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id="toc-Philadelphia_Convention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philadelphia_Convention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Philadelphia Convention</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philadelphia_Convention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-Federalists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-Federalists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Anti-Federalists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-Federalists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federalists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federalists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Federalists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federalists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Massachusetts_compromise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Massachusetts_compromise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Massachusetts compromise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Massachusetts_compromise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_York_Circular_Letter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_York_Circular_Letter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>New York Circular Letter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_York_Circular_Letter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proposal_and_ratification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proposal_and_ratification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Proposal and ratification</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Proposal_and_ratification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Proposal and ratification subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Proposal_and_ratification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anticipating_amendments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anticipating_amendments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Anticipating amendments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anticipating_amendments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Madison's_proposed_amendments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Madison's_proposed_amendments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Madison's proposed amendments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Madison's_proposed_amendments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crafting_amendments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crafting_amendments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Crafting amendments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crafting_amendments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ratification_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ratification_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Ratification process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ratification_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Application_and_text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Application_and_text"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Application and text</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Application_and_text-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Application and text subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Application_and_text-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_Amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>First Amendment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Second Amendment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_Amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_Amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Third Amendment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_Amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fourth_Amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fourth_Amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Fourth Amendment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fourth_Amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fifth_Amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fifth_Amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Fifth Amendment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fifth_Amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sixth_Amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sixth_Amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Sixth Amendment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sixth_Amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seventh_Amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seventh_Amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Seventh Amendment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seventh_Amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eighth_Amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eighth_Amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Eighth Amendment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eighth_Amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ninth_Amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ninth_Amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Ninth Amendment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ninth_Amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tenth_Amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tenth_Amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Tenth Amendment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tenth_Amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Display_and_honoring_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Display_and_honoring_of_the_Bill_of_Rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Display and honoring of the Bill of Rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Display_and_honoring_of_the_Bill_of_Rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">United States Bill of Rights</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">51 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A9_%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="وثيقة حقوق الولايات المتحدة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="وثيقة حقوق الولايات المتحدة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCquqlar_haqq%C4%B1nda_Bill_(AB%C5%9E)" title="Hüquqlar haqqında Bill (ABŞ) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hüquqlar haqqında Bill (ABŞ)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%85_(%D0%97%D0%A8%D0%90)" title="Біль аб правах (ЗША) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Біль аб правах (ЗША)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_(%D0%A1%D0%90%D0%A9)" title="Закон за правата (САЩ) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Закон за правата (САЩ)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaraci%C3%B3_de_Drets_de_la_Constituci%C3%B3_dels_Estats_Units" title="Declaració de Drets de la Constitució dels Estats Units – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Declaració de Drets de la Constitució dels Estats Units" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listina_pr%C3%A1v_(Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9)" title="Listina práv (Spojené státy americké) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Listina práv (Spojené státy americké)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_(Vereinigte_Staaten)" title="Bill of Rights (Vereinigte Staaten) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bill of Rights (Vereinigte Staaten)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_(1791)" title="Bill of Rights (1791) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Bill of Rights (1791)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%81%CF%85%CE%BE%CE%B7_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%AC%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%B7" title="Διακήρυξη των Δικαιωμάτων του Πολίτη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Διακήρυξη των Δικαιωμάτων του Πολίτη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carta_de_Derechos_de_los_Estados_Unidos" title="Carta de Derechos de los Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Carta de Derechos de los Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_(Usono)" title="Bill of Rights (Usono) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Bill of Rights (Usono)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="منشور حقوق ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="منشور حقوق ایالات متحده آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9claration_des_droits_(%C3%89tats-Unis)" title="Déclaration des droits (États-Unis) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Déclaration des droits (États-Unis)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B6%8C%EB%A6%AC%EC%9E%A5%EC%A0%84_(%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD)" title="권리장전 (미국) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="권리장전 (미국)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AD%E0%A5%AE%E0%A5%AF" title="अमेरिकी अधिकार विधेयक १७८९ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अमेरिकी अधिकार विधेयक १७८९" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povelja_o_pravima" title="Povelja o pravima – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povelja o pravima" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights" title="Bill of Rights – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Bill of Rights" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deklarasi_Hak-Hak" title="Deklarasi Hak-Hak – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Deklarasi Hak-Hak" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9ttindaskr%C3%A1_Bandar%C3%ADkjanna" title="Réttindaskrá Bandaríkjanna – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Réttindaskrá Bandaríkjanna" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carta_dei_Diritti_degli_Stati_Uniti_d%27America" title="Carta dei Diritti degli Stati Uniti d'America – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Carta dei Diritti degli Stati Uniti d'America" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%92%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%96%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="מגילת הזכויות של ארצות הברית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מגילת הזכויות של ארצות הברית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogatio_Iurum_Civitatum_Foederatarum" title="Rogatio Iurum Civitatum Foederatarum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Rogatio Iurum Civitatum Foederatarum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASV_Ties%C4%ABbu_bils" title="ASV Tiesību bils – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="ASV Tiesību bils" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungtini%C5%B3_Valstij%C5%B3_Teisi%C5%B3_bilis" title="Jungtinių Valstijų Teisių bilis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Jungtinių Valstijų Teisių bilis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deciarazion_di_Dirizz_(Stat_Unii)" title="Deciarazion di Dirizz (Stat Unii) – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Deciarazion di Dirizz (Stat Unii)" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_(USA)" title="Bill of Rights (USA) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Bill of Rights (USA)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C_%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%93%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="യുണൈറ്റഡ്‌ സ്റ്റേറ്റ്‌സ്‌ ബിൽ ഓഫ് റൈറ്റ്സ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="യുണൈറ്റഡ്‌ സ്റ്റേറ്റ്‌സ്‌ ബിൽ ഓഫ് റൈറ്റ്സ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A9_%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82_%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%A7" title="وثيقة حقوق امريكا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="وثيقة حقوق امريكا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perakuan_Hak_Amerika_Syarikat" title="Perakuan Hak Amerika Syarikat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perakuan Hak Amerika Syarikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_(Verenigde_Staten)" title="Bill of Rights (Verenigde Staten) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bill of Rights (Verenigde Staten)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A8%A9%E5%88%A9%E7%AB%A0%E5%85%B8_(%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB)" title="権利章典 (アメリカ) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="権利章典 (アメリカ)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_(USA)" title="Bill of Rights (USA) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Bill of Rights (USA)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%AF_%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88_%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86" title="د متحده ایالاتو د حقونو قانون – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د متحده ایالاتو د حقونو قانون" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karta_praw_Stan%C3%B3w_Zjednoczonych" title="Karta praw Stanów Zjednoczonych – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Karta praw Stanów Zjednoczonych" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declara%C3%A7%C3%A3o_dos_Direitos_dos_Estados_Unidos" title="Declaração dos Direitos dos Estados Unidos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Declaração dos Direitos dos Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights" title="Bill of Rights – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Bill of Rights" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%85_(%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90)" title="Билль о правах (США) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Билль о правах (США)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AE%E0%B7%8F_%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%AD" title="අයිතීන්ගේ ව්‍යවස්ථා කෙටුම් පනත – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අයිතීන්ගේ ව්‍යවස්ථා කෙටුම් පනත" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="United States Bill of Rights" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listina_pr%C3%A1v_(USA)" title="Listina práv (USA) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Listina práv (USA)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%99%D0%B0_%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0_(%D0%A1%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%9A%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5)" title="Повеља о правима (Сједињене Америчке Државе) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Повеља о правима (Сједињене Америчке Државе)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povelja_o_pravima_(Sjedinjene_Ameri%C4%8Dke_Dr%C5%BEave)" title="Povelja o pravima (Sjedinjene Američke Države) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Povelja o pravima (Sjedinjene Američke Države)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_(Yhdysvallat)" title="Bill of Rights (Yhdysvallat) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Bill of Rights (Yhdysvallat)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_(USA)" title="Bill of Rights (USA) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bill of Rights (USA)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_(%E0%AE%90%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE)" title="உரிமைகளின் சட்டம் (ஐக்கிய அமெரிக்கா) – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உரிமைகளின் சட்டம் (ஐக்கிய அமெரிக்கா)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haklar_Bildirisi" title="Haklar Bildirisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Haklar Bildirisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_(%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90)" title="Білль про права (США) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Білль про права (США)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%92_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%DB%81_%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82" title="ریاستہائے متحدہ منشور حقوق – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ریاستہائے متحدہ منشور حقوق" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuy%C3%AAn_ng%C3%B4n_nh%C3%A2n_quy%E1%BB%81n_Hoa_K%E1%BB%B3" title="Tuyên ngôn nhân quyền Hoa Kỳ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tuyên ngôn nhân quyền Hoa Kỳ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%83%E5%88%A9%E6%B3%95%E6%A1%88" title="美国权利法案 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="美国权利法案" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%83%E5%88%A9%E6%B3%95%E6%A1%88" title="美国权利法案 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="美国权利法案" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q862765#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> 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.mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ededed;">United States Bill of Rights</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg/250px-Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg/330px-Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg/500px-Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8636" data-file-height="9183" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">First page of an original copy of the twelve proposed articles of amendment, as passed by Congress</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Created</th><td class="infobox-data">September 25, 1789</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratified</a></th><td class="infobox-data">December 15, 1791</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Author(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/1st_United_States_Congress" title="1st United States Congress">1st United States Congress</a>, mainly <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Purpose</th><td class="infobox-data">To amend the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Constitution of the United States">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution<br />of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/250px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/330px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States#Original_frame" title="Constitution of the United States">Preamble and Articles</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States#Ratified_amendments" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments to the Constitution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">X</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">XI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXVII</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States#Unratified_amendments" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified Amendments</a></b>:<div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">D.C. Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="extiw" title="s:Constitution of the United States of America">Full text</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="extiw" title="s:Constitution of the United States of America">Preamble and Articles I–VII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" class="extiw" title="s:United States Bill of Rights">Amendments I–X</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Additional_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" class="extiw" title="s:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution">Amendments XI–XXVII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Unsuccessful_attempts_to_amend_the_United_States_Constitution" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Unsuccessful attempts to amend the United States Constitution">Unratified Amendments</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/17px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="9" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/26px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/34px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/20px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/40px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/20px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/40px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_Constitution_article_series" title="Template:US Constitution article series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_Constitution_article_series" title="Template talk:US Constitution article series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_Constitution_article_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US Constitution article series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>United States Bill of Rights</b> comprises the first ten <a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="List of amendments to the United States Constitution">amendments</a> to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>. Proposed following the often bitter 1787–88 debate over the <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">ratification of the Constitution</a> and written to address the objections raised by <a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalism" title="Anti-Federalism">Anti-Federalists</a>, the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and <a href="/wiki/Natural_and_legal_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural and legal rights">rights</a>, clear limitations on the government's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically granted to the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a> by the Constitution are reserved to the <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">people</a>. The concepts <a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">codified</a> in these amendments are built upon those in earlier documents, especially the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Declaration_of_Rights" title="Virginia Declaration of Rights">Virginia Declaration of Rights</a> (1776), as well as the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a> (1787),<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">English Bill of Rights</a> (1689), and <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> (1215).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Largely because of the efforts of Representative <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a>, who studied the deficiencies of the Constitution pointed out by Anti-Federalists and then crafted a series of corrective proposals, Congress approved twelve articles of amendment on September 25, 1789, and submitted them to the states for ratification. Contrary to Madison's proposal that the proposed amendments be incorporated into the main body of the Constitution (at the relevant articles and sections of the document), they were proposed as supplemental additions (codicils) to it.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15, 1791, and became Amendments One through Ten of the Constitution. Article Two became part of the Constitution on May 5, 1992, as the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-seventh Amendment</a>. <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Article One</a> is still pending before the states. </p><p>Although Madison's proposed amendments included a provision to extend the protection of some of the Bill of Rights to the states, the amendments that were finally submitted for ratification applied only to the federal government. The door for their application upon state governments was opened in the 1860s, following ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>. Since the early 20th century both <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">federal</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">state courts</a> have used the Fourteenth Amendment to apply portions of the Bill of Rights to state and local governments. The process is known as <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">incorporation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>James Madison initially opposed the idea of creating a bill of rights, primarily for two reasons: </p><p>1. The Constitution did not grant the federal government the power to take away people’s rights. The federal government’s powers are “few and defined” (listed in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution). Any powers not listed in the Constitution reside with the states or the people themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>2. By creating a list of people’s rights, then anything not on the list was therefore not protected. Madison and the other Framers believed that we have <a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">natural rights</a> and they are too numerous to list. So, writing a list would be counterproductive.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, opponents of the ratification of the Constitution objected that it contained no bill of rights. So, in order to secure ratification, Madison agreed to support adding a bill of rights, and even served as its author. He resolved the dilemma mentioned in Item 2 above by including the <a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">9th Amendment</a>, which states that just because a right hasn’t been listed in the Bill of Rights doesn’t mean that it doesn’t exist.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are several original <a href="/wiki/Engrossed" class="mw-redirect" title="Engrossed">engrossed</a> copies of the Bill of Rights still in existence. One of these is on permanent public display at the <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives</a> in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philadelphia_Convention">Philadelphia Convention</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Constitutional Convention (United States)</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:40%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>I go further, and affirm that bills of rights, in the sense and to the extent in which they are contended for, are not only unnecessary in the proposed Constitution, but would even be dangerous. They would contain various exceptions to powers not granted; and, on this very account, would afford a colorable pretext to claim more than were granted. For why declare that things shall not be done which there is no power to do? Why, for instance, should it be said that the liberty of the press shall not be restrained, when no power is given by which restrictions may be imposed? I will not contend that such a provision would confer a regulating power; but it is evident that it would furnish, to men disposed to usurp, a plausible pretense for claiming that power. They might urge with a semblance of reason, that the Constitution ought not to be charged with the absurdity of providing against the abuse of an authority which was not given, and that the provision against restraining the liberty of the press afforded a clear implication, that a power to prescribe proper regulations concerning it was intended to be vested in the national government. This may serve as a specimen of the numerous handles which would be given to the doctrine of constructive powers, by the indulgence of an injudicious zeal for bills of rights. </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">—<a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>'s opposition to the Bill of Rights, from <i><a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._84" title="Federalist No. 84">Federalist No. 84</a></i>.</cite></div> </div> <p>Prior to the ratification and implementation of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>, the thirteen sovereign <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a> followed the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>, created by the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a> and ratified in 1781. However, the national government that operated under the Articles of Confederation was too weak to adequately regulate the various conflicts that arose between the states.<sup id="cite_ref-TAH_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TAH-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Philadelphia Convention set out to correct weaknesses of the Articles that had been apparent even before the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> had been successfully concluded.<sup id="cite_ref-TAH_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TAH-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The convention took place from May 14 to September 17, 1787, in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>. Although the Convention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles, the intention of many of its proponents, chief among them <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> of <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The convention convened in the <a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Pennsylvania State House</a>, and George Washington of Virginia was unanimously elected as president of the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart47_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart47-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 55 delegates who drafted the Constitution are among the men known as the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a> of the new nation. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, who was <a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_France" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to France">Minister to France</a> during the convention, characterized the delegates as an assembly of "demi-gods."<sup id="cite_ref-TAH_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TAH-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rhode Island refused to send delegates to the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman59_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman59-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On September 12, <a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">George Mason</a> of Virginia suggested the addition of a Bill of Rights to the Constitution modeled on previous state declarations, and <a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a> of <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> made it a formal motion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman341_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman341-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, after only a brief discussion where <a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a> pointed out that State Bills of Rights were not repealed by the new Constitution,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the motion was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations. Madison, then an opponent of a Bill of Rights, later explained the vote by calling the state bills of rights "parchment barriers" that offered only an illusion of protection against tyranny.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman343_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman343-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another delegate, <a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, later argued that the act of enumerating the rights of the people would have been dangerous, because it would imply that rights not explicitly mentioned did not exist;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman343_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman343-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hamilton echoed this point in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">Federalist</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._84" title="Federalist No. 84">No. 84</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove327_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove327-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because Mason and Gerry had emerged as opponents of the proposed new Constitution, their motion—introduced five days before the end of the convention—may also have been seen by other delegates as a delaying tactic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart226_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart226-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The quick rejection of this motion, however, later endangered the entire ratification process. Author <a href="/wiki/David_O._Stewart" title="David O. Stewart">David O. Stewart</a> characterizes the omission of a Bill of Rights in the original Constitution as "a political blunder of the first magnitude"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart226_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart226-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while historian <a href="/wiki/Jack_N._Rakove" title="Jack N. Rakove">Jack N. Rakove</a> calls it "the one serious miscalculation the framers made as they looked ahead to the struggle over ratification".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove288_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove288-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thirty-nine delegates signed the finalized Constitution. Thirteen delegates left before it was completed, and three who remained at the convention until the end refused to sign it: Mason, Gerry, and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Randolph" title="Edmund Randolph">Edmund Randolph</a> of Virginia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman363_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman363-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterward, the Constitution was presented to the Articles of Confederation Congress with the request that it afterwards be submitted to a convention of delegates, chosen in each State by the people, for their assent and ratification.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-Federalists">Anti-Federalists</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Patrick_henry.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Patrick_henry.JPG/200px-Patrick_henry.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Patrick_henry.JPG/300px-Patrick_henry.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Patrick_henry.JPG/400px-Patrick_henry.JPG 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="737" /></a><figcaption>On June 5, 1788, <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Henry" title="Patrick Henry">Patrick Henry</a> spoke before <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia's ratification convention</a> in opposition to the Constitution.</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the Philadelphia Convention, some leading revolutionary figures such as <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Henry" title="Patrick Henry">Patrick Henry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Henry_Lee" title="Richard Henry Lee">Richard Henry Lee</a> publicly opposed the new frame of government, a position known as "Anti-Federalism".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski20_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski20-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elbridge Gerry wrote the most popular Anti-Federalist tract, "Hon. Mr. Gerry's Objections", which went through 46 printings; the essay particularly focused on the lack of a bill of rights in the proposed Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski63_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski63-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many were concerned that a strong national government was a threat to <a href="/wiki/Individual_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual rights">individual rights</a> and that the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> would become a <a href="/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">king</a>. Jefferson wrote to Madison advocating a Bill of Rights: "Half a loaf is better than no bread. If we cannot secure all our rights, let us secure what we can."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pseudonymous Anti-Federalist "Brutus" (probably <a href="/wiki/Robert_Yates_(politician)" title="Robert Yates (politician)">Robert Yates</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wrote, </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We find they have, in the ninth section of the first article declared, that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless in cases of rebellion—that no bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed—that no title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, etc. If every thing which is not given is reserved, what propriety is there in these exceptions? Does this Constitution any where grant the power of suspending the habeas corpus, to make ex post facto laws, pass bills of attainder, or grant titles of nobility? It certainly does not in express terms. The only answer that can be given is, that these are implied in the general powers granted. With equal truth it may be said, that all the powers which the bills of rights guard against the abuse of, are contained or implied in the general ones granted by this Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-Brutus376_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brutus376-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>He continued with this observation: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Ought not a government, vested with such extensive and indefinite authority, to have been restricted by a declaration of rights? It certainly ought. So clear a point is this, that I cannot help suspecting that persons who attempt to persuade people that such reservations were less necessary under this Constitution than under those of the States, are wilfully endeavoring to deceive, and to lead you into an absolute state of vassalage.<sup id="cite_ref-Brutus377_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brutus377-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federalists">Federalists</h3></div> <p>Supporters of the Constitution, known as Federalists, opposed a bill of rights for much of the ratification period, in part because of the procedural uncertainties it would create.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove325_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove325-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Madison argued against such an inclusion, suggesting that state governments were sufficient guarantors of personal liberty, in <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._46" title="Federalist No. 46">No. 46</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i>, a series of essays promoting the Federalist position.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski62_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski62-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hamilton opposed a bill of rights in <i>The <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._84" title="Federalist No. 84">Federalist No. 84</a></i>, stating that "the constitution is itself in every rational sense, and to every useful purpose, a bill of rights." He stated that ratification did not mean the American people were surrendering their rights, making protections unnecessary: "Here, in strictness, the people surrender nothing, and as they retain everything, they have no need of particular reservations." Patrick Henry criticized the Federalist point of view, writing that the legislature must be firmly informed "of the extent of the rights retained by the people ... being in a state of uncertainty, they will assume rather than give up powers by implication."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove323_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove323-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other anti-Federalists pointed out that earlier political documents, in particular <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>, had protected specific rights. In response, Hamilton argued that the Constitution was inherently different: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Bills of rights are in their origin, stipulations between kings and their subjects, abridgments of prerogative in favor of privilege, reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince. Such was the Magna Charta, obtained by the Barons, swords in hand, from King John.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Massachusetts_compromise">Massachusetts compromise</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Compromise" title="Massachusetts Compromise">Massachusetts Compromise</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Letter_from_George_Washington_to_Lafayette_28_Apr_1788_photo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Letter_from_George_Washington_to_Lafayette_28_Apr_1788_photo.png/250px-Letter_from_George_Washington_to_Lafayette_28_Apr_1788_photo.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Letter_from_George_Washington_to_Lafayette_28_Apr_1788_photo.png/330px-Letter_from_George_Washington_to_Lafayette_28_Apr_1788_photo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Letter_from_George_Washington_to_Lafayette_28_Apr_1788_photo.png/500px-Letter_from_George_Washington_to_Lafayette_28_Apr_1788_photo.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="991" /></a><figcaption>George Washington's 1788 letter to the <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier,_marquis_de_Lafayette" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilbert du Motier, marquis de Lafayette">Marquis de Lafayette</a> observed, "the Convention of Massachusetts adopted the Constitution in toto; but recommended a number of specific alterations and quieting explanations." Source: <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In December 1787 and January 1788, five states—Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut—ratified the Constitution with relative ease, though the bitter minority report of the Pennsylvania opposition was widely circulated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski59–60_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski59–60-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to its predecessors, the Massachusetts convention was angry and contentious, at one point erupting into a fistfight between Federalist delegate <a href="/wiki/Francis_Dana" title="Francis Dana">Francis Dana</a> and Anti-Federalist Elbridge Gerry when the latter was not allowed to speak.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman388_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman388-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The impasse was resolved only when revolutionary heroes and leading Anti-Federalists <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Hancock" title="John Hancock">John Hancock</a> agreed to ratification on the condition that the convention also propose amendments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman389–90_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman389–90-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The convention's proposed amendments included a requirement for <a href="/wiki/Grand_jury" title="Grand jury">grand jury</a> indictment in capital cases, which would form part of the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a>, and an amendment reserving powers to the states not expressly given to the federal government, which would later form the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Tenth Amendment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman390_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman390-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following Massachusetts' lead, the Federalist minorities in both Virginia and New York were able to obtain ratification in convention by linking ratification to recommended amendments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier431_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier431-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A committee of the Virginia convention headed by law professor <a href="/wiki/George_Wythe" title="George Wythe">George Wythe</a> forwarded forty recommended amendments to Congress, twenty of which enumerated individual rights and another twenty of which enumerated states' rights.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter amendments included limitations on federal powers to levy taxes and regulate trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrookhiser80_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrookhiser80-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A minority of the Constitution's critics, such as Maryland's <a href="/wiki/Luther_Martin" title="Luther Martin">Luther Martin</a>, continued to oppose ratification.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier430_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier430-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Martin's allies, such as New York's <a href="/wiki/John_Lansing_Jr." title="John Lansing Jr.">John Lansing Jr.</a>, dropped moves to obstruct the Convention's process. They began to take exception to the Constitution "as it was", seeking amendments. Several conventions saw supporters for "amendments before" shift to a position of "amendments after" for the sake of staying in the Union. Ultimately, only North Carolina and Rhode Island waited for amendments from Congress before ratifying.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier431_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier431-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">Article Seven</a> of the proposed Constitution set the terms by which the new frame of government would be established. The new Constitution would become operational when ratified by at least nine states. Only then would it replace the existing government under the Articles of Confederation and would apply only to those states that ratified it. </p><p>Following contentious battles in several states, the proposed Constitution reached that nine-state ratification plateau in June 1788. On September 13, 1788, the Articles of Confederation Congress certified that the new Constitution had been ratified by more than enough states for the new system to be implemented and directed the new government to meet in New York City on the first Wednesday in March the following year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier429_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier429-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On March 4, 1789, the new frame of <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">government</a> <a href="/wiki/Coming_into_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Coming into force">came into force</a> with eleven of the thirteen states participating. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_York_Circular_Letter">New York Circular Letter</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/New_York_Circular_Letter" title="New York Circular Letter">New York Circular Letter</a></div> <p>In New York, the majority of the Ratifying Convention was Anti-Federalist and they were not inclined to follow the Massachusetts Compromise. Led by Melancton Smith, they were inclined to make the ratification of New York conditional on prior proposal of amendments or, perhaps, insist on the right to secede from the union if amendments are not promptly proposed. Hamilton, after consulting with Madison, informed the Convention that this would not be accepted by Congress. </p><p>After ratification by the ninth state, New Hampshire, followed shortly by Virginia, it was clear the Constitution would go into effect with or without New York as a member of the Union. In a compromise, the New York Convention proposed to ratify, feeling confident that the states would call for new amendments using the convention procedure in Article V, rather than making this a condition of ratification by New York. <a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a> wrote the New York Circular Letter calling for the use of this procedure, which was then sent to all the States. The legislatures in New York and Virginia passed resolutions calling for the convention to propose amendments that had been demanded by the States while several other states tabled the matter to consider in a future legislative session. Madison wrote the Bill of Rights partially in response to this action from the States. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proposal_and_ratification">Proposal and ratification</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anticipating_amendments">Anticipating amendments</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Madison.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/James_Madison.jpg/250px-James_Madison.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/James_Madison.jpg/330px-James_Madison.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/James_Madison.jpg/500px-James_Madison.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2465" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a>, primary author and chief advocate for the Bill of Rights in the First Congress</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176" /><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:40%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>Let me add that a bill of rights is what the people are entitled to against every government on earth, general or particular, and what no just government should refuse, or rest on inference. </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">—<a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>'s letter to James Madison (December 20, 1787)<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/1st_United_States_Congress" title="1st United States Congress">1st United States Congress</a>, which met in New York City's <a href="/wiki/Federal_Hall" title="Federal Hall">Federal Hall</a>, was a triumph for the Federalists. The Senate of eleven states contained 20 Federalists with only two Anti-Federalists, both from Virginia. The House included 48 Federalists to 11 Anti-Federalists, the latter of whom were from only four states: Massachusetts, New York, Virginia and South Carolina.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier433_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier433-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the Virginia delegation to the House was James Madison, Patrick Henry's chief opponent in the Virginia ratification battle. In retaliation for Madison's victory in that battle at Virginia's ratification convention, Henry and other Anti-Federalists, who controlled the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_House_of_Delegates" title="Virginia House of Delegates">Virginia House of Delegates</a>, had <a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">gerrymandered</a> a hostile district for Madison's planned congressional run and recruited Madison's future presidential successor, <a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a>, to oppose him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrookhiser76_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrookhiser76-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Madison defeated Monroe after offering a campaign pledge that he would introduce constitutional amendments forming a bill of rights at the First Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski159,_174_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski159,_174-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Originally opposed to the inclusion of a bill of rights in the Constitution, Madison had gradually come to understand the importance of doing so during the often contentious ratification debates. By taking the initiative to propose amendments himself through the Congress, he hoped to preempt a second <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_convention_(political_meeting)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional convention (political meeting)">constitutional convention</a> that might, it was feared, undo the difficult compromises of 1787, and open the entire Constitution to reconsideration, thus risking the dissolution of the new federal government. Writing to Jefferson, he stated, "The friends of the Constitution, some from an approbation of particular amendments, others from a spirit of conciliation, are generally agreed that the System should be revised. But they wish the revisal to be carried no farther than to supply additional guards for liberty."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski161_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski161-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also felt that amendments guaranteeing personal liberties would "give to the Government its due popularity and stability".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski162_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski162-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, he hoped that the amendments "would acquire by degrees the character of fundamental maxims of free government, and as they become incorporated with the national sentiment, counteract the impulses of interest and passion".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrookhiser77_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrookhiser77-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians continue to debate the degree to which Madison considered the amendments of the Bill of Rights necessary, and to what degree he considered them politically expedient; in the outline of his address, he wrote, "Bill of Rights—useful—not essential—".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski192_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski192-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the occasion of his April 30, 1789 <a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_George_Washington" title="First inauguration of George Washington">inauguration</a> as the nation's first <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">president</a>, George Washington addressed the subject of amending the Constitution. He urged the legislators, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>whilst you carefully avoid every alteration which might endanger the benefits of an united and effective government, or which ought to await the future lessons of experience; a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen, and a regard for public harmony, will sufficiently influence your deliberations on the question, how far the former can be impregnably fortified or the latter be safely and advantageously promoted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski188_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski188-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Madison's_proposed_amendments"><span id="Madison.27s_proposed_amendments"></span>Madison's proposed amendments</h3></div> <p>James Madison introduced a series of Constitutional amendments in the House of Representatives for consideration. Among his proposals was one that would have added introductory language stressing natural rights to the preamble.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski198_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski198-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another would apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government. Several sought to protect individual personal rights by limiting various <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Constitutional powers of Congress</a>. Like Washington, Madison urged Congress to keep the revision to the Constitution "a moderate one", limited to protecting individual rights.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski198_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski198-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Madison was deeply read in the history of government and used a range of sources in composing the amendments. The English <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> of 1215 inspired the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition" title="Right to petition">right to petition</a> and to <a href="/wiki/Trial_by_jury" class="mw-redirect" title="Trial by jury">trial by jury</a>, for example, while the English <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_of_1689" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill of Rights of 1689">Bill of Rights of 1689</a> provided an early precedent for the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">right to keep and bear arms</a> (although this applied only to <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Protestants</a>) and prohibited <a href="/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishment" title="Cruel and unusual punishment">cruel and unusual punishment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrookhiser80_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrookhiser80-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The greatest influence on Madison's text, however, was existing state constitutions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski199_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski199-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Levy35_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy35-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of his amendments, including his proposed new preamble, were based on the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Declaration_of_Rights" title="Virginia Declaration of Rights">Virginia Declaration of Rights</a> drafted by Anti-Federalist George Mason in 1776.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To reduce future opposition to ratification, Madison also looked for recommendations shared by many states.<sup id="cite_ref-Levy35_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy35-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He did provide one, however, that no state had requested: "No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis210_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis210-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He did not include an amendment that every state had asked for, one that would have made tax assessments voluntary instead of contributions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis212_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis212-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Madison proposed the following constitutional amendments: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>First. That there be prefixed to the Constitution a declaration, that all power is originally vested in, and consequently derived from, the people. </p><p>That Government is instituted and ought to be exercised for the benefit of the people; which consists in the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the right of acquiring and using property, and generally of pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety. </p><p>That the people have an indubitable, unalienable, and indefeasible right to reform or change their Government, whenever it be found adverse or inadequate to the purposes of its institution. </p><p>Secondly. That in article 1st, section 2, clause 3, these words be struck out, to wit: "The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative, and until such enumeration shall be made;" and in place thereof be inserted these words, to wit: "After the first actual enumeration, there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand, until the number amounts to—, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that the number shall never be less than—, nor more than—, but each State shall, after the first enumeration, have at least two Representatives; and prior thereto." </p><p>Thirdly. That in article 1st, section 6, clause 1, there be added to the end of the first sentence, these words, to wit: "But no law varying the compensation last ascertained shall operate before the next ensuing election of Representatives." </p><p>Fourthly. That in article 1st, section 9, between clauses 3 and 4, be inserted these clauses, to wit: The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or worship, nor shall any national religion be established, nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience be in any manner, or on any pretext, infringed. </p><p>The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak, to write, or to publish their sentiments; and the freedom of the press, as one of the great bulwarks of liberty, shall be inviolable. </p><p>The people shall not be restrained from peaceably assembling and consulting for their common good; nor from applying to the legislature by petitions, or remonstrances for redress of their grievances.<br />The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; a well armed and well regulated militia being the best security of a free country: but no person religiously scrupulous of bearing arms shall be compelled to render military service in person. </p><p>No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor at any time, but in a manner warranted by law. </p><p>No person shall be subject, except in cases of impeachment, to more than one punishment, or one trial for the same offence; nor shall be compelled to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor be obliged to relinquish his property, where it may be necessary for public use, without a just compensation.<br />Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. </p><p>The rights of the people to be secured in their persons, their houses, their papers, and their other property, from all unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated by warrants issued without probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, or not particularly describing the places to be searched, or the persons or things to be seized. </p><p>In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, to be informed of the cause and nature of the accusation, to be confronted with his accusers, and the witnesses against him; to have a compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. </p><p>The exceptions here or elsewhere in the Constitution, made in favor of particular rights, shall not be so construed as to diminish the just importance of other rights retained by the people, or as to enlarge the powers delegated by the Constitution; but either as actual limitations of such powers, or as inserted merely for greater caution. </p><p>Fifthly. That in article 1st, section 10, between clauses 1 and 2, be inserted this clause, to wit: No State shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases. </p><p>Sixthly. That, in article 3d, section 2, be annexed to the end of clause 2d, these words, to wit: But no appeal to such court shall be allowed where the value in controversy shall not amount to — dollars: nor shall any fact triable by jury, according to the course of common law, be otherwise re-examinable than may consist with the principles of common law. </p><p>Seventhly. That in article 3d, section 2, the third clause be struck out, and in its place be inserted the clauses following, to wit: The trial of all crimes (except in cases of impeachments, and cases arising in the land or naval forces, or the militia when on actual service, in time of war or public danger) shall be by an impartial jury of freeholders of the vicinage, with the requisite of unanimity for conviction, of the right with the requisite of unanimity for conviction, of the right of challenge, and other accustomed requisites; and in all crimes punishable with loss of life or member, presentment or indictment by a grand jury shall be an essential preliminary, provided that in cases of crimes committed within any county which may be in possession of an enemy, or in which a general insurrection may prevail, the trial may by law be authorized in some other county of the same State, as near as may be to the seat of the offence.<br />In cases of crimes committed not within any county, the trial may by law be in such county as the laws shall have prescribed. In suits at common law, between man and man, the trial by jury, as one of the best securities to the rights of the people, ought to remain inviolate. </p><p>Eighthly. That immediately after article 6th, be inserted, as article 7th, the clauses following, to wit: The powers delegated by this Constitution are appropriated to the departments to which they are respectively distributed: so that the Legislative Department shall never exercise the powers vested in the Executive or Judicial, nor the Executive exercise the powers vested in the Legislative or Judicial, nor the Judicial exercise the powers vested in the Legislative or Executive Departments. </p><p>The powers not delegated by this Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the States respectively. </p><p> Ninthly. That article 7th, be numbered as article 8th.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crafting_amendments">Crafting amendments</h3></div> <p>Federalist representatives were quick to attack Madison's proposal, fearing that any move to amend the new Constitution so soon after its implementation would create an appearance of instability in the government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski203–205_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski203–205-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The House, unlike the Senate, was open to the public, and members such as <a href="/wiki/Fisher_Ames" title="Fisher Ames">Fisher Ames</a> warned that a prolonged "dissection of the constitution" before the galleries could shake public confidence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski215_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski215-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A procedural battle followed, and after initially forwarding the amendments to a select committee for revision, the House agreed to take Madison's proposal up as a full body beginning on July 21, 1789.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski201_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski201-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrookhiser81_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrookhiser81-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The eleven-member committee made some significant changes to Madison's nine proposed amendments, including eliminating most of his preamble and adding the phrase "freedom of speech, and of the press".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski217_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski217-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The House debated the amendments for eleven days. <a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a> of Connecticut persuaded the House to place the amendments at the Constitution's end so that the document would "remain inviolate", rather than adding them throughout, as Madison had proposed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski218–220_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski218–220-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis207_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis207-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amendments, revised and condensed from twenty to seventeen, were approved and forwarded to the Senate on August 24, 1789.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski235_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski235-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Senate edited these amendments still further, making 26 changes of its own. Madison's proposal to apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government was eliminated, and the seventeen amendments were condensed to twelve, which were approved on September 9, 1789.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski237_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski237-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Senate also eliminated the last of Madison's proposed changes to the preamble.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski221_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski221-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On September 21, 1789, a House–Senate <a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_conference_committee" title="United States congressional conference committee">Conference Committee</a> convened to resolve the numerous differences between the two Bill of Rights proposals. On September 24, 1789, the committee issued this report, which finalized 12 Constitutional Amendments for House and Senate to consider. This final version was approved by <a href="/wiki/Joint_resolution" title="Joint resolution">joint resolution</a> of Congress on September 25, 1789, to be forwarded by <a href="/wiki/John_J._Beckley" title="John J. Beckley">John J. Beckley</a> to the states on September 28.<sup id="cite_ref-adamson2008p93_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adamson2008p93-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Creating_the_Bill_of_Rights_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Creating_the_Bill_of_Rights-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the time the debates and legislative maneuvering that went into crafting the Bill of Rights amendments was done, many personal opinions had shifted. A number of Federalists came out in support, thus silencing the Anti-Federalists' most effective critique. Many Anti-Federalists, in contrast, were now opposed, realizing that Congressional approval of these amendments would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood71_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood71-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anti-Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution, such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation, intact.<sup id="cite_ref-Levy_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Madison remained active in the progress of the amendments throughout the legislative process. Historian <a href="/wiki/Gordon_S._Wood" title="Gordon S. Wood">Gordon S. Wood</a> writes that "there is no question that it was Madison's personal prestige and his dogged persistence that saw the amendments through the Congress. There might have been a federal Constitution without Madison but certainly no Bill of Rights."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood69_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood69-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis206_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis206-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="collapsible" cellspacing="1" style="background: #888888; color: #000000; margin: 1em auto;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background: #e6e6aa;" colspan="4">Approval of the Bill of Rights in Congress and the States<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <th scope="col" width="25%" style="background: #f0f8e7; padding: 1em; text-align: center;">Seventeen Articles<br />Approved by the House<br />August 24, 1789 </th> <th scope="col" width="25%" style="background: #f0f8e7; padding: 1em; text-align: center;">Twelve Articles<br />Approved by the Senate<br />September 9, 1789 </th> <th scope="col" width="25%" style="background: #f0f8e7; padding: 1em; text-align: center;">Twelve Articles<br />Approved by Congress<br />September 25, 1789 </th> <th scope="col" width="25%" style="background: #f0f8e7; padding: 1em; text-align: center;">Ratification<br />Status </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>First Article:</b><br />After the first enumeration, required by the first Article of the Constitution, there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand, until the number shall amount to one hundred, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that there shall be not less than one hundred Representatives, nor less than one Representative for every forty thousand persons, until the number of Representatives shall amount to two hundred, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that there shall not be less than two hundred Representatives, nor less than one Representative for every fifty thousand persons. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>First Article:</b><br />After the first enumeration, required by the first article of the Constitution, there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand, until the number shall amount to one hundred; to which number one Representative shall be added for every subsequent increase of forty thousand, until the Representatives shall amount to two hundred, to which number one Representative shall be added for every subsequent increase of sixty thousand persons. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>First Article:</b><br />After the first enumeration required by the first article of the Constitution, there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand, until the number shall amount to one hundred, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that there shall be not less than one hundred Representatives, nor less than one Representative for every forty thousand persons, until the number of Representatives shall amount to two hundred; after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that there shall not be less than two hundred Representatives, nor more than one Representative for every fifty thousand persons. </td> <td style="background: #f8f8e7; padding: 1em"><b>Pending:</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment Amendment</a> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Second Article:</b><br />No law varying the compensation to the members of Congress, shall take effect, until an election of Representatives shall have intervened. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Second Article:</b><br />No law, varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives, shall take effect, until an election of Representatives shall have intervened. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Second Article:</b><br />No law, varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives, shall take effect, until an election of Representatives shall have intervened. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Later ratified:</b><br />May 5, 1992<br /><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-seventh Amendment</a> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Third Article:</b><br />Congress shall make no law establishing religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, nor shall the rights of Conscience be infringed. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Third Article:</b><br />Congress shall make no law establishing articles of faith, or a mode of worship, or prohibiting the free exercise of religion, or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition to the government for a redress of grievances. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Third Article:</b><br />Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Ratified:</b><br />December 15, 1791<br /><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Fourth Article:</b><br />The Freedom of Speech, and of the Press, and the right of the People peaceably to assemble, and consult for their common good, and to apply to the Government for a redress of grievances, shall not be infringed. </td> <td style="background: #ecefc9; padding: 1em"><i>(see Third Article above)</i> </td> <td style="background: #ecefc9; padding: 1em"> </td> <td style="background: #ecefc9; padding: 1em"> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Fifth Article:</b><br />A well regulated militia, composed of the body of the People, being the best security of a free State, the right of the People to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed, but no one religiously scrupulous of bearing arms, shall be compelled to render military service in person. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Fourth Article:</b><br />A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Fourth Article:</b><br />A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Ratified:</b><br />December 15, 1791<br /><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Second Amendment</a> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Sixth Article:</b><br />No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Fifth Article:</b><br />No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Fifth Article:</b><br />No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Ratified:</b><br />December 15, 1791<br /><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">Third Amendment</a> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Seventh Article:</b><br />The right of the People to be secure in their persons, houses, papers and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Sixth Article:</b><br />The right of the People to be secure in their persons, houses, papers and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Sixth Article:</b><br />The right of the People to be secure in their persons, houses, papers and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Ratified:</b><br />December 15, 1791<br /><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment</a> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Eighth Article:</b><br />No person shall be subject, except in case of impeachment, to more than one trial, or one punishment for the same offense, nor shall be compelled in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Seventh Article:</b><br />No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case, to be a witnesses against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Seventh Article:</b><br />No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Ratified:</b><br />December 15, 1791<br /><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Ninth Article:</b><br />In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation, to be confronted with the witnesses against him, to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Eighth Article:</b><br />In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation, to be confronted with the witnesses against him, to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favour, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Eighth Article:</b><br />In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Ratified:</b><br />December 15, 1791<br /><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixth Amendment</a> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Tenth Article:</b><br />The trial of all crimes (except in cases of impeachment, and in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia when in actual service in time of War or public danger) shall be by an Impartial Jury of the Vicinage, with the requisite of unanimity for conviction, the right of challenge, and other accostomed  [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] requisites; and no person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherways  [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment by a Grand Jury; but if a crime be committed in a place in the possession of an enemy, or in which an insurrection may prevail, the indictment and trial may by law be authorised in some other place within the same State. </td> <td style="background: #ecefc9; padding: 1em"><i>(see Seventh Article above)</i> </td> <td style="background: #ecefc9; padding: 1em"> </td> <td style="background: #ecefc9; padding: 1em"> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Eleventh Article:</b><br />No appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States, shall be allowed, where the value in controversy shall not amount to one thousand dollars, nor shall any fact, triable by a Jury according to the course of the common law, be otherwise re-examinable, than according to the rules of common law. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Ninth Article:</b><br />In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by Jury shall be preserved, and no fact, tried by a Jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Ninth Article:</b><br />In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by Jury shall be preserved, and no fact, tried by a Jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Ratified:</b><br />December 15, 1791<br /><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Seventh Amendment</a> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Twelfth Article:</b><br />In suits at common law, the right of trial by Jury shall be preserved. </td> <td style="background: #ecefc9; padding: 1em"><i>(see Ninth Article above)</i> </td> <td style="background: #ecefc9; padding: 1em"> </td> <td style="background: #ecefc9; padding: 1em"> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Thirteenth Article:</b><br />Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Tenth Article:</b><br />Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Tenth Article:</b><br />Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Ratified:</b><br />December 15, 1791<br /><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eighth Amendment</a> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Fourteenth Article:</b><br />No State shall infringe the right of trial by Jury in criminal cases, nor the rights of conscience, nor the freedom of speech, or of the press. </td> <td style="background: #ecefc9; padding: 1em"><i>(see Third and Ninth Articles above)</i> </td> <td style="background: #ecefc9; padding: 1em"> </td> <td style="background: #ecefc9; padding: 1em"> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Fifteenth Article:</b><br />The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Eleventh Article:</b><br />The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Eleventh Article:</b><br />The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Ratified:</b><br />December 15, 1791<br /><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Ninth Amendment</a> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Sixteenth Article:</b><br />The powers delegated by the Constitution to the government of the United States, shall be exercised as therein appropriated, so that the Legislative shall never exercise the powers vested in the Executive or Judicial; nor the Executive the powers vested in the Legislative or Judicial; nor the Judicial the powers vested in the Legislative or Executive. </td> <td style="background: #ecefc9; padding: 1em"> </td> <td style="background: #ecefc9; padding: 1em"> </td> <td style="background: #ecefc9; padding-left: 1em"> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Seventeenth Article:</b><br />The powers not delegated by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it, to the States, are reserved to the States respectively. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Twelfth Article:</b><br />The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Twelfth Article:</b><br />The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. </td> <td style="background: #fff; padding: 1em"><b>Ratified:</b><br />December 15, 1791<br /><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Tenth Amendment</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ratification_process">Ratification process</h3></div> <p>The twelve articles of amendment approved by congress were officially submitted to the Legislatures of the several States for consideration on September 28, 1789. The following states <a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Ratification_of_amendments" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">ratified</a> some or all of the amendments:<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a>: Articles One and Three through Twelve on November 20, 1789, and Article Two on May 7, 1992</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>: Articles One through Twelve on December 19, 1789</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>: Articles One through Twelve on December 22, 1789</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>: Articles One through Twelve on January 19, 1790</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a>: Articles One and Three through Twelve on January 25, 1790, and Article Two on March 7, 1985</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a>: Articles Two through Twelve on January 28, 1790</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>: Articles One and Three through Twelve on February 24, 1790</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>: Articles Three through Twelve on March 10, 1790, and Article One on September 21, 1791</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a>: Articles One and Three through Twelve on June 7, 1790, and Article Two on June 10, 1993</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">Vermont</a>: Articles One through Twelve on November 3, 1791</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>: Article One on November 3, 1791, and Articles Two through Twelve on December 15, 1791<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />(After failing to ratify the 12 amendments during the 1789 legislative session.)</li></ol> <p>Having been approved by the requisite three-fourths of the several states, there being 14 States in the Union at the time (as Vermont had been admitted into the Union on March 4, 1791),<sup id="cite_ref-Levy_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the ratification of Articles Three through Twelve was completed and they became Amendments 1 through 10 of the Constitution. Congress, now meeting at <a href="/wiki/Congress_Hall" title="Congress Hall">Congress Hall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, was informed of this by President Washington on January 18, 1792.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As they had not yet been approved by 11 of the 14 states, the ratification of Article One (ratified by 10) and Article Two (ratified by 6) remained incomplete. The ratification plateau they needed to reach soon rose to 12 of 15 states when <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a> joined the Union (June 1, 1792). On June 27, 1792, the <a href="/wiki/Kentucky_General_Assembly" title="Kentucky General Assembly">Kentucky General Assembly</a> ratified all 12 amendments, however this action did not come to light until 1996.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyvig464–467_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKyvig464–467-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Article One</a> came within one state of the number needed to become adopted into the Constitution on two occasions between 1789 and 1803. Despite coming close to ratification early on, it has never received the approval of enough states to become part of the Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood69_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood69-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Congress did not attach a ratification time limit to the article, it is still pending before the states. Since no state has approved it since 1792, ratification by an additional 27 states would now be necessary for the article to be <a href="/wiki/Coming_into_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Coming into force">adopted</a>. </p><p>Article Two, initially ratified by seven states through 1792 (including Kentucky), was not ratified by another state for eighty years. The <a href="/wiki/Ohio_General_Assembly" title="Ohio General Assembly">Ohio General Assembly</a> ratified it on May 6, 1873 in protest of an unpopular <a href="/wiki/Salary_Grab_Act" title="Salary Grab Act">Congressional pay raise</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dean_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dean-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A century later, on March 6, 1978, the <a href="/wiki/Wyoming_Legislature" title="Wyoming Legislature">Wyoming Legislature</a> also ratified the article.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gregory Watson, a <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin" title="University of Texas at Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a> undergraduate student, started a new push for the article's ratification with a letter-writing campaign to state legislatures.<sup id="cite_ref-dean_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dean-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, by May 1992, enough states had approved Article Two (38 of the 50 states in the Union) for it to become the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>. The amendment's adoption was certified by <a href="/wiki/Archivist_of_the_United_States" title="Archivist of the United States">Archivist of the United States</a> <a href="/wiki/Don_W._Wilson" title="Don W. Wilson">Don W. Wilson</a> and subsequently affirmed by a vote of Congress on May 20, 1992.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three states did not complete action on the twelve articles of amendment when they were initially put before the states. <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify. Both chambers of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_General_Court" title="Massachusetts General Court">Massachusetts General Court</a> ratified a number of the amendments (the Senate adopted 10 of 12 and the House 9 of 12), but failed to reconcile their two lists or to send official notice to the Secretary of State of the ones they did agree upon.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Levy_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both houses of the <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_General_Assembly" title="Connecticut General Assembly">Connecticut General Assembly</a> voted to ratify Articles Three through Twelve but failed to reconcile their bills after disagreeing over whether to ratify Articles One and Two.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyvig108_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKyvig108-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All three later ratified the Constitutional amendments originally known as Articles Three through Twelve as part of the 1939 commemoration of the Bill of Rights' sesquicentennial: <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> on March 2, Georgia on March 18, and Connecticut on April 19.<sup id="cite_ref-Levy_73-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Connecticut and Georgia would also later ratify Article Two, on May 13, 1987 and February 2, 1988 respectively. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Application_and_text">Application and text</h2></div> <p>The Bill of Rights had little judicial impact for the first 150 years of its existence; in the words of <a href="/wiki/Gordon_S._Wood" title="Gordon S. Wood">Gordon S. Wood</a>, "After ratification, most Americans promptly forgot about the first ten amendments to the Constitution."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood72_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood72-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court made no important decisions protecting free speech rights, for example, until 1931.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski258_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski258-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_Labunski" title="Richard Labunski">Richard Labunski</a> attributes the Bill's long legal dormancy to three factors: first, it took time for a "culture of tolerance" to develop that would support the Bill's provisions with judicial and popular will; second, the Supreme Court spent much of the 19th century focused on issues relating to intergovernmental balances of power; and third, the Bill initially only applied to the federal government, a restriction affirmed by <i><a href="/wiki/Barron_v._Baltimore" title="Barron v. Baltimore">Barron v. Baltimore</a></i> (1833).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski258–259_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski258–259-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 20th century, however, most of the Bill's provisions were applied to the states via the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>—a process known as <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">incorporation</a>—beginning with the freedom of speech clause, in <i><a href="/wiki/Gitlow_v._New_York" title="Gitlow v. New York">Gitlow v. New York</a></i> (1925).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski259_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski259-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Talton_v._Mayes" title="Talton v. Mayes">Talton v. Mayes</a></i> (1896), the Court ruled that constitutional protections, including the provisions of the Bill of Rights, do not apply to the actions of American Indian tribal governments.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through the incorporation process the Supreme Court succeeded in extending to the <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a> almost all of the protections in the Bill of Rights, as well as other, unenumerated rights.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Bill of Rights thus imposes legal limits on the powers of governments and acts as an anti-majoritarian/minoritarian safeguard by providing deeply <a href="/wiki/Entrenched_clause" title="Entrenched clause">entrenched legal protection</a> for various civil liberties and fundamental rights.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jowell&Cooper2001_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jowell&Cooper2001-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Loveland2015_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loveland2015-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jayawickrama2002_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jayawickrama2002-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Supreme Court for example concluded in the <i><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_Board_of_Education_v._Barnette" title="West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette">West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette</a></i> (1943) case that the founders intended the Bill of Rights to put some rights out of reach from majorities, ensuring that some liberties would endure beyond political majorities.<sup id="cite_ref-Jowell&Cooper2001_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jowell&Cooper2001-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Loveland2015_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loveland2015-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jayawickrama2002_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jayawickrama2002-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jackson1943_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson1943-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the Court noted, the idea of the Bill of Rights "was to withdraw certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities and officials and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts."<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson1943_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson1943-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Obergefell2015_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Obergefell2015-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is why "fundamental rights may not be submitted to a vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections."<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson1943_102-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson1943-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Obergefell2015_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Obergefell2015-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Amendment">First Amendment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.<sup id="cite_ref-Transcript_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Transcript-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The First Amendment prohibits the making of any law <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">respecting an establishment of religion</a>, impeding the <a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">free exercise of religion</a>, abridging the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">freedom of speech</a>, infringing on the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">freedom of the press</a>, interfering with the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">right to peaceably assemble</a> or prohibiting the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition" title="Right to petition">petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances</a>. Initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today.<sup id="cite_ref-Cox_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Everson_v._Board_of_Education" title="Everson v. Board of Education">Everson v. Board of Education</a></i> (1947), the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson's correspondence to call for "a wall of separation between church and State", though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute.<sup id="cite_ref-Cox_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th- and 21st-century court decisions that protected various forms of political speech, anonymous speech, campaign financing, pornography, and school speech; these rulings also defined a series of <a href="/wiki/United_States_free_speech_exceptions" title="United States free speech exceptions">exceptions to First Amendment protections</a>. The Supreme Court overturned <a href="/wiki/English_common_law" class="mw-redirect" title="English common law">English common law</a> precedent to increase the burden of proof for <a href="/wiki/Libel" class="mw-redirect" title="Libel">libel</a> suits, most notably in <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._Sullivan" title="New York Times Co. v. Sullivan">New York Times Co. v. Sullivan</a></i> (1964).<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commercial speech is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation.<sup id="cite_ref-Cox_105-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, and applies to a wide variety of media. In <i><a href="/wiki/Near_v._Minnesota" title="Near v. Minnesota">Near v. Minnesota</a></i> (1931)<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_v._United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times v. United States">New York Times v. United States</a></i> (1971),<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against <a href="/wiki/Prior_restraint" title="Prior restraint">prior restraint</a>—pre-publication censorship—in almost all cases. The Petition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action. In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">freedom of association</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cox_105-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Amendment">Second Amendment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Second Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.<sup id="cite_ref-Transcript_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Transcript-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Second Amendment protects the individual <a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">right to keep and bear arms</a>. The concept of such a right existed within English <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> long before the enactment of the Bill of Rights.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First codified in the English <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_of_1689" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill of Rights of 1689">Bill of Rights of 1689</a> (but there only applying to <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Protestants</a>), this right was enshrined in fundamental laws of several American states during the Revolutionary era, including the 1776 <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Declaration_of_Rights" title="Virginia Declaration of Rights">Virginia Declaration of Rights</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Constitution_of_1776" title="Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776">Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776</a>. Long a <a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">controversial issue</a> in American political, legal, and social discourse, the Second Amendment has been at the heart of several Supreme Court decisions. </p> <ul><li>In <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank" title="United States v. Cruikshank">United States v. Cruikshank</a></i> (1876), the Court ruled that "[t]he right to bear arms is not granted by the Constitution; neither is it in any manner dependent upon that instrument for its existence. The Second Amendment means no more than that it shall not be infringed by Congress, and has no other effect than to restrict the powers of the National Government."<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Miller" title="United States v. Miller">United States v. Miller</a></i> (1939), the Court ruled that the amendment "[protects arms that had a] reasonable relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia".<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In <i><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" title="District of Columbia v. Heller">District of Columbia v. Heller</a></i> (2008), the Court ruled that the Second Amendment "codified a pre-existing right" and that it "protects an individual right to possess a firearm unconnected with service in a militia, and to use that arm for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self-defense within the home" but also stated that "the right is not unlimited. It is not a right to keep and carry any weapon whatsoever in any manner whatsoever and for whatever purpose".<sup id="cite_ref-Heller_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heller-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In <i><a href="/wiki/McDonald_v._Chicago" class="mw-redirect" title="McDonald v. Chicago">McDonald v. Chicago</a></i> (2010),<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Court ruled that the Second Amendment limits state and local governments to the same extent that it limits the federal government.<sup id="cite_ref-nytimes.com_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nytimes.com-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third_Amendment">Third Amendment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">Third Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.<sup id="cite_ref-Transcript_104-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Transcript-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Third Amendment restricts the quartering of soldiers in private homes, in response to <a href="/wiki/Quartering_Acts" title="Quartering Acts">Quartering Acts</a> passed by the British parliament during the Revolutionary War. The amendment is one of the least controversial of the Constitution, and, as of February 2025<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_Bill_of_Rights&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, has never been the primary basis of a Supreme Court decision.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fourth_Amendment">Fourth Amendment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.<sup id="cite_ref-Transcript_104-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Transcript-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Fourth Amendment guards against unreasonable <a href="/wiki/Search_and_seizure" title="Search and seizure">searches and seizures</a>, along with requiring any <a href="/wiki/Warrant_(law)" title="Warrant (law)">warrant</a> to be judicially sanctioned and supported by <a href="/wiki/Probable_cause" title="Probable cause">probable cause</a>. It was adopted as a response to the abuse of the <a href="/wiki/Writ_of_assistance" title="Writ of assistance">writ of assistance</a>, which is a type of general <a href="/wiki/Search_warrant" title="Search warrant">search warrant</a>, in the American Revolution. Search and seizure (including arrest) must be limited in scope according to specific information supplied to the issuing court, usually by a law enforcement officer who has <a href="/wiki/Affidavit" title="Affidavit">sworn by it</a>. The amendment is the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Exclusionary_rule" title="Exclusionary rule">exclusionary rule</a>, which mandates that evidence obtained illegally cannot be introduced into a criminal trial.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amendment's interpretation has varied over time; its protections expanded under left-leaning courts such as that headed by <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> and contracted under right-leaning courts such as that of <a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fifth_Amendment">Fifth Amendment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a <a href="/wiki/Grand_Jury" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Jury">Grand Jury</a>, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.<sup id="cite_ref-Transcript_104-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Transcript-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Fifth Amendment protects against <a href="/wiki/Double_jeopardy" title="Double jeopardy">double jeopardy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Self-incrimination" title="Self-incrimination">self-incrimination</a> and guarantees the rights to <a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_jury" title="Grand jury">grand jury</a> screening of criminal indictments, and compensation for the seizure of private property under <a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">eminent domain</a>. The amendment was the basis for the court's decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda v. Arizona</a></i> (1966), which established that defendants must be informed of their rights to an attorney and against self-incrimination prior to interrogation by police; the <a href="/wiki/Miranda_warning" title="Miranda warning">Miranda warning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sixth_Amendment">Sixth Amendment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense.<sup id="cite_ref-Transcript_104-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Transcript-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Sixth Amendment establishes a number of rights of the defendant in a criminal trial: </p> <ul><li>to a <a href="/wiki/Speedy_Trial_Clause" title="Speedy Trial Clause">speedy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Public_trial" title="Public trial">public trial</a></li> <li>to <a href="/wiki/Trial_by_jury" class="mw-redirect" title="Trial by jury">trial by an impartial jury</a></li> <li>to be informed of criminal charges</li> <li>to <a href="/wiki/Confrontation_Clause" title="Confrontation Clause">confront witnesses</a></li> <li>to compel witnesses to appear in court</li> <li>to <a href="/wiki/Right_to_counsel" title="Right to counsel">assistance of counsel</a><sup id="cite_ref-Sixth_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sixth-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Gideon_v._Wainwright" title="Gideon v. Wainwright">Gideon v. Wainwright</a></i> (1963), the Court ruled that the amendment guaranteed the right to legal representation in all felony prosecutions in both state and federal courts.<sup id="cite_ref-Sixth_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sixth-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seventh_Amendment">Seventh Amendment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.<sup id="cite_ref-Transcript_104-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Transcript-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Seventh Amendment guarantees jury trials in federal civil cases that deal with claims of more than twenty dollars. It also prohibits judges from overruling findings of fact by juries in federal civil trials. In <i><a href="/wiki/Colgrove_v._Battin" title="Colgrove v. Battin">Colgrove v. Battin</a></i> (1973), the Court ruled that the amendment's requirements could be fulfilled by a jury with a minimum of six members. The Seventh is one of the few parts of the Bill of Rights not to be <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">incorporated</a> (applied to the states).<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eighth_Amendment">Eighth Amendment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.<sup id="cite_ref-Transcript_104-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Transcript-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Eighth Amendment forbids the imposition of excessive bails or fines, though it leaves the term "excessive" open to interpretation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBessler194_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBessler194-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most frequently litigated clause of the amendment is the last, which forbids <a href="/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishment" title="Cruel and unusual punishment">cruel and unusual punishment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Krantz_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krantz-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-UXL8_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UXL8-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This clause was only occasionally applied by the Supreme Court prior to the 1970s, generally in cases dealing with means of execution. In <i><a href="/wiki/Furman_v._Georgia" title="Furman v. Georgia">Furman v. Georgia</a></i> (1972), some members of the Court found <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">capital punishment</a> itself in violation of the amendment, arguing that the clause could reflect "evolving standards of decency" as public opinion changed; others found certain practices in capital trials to be unacceptably arbitrary, resulting in a majority decision that effectively halted executions in the United States for several years.<sup id="cite_ref-Weisberg_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weisberg-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Executions resumed following <i><a href="/wiki/Gregg_v._Georgia" title="Gregg v. Georgia">Gregg v. Georgia</a></i> (1976), which found capital punishment to be constitutional if the jury was directed by concrete sentencing guidelines.<sup id="cite_ref-Weisberg_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weisberg-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court has also found that some poor prison conditions constitute cruel and unusual punishment, as in <i><a href="/wiki/Estelle_v._Gamble" title="Estelle v. Gamble">Estelle v. Gamble</a></i> (1976) and <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Plata" title="Brown v. Plata">Brown v. Plata</a></i> (2011).<sup id="cite_ref-Krantz_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krantz-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ninth_Amendment">Ninth Amendment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.<sup id="cite_ref-Transcript_104-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Transcript-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Ninth Amendment declares that there are additional fundamental rights that exist outside the Constitution. The rights enumerated in the Constitution are not an <a href="/wiki/Enumerative_definition" title="Enumerative definition">explicit and exhaustive</a> list of individual rights. It was rarely mentioned in Supreme Court decisions before the second half of the 20th century, when it was cited by several of the justices in <i><a href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</a></i> (1965). The Court in that case voided a statute prohibiting use of contraceptives as an infringement of the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_privacy" title="Right to privacy">right of marital privacy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This right was, in turn, the foundation upon which the Supreme Court built decisions in several landmark cases, including, <i><a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a></i> (1973), which overturned a Texas law making it a crime to assist a woman to get an abortion, and <i><a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Planned Parenthood v. Casey</a></i> (1992), which invalidated a Pennsylvania law that required spousal awareness prior to obtaining an abortion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tenth_Amendment">Tenth Amendment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.<sup id="cite_ref-Transcript_104-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Transcript-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Tenth Amendment reinforces the principles of <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federalism</a> by providing that powers not granted to the federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the states, are reserved to the states or the people. The amendment provides no new powers or rights to the states, but rather preserves their authority in all matters not specifically granted to the federal government nor explicitly forbidden to the states.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Display_and_honoring_of_the_Bill_of_Rights">Display and honoring of the Bill of Rights</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ArchivesRotunda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/ArchivesRotunda.jpg/220px-ArchivesRotunda.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/ArchivesRotunda.jpg/330px-ArchivesRotunda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/ArchivesRotunda.jpg/440px-ArchivesRotunda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="796" data-file-height="526" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Archives" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Archives">National Archives'</a> <a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a> in Washington, D.C. where, in-between two <a href="/wiki/Barry_Faulkner" title="Barry Faulkner">Barry Faulkner</a> murals, the original Bill of Rights, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>, and other American founding documents are publicly exhibited.</figcaption></figure> <p>George Washington had fourteen handwritten copies of the Bill of Rights made, one for Congress and one for each of the original thirteen states.<sup id="cite_ref-bill_of_rights-cnn_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bill_of_rights-cnn-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The copies for Georgia, Maryland, New York, and Pennsylvania went missing.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The New York copy is thought to have been destroyed in a fire.<sup id="cite_ref-bill_of_rights-new_york_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bill_of_rights-new_york-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two unidentified copies of the missing four (thought to be the Georgia and Maryland copies) survive; one is in the National Archives, and the other is in the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Public_Library" title="New York Public Library">New York Public Library</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bill-loc_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bill-loc-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> North Carolina's copy was stolen from the State Capitol by a Union soldier following the Civil War. In an FBI sting operation, it was recovered in 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bill_of_rights-north_carolina_stolen_copy_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bill_of_rights-north_carolina_stolen_copy-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The copy retained by the First Congress has been on display (along with the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence) in the <a href="/wiki/Rotunda_for_the_Charters_of_Freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a> room at the <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives Building</a> in Washington, D.C. since December 13, 1952.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After fifty years on display, signs of deterioration in the casing were noted, while the documents themselves appeared to be well preserved.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accordingly, the casing was updated and the Rotunda rededicated on September 17, 2003. In his dedicatory remarks, President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> stated, "The true [American] revolution was not to defy one earthly power, but to declare principles that stand above every earthly power—the equality of each person before God, and the responsibility of government to secure the rights of all."<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1941, President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> declared December 15 to be Bill of Rights Day, commemorating the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Bill of Rights.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1991, the Virginia copy of the Bill of Rights toured the country in honor of its bicentennial, visiting the capitals of all fifty states.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/40px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/60px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/120px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 26em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalism" title="Anti-Federalism">Anti-Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism_in_the_United_States" title="Constitutionalism in the United States">Constitutionalism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Freedoms" title="Four Freedoms">Four Freedoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Bill_of_Rights_Law" title="Institute of Bill of Rights Law">Institute of Bill of Rights Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patients%27_rights" title="Patients' rights">Patients' [bill of] rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bill_of_Rights" title="Second Bill of Rights">Second Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">States' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantive_due_process" title="Substantive due process">Substantive due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxpayer_Bill_of_Rights" title="Taxpayer Bill of Rights">Taxpayer Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Statute_for_Religious_Freedom" title="Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom">Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/We_Hold_These_Truths" title="We Hold These Truths">We Hold These Truths</a></i></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In <i>Robertson v. Baldwin</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_165" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 165">165</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/165/275/">275</a> (1897), the United States Supreme Court stated that there are exceptions for the civil liberties and fundamental rights secured by the Bill of Rights: "The law is perfectly well settled that the first ten amendments to the Constitution, commonly known as the 'Bill of Rights,' were not intended to lay down any novel principles of government, but simply to embody certain guaranties and immunities which we had inherited from our English ancestors, and which had, from time immemorial, been subject to certain well recognized exceptions arising from the necessities of the case. In incorporating these principles into the fundamental law, there was no intention of disregarding the exceptions, which continued to be recognized as if they had been formally expressed. Thus, the freedom of speech and of the press (Article I) does not permit the publication of libels, blasphemous or indecent articles, or other publications injurious to public morals or private reputation; the right of the people to keep and bear arms (Article II) is not infringed by laws prohibiting the carrying of concealed weapons; the provision that no person shall be twice put in jeopardy (Art. V) does not prevent a second trial if upon the first trial the jury failed to agree or if the verdict was set aside upon the defendant's motion, <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Ball" title="United States v. Ball">United States v. Ball</a></i>, 163 U. S. 662, 163 U. S. 627, nor does the provision of the same article that no one shall be a witness against himself impair his obligation to testify if a prosecution against him be barred by the lapse of time, a pardon, or by statutory enactment, <i>Brown v. Walker</i>, 161 U. S. 591, and cases cited. Nor does the provision that an accused person shall be confronted with the witnesses against him prevent the admission of dying declarations, or the depositions of witnesses who have died since the former trial."<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 26em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBryan2012" class="citation web cs1">Bryan, Dan (April 8, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanhistoryusa.com/northwest-ordinance-1787-effects/">"The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 and its Effects"</a>. <i>American History USA</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 24,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=history.com&rft.atitle=Bill+of+Rights&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Funited-states-constitution%2Fbill-of-rights&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEnglandSpalding" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit">England, Trent; Spalding, Matthew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180701142803/https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/5/essays/129/amendments">"Essays on Article V: Amendments"</a>. The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on July 1, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 24,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Essays+on+Article+V%3A+Amendments&rft.pub=The+Heritage+Foundation&rft.aulast=England&rft.aufirst=Trent&rft.au=Spalding%2C+Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.heritage.org%2Fconstitution%2F%23%21%2Farticles%2F5%2Fessays%2F129%2Famendments&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/topics/bill-of-rights">"Bill of Rights – Facts & Summary"</a>. <i>History.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151208215137/http://www.history.com/topics/bill-of-rights">Archived</a> from the original on December 8, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 8,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History.com&rft.atitle=Bill+of+Rights+%E2%80%93+Facts+%26+Summary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Fbill-of-rights&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rossiter, Clinton, ed. <i>The Federalist Papers,</i> p. 260, Federalist #45, Penguin Putnam, Inc., 1961.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Samples, John, ed. <i>James Madison and the Future of Limited Government,</i> p. 25, 29-30, 31, 34, Cato Institute, Washington, D.C., 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-930865-23-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-930865-23-6">1-930865-23-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ketcham, Ralph. <i>James Madison: A Biography,</i> p. 226, American Political Biography Press, Newtown, Connecticut, 1971. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-945707-33-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-945707-33-9">0-945707-33-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ketcham, Ralph. <i>James Madison: A Biography,</i> p. 226, 291, American Political Biography Press, Newtown, Connecticut, 1971. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-945707-33-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-945707-33-9">0-945707-33-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Samples, John, ed. <i>James Madison and the Future of Limited Government,</i> p. 27, 29-30, 31, 34, Cato Institute, Washington, D.C., 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-930865-23-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-930865-23-6">1-930865-23-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Constitution of the United States and the Constitution of the State of California,</i> p. 56, California Legislature Assembly, 1989.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TAH-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TAH_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TAH_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TAH_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLloyd,_Gordon" class="citation web cs1">Lloyd, Gordon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://teachingamericanhistory.org/convention/intro/">"Introduction to the Constitutional Convention"</a>. Teaching American History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130816102851/http://teachingamericanhistory.org/convention/intro/">Archived</a> from the original on August 16, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 6,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Constitutional+Convention&rft.pub=Teaching+American+History&rft.au=Lloyd%2C+Gordon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fteachingamericanhistory.org%2Fconvention%2Fintro%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart47-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart47_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart">Stewart</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman59-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman59_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman">Beeman</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman341-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman341_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman">Beeman</a>, p. 341.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_912.asp">"Madison Debates, September 12"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150907221541/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_912.asp">Archived</a> from the original on September 7, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 25,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Madison+Debates%2C+September+12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Fdebates_912.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sherman apparently expressed the consensus of the convention. His argument was that the Constitution should not be interpreted to authorize the federal government to violate rights that the states could not violate.<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSlotnick1999" class="citation book cs1">Slotnick, Elliot E. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hijkcWi-48IC&pg=PA533"><i>Judicial Politics: Readings from Judicature</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-938870-91-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-938870-91-3"><bdi>978-0-938870-91-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judicial+Politics%3A+Readings+from+Judicature&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-938870-91-3&rft.aulast=Slotnick&rft.aufirst=Elliot+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhijkcWi-48IC%26pg%3DPA533&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman343-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman343_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman343_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman">Beeman</a>, p. 343.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove327-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove327_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRakove">Rakove</a>, p. 327.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart226-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart226_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart226_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart">Stewart</a>, p. 226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove288-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove288_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRakove">Rakove</a>, p. 288.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman363-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman363_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman">Beeman</a>, p. 363.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch6s11.html">"Federal Convention, Resolution and Letter to the Continental Congress"</a>. <i>The Founders' Constitution</i>. The University of Chicago Press. p. 195. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130607000534/http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch6s11.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 7, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 6,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Founders%27+Constitution&rft.atitle=Federal+Convention%2C+Resolution+and+Letter+to+the+Continental+Congress&rft.pages=195&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress-pubs.uchicago.edu%2Ffounders%2Fdocuments%2Fv1ch6s11.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski20-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski20_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLabunski">Labunski</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski63-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski63_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLabunski">Labunski</a>, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/print_documents/v1ch14s49.html">"Jefferson's letter to Madison, March 15, 1789"</a>. The Founders' Constitution. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130516152924/http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/print_documents/v1ch14s49.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 16, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jefferson%27s+letter+to+Madison%2C+March+15%2C+1789&rft.pub=The+Founders%27+Constitution&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress-pubs.uchicago.edu%2Ffounders%2Fprint_documents%2Fv1ch14s49.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hamilton et al., p. 436</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brutus376-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brutus376_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brutus, p. 376</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brutus377-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brutus377_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brutus, p. 377</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove325-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove325_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRakove">Rakove</a>, p. 325.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski62-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski62_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLabunski">Labunski</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove323-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove323_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRakove">Rakove</a>, p. 323.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/bill_of_rightss7.html">"On opposition to a Bill of Rights"</a>. The Founders' Constitution. University of Chicago Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130114065152/http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/bill_of_rightss7.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 14, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 28,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+opposition+to+a+Bill+of+Rights.&rft.pub=The+Founders%27+Constitution.+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress-pubs.uchicago.edu%2Ffounders%2Fdocuments%2Fbill_of_rightss7.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabunski59–60-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabunski59–60_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLabunski">Labunski</a>, pp. 59–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman388-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman388_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman">Beeman</a>, p. 388.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman389–90-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman389–90_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman">Beeman</a>, pp. 389–90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman390-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman390_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman">Beeman</a>, p. 390.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier431-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier431_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier431_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaier">Maier</a>, p. 431.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Labunksi, pp. 113–15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrookhiser80-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrookhiser80_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrookhiser80_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrookhiser">Brookhiser</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier430-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier430_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaier">Maier</a>, p. 430.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier429-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier429_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaier">Maier</a>, p. 429.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230130172127/https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-12-02-0454">"From Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, 20 December 1787"</a>. <i>founders.archives.gov</i>. 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Ashland, Ohio: The Ashbrook Center at Ashland University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140702013933/http://teachingamericanhistory.org/bor/anticipating-bor/">Archived</a> from the original on July 2, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Levy, p. 35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/mason.html">"Virginia Declaration of Rights: Primary Documents of American History (Virtual Programs & Services, Library of Congress)"</a>. <i>www.loc.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Foreword by Laura Tesh. Arcadia. Footnote 54, pp. 193–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781455604579" title="Special:BookSources/9781455604579"><bdi>9781455604579</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160504052609/https://books.google.com/books?id=7fOeMT99m44C&pg=PA193">Archived</a> from the original on May 4, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 23,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=guides.loc.gov&rft.atitle=Research+Guides%3A+14th+Amendment+to+the+U.S.+Constitution%3A+Primary+Documents+in+American+History%3A+Introduction&rft.aulast=Drexler&rft.aufirst=Ken&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fguides.loc.gov%2F14th-amendment%2Fintroduction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Robertson</i>, at 281-282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jowell&Cooper2001-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jowell&Cooper2001_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jowell&Cooper2001_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJeffrey_Jowell_and_Jonathan_Cooper2002" class="citation book cs1">Jeffrey Jowell and Jonathan Cooper (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gtzbBAAAQBAJ&q=West+Virginia+State+Board+of+Education+v.+Barnette+The+very+purpose+of+a+Bill+of+Rights+was+to+withdraw+certain+subjects+from+the+vicissitudes+of+political+controversy&pg=PA180"><i>Understanding Human Rights Principles</i></a>. Oxford and Portland, Oregon: Hart Publishing. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781847313157" title="Special:BookSources/9781847313157"><bdi>9781847313157</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 16,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Human+Rights+Principles&rft.place=Oxford+and+Portland%2C+Oregon&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Hart+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9781847313157&rft.au=Jeffrey+Jowell+and+Jonathan+Cooper&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgtzbBAAAQBAJ%26q%3DWest%2BVirginia%2BState%2BBoard%2Bof%2BEducation%2Bv.%2BBarnette%2BThe%2Bvery%2Bpurpose%2Bof%2Ba%2BBill%2Bof%2BRights%2Bwas%2Bto%2Bwithdraw%2Bcertain%2Bsubjects%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2Bvicissitudes%2Bof%2Bpolitical%2Bcontroversy%26pg%3DPA180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Loveland2015-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Loveland2015_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loveland2015_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLoveland2002" class="citation book cs1">Loveland, Ian (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y7S6BwAAQBAJ&q=West+Virginia+State+Board+of+Education+v.+Barnette+The+very+purpose+of+a+Bill+of+Rights+was+to+withdraw+certain+subjects+from+the+vicissitudes+of+political+controversy&pg=PA559">"Chapter 18 – Human Rights I: Traditional Perspectives"</a>. <i>Constitutional Law, Administrative Law, and Human Rights: A Critical Introduction</i> (Seventh ed.). London: Oxford University Press. p. 559. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198709039" title="Special:BookSources/9780198709039"><bdi>9780198709039</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210125225216/https://books.google.com/books?id=y7S6BwAAQBAJ&q=West+Virginia+State+Board+of+Education+v.+Barnette+The+very+purpose+of+a+Bill+of+Rights+was+to+withdraw+certain+subjects+from+the+vicissitudes+of+political+controversy&pg=PA559">Archived</a> from the original on January 25, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 16,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+18+%E2%80%93+Human+Rights+I%3A+Traditional+Perspectives&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Law%2C+Administrative+Law%2C+and+Human+Rights%3A+A+Critical+Introduction&rft.place=London&rft.pages=559&rft.edition=Seventh&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780198709039&rft.aulast=Loveland&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy7S6BwAAQBAJ%26q%3DWest%2BVirginia%2BState%2BBoard%2Bof%2BEducation%2Bv.%2BBarnette%2BThe%2Bvery%2Bpurpose%2Bof%2Ba%2BBill%2Bof%2BRights%2Bwas%2Bto%2Bwithdraw%2Bcertain%2Bsubjects%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2Bvicissitudes%2Bof%2Bpolitical%2Bcontroversy%26pg%3DPA559&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jayawickrama2002-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jayawickrama2002_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jayawickrama2002_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJayawickrama2002" class="citation book cs1">Jayawickrama, Nihal (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kowFdvofCckC&q=West+Virginia+State+Board+of+Education+v.+Barnette+The+very+purpose+of+a+Bill+of+Rights+was+to+withdraw+certain+subjects+from+the+vicissitudes+of+political+controversy&pg=PA98"><i>The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional and International Jurisprudence</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521780421" title="Special:BookSources/9780521780421"><bdi>9780521780421</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210125225219/https://books.google.com/books?id=kowFdvofCckC&q=West+Virginia+State+Board+of+Education+v.+Barnette+The+very+purpose+of+a+Bill+of+Rights+was+to+withdraw+certain+subjects+from+the+vicissitudes+of+political+controversy&pg=PA98">Archived</a> from the original on January 25, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 16,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Judicial+Application+of+Human+Rights+Law%3A+National%2C+Regional+and+International+Jurisprudence&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780521780421&rft.aulast=Jayawickrama&rft.aufirst=Nihal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkowFdvofCckC%26q%3DWest%2BVirginia%2BState%2BBoard%2Bof%2BEducation%2Bv.%2BBarnette%2BThe%2Bvery%2Bpurpose%2Bof%2Ba%2BBill%2Bof%2BRights%2Bwas%2Bto%2Bwithdraw%2Bcertain%2Bsubjects%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2Bvicissitudes%2Bof%2Bpolitical%2Bcontroversy%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson1943-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson1943_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson1943_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson1943_102-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_Board_of_Education_v._Barnette" title="West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette">West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette</a></i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081014083851/http://laws.findlaw.com/US/319/624.html">319 U.S. 624</a>, Majority Opinion, item 3 (US 1943) (""The very purpose of a Bill of Rights was to withdraw certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities and officials and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts. One's right to life, liberty, and property, to free speech, a free press, freedom of worship and assembly, and other fundamental rights may not be submitted to vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections.""), archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://laws.findlaw.com/us/319/624.html">the original</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Obergefell2015-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Obergefell2015_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Obergefell2015_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i>, No. 14-556, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/14pdf/14-556_3204.pdf">slip op.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190412035117/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/14pdf/14-556_3204.pdf">Archived</a> April 12, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at 24 (U.S. June 26, 2015).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Transcript-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Transcript_104-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transcript_104-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transcript_104-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transcript_104-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transcript_104-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transcript_104-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transcript_104-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transcript_104-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transcript_104-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Transcript_104-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/bill_of_rights_transcript.html">"Bill of Rights Transcript"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 28,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Background+on+the+Bill+of+Rights+and+the+New+York+Ratification+of+the+Bill+of+Rights&rft.pub=U.S.+National+Archives+and+Records+Administration&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fpress%2Fpress-releases%2F2007%2Fnr07-33.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bill-loc-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bill-loc_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/billofrights.html">"Primary Documents in American History: The Bill of Rights"</a>. The Library of Congress. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170225051926/https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/billofrights.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 25, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 29,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Primary+Documents+in+American+History%3A+The+Bill+of+Rights&rft.pub=The+Library+of+Congress&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Frr%2Fprogram%2Fbib%2Fourdocs%2Fbillofrights.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.revolutionary-war-and-beyond.com/history-bill-of-rights.html">"History of the Bill of Rights"</a>. <i>Revolutionary War and Beyond</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 23,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Revolutionary+War+and+Beyond&rft.atitle=History+of+the+Bill+of+Rights&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.revolutionary-war-and-beyond.com%2Fhistory-bill-of-rights.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncdcr.gov/press-release/treasures-carolina-stories-state-archives-opens-oct-24">"Treasures of Carolina: Stories from the State Archives Opens Oct. 24"</a>. <i>ncdcr.gov</i>. North Carolina Department of Natural and Cultural Resources. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160225005652/http://www.ncdcr.gov/press-release/treasures-carolina-stories-state-archives-opens-oct-24">Archived</a> from the original on February 25, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 15,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ncdcr.gov&rft.atitle=Treasures+of+Carolina%3A+Stories+from+the+State+Archives+Opens+Oct.+24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncdcr.gov%2Fpress-release%2Ftreasures-carolina-stories-state-archives-opens-oct-24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bill_of_rights-north_carolina_stolen_copy-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bill_of_rights-north_carolina_stolen_copy_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usmarshals.gov/history/north_carolina_bill_of_rights.htm">"The U.S. Marshals Service Takes Possession of North Carolina's Copy of the Bill of Rights"</a>. U.S. Marshals Service. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120508032114/http://www.usmarshals.gov/history/north_carolina_bill_of_rights.htm">Archived</a> from the original on May 8, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 28,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+U.S.+Marshals+Service+Takes+Possession+of+North+Carolina%27s+Copy+of+the+Bill+of+Rights&rft.pub=U.S.+Marshals+Service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usmarshals.gov%2Fhistory%2Fnorth_carolina_bill_of_rights.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFParkinson2011" class="citation web cs1">Parkinson, Hilary (December 13, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://prologue.blogs.archives.gov/2011/12/13/a-homecoming-for-six-pages-of-parchment/">"A homecoming for six pages of parchment"</a>. The National Archives. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303201540/http://prologue.blogs.archives.gov/2011/12/13/a-homecoming-for-six-pages-of-parchment/">Archived</a> from the original on March 3, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 15,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+homecoming+for+six+pages+of+parchment&rft.pub=The+National+Archives&rft.date=2011-12-13&rft.aulast=Parkinson&rft.aufirst=Hilary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprologue.blogs.archives.gov%2F2011%2F12%2F13%2Fa-homecoming-for-six-pages-of-parchment%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRitzenhalerNicholson2003" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Lynn_Ritzenthaler" title="Mary Lynn Ritzenthaler">Ritzenhaler, Mary Ann</a>; Nicholson, Catherine (Fall 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080102234718/http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/charters_preservation_01.html">"A New Era Begins for the Charters of Freedom"</a>. U.S. National Archives. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/charters_preservation_01.html">the original</a> on January 2, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+New+Era+Begins+for+the+Charters+of+Freedom&rft.pub=U.S.+National+Archives&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Ritzenhaler&rft.aufirst=Mary+Ann&rft.au=Nicholson%2C+Catherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fnational-archives-experience%2Fcharters%2Fcharters_preservation_01.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFor_Know-It-Alls2008" class="citation book cs1">For Know-It-Alls (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8E_ZKsH47EQC&q=President+George+W.+Bush+stated%2C+%22The+true+%5BAmerican%5D+revolution+was+not+to+defy+one+earthly+power%2C+but+to+declare+principles+that+stand+above+every+earthly+power%E2%80%94the+equality+of+each+person+before+God%2C+and+the+responsibility+of+government+to+secure+the+rights+of+all.%22&pg=PA27"><i>The United States Bill of Rights for Know-It-Alls</i></a>. Filiquarian Publishing, LLC. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1599862255" title="Special:BookSources/978-1599862255"><bdi>978-1599862255</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+United+States+Bill+of+Rights+for+Know-It-Alls&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Filiquarian+Publishing%2C+LLC.&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1599862255&rft.au=For+Know-It-Alls&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8E_ZKsH47EQC%26q%3DPresident%2BGeorge%2BW.%2BBush%2Bstated%252C%2B%2522The%2Btrue%2B%255BAmerican%255D%2Brevolution%2Bwas%2Bnot%2Bto%2Bdefy%2Bone%2Bearthly%2Bpower%252C%2Bbut%2Bto%2Bdeclare%2Bprinciples%2Bthat%2Bstand%2Babove%2Bevery%2Bearthly%2Bpower%25E2%2580%2594the%2Bequality%2Bof%2Beach%2Bperson%2Bbefore%2BGod%252C%2Band%2Bthe%2Bresponsibility%2Bof%2Bgovernment%2Bto%2Bsecure%2Bthe%2Brights%2Bof%2Ball.%2522%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrier,_Peter2009" class="citation web cs1">Grier, Peter (December 15, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/DC-Decoder/Decoder-Wire/2009/1215/Bill-of-Rights-Day-what-Obama-says-about-it">"Bill of Rights Day: what Obama says about it"</a>. <i>Christian Science Monitor</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121209162104/http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/DC-Decoder/Decoder-Wire/2009/1215/Bill-of-Rights-Day-what-Obama-says-about-it">Archived</a> from the original on December 9, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 10,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Christian+Science+Monitor&rft.atitle=Bill+of+Rights+Day%3A+what+Obama+says+about+it&rft.date=2009-12-15&rft.au=Grier%2C+Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csmonitor.com%2FUSA%2FDC-Decoder%2FDecoder-Wire%2F2009%2F1215%2FBill-of-Rights-Day-what-Obama-says-about-it&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1908&dat=19910918&id=oxUhAAAAIBAJ&pg=1371,4927894">"Bill of Rights Tour Opens in Kansas City"</a>. <i>The Nevada Daily Mail</i>. September 18, 1991. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160423225838/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1908&dat=19910918&id=oxUhAAAAIBAJ&sjid=u9kEAAAAIBAJ&pg=1371,4927894">Archived</a> from the original on April 23, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 11,</span> 2013</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Nevada+Daily+Mail&rft.atitle=Bill+of+Rights+Tour+Opens+in+Kansas+City&rft.date=1991-09-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fnid%3D1908%26dat%3D19910918%26id%3DoxUhAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D1371%2C4927894&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Bibliography of the United States Constitution">Bibliography of the United States Constitution</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 26em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAmar" class="citation book cs1">Amar, Akhil Reed (1998). <i>The Bill of Rights</i>. Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bill+of+Rights&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Amar&rft.aufirst=Akhil+Reed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBeeman" class="citation book cs1">Beeman, Richard (2009). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/plainhonestmenm00beem"><i>Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution</i></a></span>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400065707" title="Special:BookSources/9781400065707"><bdi>9781400065707</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plain%2C+Honest+Men%3A+The+Making+of+the+American+Constitution&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781400065707&rft.aulast=Beeman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fplainhonestmenm00beem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBerkin" class="citation book cs1">Berkin, Carol (2015). <i>The Bill of Rights: The Fight to Secure America's Liberties</i>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4767-4381-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4767-4381-3"><bdi>978-1-4767-4381-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bill+of+Rights%3A+The+Fight+to+Secure+America%27s+Liberties&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4767-4381-3&rft.aulast=Berkin&rft.aufirst=Carol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBessler" class="citation book cs1">Bessler, John D. (2012). <i>Cruel and Unusual: The American Death Penalty and the Founders' Eighth Amendment</i>. University Press of New England.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cruel+and+Unusual%3A+The+American+Death+Penalty+and+the+Founders%27+Eighth+Amendment&rft.pub=University+Press+of+New+England&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Bessler&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrookhiser" class="citation book cs1">Brookhiser, Richard (2011). <i>James Madison</i>. Basic Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=James+Madison&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Brookhiser&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrutus2008" class="citation book cs1">Brutus (2008) [1787]. "To the Citizens of the State of New York". In Storing, Herbert J. (ed.). <i>The Complete Anti-Federalist, Volume 1</i>. University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=To+the+Citizens+of+the+State+of+New+York&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Anti-Federalist%2C+Volume+1&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Brutus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEllis" class="citation book cs1">Ellis, Joseph J. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z31oBAAAQBAJ"><i>The Quartet: Orchestrating the Second American Revolution</i></a>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780385353410" title="Special:BookSources/9780385353410"><bdi>9780385353410</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210724161633/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z31oBAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on July 24, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 25,</span> 2016</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Quartet%3A+Orchestrating+the+Second+American+Revolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780385353410&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Joseph+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ31oBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHamiltonMadisonJay2003" class="citation book cs1">Hamilton, Alexander; Madison, James; Jay, John (2003). Ball, Terence (ed.). <i>The Federalist: With Letters of Brutus</i>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Federalist%3A+With+Letters+of+Brutus&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft.au=Madison%2C+James&rft.au=Jay%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKyvig" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_E._Kyvig" title="David E. Kyvig">Kyvig, David E.</a> (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780700607921"><i>Explicit and Authentic Acts: Amending the U.S. Constitution, 1776–1995</i></a></span>. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7006-0931-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7006-0931-8"><bdi>0-7006-0931-8</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Explicit+and+Authentic+Acts%3A+Amending+the+U.S.+Constitution%2C+1776%E2%80%931995&rft.place=Lawrence&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-7006-0931-8&rft.aulast=Kyvig&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780700607921&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLabunski" class="citation book cs1">Labunski, Richard E. (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jamesmadisonstru00rich"><i>James Madison and the struggle for the Bill of Rights</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=James+Madison+and+the+struggle+for+the+Bill+of+Rights&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Labunski&rft.aufirst=Richard+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjamesmadisonstru00rich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLevy" class="citation book cs1">Levy, Leonard W. (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsofbillofr00levy"><i>Origins of the Bill of Rights</i></a></span>. Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+the+Bill+of+Rights&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Leonard+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginsofbillofr00levy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaier" class="citation book cs1">Maier, Pauline (2010). <i>Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788</i>. Simon & Schuster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ratification%3A+The+People+Debate+the+Constitution%2C+1787%E2%80%931788&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Maier&rft.aufirst=Pauline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRakove" class="citation book cs1">Rakove, Jack N. (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originalmeanings00rako_0"><i>Original Meanings</i></a></span>. Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780394578583" title="Special:BookSources/9780394578583"><bdi>9780394578583</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Original+Meanings&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780394578583&rft.aulast=Rakove&rft.aufirst=Jack+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginalmeanings00rako_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStewart" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, David O. (2007). <i>The Summer of 1787</i>. Simon & Schuster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Summer+of+1787&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=David+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWood" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Gordon S. (2009). <i>Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Liberty%3A+A+History+of+the+Early+Republic%2C+1789%E2%80%931815&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Gordon+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 26em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarnett2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Randy_Barnett" title="Randy Barnett">Barnett, Randy</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC">"Bill of Rights, U.S."</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). <i>The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</i>. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">SAGE</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">32–</span>33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n20">10.4135/9781412965811.n20</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4"><bdi>978-1-4129-6580-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200930070314/https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC">Archived</a> from the original on September 30, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 10,</span> 2016</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bill+of+Rights%2C+U.S.&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E32-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.pub=SAGE%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811.n20&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=Randy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxNgXs3TkJYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBodenhamer,_David_J.James_W._Ely2008" class="citation book cs1">Bodenhamer, David J.; James W. Ely (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YBKAvosk_lcC&pg=PP1"><i>The Bill of Rights in modern America</i></a>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21991-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21991-6"><bdi>978-0-253-21991-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160509081006/https://books.google.com/books?id=YBKAvosk_lcC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on May 9, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 31,</span> 2015</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bill+of+Rights+in+modern+America&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-253-21991-6&rft.au=Bodenhamer%2C+David+J.&rft.au=James+W.+Ely&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYBKAvosk_lcC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bordewich, Fergus M. <i>The First Congress: How James Madison, George Washington, and a Group of Extraordinary Men Invented the Government</i> (2016) on 1789–1791.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Newton_Brant" class="mw-redirect" title="Irving Newton Brant">Brant, Irving</a> (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/billofrightsitso00bran"><i>The Bill of Rights: Its Origin and Meaning</i></a>.</li> <li>Cogan, Neil H. (2015). <i>The Complete Bill of Rights: The Drafts, Debates, Sources, and Origins.</i> Second edition. New York: Oxford University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz,_Bernard1992" class="citation book cs1">Schwartz, Bernard (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d52OVwT_6PYC&pg=PP1"><i>The great rights of mankind: a history of the American Bill of Rights</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-945612-28-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-945612-28-5"><bdi>978-0-945612-28-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160504160243/https://books.google.com/books?id=d52OVwT_6PYC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on May 4, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 31,</span> 2015</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+great+rights+of+mankind%3A+a+history+of+the+American+Bill+of+Rights&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-945612-28-5&rft.au=Schwartz%2C+Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd52OVwT_6PYC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmith,_Rich2007" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Rich (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BqMI9pUbUagC&pg=PP1"><i>The Bill of Rights: Defining Our Freedoms</i></a>. ABDO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59928-913-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59928-913-7"><bdi>978-1-59928-913-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160429085153/https://books.google.com/books?id=BqMI9pUbUagC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on April 29, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 31,</span> 2015</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bill+of+Rights%3A+Defining+Our+Freedoms&rft.pub=ABDO&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-59928-913-7&rft.au=Smith%2C+Rich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBqMI9pUbUagC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStair,_Nancy_L.2003" class="citation book cs1">Stair, Nancy L. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V7LnEe0RkCIC&pg=PA53"><i>The Bill of Rights: a primary source investigation into the first ten amendments of the Constitution</i></a>. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8239-3800-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8239-3800-1"><bdi>978-0-8239-3800-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160502123952/https://books.google.com/books?id=V7LnEe0RkCIC&pg=PA53">Archived</a> from the original on May 2, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 31,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bill+of+Rights%3A+a+primary+source+investigation+into+the+first+ten+amendments+of+the+Constitution&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=The+Rosen+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8239-3800-1&rft.au=Stair%2C+Nancy+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV7LnEe0RkCIC%26pg%3DPA53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Bill+of+Rights" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Stevens, John Paul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1027&context=occasional_papers">"Keynote Address: The Bill of Rights: A Century of Progress"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180720165107/https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1027&context=occasional_papers">Archived</a> July 20, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>University of Chicago Law Review</i> 59 (1992): 13+.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/billofrights.html">Bill of Rights and related resources</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/bill_of_rightss7.html">Alexander Hamilton, Federalist no. 84, 575–81</a>, on opposition to the Bill of Rights</li> <li>TeachingAmericanHistory.org – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://teachingamericanhistory.org/bor/">Bill of Rights</a></li></ul> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation gutenberg"> <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/2">United States Bill of Rights</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" 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dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Constitution_of_the_United_States256" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Constitution_of_the_United_States256" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bill of Rights</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">10</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1795–1804</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">12</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">27</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">District of Columbia Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of proposed amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Proposed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balanced_budget_amendment" title="Balanced budget amendment">Balanced budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaine_Amendment" title="Blaine Amendment">Blaine amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_amendment" title="Campaign finance reform amendment">Campaign finance reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_amendment" title="Christian amendment">Christian amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_abolition_amendment" title="Electoral College abolition amendment">Electoral College abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Opportunity_to_Govern_Amendment" title="Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment">Equal Opportunity to Govern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Marriage_Amendment" title="Federal Marriage Amendment">Federal Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_Desecration_Amendment" title="Flag Desecration Amendment">Flag Desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Life_Amendment" title="Human Life Amendment">Human Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_%22Liberty%22_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Proposed "Liberty" Amendment to the United States Constitution">"Liberty" amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Amendment" title="Ludlow Amendment">Ludlow amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_Rights_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Parental Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution">Parental Rights amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_Prayer_Amendment" title="School Prayer Amendment">School Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_subject_amendment" title="Single subject amendment">Single subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victims%27_Rights_Amendment" title="Victims' Rights Amendment">Victims' Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">Convention to propose amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ratifying_conventions" title="State ratifying conventions">State ratifying conventions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Conference" title="Mount Vernon Conference">Mount Vernon Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Annapolis Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Philadelphia Convention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">List of Framers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Printing of the United States Constitution">Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalist_Papers" title="Anti-Federalist Papers">Anti-Federalist Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Compromise" title="Massachusetts Compromise">Massachusetts Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Circular_Letter" title="New York Circular Letter">New York Circular Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsborough_Convention" title="Hillsborough Convention">Hillsborough Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayetteville_Convention" title="Fayetteville Convention">Fayetteville Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution_by_Rhode_Island" title="Ratification of the United States Constitution by Rhode Island">Rhode Island ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_clauses_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="List of clauses of the United States Constitution">Clauses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)" title="Appropriations bill (United States)">Appropriations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Assemble and Petition Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistance_of_Counsel_Clause" title="Assistance of Counsel Clause">Assistance of Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_Clause" title="Case or Controversy Clause">Case or Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_compact" title="Interstate compact">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_Process_Clause" title="Compulsory Process Clause">Compulsory Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confrontation_Clause" title="Confrontation Clause">Confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Congressional enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">Contingent Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_Clause" title="Contract Clause">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright and Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Jeopardy_Clause" title="Double Jeopardy Clause">Double Jeopardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections clause">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engagements_Clause" title="Engagements Clause">Engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Original_and_appellate_jurisdiction" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Exceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excessive_Bail_Clause" title="Excessive Bail Clause">Excessive Bail</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law#United_States" title="Ex post facto law">Ex Post Facto</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extradition_Clause" title="Extradition Clause">Extradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Faith_and_Credit_Clause" title="Full Faith and Credit Clause">Full Faith and Credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause#General_Welfare_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">General Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarantee_Clause" title="Guarantee Clause">Guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">House Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">Impeachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Import-Export_Clause" title="Import-Export Clause">Import-Export</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-born-citizen_clause_(United_States)" title="Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)">Natural-born citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Religious_Test_Clause" title="No Religious Test Clause">No Religious Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the president of the United States">Oath or Affirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">Original Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origination_Clause" title="Origination Clause">Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_pardons_in_the_United_States" title="Federal pardons in the United States">Pardon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_Clause" title="Postal Clause">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentment_Clause" title="Presentment Clause">Presentment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Presidential Electors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">Presidential succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Recommendation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Self-incrimination" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Self-Incrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_or_Debate_Clause" title="Speech or Debate Clause">Speech or Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speedy_Trial_Clause" title="Speedy Trial Clause">Speedy Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">State of the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_9" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Suspension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Take Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Eminent_domain" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Takings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">Taxing and Spending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Federal_property_and_the_Territorial_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Territorial</a></li> <li>Title of Nobility (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_Emoluments_Clause" title="Foreign Emoluments Clause">Foreign Emoluments</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury_trial#United_States" title="Jury trial">Trial by Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesting_Clauses" title="Vesting Clauses">Vesting</a> (<a href="/wiki/Legislative_Vesting_Clause" title="Legislative Vesting Clause">Legislative</a> / <a href="/wiki/Executive_Vesting_Clause" title="Executive Vesting Clause">Executive</a> / <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Vesting_Clause" title="Judicial Vesting Clause">Judicial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicinage_Clause" title="Vicinage Clause">Vicinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Clause" title="War Powers Clause">War Powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(federalism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of power (federalism)">Balance of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_powers" title="Concurrent powers">Concurrent powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_sentencing_law" title="United States constitutional sentencing law">Criminal sentencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dormant_Commerce_Clause" title="Dormant Commerce Clause">Dormant Commerce Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers_(United_States)" title="Enumerated powers (United States)">Enumerated powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_footing" title="Equal footing">Equal footing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">Executive privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implied_powers" title="Implied powers">Implied powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">Incorporation of the Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondelegation_doctrine#United_States" title="Nondelegation doctrine">Nondelegation doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">Plenary power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">Preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserved_powers" title="Reserved powers">Reserved powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxbe_fix" title="Saxbe fix">Saxbe fix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetric_federalism" title="Symmetric federalism">Symmetric federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_protester_constitutional_arguments" title="Tax protester constitutional arguments">Taxation power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">Signatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention President</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Langdon_(politician)" title="John Langdon (politician)">John Langdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gilman" title="Nicholas Gilman">Nicholas Gilman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brearley" title="David Brearley">David Brearley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dayton" title="Jonathan Dayton">Jonathan Dayton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fitzsimons" title="Thomas Fitzsimons">Thomas Fitzsimons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Ingersoll" title="Jared Ingersoll">Jared Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunning_Bedford_Jr." title="Gunning Bedford Jr.">Gunning Bedford Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bassett_(Delaware_politician)" title="Richard Bassett (Delaware politician)">Richard Bassett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Broom" title="Jacob Broom">Jacob Broom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_of_St._Thomas_Jenifer" title="Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer">Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carroll" title="Daniel Carroll">Daniel Carroll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">John Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Blount" title="William Blount">William Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dobbs_Spaight" title="Richard Dobbs Spaight">Richard Dobbs Spaight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Williamson" title="Hugh Williamson">Hugh Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(American_politician)" title="Pierce Butler (American politician)">Pierce Butler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Few" title="William Few">William Few</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin" title="Abraham Baldwin">Abraham Baldwin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention Secretary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_(secretary)" title="William Jackson (secretary)">William Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Notes_of_Debates_in_the_Federal_Convention_of_1787" title="Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787">Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Shallus" title="Jacob Shallus">Jacob Shallus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lambert_(writer)" title="William Lambert (writer)">William Lambert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Bibliography of the United States Constitution">Bibliography of the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display<br />and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Mall_(Philadelphia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence Mall (Philadelphia)">Independence Mall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Day_and_Citizenship_Day" title="Constitution Day and Citizenship Day">Constitution Day and Citizenship Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Gardens" title="Constitution Gardens">Constitution Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Week" title="Constitution Week">Constitution Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Constitution_Center" title="National Constitution Center">National Constitution Center</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States">Scene at the Signing of the Constitution</a></i> (painting)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)">A More Perfect Union</a></i> (film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldwide_influence_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Worldwide influence of the Constitution of the United States">Worldwide influence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States565" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_topics" title="Template:United States topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_topics" title="Template talk:United States topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States565" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932016)" title="History of the United States (1991–2016)">1991–2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2016-present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (2016-present)">2016–present</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By event</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-colonial era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">United Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_American_military_history" title="Colonial American military history">military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halifax_Resolves" title="Halifax Resolves">Halifax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">drafting and ratification</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bill of Rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Native genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li>Civil rights movement <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">1954–1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Feminist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">LGBT Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">Post-Cold War (1991–2008)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on Terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_history_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the history of the United States">Outline of U.S. history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions" title="Timeline of United States inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technological and industrial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_States" title="Geography of the United States">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._territorial_sovereignty" title="U.S. territorial sovereignty">Territory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">Contiguous United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">federal district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_enclave" title="Federal enclave">federal enclaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">insular zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Minor_Outlying_Islands" title="United States Minor Outlying Islands">minor outlying islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of populated places in the United States">populated places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_United_States" title="List of earthquakes in the United States">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_the_United_States" title="List of extreme points of the United States">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_United_States" title="List of islands of the United States">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountains of the United States">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountain peaks of the United States">peaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges#United_States" title="List of mountain ranges">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada" title="Sierra Nevada">Sierra Nevada</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_in_the_United_States_National_Park_System" title="List of areas in the United States National Park System">National Parks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_United_States" title="List of regions of the United States">Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_(United_States)" title="Mid-Atlantic (United States)">Mid-Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_United_States" title="Central United States">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_United_States" title="Northwestern United States">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li>Longest <a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_States" title="List of rivers of the United States">rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_River" title="Arkansas River">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River" title="Colorado River">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_River" title="Missouri River">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_of_the_South" title="Red River of the South">Red (South)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukon_River" title="Yukon River">Yukon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_the_United_States" title="Time in the United States">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_United_States" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the United States">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Politics of the United States">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Executive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Powers of the president of the United States">powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_executive_departments" title="United States federal executive departments">Executive departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">Independent agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">Intelligence Community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence" title="Director of National Intelligence">Director of National Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" title="Federal law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Alcohol,_Tobacco,_Firearms_and_Explosives" title="Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives">ATF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection" title="U.S. Customs and Border Protection">CBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Diplomatic_Security" title="Bureau of Diplomatic Security">Diplomatic Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">DEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement" title="U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement">ICE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service" title="United States Marshals Service">Marshals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service" title="United States Secret Service">Secret Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_Security_Administration" title="Transportation Security Administration">TSA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Inspector_General_(United_States)" title="Office of Inspector General (United States)">Inspector generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_civil_service" title="United States federal civil service">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Public policy of the United States">Public policy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="List of current members of the United States House of Representatives">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_senators" title="List of current United States senators">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">President pro tempore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States#President_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Vice President of the United States">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Police" title="United States Capitol Police">Capitol Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office" title="Congressional Budget Office">Congressional Budget Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">Government Publishing Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Courts of appeals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_circuit_judges" title="List of current United States circuit judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District courts</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_States_territorial_court" title="United States territorial court">Territorial courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list of courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_district_judges" title="List of current United States district judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Federal tribunals in the United States">Other tribunals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney" title="United States Attorney">U.S. attorney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bill of Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Civil liberties in the United States">civil liberties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Uniformed services of the United States">Uniformed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOAA_Commissioned_Officer_Corps" title="NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps">NOAA Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">Public Health Service Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Government of the District of Columbia">Federal District</a>,<br />and <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">Territorial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_constitutional_officer" title="State constitutional officer">Executive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(United_States)" title="Governor (United States)">Governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_governors" title="List of current United States governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_governor_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant governor (United States)">Lieutenant governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_lieutenant_governors" title="List of current United States lieutenant governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_state_(U.S._state_government)" title="Secretary of state (U.S. state government)">Secretary of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_attorney_general" title="State attorney general">Attorney general</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_treasurer" title="State treasurer">Treasurer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_auditor" title="State auditor">Auditor/Comptroller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_commissioner" title="Agriculture commissioner">Agriculture commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_commissioner" title="Insurance commissioner">Insurance commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_utilities_commission" title="Public utilities commission">Public utilities commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_police_(United_States)" title="State police (United States)">State police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_and_local_law_enforcement_agencies" title="List of United States state and local law enforcement agencies">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_legislatures" title="List of United States state legislatures">List of legislatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_legislators" title="List of U.S. state legislators">List of legislators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">Supreme courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_chief_justices" title="List of state chief justices">Chief justices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_attorney" title="District attorney">District attorney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_district_attorneys_by_county" class="mw-redirect" title="List of district attorneys by county">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_constitutions_in_the_United_States" title="State constitutions in the United States">State constitutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_statutory_codes" title="List of U.S. state statutory codes">Statutory codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_act" title="Uniform act">Uniform act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_U.S._state_and_territory_governments" title="Comparison of U.S. state and territory governments">Comparison of governments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Tribal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Alaska_Native_tribal_entities" title="List of Alaska Native tribal entities">Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_home_land" title="Hawaiian home land">Hawaiian home land</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">County</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_counties_and_county_equivalents" title="List of United States counties and county equivalents">List of counties and county equivalents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_executive" title="County executive">County executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheriffs_in_the_United_States" title="Sheriffs in the United States">Sheriff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_clerk" title="Municipal clerk">Clerk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_city-county" title="Consolidated city-county">Consolidated city-county</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_city_(United_States)" title="Independent city (United States)">Independent city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coterminous_municipality" title="Coterminous municipality">Coterminous municipality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_charter#United_States" title="Municipal charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayor%E2%80%93council_government" title="Mayor–council government">Mayor–council government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council%E2%80%93manager_government" title="Council–manager government">Council–manager government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_commission_government" title="City commission government">City commission government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayoralty_in_the_United_States" title="Mayoralty in the United States">Mayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_manager" title="City manager">City manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_council#United_States" title="Municipal council">City council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Minor_civil_division" title="Minor civil division">Minor divisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_township" title="Civil township">Township</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_meeting" title="Town meeting">Town meeting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Special_district_(United_States)" title="Special district (United States)">Special district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_district" title="School district">School district</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_school_districts_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of school districts in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_States" title="Corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_states_and_blue_states" title="Red states and blue states">Red states and blue states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign relations of the United States">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">foreign policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_presidency" title="Imperial presidency">Imperial presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Ideologies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">Anti-Americanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">Parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_party_(U.S._politics)" title="Third party (U.S. politics)">Third parties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_political_scandals_in_the_United_States" title="List of federal political scandals in the United States">Scandals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States_by_sector" title="Economy of the United States by sector">By sector</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Banking in the United States">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_the_United_States" title="Communications in the United States">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Energy in the United States">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Insurance in the United States">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_States" title="Manufacturing in the United States">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Science and technology in the United States">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_States" title="List of exports of the United States">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_budget" title="United States federal budget">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_position_of_the_United_States" title="Financial position of the United States">Financial position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">Labor unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_debt_of_the_United_States" title="National debt of the United States">Public debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social welfare programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">Unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport in the United States">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_United_States" title="Aviation in the United States">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_in_the_United_States" title="Driving in the United States">Driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Public transportation in the United States">Public transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Rail transportation in the United States">Rail transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Transportation policy of the United States">Transportation policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation safety in the United States">Transportation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucking_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Trucking industry in the United States">Trucking industry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Society of the United States">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americana_(culture)" title="Americana (culture)">Americana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Architecture in the United States">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_cuisine" title="American cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_the_United_States" title="Dance in the United States">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economic issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction_in_the_United_States" title="Eviction in the United States">eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_class_in_the_United_States" title="Working class in the United States">working class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_the_United_States" title="Literacy in the United States">literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_United_States" title="Family in the United States">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_United_States" title="Fashion in the United States">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_United_States" title="Folklore of the United States">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Public holidays in the United States">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Federal holidays in the United States">Federal holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_the_United_States" title="Housing in the United States">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States" title="Languages of the United States">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">ASL</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_United_States" title="Mass media in the United States">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_States" title="Internet in the United States">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_States" title="Radio in the United States">radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_States" title="Television in the United States">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_States" title="Music of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_in_the_United_States" title="Naming in the United States">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner" title="The Star-Spangled Banner">National anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_the_United_States" title="National symbols of the United States">National symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_(personification)" title="Columbia (personification)">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore" title="Mount Rushmore">Mount Rushmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans" title="Americans">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Political ideologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_the_United_States" title="Sexuality in the United States">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_the_United_States" title="Sports in the United States">Sports</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_in_the_United_States" title="Theater in the United States">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation in the United States">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_the_United_States" title="Video games in the United States">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_the_United_States" title="Visual art of the United States">Visual art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Educational attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">Homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_United_States" title="Health in the United States">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aging_of_the_United_States" title="Aging of the United States">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare in the United States">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care_in_the_United_States" title="Prenatal care in the United States">Prenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospice_care_in_the_United_States" title="Hospice care in the United States">Hospice care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigrant_health_care_in_the_United_States" title="Immigrant health care in the United States">Immigrant health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_rationing_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare rationing in the United States">Rationing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_finance_in_the_United_States" title="Health care finance in the United States">Health care finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_costs_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance costs in the United States">Health insurance costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Health care prices in the United States">Health care prices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Prescription drug prices in the United States">Prescription drug prices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_United_States" title="Disability in the United States">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance in the United States">Health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Food safety in the United States">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician_shortage_in_the_United_States" title="Physician shortage in the United States">Physician shortage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty and health in the United States">Poverty and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Race and health in the United States">Race and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity_in_the_United_States" title="Obesity in the United States">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_deserts_in_the_United_States" title="Medical deserts in the United States">Medical deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_reproductive_health_in_the_United_States" title="Women's reproductive health in the United States">Women's reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_life_expectancy" title="List of U.S. states and territories by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">incarceration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_United_States_government" title="Criticism of the United States government">Criticism of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Discrimination in the United States">Discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Intersex rights in the United States">intersex rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Islamophobia in the United States">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United States">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental movement in the United States">Environmental movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">Gun politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Mass shootings in the United States">Mass shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunger in the United States">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="Tobacco in the United States">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">Immigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">illegal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_the_United_States" title="National security of the United States">National security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">Terrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Opioid epidemic in the United States">Opioid epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Xenophobia in the United States">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;;font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <a href="/wiki/Category:United_States" title="Category:United States">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_United_States495" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_United_States_navbox" title="Template:History of the United States navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_United_States_navbox" title="Template talk:History of the United States navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_United_States_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the United States navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_United_States495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of United States history">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Events495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Events</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Colonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">Exploration of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jamestown,_Virginia_(1607%E2%80%931699)" title="History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–1699)">Settlement of Jamestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution#Origin" title="American Revolution">Prelude to Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Proclamation of 1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act" title="Sugar Act">Sugar Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intolerable_Acts" title="Intolerable Acts">Intolerable Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">and Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification of the Constitution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Westward expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Falls_Convention" title="Seneca Falls Convention">Seneca Falls Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">Antebellum Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Prelude to War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott decision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">Election of Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Wealth" title="The Gospel of Wealth">The Gospel of Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield" title="Assassination of James A. Garfield">Assassination of James A. Garfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley" title="Assassination of William McKinley">Assassination of William McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)#American_approach" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan#Second_Klan:_1915–1944" title="Ku Klux Klan">Second Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath_School_disaster" title="Bath School disaster">Bath School disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_crash_of_1929" title="Wall Street crash of 1929">Wall Street crash of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946" title="United States strike wave of 1945–1946">Strike wave of 1945–1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1947%E2%80%931948)" title="Cold War (1947–1948)">Start of Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1948%E2%80%931953)" title="Cold War (1948–1953)">Early Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post-war boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Cold War (1953–1962)">Early–mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1962%E2%80%931979)" title="Cold War (1962–1979)">Mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">Crack epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1979%E2%80%931985)" title="Cold War (1979–1985)">Late Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">End of the Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_drugs" title="War on drugs">War on drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932016)" title="History of the United States (1991–2016)">1991–2016</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">NAFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots"> Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_World_Trade_Center_bombing" title="1993 World Trade Center bombing">WTC bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waco_siege" title="Waco siege">Waco siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre" title="Columbine High School massacre">Columbine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting" title="Virginia Tech shooting">Virginia Tech shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2016%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2016–present)">2016–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Killing of Osama bin Laden">Killing of Osama bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="List of mass shootings in the United States">Rise in mass shootings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Tucson_shooting" title="2011 Tucson shooting">Tucson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Aurora_theater_shooting" title="2012 Aurora theater shooting">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting">Sandy Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_nightclub_shooting" title="Pulse nightclub shooting">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Las_Vegas_shooting" title="2017 Las Vegas shooting">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkland_high_school_shooting" title="Parkland high school shooting">Parkland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 El Paso shooting">El Paso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvalde_school_shooting" title="Uvalde school shooting">Uvalde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">recession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_U.S._troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" title="2020–2021 U.S. troop withdrawal from Afghanistan">Afghanistan withdrawal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Foreign involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Support of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump#Investigations,_criminal_charges,_civil_lawsuits" title="Donald Trump">Indictments of Donald Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">Flag</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="History of the United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Groups495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian-American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian-American history">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_history_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender history in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Places495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Places</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_regions_of_the_United_States" title="Historical regions of the United States">Historical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal District</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insular areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outlying islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Baker_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Baker Island">Baker Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Howland_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Howland Island">Howland Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jarvis_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jarvis Island">Jarvis Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Johnston_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kingman_Reef" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kingman Reef">Kingman Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Midway_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Midway Atoll">Midway Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Navassa_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Navassa Island">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palmyra_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palmyra Atoll">Palmyra Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wake_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Wake Island">Wake Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="James_Madison1091" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:James_Madison" title="Template:James Madison"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:James_Madison" title="Template talk:James Madison"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:James_Madison" title="Special:EditPage/Template:James Madison"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="James_Madison1091" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">4th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1809–1817)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_secretaries_of_state_of_the_United_States" title="List of secretaries of state of the United States">5th</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">U.S. Secretary of State</a> (1801–1809)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a> (1789–1797)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation" title="Congress of the Confederation">Congress of the Confederation</a> (1781–1783)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Virginia_House_of_Delegates" title="Virginia House of Delegates">Virginia House of Delegates</a> (1776–1779, 1784–1786)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Virginia_Convention" title="Fifth Virginia Convention">Delegate, Fifth Virginia Convention</a> (1776)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_as_Father_of_the_Constitution" title="James Madison as Father of the Constitution">"Father of the <br />Constitution"</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Constitution#1776" class="mw-redirect" title="Virginia Constitution">Co-wrote, 1776 Virginia Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">1786 Annapolis Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)#James_Madison's_blueprint" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">1787 Constitutional Convention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Constitution of the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Notes_of_Debates_in_the_Federal_Convention_of_1787" title="Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787">Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of State">Department of Foreign Affairs</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Federalist_Papers_by_James_Madison" title="Category:Federalist Papers by James Madison">written by Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._10" title="Federalist No. 10">No. 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._51" title="Federalist No. 51">No. 51</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States Bill of Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">27th amendment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Constitution drafting and ratification timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1789" title="Tariff of 1789">Tariff of 1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Madison" title="Presidency of James Madison">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_James_Madison" title="First inauguration of James Madison">First inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_James_Madison" title="Second inauguration of James Madison">Second inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tecumseh%27s_War" title="Tecumseh's War">Tecumseh's War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tippecanoe" title="Battle of Tippecanoe">Battle of Tippecanoe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Origins of the War of 1812">origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_letters" title="Henry letters">Henry letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_of_Washington" title="Burning of Washington">Burning of Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Octagon_House" title="The Octagon House">The Octagon House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Ghent" title="Treaty of Ghent">Treaty of Ghent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Buildings" title="Seven Buildings">Seven Buildings residence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Results_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Results of the War of 1812">results</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Barbary_War" title="Second Barbary War">Second Barbary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bank_of_the_United_States" title="Second Bank of the United States">Second Bank of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1810_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1810 State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address (1810</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1814_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1814 State of the Union Address">1814</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1815_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1815 State of the Union Address">1815</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1816_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1816 State of the Union Address"> 1816)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison#Administration_and_cabinet" title="James Madison">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_James_Madison" title="List of federal judges appointed by James Madison">Federal judiciary appointments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other noted<br />accomplisments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Whig%E2%80%93Cliosophic_Society" title="American Whig–Cliosophic Society">Co-founder, American Whig Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington%27s_Farewell_Address" title="George Washington's Farewell Address">Co-author, George Washington's Farewell Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Supervised the Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Administration_party" title="Anti-Administration party">Anti-Administration party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residence_Act" title="Residence Act">Residence Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1790" title="Compromise of 1790">Compromise of 1790</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party" title="Democratic-Republican Party">Democratic-Republican Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">republicanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress#History" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_J._Bunche_Library" title="Ralph J. Bunche Library">Library of the State Department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_and_Virginia_Resolutions" title="Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions">Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_of_1800" title="Report of 1800">Report of 1800</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other writings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pacificus-Helvidius_Debates" title="Pacificus-Helvidius Debates">Pacificus-Helvidius Debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Papers_of_James_Madison" title="The Papers of James Madison">The Papers of James Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founders_Online" title="Founders Online">Founders Online</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison#Early_life_and_career" title="James Madison">Early life and career</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_and_slavery" title="James Madison and slavery">James Madison and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belle_Grove_(Port_Conway,_Virginia)" title="Belle Grove (Port Conway, Virginia)">Belle Grove Plantation, birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montpelier_(Orange,_Virginia)" title="Montpelier (Orange, Virginia)">Montpelier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1789_Virginia%27s_5th_congressional_district_election" title="1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election">1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1790_and_1791_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="1790 and 1791 United States House of Representatives elections">1790</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1792_and_1793_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections">1792</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1794_and_1795_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="1794 and 1795 United States House of Representatives elections">1794</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1808_United_States_presidential_election" title="1808 United States presidential election">U.S. presidential election, 1808</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1812_United_States_presidential_election" title="1812 United States presidential election">1812</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy and<br />popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_James_Madison" title="Bibliography of James Madison">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_James_Madison" title="List of memorials to James Madison">Memorials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Memorial_Building" title="James Madison Memorial Building">James Madison Memorial Building</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_James_Madison" title="Statue of James Madison">statue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_University" title="James Madison University">James Madison University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_College" class="mw-redirect" title="James Madison College">James Madison College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison,_Wisconsin" title="Madison, Wisconsin">Madison, Wisconsin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Park" title="James Madison Park">James Madison Park</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison_Square_and_Madison_Square_Park" title="Madison Square and Madison Square Park">Madison Square</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden" title="Madison Square Garden">Madison Square Garden</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison_River" title="Madison River">Madison River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Madison" title="Mount Madison">Mount Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison_Street_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Madison Street (disambiguation)">Madison Street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#James_Madison" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Memorial_Fellowship_Foundation" title="James Madison Memorial Fellowship Foundation">James Madison Memorial Fellowship Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Freedom_of_Information_Award" title="James Madison Freedom of Information Award">James Madison Freedom of Information Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Award" title="James Madison Award">James Madison Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Institute" title="James Madison Institute">James Madison Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Museum" title="James Madison Museum">James Madison Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USRC_James_Madison_(1807)" class="mw-redirect" title="USRC James Madison (1807)">USRC <i>James Madison</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Madison_(1812)" title="USS Madison (1812)">USS <i>Madison</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_James_Madison_(SSBN-627)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS James Madison (SSBN-627)">USS <i>James Madison</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magnificent_Doll" title="Magnificent Doll">Magnificent Doll</a></i> (1946 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)"><i>A More Perfect Union</i> (1989 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty%27s_Kids" title="Liberty's Kids"><i>Liberty's Kids</i> (2002 series)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(musical)" title="Hamilton (musical)">Hamilton</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(musical)" title="Hamilton (musical)">musical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(2020_film)" title="Hamilton (2020 film)">film</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_(miniseries)" title="Washington (miniseries)"><i>Washington</i> (2020 miniseries)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Gazette" title="National Gazette">National Gazette</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Jennings_(slave)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Jennings (slave)">Paul Jennings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madisonian_model" title="Madisonian model">Madisonian model</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_Madisonianism" title="Cognitive Madisonianism">Cognitive Madisonianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_American_Museum_(magazine)" title="The American Museum (magazine)"><i>The American Museum</i> magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_dynasty" title="Virginia dynasty">Virginia dynasty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dolley_Madison" title="Dolley Madison">Dolley Madison</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Payne_Todd" title="John Payne Todd">John Payne Todd</a> (stepson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Sr." title="James Madison Sr.">James Madison Sr.</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Madison" title="Eleanor Madison">Eleanor Madison</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Madison" title="William Madison">William Madison</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Madison" title="Ambrose Madison">Ambrose Madison</a> (grandfather)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">← Thomas Jefferson</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe →</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:James_Madison" title="Category:James Madison">Category:James Madison</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="George_Mason149" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:George_Mason" title="Template:George Mason"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:George_Mason" title="Template talk:George Mason"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:George_Mason" title="Special:EditPage/Template:George Mason"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="George_Mason149" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">George Mason</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">United States<br />Founding events</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Association" title="Virginia Association">Drafted, 1769 Virginia Association resolutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairfax_Resolves" title="Fairfax Resolves">Primary author, 1774 Fairfax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Virginia_Convention" title="Fifth Virginia Convention">Delegate, Fifth Virginia Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Declaration_of_Rights" title="Virginia Declaration of Rights">Primary author, 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/All_men_are_created_equal" title="All men are created equal">All men are created equal</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life,_Liberty_and_the_pursuit_of_Happiness" title="Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness">Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Freedom of the press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_and_seizure" title="Search and seizure">Baseless search and seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishment" title="Cruel and unusual punishment">Cruel and unusual punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speedy_trial" title="Speedy trial">Speedy trial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Virginia#1776" title="Constitution of Virginia">1776 Virginia Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_and_seal_of_Virginia" title="Flag and seal of Virginia">Seal of Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Conference" title="Mount Vernon Conference">1785 Mount Vernon Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">1787 Constitutional Convention</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/High_crimes_and_misdemeanors" title="High crimes and misdemeanors">high crimes and misdemeanors</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Co-father, United States Bill of Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Bill_of_Rights" title="History of the United States Constitution">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Father</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writings inspired</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen#History" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789, France)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States Bill of Rights (1789)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chopawamsic_(plantation)" title="Chopawamsic (plantation)">Chopawamsic plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunston_Hall" title="Gunston Hall">Gunston Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason#Views_on_slavery" title="George Mason">On slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_Company" title="Ohio Company">Ohio Company</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">patriots</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wilson_v._Mason" title="Wilson v. Mason">Wilson v. Mason</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollin_Hall_(Virginia)" title="Hollin Hall (Virginia)">Hollin Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodbridge_(plantation)" title="Woodbridge (plantation)">Woodbridge plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Island#History" title="Theodore Roosevelt Island">Mason's Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mason_family" title="Mason family">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason_V" title="George Mason V">George Mason V</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Mason_(1757%E2%80%931818)" title="William Mason (1757–1818)">William Mason</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomson_Mason_(1759%E2%80%931820)" title="Thomson Mason (1759–1820)">Thomson Mason</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mason_(planter)" title="John Mason (planter)">John Mason</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mason_(1770%E2%80%931800)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Mason (1770–1800)">Thomas Mason</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason_III" title="George Mason III">George Mason III</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomson_Mason" title="Thomson Mason">Thomson Mason</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason_II" title="George Mason II">George Mason II</a> (grandfather)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q862765#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2198" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q862765#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2198" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q862765#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/186307101">VIAF</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Verfassung (1787). 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