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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Theory</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theory subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Heat_treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heat_treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Heat treatment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heat_treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Mechanisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_and_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History and examples</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_and_examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History and examples subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History_and_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Meteoric_iron" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meteoric_iron"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Meteoric iron</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meteoric_iron-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bronze_and_brass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bronze_and_brass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Bronze and brass</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bronze_and_brass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amalgams" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amalgams"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Amalgams</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amalgams-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Precious_metals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precious_metals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Precious metals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precious_metals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pewter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pewter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Pewter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pewter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iron" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Iron</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Alloy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 120 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-120" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">120 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legering" title="Legering – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Legering" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81" title="मिश्रधातु – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="मिश्रधातु" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%A9" title="سبيكة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سبيكة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacfoni" title="Pacfoni – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Pacfoni" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleaci%C3%B3n" title="Aleación – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Aleación" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/X%C9%99lit%C9%99" title="Xəlitə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Xəlitə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="ارینتی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ارینتی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%81" title="সংকর ধাতু – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সংকর ধাতু" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ha%CC%8Dp-kim" title="Ha̍p-kim – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ha̍p-kim" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%9E" title="Сплаў – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сплаў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Стопак – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Стопак" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2" title="Сплав – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Сплав" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legierung" title="Legierung – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Legierung" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%B2%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BE%95%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="བསྲེས་ལྕགས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="བསྲེས་ལྕགས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legura" title="Legura – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Legura" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliatge" title="Aliatge – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Aliatge" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D1%82%C4%83%D1%88_%D1%88%C4%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%87%C4%83%D0%BA" title="Хутăш шăранчăк – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Хутăш шăранчăк" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slitina" title="Slitina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Slitina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloi" title="Aloi – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Aloi" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallegering" title="Metallegering – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Metallegering" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legierung" title="Legierung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Legierung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulam" title="Sulam – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sulam" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Κράμα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κράμα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleaci%C3%B3n" title="Aleación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Aleación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alojo" title="Alojo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Alojo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleazio" title="Aleazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Aleazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%98" title="آلیاژ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آلیاژ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Alloy" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliage" title="Alliage – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Alliage" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3imhiotal" title="Cóimhiotal – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cóimhiotal" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coimheatailt" title="Coimheatailt – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Coimheatailt" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliaxe" title="Aliaxe – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Aliaxe" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Эвар – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Эвар" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B6%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%A7%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%81" title="મિશ્રધાતુ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="મિશ્રધાતુ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%A9%EA%B8%88" title="합금 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="합금" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Alloy" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B1%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AC%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AE%D6%84%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Համաձուլվածքներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Համաձուլվածքներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81" title="मिश्रातु – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मिश्रातु" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legura" title="Legura – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Legura" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloyo" title="Aloyo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Aloyo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logam_paduan" title="Logam paduan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Logam paduan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alligato" title="Alligato – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Alligato" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliage" title="Alliage – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Alliage" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86%D0%BC%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Æмтад – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Æмтад" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isiqungo" title="Isiqungo – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Isiqungo" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1lmblanda" title="Málmblanda – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Málmblanda" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lega_(metallurgia)" title="Lega (metallurgia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lega (metallurgia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%92%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%92%D7%AA" title="סגסוגת – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סגסוגת" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kp%C9%9Bnd%CA%8A%CA%8A_%C3%B1%C9%A9%C9%A3%C9%96%C9%9B" title="Kpɛndʊʊ ñɩɣɖɛ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Kpɛndʊʊ ñɩɣɖɛ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0_%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B9" title="ಮಿಶ್ರ ಲೋಹ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮಿಶ್ರ ಲೋಹ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ლეგირება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ლეგირება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Қорытпалар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қорытпалар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloi" title="Aloi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Aloi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alyaj" title="Alyaj – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Alyaj" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alyaj" title="Alyaj – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Alyaj" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B5" title="Эритме – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Эритме" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixtura_metallica" title="Mixtura metallica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Mixtura metallica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakaus%C4%93jums" title="Sakausējums – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sakausējums" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydinys" title="Lydinys – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Lydinys" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liga_(Chimega)" title="Liga (Chimega) – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Liga (Chimega)" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96tv%C3%B6zet" title="Ötvözet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ötvözet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Легура – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Легура" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsama" title="Tsama – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Tsama" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ലോഹസങ്കരം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ലോഹസങ്കരം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%82" title="मिश्रधातू – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मिश्रधातू" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancalogam" title="Pancalogam – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pancalogam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C4%83k-g%C4%ADng" title="Hăk-gĭng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Hăk-gĭng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D1%88" title="Хайлш – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хайлш" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%AF%E1%80%85%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA" title="သတ္တုစပ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သတ္တုစပ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legering" title="Legering – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Legering" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81" title="मिश्रधातु – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="मिश्रधातु" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AF" title="अलोय – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अलोय" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%88%E9%87%91" title="合金 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="合金" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legiaring" title="Legiaring – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Legiaring" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legering" title="Legering – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Legering" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legering" title="Legering – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Legering" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alouai" title="Alouai – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Alouai" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliatge" title="Aliatge – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Aliatge" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B6%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%A7%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A4%E0%AD%81" title="ମିଶ୍ରଧାତୁ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ମିଶ୍ରଧାତୁ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qotishma" title="Qotishma – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Qotishma" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A4_%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%82" title="ਮਿਸ਼ਰਤ ਧਾਤੂ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਿਸ਼ਰਤ ਧਾਤੂ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%BE%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="بھرت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بھرت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%DA%98" title="الياژ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="الياژ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloi" title="Aloi – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Aloi" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lega" title="Lega – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lega" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_metali" title="Stop metali – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Stop metali" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liga_met%C3%A1lica" title="Liga metálica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Liga metálica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliaj" title="Aliaj – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Aliaj" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2" title="Сплав – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сплав" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D2%BB%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Уһаарык – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Уһаарык" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliazhi" title="Aliazhi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Aliazhi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lega_mit%C3%A0llica" title="Lega mitàllica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Lega mitàllica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%81%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB_%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%9D%E0%B7%84" title="මිශ්‍ර ලෝහ – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මිශ්‍ර ලෝහ" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Alloy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zliatina" title="Zliatina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Zliatina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlitina" title="Zlitina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zlitina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaandi" title="Jaandi – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Jaandi" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%DA%95%D8%B4%D8%AA%DB%95" title="داڕشتە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="داڕشتە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Легура – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Легура" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legura" title="Legura – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Legura" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalliseos" title="Metalliseos – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Metalliseos" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legering" title="Legering – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Legering" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balahak" title="Balahak – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Balahak" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="கலப்புலோகம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கலப்புலோகம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADum" title="Ageṭṭum – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Ageṭṭum" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%AE_%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81" title="మిశ్రమ లోహము – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మిశ్రమ లోహము" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD" title="โลหะเจือ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โลหะเจือ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D3%AF%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Хӯла – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Хӯла" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ala%C5%9F%C4%B1m" title="Alaşım – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Alaşım" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Сплави – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Сплави" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%BE%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="بھرت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بھرت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%A3p_kim" title="Hợp kim – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hợp kim" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sullam" title="Sullam – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Sullam" data-language-autonym="Võro" 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Mixture or metallic solid solution composed of two or more elements</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Alloy_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Alloy (disambiguation)">Alloy (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Alloy" title="Special:EditPage/Alloy">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Alloy%22">"Alloy"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Alloy%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Alloy%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Alloy%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Alloy%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Alloy%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alloy_and_metal_samples_-_Beryllium-Copper,_Inconel,_Steel,_Titanium,_Aluminum,_Magnesium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Alloy_and_metal_samples_-_Beryllium-Copper%2C_Inconel%2C_Steel%2C_Titanium%2C_Aluminum%2C_Magnesium.jpg/300px-Alloy_and_metal_samples_-_Beryllium-Copper%2C_Inconel%2C_Steel%2C_Titanium%2C_Aluminum%2C_Magnesium.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Alloy_and_metal_samples_-_Beryllium-Copper%2C_Inconel%2C_Steel%2C_Titanium%2C_Aluminum%2C_Magnesium.jpg/450px-Alloy_and_metal_samples_-_Beryllium-Copper%2C_Inconel%2C_Steel%2C_Titanium%2C_Aluminum%2C_Magnesium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Alloy_and_metal_samples_-_Beryllium-Copper%2C_Inconel%2C_Steel%2C_Titanium%2C_Aluminum%2C_Magnesium.jpg/600px-Alloy_and_metal_samples_-_Beryllium-Copper%2C_Inconel%2C_Steel%2C_Titanium%2C_Aluminum%2C_Magnesium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>From left to right: three alloys (<a href="/wiki/Beryllium_copper" title="Beryllium copper">beryllium copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inconel" title="Inconel">Inconel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>) and three pure <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a> (<a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aluminum" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminum">aluminum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>An <b>alloy</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Mixture" title="Mixture">mixture</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a> of which in most cases at least one is a <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metallic</a> element, although it is also sometimes used for mixtures of elements; herein only <b>metallic alloys</b> are described. Most alloys are metallic and show good <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conductivity">electrical conductivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">ductility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opacity" title="Opacity">opacity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lustre_(mineralogy)" title="Lustre (mineralogy)">luster</a>, and may have properties that differ from those of the pure elements such as increased strength or hardness. In some cases, an alloy may reduce the overall cost of the material while preserving important properties. In other cases, the mixture imparts synergistic properties such as corrosion resistance or mechanical strength. </p><p>In an alloy, the atoms are joined by <a href="/wiki/Metallic_bonding" title="Metallic bonding">metallic bonding</a> rather than by <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bonds</a> typically found in chemical compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The alloy constituents are usually measured by mass percentage for practical applications, and in <a href="/wiki/Atomic_ratio" title="Atomic ratio">atomic fraction</a> for basic science studies. Alloys are usually classified as substitutional or <a href="/wiki/Interstitial_alloy" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstitial alloy">interstitial alloys</a>, depending on the atomic arrangement that forms the alloy. They can be further classified as homogeneous (consisting of a single phase), or heterogeneous (consisting of two or more phases) or <a href="/wiki/Intermetallic" title="Intermetallic">intermetallic</a>. An alloy may be a <a href="/wiki/Solid_solution" title="Solid solution">solid solution</a> of metal elements (a single phase, where all metallic grains (crystals) are of the same composition) or a <a href="/wiki/Mixture" title="Mixture">mixture</a> of metallic phases (two or more solutions, forming a <a href="/wiki/Microstructure" title="Microstructure">microstructure</a> of different crystals within the metal). </p><p>Examples of alloys include <a href="/wiki/Red_gold" class="mw-redirect" title="Red gold">red gold</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>), <a href="/wiki/White_gold" class="mw-redirect" title="White gold">white gold</a> (gold and <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sterling_silver" title="Sterling silver">sterling silver</a> (silver and copper), <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> or <a href="/wiki/Silicon_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicon steel">silicon steel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> with non-metallic <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> respectively), <a href="/wiki/Solder" title="Solder">solder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brass" title="Brass">brass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pewter" title="Pewter">pewter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duralumin" title="Duralumin">duralumin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amalgam_(chemistry)" title="Amalgam (chemistry)">amalgams</a>. </p><p>Alloys are used in a wide variety of applications, from the steel alloys, used in everything from buildings to automobiles to surgical tools, to exotic <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a> alloys used in the aerospace industry, to beryllium-copper alloys for non-sparking tools. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Born_bronze_-_Bronze_casts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Born_bronze_-_Bronze_casts.jpg/220px-Born_bronze_-_Bronze_casts.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Born_bronze_-_Bronze_casts.jpg/330px-Born_bronze_-_Bronze_casts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Born_bronze_-_Bronze_casts.jpg/440px-Born_bronze_-_Bronze_casts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1194" data-file-height="1194" /></a><figcaption>Liquid <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>, being poured into molds during casting</figcaption></figure> <p>An alloy is a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a>, which forms an impure substance (admixture) that retains the characteristics of a metal. An alloy is distinct from an impure metal in that, with an alloy, the added elements are well controlled to produce desirable properties, while impure metals such as <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a> are less controlled, but are often considered useful. Alloys are made by mixing two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal. This is usually called the primary metal or the base metal, and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy. The other constituents may or may not be metals but, when mixed with the molten base, they will be <a href="/wiki/Soluble" class="mw-redirect" title="Soluble">soluble</a> and dissolve into the mixture. The mechanical properties of alloys will often be quite different from those of its individual constituents. A metal that is normally very soft (<a href="/wiki/Malleable" class="mw-redirect" title="Malleable">malleable</a>), such as <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>, can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal, such as <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>. Although both metals are very soft and <a href="/wiki/Ductile" class="mw-redirect" title="Ductile">ductile</a>, the resulting <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_alloy" title="Aluminium alloy">aluminium alloy</a> will have much greater <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_materials" title="Strength of materials">strength</a>. Adding a small amount of non-metallic <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> to <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> trades its great ductility for the greater strength of an alloy called steel. Due to its very-high strength, but still substantial <a href="/wiki/Toughness" title="Toughness">toughness</a>, and its ability to be greatly altered by <a href="/wiki/Heat_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat treatment">heat treatment</a>, steel is one of the most useful and common alloys in modern use. By adding <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a> to steel, its resistance to <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> can be enhanced, creating <a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">stainless steel</a>, while adding <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> will alter its electrical characteristics, producing <a href="/wiki/Silicon_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicon steel">silicon steel</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_brass_light.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/A_brass_light.JPG/220px-A_brass_light.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/A_brass_light.JPG/330px-A_brass_light.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/A_brass_light.JPG/440px-A_brass_light.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Brass" title="Brass">brass</a> lamp</figcaption></figure> <p>Like oil and water, a molten metal may not always mix with another element. For example, pure iron is almost completely <a href="/wiki/Insoluble" class="mw-redirect" title="Insoluble">insoluble</a> with copper. Even when the constituents are soluble, each will usually have a <a href="/wiki/Saturated_solution" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturated solution">saturation point</a>, beyond which no more of the constituent can be added. Iron, for example, can hold a maximum of 6.67% carbon. Although the elements of an alloy usually must be soluble in the <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a> state, they may not always be soluble in the <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a> state. If the metals remain soluble when solid, the alloy forms a <a href="/wiki/Solid_solution" title="Solid solution">solid solution</a>, becoming a homogeneous structure consisting of identical crystals, called a <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">phase</a>. If as the mixture cools the constituents become insoluble, they may separate to form two or more different types of crystals, creating a heterogeneous <a href="/wiki/Microstructure" title="Microstructure">microstructure</a> of different phases, some with more of one constituent than the other. However, in other alloys, the insoluble elements may not separate until after crystallization occurs. If cooled very quickly, they first crystallize as a homogeneous phase, but they are <a href="/wiki/Supersaturated" class="mw-redirect" title="Supersaturated">supersaturated</a> with the secondary constituents. As time passes, the atoms of these supersaturated alloys can separate from the crystal lattice, becoming more stable, and forming a second phase that serves to reinforce the crystals internally. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inconel_gate_valve--The-Alloy-Valve-Stockist.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Inconel_gate_valve--The-Alloy-Valve-Stockist.JPG/220px-Inconel_gate_valve--The-Alloy-Valve-Stockist.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Inconel_gate_valve--The-Alloy-Valve-Stockist.JPG/330px-Inconel_gate_valve--The-Alloy-Valve-Stockist.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Inconel_gate_valve--The-Alloy-Valve-Stockist.JPG/440px-Inconel_gate_valve--The-Alloy-Valve-Stockist.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>A gate valve, made from <a href="/wiki/Inconel" title="Inconel">Inconel</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Some alloys, such as <a href="/wiki/Electrum" title="Electrum">electrum</a>—an alloy of <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>—occur naturally. Meteorites are sometimes made of naturally occurring alloys of iron and <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, but are not native to the Earth. One of the first alloys made by humans was bronze, which is a mixture of the metals <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> and copper. Bronze was an extremely useful alloy to the ancients, because it is much stronger and harder than either of its components. Steel was another common alloy. However, in ancient times, it could only be created as an accidental byproduct from the heating of iron ore in fires (<a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a>) during the manufacture of iron. Other ancient alloys include <a href="/wiki/Pewter" title="Pewter">pewter</a>, brass and <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a>. In the modern age, steel can be created in many forms. <a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel">Carbon steel</a> can be made by varying only the carbon content, producing soft alloys like <a href="/wiki/Mild_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Mild steel">mild steel</a> or hard alloys like <a href="/wiki/Spring_steel" title="Spring steel">spring steel</a>. <a href="/wiki/Alloy_steel" title="Alloy steel">Alloy steels</a> can be made by adding other elements, such as <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, resulting in alloys such as <a href="/wiki/High-speed_steel" title="High-speed steel">high-speed steel</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tool_steel" title="Tool steel">tool steel</a>. Small amounts of <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a> are usually alloyed with most modern steels because of its ability to remove unwanted impurities, like <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, which can have detrimental effects on the alloy. However, most alloys were not created until the 1900s, such as various aluminium, <a href="/wiki/Titanium_alloy" class="mw-redirect" title="Titanium alloy">titanium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nickel_alloys" class="mw-redirect" title="Nickel alloys">nickel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_alloy" title="Magnesium alloy">magnesium alloys</a>. Some modern <a href="/wiki/Superalloy" title="Superalloy">superalloys</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Incoloy" title="Incoloy">incoloy</a>, inconel, and <a href="/wiki/Hastelloy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hastelloy">hastelloy</a>, may consist of a multitude of different elements. </p><p>An alloy is technically an impure metal, but when referring to alloys, the term <i>impurities</i> usually denotes undesirable elements. Such impurities are introduced from the base metals and alloying elements, but are removed during processing. For instance, sulfur is a common impurity in steel. Sulfur combines readily with iron to form <a href="/wiki/Iron_sulfide" title="Iron sulfide">iron sulfide</a>, which is very brittle, creating weak spots in the steel.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Lithium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> are common impurities in aluminium alloys, which can have adverse effects on the <a href="/wiki/Structural_integrity" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural integrity">structural integrity</a> of castings. Conversely, otherwise pure-metals that contain unwanted impurities are often called "impure metals" and are not usually referred to as alloys. Oxygen, present in the air, readily combines with most metals to form <a href="/wiki/Metal_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal oxide">metal oxides</a>; especially at higher temperatures encountered during alloying. Great care is often taken during the alloying process to remove excess impurities, using <a href="/wiki/Flux_(metallurgy)" title="Flux (metallurgy)">fluxes</a>, chemical additives, or other methods of <a href="/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy" title="Extractive metallurgy">extractive metallurgy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory">Theory</h2></div> <p>Alloying a metal is done by combining it with one or more other elements. The most common and oldest alloying process is performed by heating the base metal beyond its <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a> and then dissolving the solutes into the molten liquid, which may be possible even if the melting point of the solute is far greater than that of the base. For example, in its liquid state, titanium is a very strong solvent capable of dissolving most metals and elements. In addition, it readily absorbs gases like oxygen and burns in the presence of nitrogen. This increases the chance of contamination from any contacting surface, and so must be melted in vacuum induction-heating and special, water-cooled, copper <a href="/wiki/Crucible" title="Crucible">crucibles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some metals and solutes, such as iron and carbon, have very high melting-points and were impossible for ancient people to melt. Thus, alloying (in particular, interstitial alloying) may also be performed with one or more constituents in a gaseous state, such as found in a <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> to make pig iron (liquid-gas), <a href="/wiki/Nitriding" title="Nitriding">nitriding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbonitriding" title="Carbonitriding">carbonitriding</a> or other forms of <a href="/wiki/Case_hardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Case hardening">case hardening</a> (solid-gas), or the <a href="/wiki/Cementation_process" title="Cementation process">cementation process</a> used to make <a href="/wiki/Blister_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Blister steel">blister steel</a> (solid-gas). It may also be done with one, more, or all of the constituents in the solid state, such as found in ancient methods of <a href="/wiki/Pattern_welding" title="Pattern welding">pattern welding</a> (solid-solid), <a href="/wiki/Shear_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Shear steel">shear steel</a> (solid-solid), or <a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">crucible steel</a> production (solid-liquid), mixing the elements via solid-state <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a>. </p><p>By adding another element to a metal, differences in the size of the atoms create internal stresses in the lattice of the metallic crystals; stresses that often enhance its properties. For example, the combination of carbon with iron produces steel, which is stronger than iron, its primary element. The <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conductivity">electrical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">thermal conductivity</a> of alloys is usually lower than that of the pure metals. The physical properties, such as <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reactivity_(chemistry)" title="Reactivity (chemistry)">reactivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Young%27s_modulus" title="Young's modulus">Young's modulus</a> of an alloy may not differ greatly from those of its base element, but engineering properties such as <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ductility, and <a href="/wiki/Shear_strength" title="Shear strength">shear strength</a> may be substantially different from those of the constituent materials. This is sometimes a result of the sizes of the <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> in the alloy, because larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring atoms, and smaller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors, helping the alloy resist deformation. Sometimes alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior even when small amounts of one element are present. For example, impurities in semiconducting <a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferromagnetic">ferromagnetic</a> alloys lead to different properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie and Nakamura.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike pure metals, most alloys do not have a single <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a>, but a melting range during which the material is a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a> phases (a slush). The temperature at which melting begins is called the <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solidus (chemistry)">solidus</a>, and the temperature when melting is just complete is called the <a href="/wiki/Liquidus" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquidus">liquidus</a>. For many alloys there is a particular alloy proportion (in some cases more than one), called either a <a href="/wiki/Eutectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutectic">eutectic</a> mixture or a peritectic composition, which gives the alloy a unique and low melting point, and no liquid/solid slush transition. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heat_treatment">Heat treatment</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IronAlfa%26IronGamma.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/IronAlfa%26IronGamma.svg/220px-IronAlfa%26IronGamma.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/IronAlfa%26IronGamma.svg/330px-IronAlfa%26IronGamma.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/IronAlfa%26IronGamma.svg/440px-IronAlfa%26IronGamma.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron" title="Allotropes of iron">Allotropes of iron</a>, (<a href="/wiki/Alpha_iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha iron">alpha iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gamma_iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma iron">gamma iron</a>) showing the differences in atomic arrangement</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photomicrograph_of_annealed_and_quenched_steel,_from_1911_Britannica_plates_11_and_14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Photomicrograph_of_annealed_and_quenched_steel%2C_from_1911_Britannica_plates_11_and_14.jpg/220px-Photomicrograph_of_annealed_and_quenched_steel%2C_from_1911_Britannica_plates_11_and_14.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Photomicrograph_of_annealed_and_quenched_steel%2C_from_1911_Britannica_plates_11_and_14.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="284" data-file-height="274" /></a><figcaption>Photomicrographs of steel. Top photo: <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">Annealed</a> (slowly cooled) steel forms a heterogeneous, lamellar microstructure called <a href="/wiki/Pearlite" title="Pearlite">pearlite</a>, consisting of the phases <a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">cementite</a> (light) and <a href="/wiki/Ferrite_(magnet)" title="Ferrite (magnet)">ferrite</a> (dark). Bottom photo: <a href="/wiki/Quenched" class="mw-redirect" title="Quenched">Quenched</a> (quickly cooled) steel forms a single phase called <a href="/wiki/Martensite" title="Martensite">martensite</a>, in which the carbon remains trapped within the crystals, creating internal stresses</figcaption></figure> <p>Alloying elements are added to a base metal, to induce <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">hardness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toughness" title="Toughness">toughness</a>, ductility, or other desired properties. Most metals and alloys can be <a href="/wiki/Work_hardened" class="mw-redirect" title="Work hardened">work hardened</a> by creating defects in their crystal structure. These defects are created during <a href="/wiki/Plastic_deformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic deformation">plastic deformation</a> by hammering, bending, extruding, et cetera, and are permanent unless the metal is <a href="/wiki/Recrystallization_(metallurgy)" title="Recrystallization (metallurgy)">recrystallized</a>. Otherwise, some alloys can also have their properties altered by <a href="/wiki/Heat_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat treatment">heat treatment</a>. Nearly all metals can be softened by <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">annealing</a>, which recrystallizes the alloy and repairs the defects, but not as many can be hardened by controlled heating and cooling. Many alloys of aluminium, copper, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, titanium, and nickel can be strengthened to some degree by some method of heat treatment, but few respond to this to the same degree as does steel.<sup id="cite_ref-Jon_L._Dossett_Page_1-14_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jon_L._Dossett_Page_1-14-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The base metal iron of the iron-carbon alloy known as steel, undergoes a change in the arrangement (<a href="/wiki/Allotropy" title="Allotropy">allotropy</a>) of the atoms of its crystal matrix at a certain temperature (usually between 820 °C (1,500 °F) and 870 °C (1,600 °F), depending on carbon content). This allows the smaller carbon atoms to enter the interstices of the iron crystal. When this <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a> happens, the carbon atoms are said to be in <i>solution</i> in the iron, forming a particular single, homogeneous, crystalline phase called <a href="/wiki/Austenite" title="Austenite">austenite</a>. If the steel is cooled slowly, the carbon can diffuse out of the iron and it will gradually revert to its low temperature allotrope. During slow cooling, the carbon atoms will no longer be as <a href="/wiki/Soluble" class="mw-redirect" title="Soluble">soluble</a> with the iron, and will be forced to <a href="/wiki/Precipitate" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitate">precipitate</a> out of solution, <a href="/wiki/Nucleating" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleating">nucleating</a> into a more concentrated form of iron carbide (Fe<sub>3</sub>C) in the spaces between the pure iron crystals. The steel then becomes heterogeneous, as it is formed of two phases, the iron-carbon phase called <a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">cementite</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Carbide" title="Carbide">carbide</a>), and pure iron <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron" title="Allotropes of iron">ferrite</a>. Such a heat treatment produces a steel that is rather soft. If the steel is cooled quickly, however, the carbon atoms will not have time to diffuse and precipitate out as carbide, but will be trapped within the iron crystals. When rapidly cooled, a <a href="/wiki/Diffusionless_transformation" title="Diffusionless transformation">diffusionless (martensite) transformation</a> occurs, in which the carbon atoms become trapped in solution. This causes the iron crystals to deform as the crystal structure tries to change to its low temperature state, leaving those crystals very hard but much less ductile (more brittle). </p><p>While the high strength of steel results when diffusion and precipitation is prevented (forming martensite), most heat-treatable alloys are <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_hardening" title="Precipitation hardening">precipitation hardening</a> alloys, that depend on the diffusion of alloying elements to achieve their strength. When heated to form a solution and then cooled quickly, these alloys become much softer than normal, during the diffusionless transformation, but then harden as they age. The solutes in these alloys will precipitate over time, forming <a href="/wiki/Intermetallic" title="Intermetallic">intermetallic</a> phases, which are difficult to discern from the base metal. Unlike steel, in which the solid solution separates into different crystal phases (carbide and ferrite), precipitation hardening alloys form different phases within the same crystal. These intermetallic alloys appear homogeneous in crystal structure, but tend to behave heterogeneously, becoming hard and somewhat brittle.<sup id="cite_ref-Jon_L._Dossett_Page_1-14_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jon_L._Dossett_Page_1-14-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1906, <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_hardening" title="Precipitation hardening">precipitation hardening</a> alloys were discovered by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wilm" title="Alfred Wilm">Alfred Wilm</a>. Precipitation hardening alloys, such as certain alloys of aluminium, titanium, and copper, are heat-treatable alloys that soften when <a href="/wiki/Quenched" class="mw-redirect" title="Quenched">quenched</a> (cooled quickly), and then harden over time. Wilm had been searching for a way to harden aluminium alloys for use in machine-gun cartridge cases. Knowing that aluminium-copper alloys were heat-treatable to some degree, Wilm tried quenching a ternary alloy of aluminium, copper, and the addition of magnesium, but was initially disappointed with the results. However, when Wilm retested it the next day he discovered that the alloy increased in hardness when left to age at room temperature, and far exceeded his expectations. Although an explanation for the phenomenon was not provided until 1919, <a href="/wiki/Duralumin" title="Duralumin">duralumin</a> was one of the first "age hardening" alloys used, becoming the primary building material for the first <a href="/wiki/Zeppelin" title="Zeppelin">Zeppelins</a>, and was soon followed by many others.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because they often exhibit a combination of high strength and low weight, these alloys became widely used in many forms of industry, including the construction of modern <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanisms">Mechanisms</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alloy_atomic_arrangements_showing_the_different_types.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Alloy_atomic_arrangements_showing_the_different_types.svg/220px-Alloy_atomic_arrangements_showing_the_different_types.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Alloy_atomic_arrangements_showing_the_different_types.svg/330px-Alloy_atomic_arrangements_showing_the_different_types.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Alloy_atomic_arrangements_showing_the_different_types.svg/440px-Alloy_atomic_arrangements_showing_the_different_types.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption>Different atomic mechanisms of alloy formation, showing pure metal, substitutional, interstitial, and a combination of the two</figcaption></figure> <p>When a molten metal is mixed with another substance, there are two mechanisms that can cause an alloy to form, called <i>atom exchange</i> and the <i>interstitial mechanism</i>. The relative size of each element in the mix plays a primary role in determining which mechanism will occur. When the atoms are relatively similar in size, the atom exchange method usually happens, where some of the atoms composing the metallic crystals are substituted with atoms of the other constituent. This is called a <i>substitutional alloy</i>. Examples of substitutional alloys include bronze and brass, in which some of the copper atoms are substituted with either tin or zinc atoms respectively. </p><p>In the case of the interstitial mechanism, one atom is usually much smaller than the other and can not successfully substitute for the other type of atom in the crystals of the base metal. Instead, the smaller atoms become trapped in the <a href="/wiki/Interstitial_site" title="Interstitial site">interstitial sites</a> between the atoms of the crystal matrix. This is referred to as an <i>interstitial alloy</i>. Steel is an example of an interstitial alloy, because the very small carbon atoms fit into interstices of the iron matrix. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">Stainless steel</a> is an example of a combination of interstitial and substitutional alloys, because the carbon atoms fit into the interstices, but some of the iron atoms are substituted by nickel and chromium atoms.<sup id="cite_ref-Jon_L._Dossett_Page_1-14_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jon_L._Dossett_Page_1-14-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_examples">History and examples</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meteorite_and_a_meteoritic_iron_hatchet.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Meteorite_and_a_meteoritic_iron_hatchet.JPG/220px-Meteorite_and_a_meteoritic_iron_hatchet.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Meteorite_and_a_meteoritic_iron_hatchet.JPG/330px-Meteorite_and_a_meteoritic_iron_hatchet.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Meteorite_and_a_meteoritic_iron_hatchet.JPG/440px-Meteorite_and_a_meteoritic_iron_hatchet.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorite</a> and a hatchet that was forged from <a href="/wiki/Meteoric_iron" title="Meteoric iron">meteoric iron</a>. Evidence of the <a href="/wiki/Widmanst%C3%A4tten_pattern" title="Widmanstätten pattern">Widmanstätten patterns</a> from the original meteorite used to make the hatchet's head can be seen on its surface.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meteoric_iron">Meteoric iron</h3></div> <p>The use of alloys by humans started with the use of <a href="/wiki/Meteoric_iron" title="Meteoric iron">meteoric iron</a>, a naturally occurring alloy of nickel and iron. It is the main constituent of <a href="/wiki/Iron_meteorite" title="Iron meteorite">iron meteorites</a>. As no metallurgic processes were used to separate iron from nickel, the alloy was used as it was.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meteoric iron could be forged from a red heat to make objects such as tools, weapons, and nails. In many cultures it was shaped by cold hammering into knives and arrowheads. They were often used as anvils. Meteoric iron was very rare and valuable, and difficult for ancient people to <a href="/wiki/Cold_working" title="Cold working">work</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bronze_and_brass">Bronze and brass</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronzebeile.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Bronzebeile.JPG/220px-Bronzebeile.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Bronzebeile.JPG/330px-Bronzebeile.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Bronzebeile.JPG/440px-Bronzebeile.JPG 2x" data-file-width="637" data-file-height="286" /></a><figcaption>Bronze axe 1100 BC</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:T%C3%BCrzieher_Bremen_1405.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/T%C3%BCrzieher_Bremen_1405.JPG/220px-T%C3%BCrzieher_Bremen_1405.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/T%C3%BCrzieher_Bremen_1405.JPG/330px-T%C3%BCrzieher_Bremen_1405.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/T%C3%BCrzieher_Bremen_1405.JPG/440px-T%C3%BCrzieher_Bremen_1405.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1180" data-file-height="1416" /></a><figcaption>A bronze doorknocker</figcaption></figure> <p>Iron is usually found as <a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ore</a> on Earth, except for one deposit of <a href="/wiki/Native_iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Native iron">native iron</a> in <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, which was used by the <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Native copper, however, was found worldwide, along with silver, gold, and <a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">platinum</a>, which were also used to make tools, jewelry, and other objects since Neolithic times. Copper was the hardest of these metals, and the most widely distributed. It became one of the most important metals to the ancients. Around 10,000 years ago in the highlands of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> (Turkey), humans learned to <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelt</a> metals such as copper and <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a>. Around 2500 BC, people began alloying the two metals to form bronze, which was much harder than its ingredients. Tin was rare, however, being found mostly in Great Britain. In the Middle East, people began alloying copper with <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> to form brass.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient civilizations took into account the mixture and the various properties it produced, such as <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">hardness</a>, toughness and melting point, under various conditions of <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Work_hardening" title="Work hardening">work hardening</a>, developing much of the information contained in modern <a href="/wiki/Phase_diagram" title="Phase diagram">alloy phase diagrams</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-r1_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, arrowheads from the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> (around 200 BC) were often constructed with a hard bronze-head, but a softer bronze-tang, combining the alloys to prevent both dulling and breaking during use.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amalgams">Amalgams</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Mercury</a> has been smelted from <a href="/wiki/Cinnabar" title="Cinnabar">cinnabar</a> for thousands of years. Mercury dissolves many metals, such as gold, silver, and tin, to form <a href="/wiki/Amalgam_(chemistry)" title="Amalgam (chemistry)">amalgams</a> (an alloy in a soft paste or liquid form at ambient temperature). Amalgams have been used since 200 BC in China for <a href="/wiki/Gilding" title="Gilding">gilding</a> objects such as <a href="/wiki/Armor" class="mw-redirect" title="Armor">armor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mirror" title="Mirror">mirrors</a> with precious metals. The ancient Romans often used mercury-tin amalgams for gilding their armor. The amalgam was applied as a paste and then heated until the mercury vaporized, leaving the gold, silver, or tin behind.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mercury was often used in mining, to extract precious metals like gold and silver from their ores.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precious_metals">Precious metals</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:25_litrai_en_%C3%A9lectrum_repr%C3%A9sentant_un_tr%C3%A9pied_delphien.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/25_litrai_en_%C3%A9lectrum_repr%C3%A9sentant_un_tr%C3%A9pied_delphien.jpg/220px-25_litrai_en_%C3%A9lectrum_repr%C3%A9sentant_un_tr%C3%A9pied_delphien.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/25_litrai_en_%C3%A9lectrum_repr%C3%A9sentant_un_tr%C3%A9pied_delphien.jpg/330px-25_litrai_en_%C3%A9lectrum_repr%C3%A9sentant_un_tr%C3%A9pied_delphien.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/25_litrai_en_%C3%A9lectrum_repr%C3%A9sentant_un_tr%C3%A9pied_delphien.jpg/440px-25_litrai_en_%C3%A9lectrum_repr%C3%A9sentant_un_tr%C3%A9pied_delphien.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2868" data-file-height="1465" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Electrum" title="Electrum">Electrum</a>, a natural alloy of silver and gold, was often used for making coins</figcaption></figure> <p>Many ancient civilizations alloyed metals for purely aesthetic purposes. In ancient <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mycenae" title="Mycenae">Mycenae</a>, gold was often alloyed with copper to produce red-gold, or iron to produce a bright burgundy-gold. Gold was often found alloyed with silver or other metals to produce various types of <a href="/wiki/Colored_gold" title="Colored gold">colored gold</a>. These metals were also used to strengthen each other, for more practical purposes. Copper was often added to silver to make <a href="/wiki/Sterling_silver" title="Sterling silver">sterling silver</a>, increasing its strength for use in dishes, silverware, and other practical items. Quite often, precious metals were alloyed with less valuable substances as a means to deceive buyers.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 250 BC, <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a> was commissioned by the King of <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a> to find a way to check the purity of the gold in a crown, leading to the famous bath-house shouting of "Eureka!" upon the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_principle" title="Archimedes' principle">Archimedes' principle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pewter">Pewter</h3></div> <p>The term <a href="/wiki/Pewter" title="Pewter">pewter</a> covers a variety of alloys consisting primarily of tin. As a pure metal, tin is much too soft to use for most practical purposes. However, during the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, tin was a rare metal in many parts of Europe and the Mediterranean, so it was often valued higher than gold. To make jewellery, cutlery, or other objects from tin, workers usually alloyed it with other metals to increase strength and hardness. These metals were typically <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a> or copper. These solutes were sometimes added individually in varying amounts, or added together, making a wide variety of objects, ranging from practical items such as dishes, surgical tools, candlesticks or funnels, to decorative items like ear rings and hair clips. </p><p>The earliest examples of pewter come from ancient Egypt, around 1450 BC. The use of pewter was widespread across Europe, from France to Norway and Britain (where most of the ancient tin was mined) to the Near East.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The alloy was also used in China and the Far East, arriving in Japan around 800 AD, where it was used for making objects like ceremonial vessels, tea canisters, or chalices used in <a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">shinto</a> shrines.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iron">Iron</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_fining.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Chinese_fining.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="333" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="333" /></a><figcaption>Puddling in China, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1637</span>. Opposite to most alloying processes, liquid pig-iron is poured from a blast furnace into a container and stirred to remove carbon, which diffuses into the air forming carbon dioxide, leaving behind a <a href="/wiki/Mild_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Mild steel">mild steel</a> to wrought iron</figcaption></figure> <p>The first known smelting of iron began in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, around 1800 BC. Called the <a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">bloomery process</a>, it produced very soft but <a href="/wiki/Ductile" class="mw-redirect" title="Ductile">ductile</a> <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a>. By 800 BC, iron-making technology had spread to Europe, arriving in Japan around 700 AD. <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">Pig iron</a>, a very hard but brittle alloy of iron and carbon, was being produced in <a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Shang_dynasty_(1600–1046_BC)" title="History of China">China</a> as early as 1200 BC, but did not arrive in Europe until the Middle Ages. Pig iron has a lower melting point than iron, and was used for making <a href="/wiki/Cast-iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Cast-iron">cast-iron</a>. However, these metals found little practical use until the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">crucible steel</a> around 300 BC. These steels were of poor quality, and the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Pattern_welding" title="Pattern welding">pattern welding</a>, around the 1st century AD, sought to balance the extreme properties of the alloys by laminating them, to create a tougher metal. Around 700 AD, the Japanese began folding bloomery-steel and cast-iron in alternating layers to increase the strength of their swords, using clay fluxes to remove <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a> and impurities. This method of <a href="/wiki/Japanese_swordsmithing" title="Japanese swordsmithing">Japanese swordsmithing</a> produced one of the purest steel-alloys of the ancient world.<sup id="cite_ref-r1_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the use of iron started to become more widespread around 1200 BC, mainly because of interruptions in the trade routes for tin, the metal was much softer than bronze. However, very small amounts of steel, (an alloy of iron and around 1% carbon), was always a byproduct of the bloomery process. The ability to modify the hardness of steel by heat treatment had been known since 1100 BC, and the rare material was valued for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Because the ancients could not produce temperatures high enough to melt iron fully, the production of steel in decent quantities did not occur until the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Blister_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Blister steel">blister steel</a> during the Middle Ages. This method introduced carbon by heating wrought iron in charcoal for long periods of time, but the absorption of carbon in this manner is extremely slow thus the penetration was not very deep, so the alloy was not homogeneous. In 1740, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Huntsman" title="Benjamin Huntsman">Benjamin Huntsman</a> began melting blister steel in a crucible to even out the carbon content, creating the first process for the mass production of <a href="/wiki/Tool_steel" title="Tool steel">tool steel</a>. Huntsman's process was used for manufacturing tool steel until the early 1900s.<sup id="cite_ref-George_Adam_Roberts_Page_2-3_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-George_Adam_Roberts_Page_2-3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The introduction of the blast furnace to Europe in the Middle Ages meant that people could produce pig iron in much higher volumes than wrought iron. Because pig iron could be melted, people began to develop processes to reduce carbon in liquid pig iron to create steel. <a href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">Puddling</a> had been used in China since the first century, and was introduced in Europe during the 1700s, where molten pig iron was stirred while exposed to the air, to remove the carbon by <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a>. In 1858, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Bessemer" title="Henry Bessemer">Henry Bessemer</a> developed a process of steel-making by blowing hot air through liquid pig iron to reduce the carbon content. The <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a> led to the first large scale manufacture of steel.<sup id="cite_ref-George_Adam_Roberts_Page_2-3_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-George_Adam_Roberts_Page_2-3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, but the term <i><a href="/wiki/Alloy_steel" title="Alloy steel">alloy steel</a></i> usually only refers to steels that contain other elements— like <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>—in amounts sufficient to alter the properties of the base steel. Since ancient times, when steel was used primarily for tools and weapons, the methods of producing and working the metal were often closely guarded secrets. Even long after the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, the steel industry was very competitive and manufacturers went through great lengths to keep their processes confidential, resisting any attempts to scientifically analyze the material for fear it would reveal their methods. For example, the people of <a href="/wiki/Sheffield" title="Sheffield">Sheffield</a>, a center of steel production in England, were known to routinely bar visitors and tourists from entering town to deter <a href="/wiki/Industrial_espionage" title="Industrial espionage">industrial espionage</a>. Thus, almost no metallurgical information existed about steel until 1860. Because of this lack of understanding, steel was not generally considered an alloy until the decades between 1930 and 1970 (primarily due to the work of scientists like <a href="/wiki/William_Chandler_Roberts-Austen" title="William Chandler Roberts-Austen">William Chandler Roberts-Austen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Martens" title="Adolf Martens">Adolf Martens</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Bain" title="Edgar Bain">Edgar Bain</a>), so "alloy steel" became the popular term for ternary and quaternary steel-alloys.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel in 1740, he began experimenting with the addition of elements like <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a> (in the form of a high-manganese pig-iron called <i><a href="/wiki/Spiegeleisen" title="Spiegeleisen">spiegeleisen</a></i>), which helped remove impurities such as phosphorus and oxygen; a process adopted by Bessemer and still used in modern steels (albeit in concentrations low enough to still be considered carbon steel).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterward, many people began experimenting with various alloys of steel without much success. However, in 1882, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hadfield" title="Robert Hadfield">Robert Hadfield</a>, being a pioneer in steel metallurgy, took an interest and produced a steel alloy containing around 12% manganese. Called <a href="/wiki/Mangalloy" title="Mangalloy">mangalloy</a>, it exhibited extreme hardness and toughness, becoming the first commercially viable alloy-steel.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterward, he created silicon steel, launching the search for other possible alloys of steel.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Forester_Mushet" title="Robert Forester Mushet">Robert Forester Mushet</a> found that by adding <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a> to steel it could produce a very hard edge that would resist losing its hardness at high temperatures. "R. Mushet's special steel" (RMS) became the first <a href="/wiki/High-speed_steel" title="High-speed steel">high-speed steel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mushet's steel was quickly replaced by <a href="/wiki/Tungsten_carbide" title="Tungsten carbide">tungsten carbide</a> steel, developed by Taylor and White in 1900, in which they doubled the tungsten content and added small amounts of chromium and vanadium, producing a superior steel for use in lathes and machining tools. In 1903, the <a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wright brothers</a> used a chromium-nickel steel to make the crankshaft for their airplane engine, while in 1908 <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a> began using vanadium steels for parts like crankshafts and valves in his <a href="/wiki/Model_T_Ford" class="mw-redirect" title="Model T Ford">Model T Ford</a>, due to their higher strength and resistance to high temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-asmchandler_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-asmchandler-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1912, the Krupp Ironworks in Germany developed a rust-resistant steel by adding 21% chromium and 7% nickel, producing the first stainless steel.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3></div> <p>Due to their high reactivity, most metals were not discovered until the 19th century. A method for extracting aluminium from <a href="/wiki/Bauxite" title="Bauxite">bauxite</a> was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a> in 1807, using an <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc" title="Electric arc">electric arc</a>. Although his attempts were unsuccessful, by 1855 the first sales of pure aluminium reached the market. However, as <a href="/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy" title="Extractive metallurgy">extractive metallurgy</a> was still in its infancy, most aluminium extraction-processes produced unintended alloys contaminated with other elements found in the ore; the most abundant of which was copper. These aluminium-copper alloys (at the time termed "aluminum bronze") preceded pure aluminium, offering greater strength and hardness over the soft, pure metal, and to a slight degree were found to be heat treatable.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, due to their softness and limited hardenability these alloys found little practical use, and were more of a novelty, until the <a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wright brothers</a> used an aluminium alloy to construct the first airplane engine in 1903.<sup id="cite_ref-asmchandler_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-asmchandler-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the time between 1865 and 1910, processes for extracting many other metals were discovered, such as chromium, vanadium, tungsten, <a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">iridium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>, and molybdenum, and various alloys were developed.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to 1910, research mainly consisted of private individuals tinkering in their own laboratories. However, as the aircraft and automotive industries began growing, research into alloys became an industrial effort in the years following 1910, as new <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_alloy" title="Magnesium alloy">magnesium alloys</a> were developed for pistons and <a href="/wiki/Alloy_wheel" title="Alloy wheel">wheels</a> in cars, and <a href="/wiki/Pot_metal" title="Pot metal">pot metal</a> for levers and knobs, and aluminium alloys developed for <a href="/wiki/Airframe" title="Airframe">airframes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_skin" class="mw-redirect" title="Aircraft skin">aircraft skins</a> were put into use.<sup id="cite_ref-asmchandler_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-asmchandler-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Doehler Die Casting Co. of Toledo, Ohio were known for the production of <i>Brastil</i>, a high tensile corrosion resistant bronze alloy.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alloy_broadening" title="Alloy broadening">Alloy broadening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CALPHAD" title="CALPHAD">CALPHAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_mixture" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideal mixture">Ideal mixture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_alloys" class="mw-redirect" title="List of alloys">List of alloys</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Callister, W.D. "Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction" 2007, 7th edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, Section 4.3 and Chapter 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVerhoeven,_John_D.2007" class="citation book cs1">Verhoeven, John D. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=brpx-LtdCLYC&pg=PA56"><i>Steel Metallurgy for the Non-metallurgist</i></a>. ASM International. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61503-056-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61503-056-9"><bdi>978-1-61503-056-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160505065853/https://books.google.com/books?id=brpx-LtdCLYC&pg=PA56">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-05-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Steel+Metallurgy+for+the+Non-metallurgist&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=ASM+International&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-61503-056-9&rft.au=Verhoeven%2C+John+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbrpx-LtdCLYC%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlloy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davis, Joseph R. (1993) <i>ASM Specialty Handbook: Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys</i>. ASM International. p. 211. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87170-496-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87170-496-2">978-0-87170-496-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Metals Handbook: Properties and selection</i> By ASM International – ASM International 1978 Page 407</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mills, Adelbert Phillo (1922) <i>Materials of Construction: Their Manufacture and Properties</i>, John Wiley & sons, inc, originally published by the University of Wisconsin, Madison</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHogan1969" class="citation journal cs1">Hogan, C. (1969). "Density of States of an Insulating Ferromagnetic Alloy". <i>Physical Review</i>. <b>188</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">870–</span>874. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969PhRv..188..870H">1969PhRv..188..870H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.188.870">10.1103/PhysRev.188.870</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Density+of+States+of+an+Insulating+Ferromagnetic+Alloy&rft.volume=188&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E870-%3C%2Fspan%3E874&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.188.870&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1969PhRv..188..870H&rft.aulast=Hogan&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlloy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhangSuhl1985" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, X.; Suhl, H. (1985). "Spin-wave-related period doublings and chaos under transverse pumping". <i>Physical Review A</i>. <b>32</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">2530–</span>2533. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985PhRvA..32.2530Z">1985PhRvA..32.2530Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevA.32.2530">10.1103/PhysRevA.32.2530</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9896377">9896377</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+A&rft.atitle=Spin-wave-related+period+doublings+and+chaos+under+transverse+pumping&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2530-%3C%2Fspan%3E2533&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9896377&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevA.32.2530&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985PhRvA..32.2530Z&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=X.&rft.au=Suhl%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlloy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jon_L._Dossett_Page_1-14-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jon_L._Dossett_Page_1-14_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jon_L._Dossett_Page_1-14_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jon_L._Dossett_Page_1-14_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dossett, Jon L.; Boyer, Howard E. (2006) <i>Practical heat treating</i>. ASM International. pp. 1–14. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-61503-110-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-61503-110-3">1-61503-110-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist</i> by Harry Chandler – ASM International 1998 Page 1–3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacobs, M.H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.slideshare.net/corematerials/talat-lecture-1204-precipitation-hardening-2318135">Precipitation Hardnening</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121202213718/http://www.slideshare.net/corematerials/talat-lecture-1204-precipitation-hardening-2318135">Archived</a> 2012-12-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. University of Birmingham. TALAT Lecture 1204. slideshare.net</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRickard,_T.A.1941" class="citation journal cs1">Rickard, T.A. (1941). "The Use of Meteoric Iron". <i>Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute</i>. <b>71</b> (1/2): <span class="nowrap">55–</span>66. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2844401">10.2307/2844401</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2844401">2844401</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Anthropological+Institute&rft.atitle=The+Use+of+Meteoric+Iron&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E55-%3C%2Fspan%3E66&rft.date=1941&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2844401&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2844401%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Rickard%2C+T.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlloy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Buchwald">Buchwald</a>, pp. 13–22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Buchwald">Buchwald</a>, pp. 35–37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buchwald, pp. 39–41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-r1-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-r1_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-r1_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, Cyril (1960) <i>History of metallography</i>. MIT Press. pp. 2–4. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-69120-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-69120-5">0-262-69120-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/emperors-ghost-army.html">Emperor's Ghost Army</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171101065925/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/emperors-ghost-army.html">Archived</a> 2017-11-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. pbs.org. November 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rapp, George (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ed0yC98aAKYC&pg=PA180"><i>Archaeomineralogy</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160428005752/https://books.google.com/books?id=ed0yC98aAKYC&pg=PA180">Archived</a> 2016-04-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Springer. p. 180. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-78593-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-78593-0">3-540-78593-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miskimin, Harry A. (1977) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QE04AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA31"><i>The economy of later Renaissance Europe, 1460–1600</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160505181953/https://books.google.com/books?id=QE04AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA31">Archived</a> 2016-05-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 31. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-29208-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-29208-5">0-521-29208-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholson, Paul T. and Shaw, Ian (2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vj7A9jJrZP0C&pg=PA164"><i>Ancient Egyptian materials and technology</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160502125054/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vj7A9jJrZP0C&pg=PA164">Archived</a> 2016-05-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–167. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-45257-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-45257-0">0-521-45257-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kay, Melvyn (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xCtAV_MCD1EC&pg=PA45"><i>Practical Hydraulics</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160603085124/https://books.google.com/books?id=xCtAV_MCD1EC&pg=PA45">Archived</a> 2016-06-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Taylor and Francis. p. 45. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-35115-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-35115-4">0-415-35115-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hull, Charles (1992) <i>Pewter</i>. Shire Publications. pp. 3–4; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7478-0152-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7478-0152-5">0-7478-0152-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brinkley, Frank (1904) <i>Japan and China: Japan, its history, arts, and literature</i>. Oxford University. p. 317</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-George_Adam_Roberts_Page_2-3-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-George_Adam_Roberts_Page_2-3_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-George_Adam_Roberts_Page_2-3_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Roberts, George Adam; Krauss, George; Kennedy, Richard and Kennedy, Richard L. (1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ScphevR_eP8C&pg=PA2"><i>Tool steels</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160424215509/https://books.google.com/books?id=ScphevR_eP8C&pg=PA2">Archived</a> 2016-04-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. ASM International. pp. 2–3. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87170-599-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-87170-599-0">0-87170-599-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Sheffield Steel and America: A Century of Commercial and Technological Independence</i> By Geoffrey Tweedale – Cambridge University Press 1987 Page 57–62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Experimental Techniques in Materials and Mechanics</i> By C. Suryanarayana – CRC Press 2011 p. 202</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Tool Steels, 5th Edition</i> By George Adam Roberts, Richard Kennedy, G. Krauss – ASM International 1998 p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBramfitt,_B.L.2001" class="citation book cs1">Bramfitt, B.L. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hoM8VJHTt24C&pg=PA13"><i>Metallographer's Guide: Practice and Procedures for Irons and Steels</i></a>. ASM International. pp. 13–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61503-146-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61503-146-7"><bdi>978-1-61503-146-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160502154559/https://books.google.com/books?id=hoM8VJHTt24C&pg=PA13">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-05-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Metallographer%27s+Guide%3A+Practice+and+Procedures+for+Irons+and+Steels&rft.pages=13-&rft.pub=ASM+International&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-61503-146-7&rft.au=Bramfitt%2C+B.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhoM8VJHTt24C%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlloy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Sheffield Steel and America: A Century of Commercial and Technological Independence</i> By Geoffrey Tweedale – Cambridge University Press 1987 pp. 57–62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Sheffield Steel and America: A Century of Commercial and Technological Independence</i> By Geoffrey Tweedale – Cambridge University Press 1987 pp. 66–68</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-asmchandler-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-asmchandler_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-asmchandler_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-asmchandler_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist</i> by Harry Chandler – ASM International 1998 Page 3–5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Sheffield Steel and America: A Century of Commercial and Technological Independence</i> By Geoffrey Tweedale – Cambridge University Press 1987 p. 75</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Aluminium: Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and Applications</i> by Joseph William Richards – Henry Cairy Baird & Co 1887 Page 25–42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Metallurgy: 1863–1963</i> by W.H. Dennis – Routledge 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.utoledo.edu/library/canaday/HTML_findingaids/MSS-202.html">"Doehler-Jarvis Company Collection, MSS-202"</a>. <i>www.utoledo.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-08-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.utoledo.edu&rft.atitle=Doehler-Jarvis+Company+Collection%2C+MSS-202&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.utoledo.edu%2Flibrary%2Fcanaday%2FHTML_findingaids%2FMSS-202.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlloy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Woldman’s Engineering Alloys, 9th Edition 1936, American Society for Metals, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87170-691-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87170-691-1">978-0-87170-691-1</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Buchwald" class="citation book cs1">Buchwald, Vagn Fabritius (2005). <i>Iron and steel in ancient times</i>. Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-7304-308-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-7304-308-0"><bdi>978-87-7304-308-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iron+and+steel+in+ancient+times&rft.pub=Det+Kongelige+Danske+Videnskabernes+Selskab&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-87-7304-308-0&rft.au=Buchwald%2C+Vagn+Fabritius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlloy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Alloys" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Alloys">Alloys</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts-AustenNeville1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Chandler_Roberts-Austen" title="William Chandler Roberts-Austen">Roberts-Austen, William Chandler</a>; Neville, Francis Henry (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alloys"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Alloys">"Alloys" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alloys&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Roberts-Austen&rft.aufirst=William+Chandler&rft.au=Neville%2C+Francis+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlloy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Alloy"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_American_Cyclop%C3%A6dia_(1879)/Alloy">"Alloy" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Cyclop%C3%A6dia" class="mw-redirect" title="The American Cyclopædia">The American Cyclopædia</a></i>. 1879.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alloy&rft.btitle=The+American+Cyclop%C3%A6dia&rft.date=1879&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlloy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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title="Total dissolved solids">Total dissolved solids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solvation" title="Solvation">Solvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solvation_shell" title="Solvation shell">Solvation shell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_change_of_solution" title="Enthalpy change of solution">Enthalpy of solution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lattice_energy" title="Lattice energy">Lattice energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raoult%27s_law" title="Raoult's law">Raoult's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry%27s_law" title="Henry's law">Henry's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solubility_table" title="Solubility table">Solubility table (data)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solubility_chart" title="Solubility chart">Solubility chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miscibility" title="Miscibility">Miscibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">Solvent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list 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title="Chemical polarity">Polarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrophobe" title="Hydrophobe">Hydrophobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrophile" title="Hydrophile">Hydrophile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipophilicity" title="Lipophilicity">Lipophilic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphiphile" title="Amphiphile">Amphiphile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyonium_ion" title="Lyonium ion">Lyonium ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyate_ion" title="Lyate ion">Lyate ion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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