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id="toc-Function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theory_of_operation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_of_operation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Theory of operation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_of_operation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Torque_converter_elements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Torque_converter_elements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Torque converter elements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Torque_converter_elements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operational_phases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operational_phases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Operational phases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operational_phases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efficiency_and_torque_multiplication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efficiency_and_torque_multiplication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Efficiency and torque multiplication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efficiency_and_torque_multiplication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lock-up_torque_converters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lock-up_torque_converters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Lock-up torque converters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lock-up_torque_converters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Capacity_and_failure_modes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Capacity_and_failure_modes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Capacity and failure modes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Capacity_and_failure_modes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manufacturers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manufacturers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Manufacturers</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Manufacturers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Manufacturers subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Manufacturers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Current" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Current</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Past" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Past"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Past</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Past-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convertidor_de_parell" title="Convertidor de parell – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Convertidor de parell" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrodynamick%C3%BD_m%C4%9Bni%C4%8D" title="Hydrodynamický měnič – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hydrodynamický měnič" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drejningsmoment_konverter" title="Drejningsmoment konverter – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Drejningsmoment konverter" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drehmomentwandler_(hydrodynamisch)" title="Drehmomentwandler (hydrodynamisch) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Drehmomentwandler (hydrodynamisch)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCdrotransformaator" title="Hüdrotransformaator – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hüdrotransformaator" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convertidor_de_par" title="Convertidor de par – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Convertidor de par" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%84_%DA%AF%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1" title="مبدل گشتاور – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مبدل گشتاور" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convertisseur_de_couple" title="Convertisseur de couple – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Convertisseur de couple" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%86%A0%ED%81%AC%EC%BB%A8%EB%B2%84%ED%84%B0" title="토크컨버터 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="토크컨버터" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%A4%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%83%D5%B8%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Հիդրոդինամիկական փոխանցում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հիդրոդինամիկական փոխանցում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konverter_torsi" title="Konverter torsi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Konverter torsi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convertitore_di_coppia" title="Convertitore di coppia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Convertitore di coppia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Гидротрансформатор – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Гидротрансформатор" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%88%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%90%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BF" title="トルクコンバータ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="トルクコンバータ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreiemomentomformer" title="Dreiemomentomformer – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Dreiemomentomformer" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gidrotransformator" title="Gidrotransformator – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gidrotransformator" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przek%C5%82adnia_hydrokinetyczna" title="Przekładnia hydrokinetyczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Przekładnia hydrokinetyczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversor_de_torque" title="Conversor de torque – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Conversor de torque" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Гидротрансформатор – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гидротрансформатор" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torque_converter" title="Torque converter – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Torque converter" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrodynamick%C3%BD_meni%C4%8D" title="Hydrodynamický menič – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Hydrodynamický menič" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Хидродинамичка спојница – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хидродинамичка спојница" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentinmuunnin" title="Momentinmuunnin – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Momentinmuunnin" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentomvandlare" title="Momentomvandlare – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Momentomvandlare" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tork_konvert%C3%B6r" title="Tork konvertör – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tork konvertör" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Гідротрансформатор – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гідротрансформатор" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%89%AD%E5%8A%9B%E8%BD%89%E6%8F%9B%E5%99%A8" title="扭力轉換器 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="扭力轉換器" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B6%B2%E5%8A%9B%E5%8F%98%E7%9F%A9%E5%99%A8" title="液力变矩器 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="液力变矩器" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q84115#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Torque_converter" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" 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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Fluid coupling that transfers rotating power from a prime mover to a rotating driven load</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Torque+converter%22">"Torque converter"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Torque+converter%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Torque+converter%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Torque+converter%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Torque+converter%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Torque+converter%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bauma_2007_ZF_Drehmomentwandler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Bauma_2007_ZF_Drehmomentwandler.jpg/220px-Bauma_2007_ZF_Drehmomentwandler.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Bauma_2007_ZF_Drehmomentwandler.jpg/330px-Bauma_2007_ZF_Drehmomentwandler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Bauma_2007_ZF_Drehmomentwandler.jpg/440px-Bauma_2007_ZF_Drehmomentwandler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/ZF_Friedrichshafen" title="ZF Friedrichshafen">ZF</a> torque converter <a href="/wiki/Cutaway_(industrial)" title="Cutaway (industrial)">cut-away</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Torque-converter-cutbox-model.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Torque-converter-cutbox-model.jpg/220px-Torque-converter-cutbox-model.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Torque-converter-cutbox-model.jpg/330px-Torque-converter-cutbox-model.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Torque-converter-cutbox-model.jpg/440px-Torque-converter-cutbox-model.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Cutaway_(industrial)" title="Cutaway (industrial)">cut-away</a> model of a torque converter</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>torque converter</b> is a device, usually implemented as a type of <a href="/wiki/Fluid_coupling" title="Fluid coupling">fluid coupling</a>, that transfers rotating power from a <a href="/wiki/Prime_mover_(locomotive)" title="Prime mover (locomotive)">prime mover</a>, like an <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engine</a>, to a rotating driven load. In a vehicle with an <a href="/wiki/Automatic_transmission" title="Automatic transmission">automatic transmission</a>, the torque converter connects the prime mover to the automatic gear train, which then drives the load. It is thus usually located between the engine's <a href="/wiki/Flexplate" title="Flexplate">flexplate</a> and the transmission. The equivalent device in a manual transmission is the mechanical <a href="/wiki/Clutch" title="Clutch">clutch</a>. </p><p>A torque converter serves to increase transmitted <a href="/wiki/Torque" title="Torque">torque</a> when the output rotational speed is low. In the fluid coupling embodiment, it uses a fluid, driven by the vanes of an input impeller, and directed through the vanes of a fixed stator, to drive an output turbine in such a manner that torque on the output is increased when the output shaft is rotating more slowly than the input shaft, thus providing the equivalent of an adaptive <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(mechanics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (mechanics)">reduction gear</a>. This is a feature beyond what a simple fluid coupling provides, which can match rotational speed but does not multiply torque. Fluid-coupling–based torque converters also typically include a lock-up function to rigidly couple input and output and avoid the efficiency losses associated with transmitting torque by fluid flow when operating conditions permit. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hydraulic_systems">Hydraulic systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torque_converter&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Hydraulic systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By far the most common form of torque converter in <a href="/wiki/Automatic_transmission" title="Automatic transmission">automobile transmissions</a> is the hydrodynamic device described above. There are also <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_drive_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic drive system">hydrostatic</a> systems which are widely used in small machines such as <a href="/wiki/Compact_excavators" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact excavators">compact excavators</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanical_systems">Mechanical systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torque_converter&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Mechanical systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are also mechanical designs for torque converters, many of which are similar to mechanical <a href="/wiki/Continuously_variable_transmission" title="Continuously variable transmission">continuously variable transmissions</a> or capable of acting as such as well. They include the pendulum-based <a href="/wiki/Constantinesco_torque_converter" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantinesco torque converter">Constantinesco torque converter</a>, the Lambert friction gearing disk drive transmission and the <a href="/wiki/Variomatic" title="Variomatic">Variomatic</a> with expanding pulleys and a belt drive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Usage">Usage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torque_converter&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_transmission" title="Automatic transmission">Automatic transmissions</a> on <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobiles</a>, such as cars, buses, and on/off highway trucks.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forwarder" title="Forwarder">Forwarders</a> and other heavy duty vehicles.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_(ocean)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine (ocean)">Marine</a> propulsion systems.</li> <li>Industrial power transmission such as <a href="/wiki/Conveyor" class="mw-redirect" title="Conveyor">conveyor</a> drives, almost all modern forklifts, <a href="/wiki/Winches" class="mw-redirect" title="Winches">winches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drilling_rig" title="Drilling rig">drilling rigs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Construction_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Construction equipment">construction equipment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diesel-hydraulic" class="mw-redirect" title="Diesel-hydraulic">diesel-hydraulic</a> <a href="/wiki/Railway_locomotive" class="mw-redirect" title="Railway locomotive">railway locomotives</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torque_converter&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory_of_operation">Theory of operation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torque_converter&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Theory of operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Torque converter equations of motion are governed by <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a>'s eighteenth century <a href="/wiki/Euler%27s_pump_and_turbine_equation" title="Euler's pump and turbine equation">turbomachine equation</a>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \tau =\sum \left[r\times {\frac {d}{dt}}\left(m\cdot v\right)\right]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>τ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <mi>r</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>d</mi> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mi>m</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \tau =\sum \left[r\times {\frac {d}{dt}}\left(m\cdot v\right)\right]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3c44e201dd311dedd1992e3cf9931aaac57b4765" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:24.322ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \tau =\sum \left[r\times {\frac {d}{dt}}\left(m\cdot v\right)\right]}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The equation expands to include the fifth power of radius; as a result, torque converter properties are very dependent on the size of the device. </p><p>Mathematical formulations for the torque converter are available from several authors. <sup id="cite_ref-Bond_Graph_Modeling_and_Computer_Simulation_of_Automotive_Torque_Converters_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bond_Graph_Modeling_and_Computer_Simulation_of_Automotive_Torque_Converters-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-Dynamic_Models_for_Torque_Converter_Equipped_Vehicles_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dynamic_Models_for_Torque_Converter_Equipped_Vehicles-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hrovat derived the equations of the pump, turbine, stator, and conservation of energy. Four first-order differential equations can define the performance of the torque converter. </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{i}{\dot {\omega _{i}}}+\rho S_{i}{\dot {Q}}=-\rho (\omega _{i}R_{i}^{2}+R_{i}{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{i}}-\omega _{\mathrm {s} }R_{\mathrm {s} }^{2}-R_{\mathrm {s} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{\mathrm {s} }})Q+\tau _{i}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <msub> <mi>ω</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>Q</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>ω</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>Q</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>tan</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>ω</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>Q</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>tan</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mi>Q</mi> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{i}{\dot {\omega _{i}}}+\rho S_{i}{\dot {Q}}=-\rho (\omega _{i}R_{i}^{2}+R_{i}{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{i}}-\omega _{\mathrm {s} }R_{\mathrm {s} }^{2}-R_{\mathrm {s} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{\mathrm {s} }})Q+\tau _{i}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f6733612aae6754bcb509ebc2790efac8e49ade0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:68.795ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{i}{\dot {\omega _{i}}}+\rho S_{i}{\dot {Q}}=-\rho (\omega _{i}R_{i}^{2}+R_{i}{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{i}}-\omega _{\mathrm {s} }R_{\mathrm {s} }^{2}-R_{\mathrm {s} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{\mathrm {s} }})Q+\tau _{i}}"></span> </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{\mathrm {t} }{\dot {\omega _{\mathrm {t} }}}+\rho S_{\mathrm {t} }{\dot {Q}}=-\rho (\omega _{\mathrm {t} }R_{\mathrm {t} }^{2}+R_{\mathrm {t} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{\mathrm {t} }}-\omega _{i}R_{i}^{2}-R_{i}{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{i}})Q+\tau _{\mathrm {t} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <msub> <mi>ω</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>Q</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>ω</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>Q</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>tan</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>ω</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>Q</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>tan</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mi>Q</mi> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{\mathrm {t} }{\dot {\omega _{\mathrm {t} }}}+\rho S_{\mathrm {t} }{\dot {Q}}=-\rho (\omega _{\mathrm {t} }R_{\mathrm {t} }^{2}+R_{\mathrm {t} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{\mathrm {t} }}-\omega _{i}R_{i}^{2}-R_{i}{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{i}})Q+\tau _{\mathrm {t} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/34385f6b7e13c301d122598d9eab9a5db95deb60" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:69.059ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{\mathrm {t} }{\dot {\omega _{\mathrm {t} }}}+\rho S_{\mathrm {t} }{\dot {Q}}=-\rho (\omega _{\mathrm {t} }R_{\mathrm {t} }^{2}+R_{\mathrm {t} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{\mathrm {t} }}-\omega _{i}R_{i}^{2}-R_{i}{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{i}})Q+\tau _{\mathrm {t} }}"></span> </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{\mathrm {s} }{\dot {\omega _{\mathrm {s} }}}+\rho S_{\mathrm {s} }{\dot {Q}}=-\rho (\omega _{\mathrm {s} }R_{\mathrm {s} }^{2}+R_{\mathrm {s} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{\mathrm {s} }}-\omega _{\mathrm {t} }R_{\mathrm {t} }^{2}-R_{\mathrm {t} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{\mathrm {t} }})Q+\tau _{\mathrm {s} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <msub> <mi>ω</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>Q</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>ω</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>Q</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>tan</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>ω</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>Q</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>tan</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mi>Q</mi> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{\mathrm {s} }{\dot {\omega _{\mathrm {s} }}}+\rho S_{\mathrm {s} }{\dot {Q}}=-\rho (\omega _{\mathrm {s} }R_{\mathrm {s} }^{2}+R_{\mathrm {s} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{\mathrm {s} }}-\omega _{\mathrm {t} }R_{\mathrm {t} }^{2}-R_{\mathrm {t} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{\mathrm {t} }})Q+\tau _{\mathrm {s} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/978579c66b2c62b97b687b4c1ba8bf8a074600c6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:69.333ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{\mathrm {s} }{\dot {\omega _{\mathrm {s} }}}+\rho S_{\mathrm {s} }{\dot {Q}}=-\rho (\omega _{\mathrm {s} }R_{\mathrm {s} }^{2}+R_{\mathrm {s} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{\mathrm {s} }}-\omega _{\mathrm {t} }R_{\mathrm {t} }^{2}-R_{\mathrm {t} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{\mathrm {t} }})Q+\tau _{\mathrm {s} }}"></span> </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho (S_{\mathrm {p} }{\dot {w_{\mathrm {p} }}}+S_{\mathrm {t} }{\dot {w_{\mathrm {t} }}}+S_{\mathrm {s} }{\dot {w_{\mathrm {s} }}})+\rho {\frac {L_{\mathrm {f} }}{A}}{\dot {Q}}=\rho (R_{\mathrm {p} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {p} }^{2}+R_{\mathrm {t} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {t} }^{2}+R_{\mathrm {s} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {s} }^{2}-R_{\mathrm {s} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {p} }w_{\mathrm {s} }-R_{\mathrm {p} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {t} }w_{\mathrm {p} }-R_{\mathrm {t} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {s} }w_{\mathrm {t} })+w_{\mathrm {p} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\rho (R_{\mathrm {p} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {p} }}-R_{\mathrm {s} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {s} }})+w_{\mathrm {t} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\rho (R_{\mathrm {t} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {t} }}-R_{\mathrm {p} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {p} }})+w_{\mathrm {s} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\rho (R_{\mathrm {s} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {s} }}-R_{\mathrm {t} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {t} }})-P_{L}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <msub> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <msub> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <msub> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>L</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mi>A</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>Q</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msubsup> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>+</mo> <msubsup> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>+</mo> <msubsup> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>−</mo> <msubsup> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msub> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msubsup> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msub> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msubsup> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msub> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>Q</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mi>tan</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mi>tan</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>Q</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mi>tan</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mi>tan</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>Q</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mi>tan</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mi>tan</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>L</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho (S_{\mathrm {p} }{\dot {w_{\mathrm {p} }}}+S_{\mathrm {t} }{\dot {w_{\mathrm {t} }}}+S_{\mathrm {s} }{\dot {w_{\mathrm {s} }}})+\rho {\frac {L_{\mathrm {f} }}{A}}{\dot {Q}}=\rho (R_{\mathrm {p} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {p} }^{2}+R_{\mathrm {t} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {t} }^{2}+R_{\mathrm {s} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {s} }^{2}-R_{\mathrm {s} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {p} }w_{\mathrm {s} }-R_{\mathrm {p} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {t} }w_{\mathrm {p} }-R_{\mathrm {t} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {s} }w_{\mathrm {t} })+w_{\mathrm {p} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\rho (R_{\mathrm {p} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {p} }}-R_{\mathrm {s} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {s} }})+w_{\mathrm {t} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\rho (R_{\mathrm {t} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {t} }}-R_{\mathrm {p} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {p} }})+w_{\mathrm {s} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\rho (R_{\mathrm {s} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {s} }}-R_{\mathrm {t} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {t} }})-P_{L}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5c6d3aefc90bc132f41f871962adba9c2ef3d864" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:196.366ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho (S_{\mathrm {p} }{\dot {w_{\mathrm {p} }}}+S_{\mathrm {t} }{\dot {w_{\mathrm {t} }}}+S_{\mathrm {s} }{\dot {w_{\mathrm {s} }}})+\rho {\frac {L_{\mathrm {f} }}{A}}{\dot {Q}}=\rho (R_{\mathrm {p} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {p} }^{2}+R_{\mathrm {t} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {t} }^{2}+R_{\mathrm {s} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {s} }^{2}-R_{\mathrm {s} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {p} }w_{\mathrm {s} }-R_{\mathrm {p} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {t} }w_{\mathrm {p} }-R_{\mathrm {t} }^{2}w_{\mathrm {s} }w_{\mathrm {t} })+w_{\mathrm {p} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\rho (R_{\mathrm {p} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {p} }}-R_{\mathrm {s} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {s} }})+w_{\mathrm {t} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\rho (R_{\mathrm {t} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {t} }}-R_{\mathrm {p} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {p} }})+w_{\mathrm {s} }{\frac {Q}{A}}\rho (R_{\mathrm {s} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {s} }}-R_{\mathrm {t} }\tan {a_{\mathrm {t} }})-P_{L}}"></span> </p><p>where </p> <ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ρ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1f7d439671d1289b6a816e6af7a304be40608d64" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.202ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho }"></span> is density</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A}"></span> is flow area</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {p} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {p} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/524bad2afae2e96646d93918f86cc2987bc11804" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.91ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {p} }}"></span> is pump radius</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {t} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {t} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/33e98ca3d0c714eefc15859a7e612ecff2111db2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.636ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {t} }}"></span> is turbine radius</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {s} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {s} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0bd8032743a5452e46f50bc3c5783e79955c60c4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.644ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {s} }}"></span> is stator radius</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a_{\mathrm {p} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a_{\mathrm {p} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1e5a01ddcc2f6708b0156141f958a79be95e9703" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.376ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a_{\mathrm {p} }}"></span> is pump exit angle</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a_{\mathrm {t} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a_{\mathrm {t} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/82711be5d590f1370274190d9a91a2645283f522" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.102ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a_{\mathrm {t} }}"></span> is turbine exit angle</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a_{\mathrm {s} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a_{\mathrm {s} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2fcdd27d15dd402a679cdd802a6a2a8dba8d2b15" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.11ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a_{\mathrm {s} }}"></span> is stator exit angle</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>I</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/535ea7fc4134a31cbe2251d9d3511374bc41be9f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.172ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I}"></span> is inertia</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle L_{\mathrm {f} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>L</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle L_{\mathrm {f} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/34080f1191eb0cd030cee547c02fc65bd004a22f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.427ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle L_{\mathrm {f} }}"></span> is fluid inertia length</li></ul> <p><br /> A simpler correlation is provided by Kotwicki. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Torque_converter_elements">Torque converter elements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torque_converter&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Torque converter elements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Fluid_coupling" title="Fluid coupling">fluid coupling</a> is a two-element drive that is incapable of multiplying torque, while a torque converter has at least one extra element—the stator—which alters the drive's characteristics during periods of high slippage, producing an increase in output torque. </p><p>In a torque converter there are at least three rotating elements: the impeller, which is mechanically driven by the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prime_mover" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:prime mover">prime mover</a>; the turbine, which drives the <a href="/wiki/Structural_load" title="Structural load">load</a>; and the stator, which is interposed between the impeller and turbine so that it can alter oil flow returning from the turbine to the impeller. The classic torque converter design dictates that the stator be prevented from rotating under any condition, hence the term <i>stator</i>. In practice, however, the stator is mounted on an <a href="/wiki/Overrunning_clutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Overrunning clutch">overrunning clutch</a>, which prevents the stator from counter-rotating with respect to the prime mover but allows forward rotation. </p><p>Modifications to the basic three element design have been periodically incorporated, especially in applications where higher than normal torque multiplication is required. Most commonly, these have taken the form of multiple turbines and stators, each set being designed to produce differing amounts of torque multiplication. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Buick" title="Buick">Buick</a> <a href="/wiki/Dynaflow" title="Dynaflow">Dynaflow</a> automatic transmission was a non-shifting design and, under normal conditions, relied solely upon the converter to multiply torque. The Dynaflow used a five-element converter to produce the wide range of torque multiplication needed to propel a heavy vehicle. </p><p>Although not strictly a part of classic torque converter design, many automotive converters include a <a href="/wiki/Clutch" title="Clutch">lock-up clutch</a> to improve cruising power transmission efficiency and reduce heat. The application of the clutch locks the turbine to the impeller, causing all power transmission to be mechanical, thus eliminating losses associated with fluid drive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operational_phases">Operational phases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torque_converter&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Operational phases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A torque converter has three stages of operation: </p> <ul><li><b>Stall</b>. The prime mover is applying power to the impeller but the turbine cannot rotate. For example, in an automobile, this stage of operation would occur when the driver has placed the <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(mechanics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (mechanics)">transmission</a> in gear but is preventing the vehicle from moving by continuing to apply the <a href="/wiki/Brake" title="Brake">brakes</a>. At stall, the torque converter can produce maximum torque multiplication if sufficient input power is applied (the resulting multiplication is called the <i>stall ratio</i>). The stall phase actually lasts for a brief period when the load (e.g., vehicle) initially starts to move, as there will be a very large difference between pump and turbine speed.</li> <li><b>Acceleration</b>. The load is accelerating but there still is a relatively large difference between impeller and turbine speed. Under this condition, the converter will produce torque multiplication that is less than what could be achieved under stall conditions. The amount of multiplication will depend upon the actual difference between pump and turbine speed, as well as various other design factors.</li> <li><b>Coupling</b>. The turbine has reached approximately 90 percent of the speed of the impeller. Torque multiplication has essentially ceased and the torque converter is behaving in a manner similar to a simple fluid coupling. In modern <a href="/wiki/Automotive" class="mw-redirect" title="Automotive">automotive</a> applications, it is usually at this stage of operation where the lock-up clutch is applied, a procedure that tends to improve <a href="/wiki/Fuel_efficiency" title="Fuel efficiency">fuel efficiency</a>.</li></ul> <p>The key to the torque converter's ability to multiply torque lies in the stator. In the classic <a href="/wiki/Fluid_coupling" title="Fluid coupling">fluid coupling</a> design, periods of high slippage cause the fluid flow returning from the turbine to the impeller to oppose the direction of impeller rotation, leading to a significant loss of efficiency and the generation of considerable <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a>. Under the same condition in a torque converter, the returning fluid will be redirected by the stator so that it aids the rotation of the impeller, instead of impeding it. The result is that much of the energy in the returning fluid is recovered and added to the energy being applied to the impeller by the prime mover. This action causes a substantial increase in the mass of fluid being directed to the turbine, producing an increase in output torque. Since the returning fluid is initially traveling in a direction opposite to impeller rotation, the stator will likewise attempt to counter-rotate as it forces the fluid to change direction, an effect that is prevented by the <a href="/wiki/Overrunning_clutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Overrunning clutch">one-way stator clutch</a>. </p><p>Unlike the radially straight blades used in a plain fluid coupling, a torque converter's turbine and stator use angled and curved blades. The blade shape of the stator is what alters the path of the fluid, forcing it to coincide with the impeller rotation. The matching curve of the turbine blades helps to correctly direct the returning fluid to the stator so the latter can do its job. The shape of the blades is important as minor variations can result in significant changes to the converter's performance. </p><p>During the stall and acceleration phases, in which torque multiplication occurs, the stator remains stationary due to the action of its one-way clutch. However, as the torque converter approaches the coupling phase, the energy and volume of the fluid returning from the turbine will gradually decrease, causing pressure on the stator to likewise decrease. Once in the coupling phase, the returning fluid will reverse direction and now rotate in the direction of the impeller and turbine, an effect which will attempt to forward-rotate the stator. At this point, the stator clutch will release and the impeller, turbine and stator will all (more or less) turn as a unit. </p><p>Unavoidably, some of the fluid's <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> will be lost due to friction and turbulence, causing the converter to generate waste heat (dissipated in many applications by water cooling). This effect, often referred to as pumping loss, will be most pronounced at or near stall conditions. In modern designs, the blade geometry minimizes oil velocity at low impeller speeds, which allows the turbine to be stalled for long periods with little danger of overheating (as when a vehicle with an automatic transmission is stopped at a traffic signal or in traffic congestion while still in gear). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Efficiency_and_torque_multiplication">Efficiency and torque multiplication</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torque_converter&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Efficiency and torque multiplication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A torque converter cannot achieve 100 percent coupling efficiency. The classic three element torque converter has an efficiency curve that resembles ∩: zero efficiency at stall, generally increasing efficiency during the acceleration phase and low efficiency in the coupling phase. The loss of efficiency as the converter enters the coupling phase is a result of the turbulence and fluid flow interference generated by the stator, and as previously mentioned, is commonly overcome by mounting the stator on a one-way clutch. </p><p>Even with the benefit of the one-way stator clutch, a converter cannot achieve the same level of efficiency in the coupling phase as an equivalently sized fluid coupling. Some loss is due to the presence of the stator (even though rotating as part of the assembly), as it always generates some power-absorbing turbulence. Most of the loss, however, is caused by the curved and angled turbine blades, which do not absorb kinetic energy from the fluid mass as well as radially straight blades. Since the turbine blade geometry is a crucial factor in the converter's ability to multiply torque, trade-offs between torque multiplication and coupling efficiency are inevitable. In automotive applications, where steady improvements in fuel economy have been mandated by market forces and government edict, the nearly universal use of a lock-up clutch has helped to eliminate the converter from the efficiency equation during cruising operation. </p><p>The maximum amount of torque multiplication produced by a converter is highly dependent on the size and geometry of the turbine and stator blades, and is generated only when the converter is at or near the stall phase of operation. Typical <a href="/wiki/Stall_torque" title="Stall torque">stall torque</a> multiplication ratios range from 1.8:1 to 2.5:1 for most automotive applications (although multi-element designs as used in the <a href="/wiki/Buick" title="Buick">Buick</a> <a href="/wiki/Dynaflow" title="Dynaflow">Dynaflow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chevrolet" title="Chevrolet">Chevrolet</a> <a href="/wiki/Turboglide" title="Turboglide">Turboglide</a> could produce more). Specialized converters designed for industrial, rail, or heavy marine power transmission systems are capable of as much as 5.0:1 multiplication. Generally speaking, there is a trade-off between maximum torque multiplication and efficiency—high stall ratio converters tend to be relatively inefficient around the coupling speed, whereas low stall ratio converters tend to provide less possible torque multiplication. </p><p>The characteristics of the torque converter must be carefully matched to the <a href="/wiki/Torque_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="Torque curve">torque curve</a> of the power source and the intended application. Changing the blade geometry of the stator and/or turbine will change the torque-stall characteristics, as well as the overall efficiency of the unit. For example, <a href="/wiki/Drag_racing" title="Drag racing">drag racing</a> automatic transmissions often use converters modified to produce high stall speeds to improve off-the-line torque, and to get into the power band of the engine more quickly. Highway vehicles generally use lower stall torque converters to limit heat production, and provide a more firm feeling to the vehicle's characteristics. </p><p>A design feature once found in some <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a> automatic transmissions was the variable-pitch stator, in which the blades' <a href="/wiki/Angle_of_attack" title="Angle of attack">angle of attack</a> could be varied in response to changes in engine speed and load. The effect of this was to vary the amount of torque multiplication produced by the converter. At the normal angle of attack, the stator caused the converter to produce a moderate amount of multiplication but with a higher level of efficiency. If the driver abruptly opened the throttle, a valve would switch the stator pitch to a different angle of attack, increasing torque multiplication at the expense of efficiency. </p><p>Some torque converters use multiple stators and/or multiple turbines to provide a wider range of torque multiplication. Such multiple-element converters are more common in industrial environments than in automotive transmissions, but automotive applications such as <a href="/wiki/Buick" title="Buick">Buick</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Dynaflow" title="Dynaflow">Triple Turbine Dynaflow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chevrolet" title="Chevrolet">Chevrolet</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Turboglide" title="Turboglide">Turboglide</a> also existed. The Buick Dynaflow utilized the torque-multiplying characteristics of its planetary gear set in conjunction with the torque converter for low gear and bypassed the first turbine, using only the second turbine as vehicle speed increased. The unavoidable trade-off with this arrangement was low efficiency and eventually these transmissions were discontinued in favor of the more efficient three speed units with a conventional three element torque converter. It is also found that efficiency of torque converter is maximum at very low speeds. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lock-up_torque_converters">Lock-up torque converters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torque_converter&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Lock-up torque converters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As described above, impelling losses within the torque converter reduce efficiency and generate waste heat. In modern automotive applications, this problem is commonly avoided by use of a <a href="/wiki/Lock-up_clutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Lock-up clutch">lock-up clutch</a> that physically links the impeller and turbine, effectively changing the converter into a purely mechanical coupling. The result is no slippage, and virtually no power loss. </p><p>The first automotive application of the lock-up principle was <a href="/wiki/Packard" title="Packard">Packard</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ultramatic" title="Ultramatic">Ultramatic</a> transmission, introduced in 1949, which locked up the converter at cruising speeds, unlocking when the <a href="/wiki/Throttle" title="Throttle">throttle</a> was floored for quick acceleration or as the vehicle slowed. This feature was also present in some <a href="/wiki/Borg-Warner" class="mw-redirect" title="Borg-Warner">Borg-Warner</a> transmissions produced during the 1950s. It fell out of favor in subsequent years due to its extra complexity and cost. In the late 1970s lock-up clutches started to reappear in response to demands for improved fuel economy, and are now nearly universal in automotive applications. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Capacity_and_failure_modes">Capacity and failure modes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torque_converter&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Capacity and failure modes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As with a basic fluid coupling the theoretical torque capacity of a converter is proportional to <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r\,N^{2}D^{5}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>r</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>N</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r\,N^{2}D^{5}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4c602f0e9af585cccc045e85d3b28ee49e1d2482" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.591ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r\,N^{2}D^{5}}"></span>, where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>r</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0d1ecb613aa2984f0576f70f86650b7c2a132538" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.049ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r}"></span> is the mass density of the fluid (kg/m<sup>3</sup>), <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle N}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>N</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle N}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f5e3890c981ae85503089652feb48b191b57aae3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.064ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle N}"></span> is the impeller speed (<a href="/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute" title="Revolutions per minute">rpm</a>), and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f34a0c600395e5d4345287e21fb26efd386990e6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.924ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D}"></span> is the diameter (<a href="/wiki/Meter" class="mw-redirect" title="Meter">m</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Bosch,_Torque_converter_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bosch,_Torque_converter-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice, the maximum torque capacity is limited by the mechanical characteristics of the materials used in the converter's components, as well as the ability of the converter to dissipate heat (often through water cooling). As an aid to strength, reliability and economy of production, most automotive converter housings are of welded construction. Industrial units are usually assembled with bolted housings, a design feature that eases the process of inspection and repair, but adds to the cost of producing the converter. </p><p>In high performance, racing and heavy duty commercial converters, the pump and turbine may be further strengthened by a process called <a href="/wiki/Furnace_brazing" class="mw-redirect" title="Furnace brazing">furnace brazing</a>, in which molten brass is drawn into seams and joints to produce a stronger bond between the blades, hubs and annular ring(s). Because the furnace brazing process creates a small radius at the point where a blade meets with a hub or annular ring, a theoretical decrease in turbulence will occur, resulting in a corresponding increase in efficiency. </p><p>Overloading a converter can result in several failure modes, some of them potentially dangerous in nature: </p> <ul><li><b>Overheating</b>: Continuous high levels of slippage may overwhelm the converter's ability to dissipate heat, resulting in damage to the <a href="/wiki/Elastomer" title="Elastomer">elastomer</a> <a href="/wiki/Seal_(mechanical)" title="Seal (mechanical)">seals</a> that retain fluid inside the converter. A prime example in passenger cars would be getting stuck in snow or mud and having to rock the vehicle forward and backward to gain momentum by going back and forth from drive to reverse using significant power. The transmission fluid will quickly overheat, not to mention the repeated impacts on the stator clutch (next topic). Also, overheating transmission fluid causes it to lose viscosity and damage the transmission. Such abuse can in rare cases cause the torque converter to leak and eventually stop functioning due to lack of fluid.</li> <li><b>Stator clutch seizure</b>: The inner and outer elements of the <a href="/wiki/Overrunning_clutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Overrunning clutch">one-way stator clutch</a> become permanently locked together, thus preventing the stator from rotating during the coupling phase. Most often, seizure is precipitated by severe loading and subsequent distortion of the clutch components. Eventually, <a href="/wiki/Galling" title="Galling">galling</a> of the mating parts occurs, which triggers seizure. A converter with a seized stator clutch will exhibit very poor efficiency during the coupling phase, and in a motor vehicle, fuel consumption will drastically increase. Converter overheating under such conditions will usually occur if continued operation is attempted.</li> <li><b>Stator clutch breakage</b>: A very abrupt application of power, as in putting the transmission in neutral and increasing engine RPMs before engaging a gear (commonly called a "neutral start"), can cause shock loading of the stator clutch, resulting in breakage. If this occurs, the stator will freely counter-rotate in the direction opposite to that of the pump and almost no power transmission will take place. In an automobile, the effect is similar to a severe case of transmission slippage and the vehicle is all but incapable of moving under its own power.</li> <li><b>Blade deformation and fragmentation</b>: If subjected to abrupt loading or excessive heating of the converter, pump and/or turbine blades may be deformed, separated from their hubs and/or annular rings, or may break up into fragments. At the least, such a failure will result in a significant loss of efficiency, producing symptoms similar (although less pronounced) to those accompanying stator clutch failure. In extreme cases, catastrophic destruction of the converter will occur.</li> <li><b>Ballooning</b>: Prolonged operation under excessive loading, very abrupt application of load, or operating a torque converter at very high <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute" title="Revolutions per minute">RPM</a> may cause the shape of the converter's housing to be physically distorted due to internal pressure and/or the stress imposed by inertia. Under extreme conditions, ballooning will cause the converter housing to rupture, resulting in the violent dispersal of hot oil and metal fragments over a wide area.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manufacturers">Manufacturers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torque_converter&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Manufacturers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current">Current</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torque_converter&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Current"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aisin_AW" class="mw-redirect" title="Aisin AW">Aisin AW</a>, used in automobiles</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allison_Transmission" title="Allison Transmission">Allison Transmission</a>, used in bus, refuse, fire, construction, distribution, military and specialty applications</li> <li><a href="/wiki/BorgWarner" title="BorgWarner">BorgWarner</a>, used in <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobiles</a></li> <li>Exedy, used in <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isuzu" title="Isuzu">Isuzu</a>, used in <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jatco" class="mw-redirect" title="Jatco">Jatco</a>, used in <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schaeffler_Group" title="Schaeffler Group">LuK USA LLC</a>, produces Torque Converters for Ford, GM, <a href="/wiki/Allison_Transmission" title="Allison Transmission">Allison Transmission</a>, and Hyundai</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subaru" title="Subaru">Subaru</a>, used in <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin_Disc" title="Twin Disc">Twin Disc</a>, used in vehicle, marine and oilfield applications</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valeo" title="Valeo">Valeo</a>, produces Torque converter for Ford, GM, Mazda, Subaru</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voith_turbo_transmissions" title="Voith turbo transmissions">Voith turbo transmissions</a>, used in many <a href="/wiki/Diesel_locomotives" class="mw-redirect" title="Diesel locomotives">diesel locomotives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diesel_multiple_unit" title="Diesel multiple unit">diesel multiple units</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZF_Friedrichshafen" title="ZF Friedrichshafen">ZF Friedrichshafen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobiles</a>, forestry machines, popular in city <a href="/wiki/Bus" title="Bus">bus</a> applications</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Past">Past</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torque_converter&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Past"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Lysholm-Smith, named after its inventor, <a href="/wiki/Alf_Lysholm" title="Alf Lysholm">Alf Lysholm</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> produced by <a href="/wiki/Leyland_Motors" title="Leyland Motors">Leyland Motors</a> and used in buses from 1933 to 1939 and also some <a href="/wiki/British_Rail_Derby_Lightweight" title="British Rail Derby Lightweight">British Rail Derby Lightweight</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ulster_Transport_Authority" title="Ulster Transport Authority">Ulster Transport Authority</a> diesel multiple units</li> <li>Mekydro,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> used in <a href="/wiki/British_Rail_Class_35" title="British Rail Class 35">British Rail Class 35</a> <i>Hymek</i> locomotives.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packard" title="Packard">Packard</a>, used in the <a href="/wiki/Ultramatic" title="Ultramatic">Ultramatic</a> automobile transmission system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Ltd" class="mw-redirect" title="Rolls-Royce Ltd">Rolls-Royce (Twin Disc)</a>, used in some <a href="/wiki/British_United_Traction" title="British United Traction">British United Traction</a> diesel multiple units</li> <li>Vickers-Coates<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torque_converter&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clutch" title="Clutch">Clutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_coupling" title="Fluid coupling">Fluid coupling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servomechanism" title="Servomechanism">Servomechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torque_amplifier" title="Torque amplifier">Torque amplifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_(mechanics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (mechanics)">Transmission (mechanics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_brake" title="Water brake">Water brake</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torque_converter&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Bond_Graph_Modeling_and_Computer_Simulation_of_Automotive_Torque_Converters-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bond_Graph_Modeling_and_Computer_Simulation_of_Automotive_Torque_Converters_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHrovatTobler1985" class="citation journal cs1">Hrovat, D; Tobler, W (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-0032(85)90067-5">"Bond Graph Modeling and Computer Simulation of Automotive Torque Converters"</a>. <i>Journal of the Franklin Institute</i>. <b>319</b>: 93–114. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0016-0032%2885%2990067-5">10.1016/0016-0032(85)90067-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Franklin+Institute&rft.atitle=Bond+Graph+Modeling+and+Computer+Simulation+of+Automotive+Torque+Converters&rft.volume=319&rft.pages=93-114&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0016-0032%2885%2990067-5&rft.aulast=Hrovat&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Tobler%2C+W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%2F0016-0032%2885%2990067-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATorque+converter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dynamic_Models_for_Torque_Converter_Equipped_Vehicles-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dynamic_Models_for_Torque_Converter_Equipped_Vehicles_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKotwicki1982" class="citation journal cs1">Kotwicki, A. J. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4271/820393">"Dynamic Models for Torque Converter Equipped Vehicles"</a>. <i>SAE Technical Paper Series</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4271%2F820393">10.4271/820393</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SAE+Technical+Paper+Series&rft.atitle=Dynamic+Models+for+Torque+Converter+Equipped+Vehicles&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4271%2F820393&rft.aulast=Kotwicki&rft.aufirst=A.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4271%2F820393&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATorque+converter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bosch,_Torque_converter-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bosch,_Torque_converter_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Bosch_Automotive_Handbook,_3rd_ed" class="citation book cs1"><i>Hydrodynamic couplings and converters</i>. Automotive Handbook (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bosch" title="Robert Bosch">Robert Bosch</a>. 1993. p. 539. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8376-0330-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8376-0330-7"><bdi>0-8376-0330-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hydrodynamic+couplings+and+converters&rft.series=Automotive+Handbook&rft.pages=539&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Robert+Bosch&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-8376-0330-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATorque+converter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=US&NR=1900118A&KC=A&FT=D&ND=3&date=19330307&DB=worldwide.espacenet.com&locale=en_EP">"Espacenet - Original document"</a>. Worldwide.espacenet.com. 1933-03-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-07-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Espacenet+-+Original+document&rft.pub=Worldwide.espacenet.com&rft.date=1933-03-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldwide.espacenet.com%2FpublicationDetails%2ForiginalDocument%3FCC%3DUS%26NR%3D1900118A%26KC%3DA%26FT%3DD%26ND%3D3%26date%3D19330307%26DB%3Dworldwide.espacenet.com%26locale%3Den_EP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATorque+converter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100302142045/http://www.intertrains.co.uk/glossary/m/mekydro-transmission.html">"Mekydro Transmission | InterTrains.co.uk"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.intertrains.co.uk/glossary/m/mekydro-transmission.html">the original</a> on 2010-03-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-10-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mekydro+Transmission+%26%23124%3B+InterTrains.co.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.intertrains.co.uk%2Fglossary%2Fm%2Fmekydro-transmission.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATorque+converter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160512191912/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1301&dat=19300220&id=8_RjAAAAIBAJ&sjid=0JYDAAAAIBAJ&pg=7237,1332667">"The Sydney Morning Herald - Google News Archive Search"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1301&dat=19300220&id=8_RjAAAAIBAJ&sjid=0JYDAAAAIBAJ&pg=7237,1332667">the original</a> on 2016-05-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Sydney+Morning+Herald+-+Google+News+Archive+Search&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fnid%3D1301%26dat%3D19300220%26id%3D8_RjAAAAIBAJ%26sjid%3D0JYDAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D7237%2C1332667&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATorque+converter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torque_converter&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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