBM+PCjr+leads+the+way+for+industry&rft.pages=E6&rft.date=1983-11-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F3360554%2F%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sanger19840517-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sanger19840517_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanger,_David_E.1984" class="citation news cs1">Sanger, David E. (1984-05-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1984/05/17/business/ibm-s-problems-with-junior.html?pagewanted=all">"I.B.M.'S PROBLEMS WITH JUNIOR"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-02-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=I.B.M.%27S+PROBLEMS+WITH+JUNIOR&rft.date=1984-05-17&rft.au=Sanger%2C+David+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1984%2F05%2F17%2Fbusiness%2Fibm-s-problems-with-junior.html%3Fpagewanted%3Dall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-halfhill198612-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-halfhill198612_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-halfhill198612_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalfhill,_Tom_R.1986" class="citation news cs1">Halfhill, Tom R. (December 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/1986-12-compute-magazine/Compute_Issue_079_1986_Dec#page/n33/mode/2up">"The MS-DOS Invasion / IBM Compatibles Are Coming Home"</a>. <i>Compute!</i>. p. 32<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Compute%21&rft.atitle=The+MS-DOS+Invasion+%2F+IBM+Compatibles+Are+Coming+Home&rft.pages=32&rft.date=1986-12&rft.au=Halfhill%2C+Tom+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2F1986-12-compute-magazine%2FCompute_Issue_079_1986_Dec%23page%2Fn33%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cgw199012-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cgw199012_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cgwmuseum.org/galleries/index.php?year=1990&pub=2&id=77">"Fusion, Transfusion or Confusion / Future Directions In Computer Entertainment"</a>. <i>Computer Gaming World</i>. December 1990. p. 26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computer+Gaming+World&rft.atitle=Fusion%2C+Transfusion+or+Confusion+%2F+Future+Directions+In+Computer+Entertainment&rft.pages=26&rft.date=1990-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cgwmuseum.org%2Fgalleries%2Findex.php%3Fyear%3D1990%26pub%3D2%26id%3D77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aw1984-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aw1984_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanton,_JeffreyWells,_Robert_P.Rochowansky,_SandraMellid,_Michael1984" class="citation book cs1">Stanton, Jeffrey; Wells, Robert P.; Rochowansky, Sandra; Mellid, Michael, eds. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/Atari_Software_1984#page/n209/mode/2up"><i>The Addison-Wesley Book of Atari Software</i></a>. Addison-Wesley. p. 210. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-16454-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-16454-X"><bdi>0-201-16454-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Addison-Wesley+Book+of+Atari+Software&rft.pages=210&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-201-16454-X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FAtari_Software_1984%23page%2Fn209%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harris19870512-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-harris19870512_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris,_Neil1987" class="citation newsgroup cs1">Harris, Neil (1987-05-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://groups.google.com/forum/#!original/comp.sys.atari.8bit/CHaivDd-Hy4/zNYxPzguppgJ">"Re: Is Atari killing the 8 bit?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Usenet_newsgroup" title="Usenet newsgroup">Newsgroup</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="news:comp.sys.atari.8bit">comp.sys.atari.8bit</a>. <a href="/wiki/Usenet_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Usenet (identifier)">Usenet:</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="news:730@atari.UUCP">730@atari.UUCP</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Re%3A+Is+Atari+killing+the+8+bit%3F&rft.pub=comp.sys.atari.8bit&rft.date=1987-05-12&rft_id=news%3A730%40atari.UUCP%23id-name%3DUsenet%3A&rft.au=Harris%2C+Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgroups.google.com%2Fforum%2F%23%21original%2Fcomp.sys.atari.8bit%2FCHaivDd-Hy4%2FzNYxPzguppgJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbertsOldenziel2014" class="citation book cs1">Alberts, Gerard; <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Oldenziel" title="Ruth Oldenziel">Oldenziel, Ruth</a> (3 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z8RsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38"><i>Hacking Europe: From Computer Cultures to Demoscenes</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781447154938" title="Special:BookSources/9781447154938"><bdi>9781447154938</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hacking+Europe%3A+From+Computer+Cultures+to+Demoscenes&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014-09-03&rft.isbn=9781447154938&rft.aulast=Alberts&rft.aufirst=Gerard&rft.au=Oldenziel%2C+Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz8RsBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tomheroes.com/Video%20Games%20FS/Retrotimes/retrotimes_42.htm#The%20TI%2099/4A%20%E2%80%9CWhat%20Makes%20It%20Tick%20-%20An%20Overview%E2%80%9D">The TI99/4 was unique in using a 16 bit processor</a> from <i>Retrogaming Times</i>, Issue 42, February 20, 2001</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tC_ZpAyGwiMC&q=ti%2099%204%2Fa%2016%20bit%20architecture%20speed&pg=PA530">"Early Home Computers"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Early+Home+Computers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtC_ZpAyGwiMC%26q%3Dti%252099%25204%252Fa%252016%2520bit%2520architecture%2520speed%26pg%3DPA530&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.floodgap.com/retrobits/tomy/ti-vs-tomy.html">"TI vs Tomy Tutor"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TI+vs+Tomy+Tutor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.floodgap.com%2Fretrobits%2Ftomy%2Fti-vs-tomy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150302152715/http://www.commodore.ca/history/other/telecomputing83/telecomputing.htm">"Telecomputing Today, Compute Sep. 1983"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.commodore.ca/history/other/telecomputing83/telecomputing.htm">the original</a> on 2015-03-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-05-08</span></span>. <q>This process may sound familiar. That's because it's very similar to the way the computer saves programs and other data on the cassette recorder.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Telecomputing+Today%2C+Compute+Sep.+1983&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.commodore.ca%2Fhistory%2Fother%2Ftelecomputing83%2Ftelecomputing.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1983" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Douglas V. (1983). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/microprocessorsd00hall/page/153"><i>Microprocessors and Digital Systems</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill">McGraw-Hill</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/microprocessorsd00hall/page/153">153–154</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-025552-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-025552-0"><bdi>0-07-025552-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Microprocessors+and+Digital+Systems&rft.pages=153-154&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-07-025552-0&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Douglas+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmicroprocessorsd00hall%2Fpage%2F153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oldcomputers.net/ti-carts.html">List of TI99/4 cartridges, mostly games</a> from OldComputers.net</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalfhill" class="citation web cs1">Halfhill, Tom. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atarimagazines.com/compute/issue79/The_MS-DOS_Invasion.php">"Compute! Magazine, December 1986, The MS-DOS Invasion, IBM Compatibles Are Coming Home, page 32"</a>. <i>atarimagazines.com</i>. ABC Publishing<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 17,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=radioshackcatalogs+dot+com&rft.atitle=Radio+Shack+Computer+Catalog+RSC-17%2C+page+9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.radioshackcatalogs.com%2Fhtml%2Fcatalogs_extra%2F1987_rsc-17%2Fh009.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141003163349/http://www.radioshackcatalogs.com/html/catalogs_extra/1988_rsc-19/h009.html">"Radio Shack Computer Catalog RSC-19, page 9"</a>. <i>radioshackcatalogs dot com</i>. Tandy/Radio Shack. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radioshackcatalogs.com/html/catalogs_extra/1988_rsc-19/h009.html">the original</a> on October 3, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 17,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=radioshackcatalogs+dot+com&rft.atitle=Radio+Shack+Computer+Catalog+RSC-19%2C+page+9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.radioshackcatalogs.com%2Fhtml%2Fcatalogs_extra%2F1988_rsc-19%2Fh009.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141003170333/http://www.radioshackcatalogs.com/html/catalogs_extra/1991_rsc-22/h014.html">"Radio Shack Computer Catalog RSC-22, page 14"</a>. <i>radioshackcatalogs dot com</i>. Tandy/Radio Shack. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radioshackcatalogs.com/html/catalogs_extra/1991_rsc-22/h014.html">the original</a> on October 3, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 17,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=radioshackcatalogs+dot+com&rft.atitle=Radio+Shack+Computer+Catalog+RSC-22%2C+page+14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.radioshackcatalogs.com%2Fhtml%2Fcatalogs_extra%2F1991_rsc-22%2Fh014.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141003170338/http://www.radioshackcatalogs.com/html/catalogs_extra/1991_rsc-22/h015.html">"Radio Shack Computer Catalog RSC-22, page 15"</a>. <i>radioshackcatalogs dot com</i>. Tandy/Radio Shack. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radioshackcatalogs.com/html/catalogs_extra/1991_rsc-22/h015.html">the original</a> on October 3, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 17,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=radioshackcatalogs+dot+com&rft.atitle=Radio+Shack+Computer+Catalog+RSC-22%2C+page+15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.radioshackcatalogs.com%2Fhtml%2Fcatalogs_extra%2F1991_rsc-22%2Fh015.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ancientelectronics.wordpress.com/2014/12/19/epson-equity-1e/">"Epson Equity 1e"</a>. <i>ancientelectronics</i>. justinwt. 20 December 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 22,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ancientelectronics&rft.atitle=Epson+Equity+1e&rft.date=2014-12-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fancientelectronics.wordpress.com%2F2014%2F12%2F19%2Fepson-equity-1e%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.i-programmer.info/history/machines/1364-alan-sugar-and-the-fall-of-amstrad.html">"PC1512 and the Fall of Amstrad"</a>. <i>I Programmer</i>. Mike James (website Editor)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 17,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=I+Programmer&rft.atitle=PC1512+and+the+Fall+of+Amstrad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.i-programmer.info%2Fhistory%2Fmachines%2F1364-alan-sugar-and-the-fall-of-amstrad.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nerdlypleasures.blogspot.com/2016/04/the-amstrad-pc-1512-affordable-pc-for.html">"The Amstrad PC-1512 : The Affordable IBM PC Compatible for Europe"</a>. <i>Nerdly Pleasures</i>. Great Hierophant. 11 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 17,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nerdly+Pleasures&rft.atitle=The+Amstrad+PC-1512+%3A+The+Affordable+IBM+PC+Compatible+for+Europe&rft.date=2016-04-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnerdlypleasures.blogspot.com%2F2016%2F04%2Fthe-amstrad-pc-1512-affordable-pc-for.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ljsEAAAAMBAJ&q=zenith+eazy+pc&pg=PA76">"Infoworld, September 28, 1987, page 76"</a>. <i>books.google.com/books</i>. International Data Group. 28 September 1987<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 17,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=books.google.com%2Fbooks&rft.atitle=Infoworld%2C+September+28%2C+1987%2C+page+76&rft.date=1987-09-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DljsEAAAAMBAJ%26q%3Dzenith%2Beazy%2Bpc%26pg%3DPA76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oldcomputers.net/zenith-eazy-pc.html">"Zenith EaZy PC"</a>. <i>oldcomputers.net</i>. Steven Stengel<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 17,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=oldcomputers.net&rft.atitle=Zenith+EaZy+PC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foldcomputers.net%2Fzenith-eazy-pc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosch1985" class="citation web cs1">Rosch, Winn (15 October 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wcv9oIHOrjQC&pg=PA113">"Cost-Conscious Computing"</a>. <i>books.google.com/books</i>. PC Magazine<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 17,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=books.google.com%2Fbooks&rft.atitle=Cost-Conscious+Computing&rft.date=1985-10-15&rft.aulast=Rosch&rft.aufirst=Winn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWcv9oIHOrjQC%26pg%3DPA113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c=905&st=2">"Commodore PC compatible systems"</a>. <i>old-computers dot com</i>. Thierry Schembri and Olivier Boisseau<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c=77&st=1">the original</a> on May 11, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 17,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=old-computers+dot+com&rft.atitle=Atari+PCs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.old-computers.com%2Fmuseum%2Fcomputer.asp%3Fc%3D77%26st%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurcaru2014" class="citation web cs1">Purcaru, Bogdan Ion (13 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lB4PAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA273">"Games vs. Hardware. The History of PC video games: The 80's"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Games+vs.+Hardware.+The+History+of+PC+video+games%3A+The+80%27s&rft.date=2014-03-13&rft.aulast=Purcaru&rft.aufirst=Bogdan+Ion&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlB4PAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/06/27/feature_30_years_of_msx/">"MSX: The Japanese are coming! The Japanese are coming!"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Register" title="The Register">The Register</a></i>. June 27, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Register&rft.atitle=MSX%3A+The+Japanese+are+coming%21+The+Japanese+are+coming%21&rft.date=2013-06-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.co.uk%2F2013%2F06%2F27%2Ffeature_30_years_of_msx%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130127205215/http://www.learnemc.com/tutorials/Introduction_to_EMC/Introduction.html">"Introduction to EMC"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.learnemc.com/tutorials/Introduction_to_EMC/Introduction.html">the original</a> on 2013-01-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-01-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+EMC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.learnemc.com%2Ftutorials%2FIntroduction_to_EMC%2FIntroduction.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pc-history.org/tandymod3.htm">TRS-80 the "Trash-80"</a> from PC-History.org</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Mikkelson2007" class="citation web cs1">David Mikkelson (27 September 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.snopes.com/quotes/kenolsen.asp">"Ken Olsen Computer Quote"</a>. <i>snopes</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=snopes&rft.atitle=Ken+Olsen+Computer+Quote&rft.date=2007-09-27&rft.au=David+Mikkelson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.snopes.com%2Fquotes%2Fkenolsen.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enotes.com/1980-media-american-decades/computer-revolution">The Computer Revolution</a> from eNotes.com</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eightiesclub.tripod.com/id325.htm">The computer revolution</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150317053303/http://eightiesclub.tripod.com/id325.htm">Archived</a> 2015-03-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from The Eighties Club</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160517025152/http://www.commodore.ca/history/other/telecomputing83/telecomputing.htm">"Commodore.ca - History - 1983 Telecomputing, Vic Modem"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.commodore.ca/history/other/telecomputing83/telecomputing.htm">the original</a> on 17 May 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Commodore.ca+-+History+-+1983+Telecomputing%2C+Vic+Modem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.commodore.ca%2Fhistory%2Fother%2Ftelecomputing83%2Ftelecomputing.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.commodore.ca/manuals/c64_programmers_reference/c64-programmers_reference_guide-00-toc_introduction.pdf">"Commodore 64 Programmers Reference Guide"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <q>The Commodore 64 Home Babysitter cartridge can keep your youngest child occupied for hours and teach alphabet/keyboard recognition at the same time. It also teaches special learning concepts and relationships.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Commodore+64+Programmers+Reference+Guide&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.commodore.ca%2Fmanuals%2Fc64_programmers_reference%2Fc64-programmers_reference_guide-00-toc_introduction.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171118010024/http://www.aldricharchive.com/downloads/anhc-33-4-anec-aldrich.pdf">"Online Shopping in the 1980s"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>IEEE Annals of the History of Computing</i>. <b>33</b> (4): 57–61. October–December 2011. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1058-6180">1058-6180</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aldricharchive.com/downloads/anhc-33-4-anec-aldrich.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2017-11-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-01-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Annals+of+the+History+of+Computing&rft.atitle=Online+Shopping+in+the+1980s&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=57-61&rft.date=2011-10%2F2011-12&rft.issn=1058-6180&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aldricharchive.com%2Fdownloads%2Fanhc-33-4-anec-aldrich.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShafer2009" class="citation journal cs1">Shafer, Jack (6 January 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/press_box/2009/01/how_newspapers_tried_to_invent_the_web.html">"How Newspapers Tried to Invent the Web"</a>. <i>Slate</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slate&rft.atitle=How+Newspapers+Tried+to+Invent+the+Web&rft.date=2009-01-06&rft.aulast=Shafer&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slate.com%2Farticles%2Fnews_and_politics%2Fpress_box%2F2009%2F01%2Fhow_newspapers_tried_to_invent_the_web.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeckman2008" class="citation book cs1">Heckman, Davin (13 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gj2ebZ9EBTAC&pg=PA96"><i>A Small World: Smart Houses and the Dream of the Perfect Day</i></a>. Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822388845" title="Special:BookSources/978-0822388845"><bdi>978-0822388845</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Small+World%3A+Smart+Houses+and+the+Dream+of+the+Perfect+Day&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2008-03-13&rft.isbn=978-0822388845&rft.aulast=Heckman&rft.aufirst=Davin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGj2ebZ9EBTAC%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140423043951/http://www.aging.ny.gov/livableny/resourcemanual/design/iv1c.pdf">"Livable New York Resource Manual: SMART HOMES (Home Automation)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aging.ny.gov/livableny/resourcemanual/design/iv1c.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2014-04-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-01-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Livable+New+York+Resource+Manual%3A+SMART+HOMES+%28Home+Automation%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aging.ny.gov%2Flivableny%2Fresourcemanual%2Fdesign%2Fiv1c.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://technologizer.com/2009/11/22/a-1980s-home-computer-family-celebration/">"A 1980s Home Computer Family Celebration"</a>. 23 November 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+1980s+Home+Computer+Family+Celebration&rft.date=2009-11-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftechnologizer.com%2F2009%2F11%2F22%2Fa-1980s-home-computer-family-celebration%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gutman198709-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gutman198709_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gutman198709_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGutman,_Dan1987" class="citation web cs1">Gutman, Dan (September 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/09-commodore-magazine/Commodore_Magazine_Vol-08-N09_1987_Sep#page/n51/mode/2up">"What happened to the computer revolution?"</a>. <i>Commodore Magazine</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-01-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Commodore+Magazine&rft.atitle=What+happened+to+the+computer+revolution%3F&rft.date=1987-09&rft.au=Gutman%2C+Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2F09-commodore-magazine%2FCommodore_Magazine_Vol-08-N09_1987_Sep%23page%2Fn51%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ibiblio.org/team/intro/unix/what.html">"What is UNIX"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+UNIX&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fibiblio.org%2Fteam%2Fintro%2Funix%2Fwhat.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.sims.berkeley.edu/research/projects/how-much-info/datapowers.html">"Data Powers of Ten"</a>. <i>How Much Information?</i>. berkeley.edu. 2000.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=How+Much+Information%3F&rft.atitle=Data+Powers+of+Ten&rft.date=2000&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.sims.berkeley.edu%2Fresearch%2Fprojects%2Fhow-much-info%2Fdatapowers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT'92/301-per.htm">"Navigation through CD-ROM multimedia resources: the application of multimedia CD-ROMs in schools"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Navigation+through+CD-ROM+multimedia+resources%3A+the+application+of+multimedia+CD-ROMs+in+schools&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.simmons.edu%2F~chen%2Fnit%2FNIT%2792%2F301-per.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121016003306/http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~adillon/Journals/Reading.htm">"Reading from paper versus screens: a critical review of the empirical literature"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~adillon/Journals/Reading.htm">the original</a> on 2012-10-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-10-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reading+from+paper+versus+screens%3A+a+critical+review+of+the+empirical+literature&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ischool.utexas.edu%2F~adillon%2FJournals%2FReading.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nC8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA11"><i>InfoWorld Jan 20,1986</i></a>. 20 January 1986.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=InfoWorld+Jan+20%2C1986&rft.date=1986-01-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnC8EAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/1987-02-compute-magazine/Compute_Issue_081_1987_Feb#page/n85/mode/2up">"IBM Personal Computing: The CD-ROMs Are Coming, Compute! magazine Feb. 1987"</a>. February 1987.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IBM+Personal+Computing%3A+The+CD-ROMs+Are+Coming%2C+Compute%21+magazine+Feb.+1987&rft.date=1987-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2F1987-02-compute-magazine%2FCompute_Issue_081_1987_Feb%23page%2Fn85%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/1986-04-compute-magazine/Compute_Issue_071_1986_Apr#page/n29/mode/2up">"New Technologies: The Converging Digital Universe, Compute! magazine, April 1986"</a>. April 1986. <q>Although the initial purchase price of $1495 may keep initial sales out of the home market in volume, the price for CD-ROM technology is expected to drop quickly over the next couple of years.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+Technologies%3A+The+Converging+Digital+Universe%2C+Compute%21+magazine%2C+April+1986&rft.date=1986-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2F1986-04-compute-magazine%2FCompute_Issue_071_1986_Apr%23page%2Fn29%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mitchell19830906-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mitchell19830906_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mitchell19830906_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell,_Peter_W.1983" class="citation news cs1">Mitchell, Peter W. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Boston+Phoenix&rft.atitle=A+summer-CES+report&rft.pages=4&rft.date=1983-09-06&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+Peter+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fid%3Dgn0hAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D5584%252C3561802&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-whitmore198311-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-whitmore198311_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitmore,_Sam1983" class="citation news cs1">Whitmore, Sam (November 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/inCider_83-11#page/n9/mode/2up">"Fermentations"</a>. <i>inCider</i>. p. 10<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Arlington, VA (NSF 01-313) [March 2001]"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf01313/patterns.htm">the original</a> on 2011-03-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alexa.com/data/details/traffic_details?url=http%3A%2F%2Fgametap.com">the original</a> on 25 October 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=gametap.com+Site+Overview&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alexa.com%2Fdata%2Fdetails%2Ftraffic_details%3Furl%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fgametap.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1991/a_history_of_gaming_platforms_the_.php">"number of C64s sold"</a>. Gamasutra.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://games.slashdot.org/games/07/04/23/1214256.shtml">the original</a> on 12 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Slashdot+-+25th+Anniversary+of+the+Sinclair+ZX+Spectrum&rft.date=2008-10-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgames.slashdot.org%2Fgames%2F07%2F04%2F23%2F1214256.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://armchairarcade.com/neo/node/1467">Format Wars: The Tech that should have Won</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090212132332/http://armchairarcade.com/neo/node/1467">Archived</a> 2009-02-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from ArmchairArcade.com</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.robert.to/reports/RadioShackRSC3.pdf">Tandy TRS-80 catalog listing many business uses</a> (<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080528025803/http://www.robert.to/reports/RadioShackRSC3.pdf">Archived</a> May 28, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lowendmac.com/orchard/06/visicalc-origin-bricklin.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"VisiCalc was first released for the Apple II, which quickly became an invaluable tool for businesspeople - at least until IBM moved into the "personal computing" market in 1981."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. Lowendmac.com. 25 September 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-04-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22VisiCalc+was+first+released+for+the+Apple+II%2C+which+quickly+became+an+invaluable+tool+for+businesspeople+-+at+least+until+IBM+moved+into+the+%22personal+computing%22+market+in+1981.%22&rft.pub=Lowendmac.com&rft.date=2006-09-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flowendmac.com%2Forchard%2F06%2Fvisicalc-origin-bricklin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.obsoletecomputermuseum.org/ibmpcjr/">"IBM PCjr"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IBM+PCjr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.obsoletecomputermuseum.org%2Fibmpcjr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oldcomputers.net/ibm-pcjr.html">"IBM PCjr"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IBM+PCjr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foldcomputers.net%2Fibm-pcjr.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121022154013/http://www.commodore.ca/gallery/brochures/PET_Education/PET_Education.htm">"Commodore Educational brochure"</a>. Commodore.ca. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.commodore.ca/gallery/brochures/PET_Education/PET_Education.htm">the original</a> on 2012-10-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-04-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Commodore+Educational+brochure&rft.pub=Commodore.ca&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.commodore.ca%2Fgallery%2Fbrochures%2FPET_Education%2FPET_Education.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wired_Jun_2007-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wired_Jun_2007_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLong2007" class="citation magazine cs1">Long, Tony (June 5, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2007/06/dayintech_0605">"June 5, 1977: From a Little Apple a Mighty Industry Grows"</a>. <i>Wired</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090528031056/http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2007/06/dayintech_0605">Archived</a> from the original on May 28, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 13,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=June+5%2C+1977%3A+From+a+Little+Apple+a+Mighty+Industry+Grows&rft.date=2007-06-05&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fscience%2Fdiscoveries%2Fnews%2F2007%2F06%2Fdayintech_0605&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CW_Aug_1977-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CW_Aug_1977_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WK1sumquze4C&pg=PA37">"Radio Shack Retails Z80-Based System"</a>. <i>Computerworld</i>. <b>11</b> (34). IDG Enterprise: 37. August 22, 1977. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0010-4841">0010-4841</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computerworld&rft.atitle=Radio+Shack+Retails+Z80-Based+System&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=34&rft.pages=37&rft.date=1977-08-22&rft.issn=0010-4841&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWK1sumquze4C%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Byte_Feb_1978-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Byte_Feb_1978_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhat's_New1978" class="citation cs2">What's New (February 1978), "Commodore Ships First PET Computers", <i>BYTE</i>, vol. 3, no. 2, Byte Publications, p. 190</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BYTE&rft.atitle=Commodore+Ships+First+PET+Computers&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=190&rft.date=1978-02&rft.au=What%27s+New&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span> Commodore press release. "The PET computer made its debut recently as the first 100 units were shipped to waiting customers in mid-October 1977."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computercloset.org/CompuColorII.htm">ComputerCloset.org</a> – Information about the Compucolor II</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/news/2003/09/60349">Grandiose Price for a Modest PC</a> from <i><a href="/wiki/Wired_News" class="mw-redirect" title="Wired News">Wired</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/amiga-the-computer-that-wouldnt-die">"Amiga: The Computer That Wouldn't Die"</a>. March 2001. <q>In response to its designers' ambitions and a changing marketplace, it evolved from a video game console into a home computer before it even reached the prototype stage.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Amiga%3A+The+Computer+That+Wouldn%27t+Die&rft.date=2001-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectrum.ieee.org%2Famiga-the-computer-that-wouldnt-die&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+computer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_computer&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Home_computers" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Home computers">Home computers</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pc-museum.com/">Rune's PC Museum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.homecomputer.de/">Home of the home computer</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oldcomputermuseum.com/">Collection of old analog and digital computers</a> at Old Computer Museum</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.retromadness.com/">Computer History Museum</a> – An online museum of home computing and gaming</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.homecomputer.de/">HCM - Home Computer Museum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/old/content/2005/12/total-share.ars">"Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures"</a> – From <a href="/wiki/Ars_Technica" title="Ars Technica">Ars Technica</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eightiesclub.tripod.com/id325.htm">article on computing in the 1980s</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150317053303/http://eightiesclub.tripod.com/id325.htm">Archived</a> 2015-03-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FLabRYnGrOcC&dq=history+of+the+microcomputer+revolution&pg=PA14">Google Books link to <i>A history of the personal computer: the people and the technology</i> by Roy A. Allan</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/richpl/PyBasic">Home computer simulation written in Python</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Arcade_cabinet" title="Arcade cabinet">Arcade cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diskless_node" title="Diskless node">Diskless node</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_appliance" title="Internet appliance">Internet appliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_terminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligent terminal">Intelligent terminal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactive_kiosk" title="Interactive kiosk">Interactive kiosk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rich_client" title="Rich client">Rich client</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simulator_ride" title="Simulator ride">Simulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_speaker" title="Smart speaker">Smart speaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_TV" title="Smart TV">Smart TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_client" title="Thin client">Thin client</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">Video game console</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Home_video_game_console" title="Home video game console">Home console</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microconsole" title="Microconsole">Microconsole</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Computers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By use</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaming_computer" title="Gaming computer">Gaming</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_PC" title="Industrial PC">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">Personal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personal_supercomputer" title="Personal supercomputer">Personal super</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_computer" title="Public computer">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Server_(computing)" title="Server (computing)">Server</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Home_server" title="Home server">Home server</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workstation" title="Workstation">Workstation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By size</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All-in-one_computer" title="All-in-one computer">All-in-one</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Panel_PC" title="Panel PC">Panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Table_computer" title="Table computer">Tabletop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_computer" title="Surface computer">Surface</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desktop_computer" title="Desktop computer">Desktop</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deskside_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Deskside computer">Deskside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pizza-box_form_factor" title="Pizza-box form factor">Pizza box</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_tower" title="Computer tower">Tower</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portable_computer" title="Portable computer">Portable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_form_factor_PC" title="Small form factor PC">Small form factor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mini_PC" title="Mini PC">Mini PC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug_computer" title="Plug computer">Plug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stick_PC" title="Stick PC">Stick PC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19-inch_rack" title="19-inch rack">Rack</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blade_server" title="Blade server">Blade server</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blade_PC" title="Blade PC">Blade PC</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mobile_computing" title="Mobile computing">Mobile</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Laptop" title="Laptop">Laptop</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2-in-1_laptop" title="2-in-1 laptop">2-in-1</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2-in-1_laptop#2-in-1_convertible" title="2-in-1 laptop">Convertible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloudbook" title="Cloudbook">Cloudbook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_workstation" title="Mobile workstation">Mobile workstation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notebook_(laptop)" title="Notebook (laptop)">Notebook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subnotebook" title="Subnotebook">Subnotebook</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Netbook" title="Netbook">Netbook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartbook" title="Smartbook">Smartbook</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tablet_computer" title="Tablet computer">Tablet</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2-in-1_laptop#2-in-1_detachable" title="2-in-1 laptop">Detachable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phablet" title="Phablet">Phablet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mobile_device" title="Mobile device">Handheld</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_organizer" title="Electronic organizer">Electronic organizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-reader" title="E-reader">E-reader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handheld_game_console" title="Handheld game console">Handheld game console</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handheld_PC" title="Handheld PC">Handheld PC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_data_terminal" title="Mobile data terminal">Mobile data terminal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">Mobile phone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camera_phone" title="Camera phone">Camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feature_phone" title="Feature phone">Feature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foldable_smartphone" title="Foldable smartphone">Foldable</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmtop_PC" title="Palmtop PC">Palmtop PC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant" title="Personal digital assistant">Personal digital assistant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pocket_computer" title="Pocket computer">Pocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portable_data_terminal" title="Portable data terminal">Portable data terminal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portable_media_player" title="Portable media player">Portable media player</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siftable" title="Siftable">Siftable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-mobile_PC" title="Ultra-mobile PC">Ultra-mobile PC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Calculator" title="Calculator">Calculator</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graphing_calculator" title="Graphing calculator">Graphing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_calculator" title="Programmable calculator">Programmable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_calculator" title="Scientific calculator">Scientific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wearable_computer" title="Wearable computer">Wearable</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activity_tracker" title="Activity tracker">Activity tracker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smart_band" class="mw-redirect" title="Smart band">Smart band</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watch#Digital" title="Watch">Digital wristwatch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calculator_watch" title="Calculator watch">Calculator watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartwatch" title="Smartwatch">Smartwatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPS_watch" title="GPS watch">Sportwatch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartglasses" title="Smartglasses">Smartglasses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_ring" title="Smart ring">Smart ring</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Midrange_computer" title="Midrange computer">Midrange</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minicomputer" title="Minicomputer">Mini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superminicomputer" title="Superminicomputer">Supermini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Large</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grid_computing" title="Grid computing">Grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">Mainframe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minisupercomputer" title="Minisupercomputer">Minisuper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">Super</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_appliance" title="Information appliance">Information appliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">Microcontroller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanocomputer" title="Nanocomputer">Nano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugged_computer" title="Rugged computer">Rugged</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rugged_smartphone" title="Rugged smartphone">Rugged smartphone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-board_computer" title="Single-board computer">Single-board</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-on-module" title="Computer-on-module">Computer-on-module</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartdust" title="Smartdust">Smartdust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_sensor_network" title="Wireless sensor network">Wireless sensor network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" 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