CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Parasitic worm - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"d675baf1-a904-40d7-b500-fa1d90544672","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Parasitic_worm","wgTitle":"Parasitic worm","wgCurRevisionId":1259758690,"wgRevisionId":1259758690,"wgArticleId":2835132,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list","Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from September 2018","Articles with unsourced statements from January 2021","Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015","Articles with unsourced statements from July 2020","Articles with excerpts","Commons category link is on Wikidata", "Worms (obsolete taxon)","Conditions diagnosed by stool test","Foodborne illnesses","Helminthiases","Intestinal infectious diseases","Tropical diseases","Parasitic protostomes","Sanitation"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Parasitic_worm","wgRelevantArticleId":2835132,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":30000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false, "wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q3129936","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init" :"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Collage_of_various_helminth_eggs.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="997"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Collage_of_various_helminth_eggs.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="664"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="532"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Parasitic worm - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitic_worm"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitic_worm"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Parasitic_worm rootpage-Parasitic_worm skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Parasitic+worm" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Parasitic+worm" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Parasitic+worm" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Parasitic+worm" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Taxonomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxonomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Taxonomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taxonomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reproduction_and_life_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproduction_and_life_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Reproduction and life cycle</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reproduction_and_life_cycle-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reproduction and life cycle subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reproduction_and_life_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Eggs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eggs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Eggs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eggs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Larvae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Larvae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Larvae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Larvae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_in_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_in_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Use in medicine</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Use_in_medicine-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Use in medicine subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Use_in_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Human_stool_samples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_stool_samples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Human stool samples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_stool_samples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relevance_for_sanitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relevance_for_sanitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Relevance for sanitation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Relevance_for_sanitation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Relevance for sanitation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Relevance_for_sanitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Removal_versus_inactivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Removal_versus_inactivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Removal versus inactivation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Removal_versus_inactivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Measurements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measurements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indicator_organism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indicator_organism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Indicator organism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indicator_organism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_samples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_samples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Environmental samples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_samples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Parasitic worm</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">37 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%B7%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="دودة طفيلية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دودة طفيلية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmintl%C9%99r" title="Helmintlər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Helmintlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Гельмінты – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гельмінты" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Хелминт – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Хелминт" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%88%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%85%D0%B0" title="Уша санха – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Уша санха" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuc_par%C3%A0sit" title="Cuc paràsit – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cuc paràsit" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasit%C3%A4rer_Wurm" title="Parasitärer Wurm – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Parasitärer Wurm" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmindid" title="Helmindid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Helmindid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helminto" title="Helminto – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Helminto" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmintoj" title="Helmintoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Helmintoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helminto" title="Helminto – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Helminto" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C" title="کرم انگلی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کرم انگلی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helminthe" title="Helminthe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Helminthe" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF" title="कृमि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कृमि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cacing_parasit" title="Cacing parasit – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Cacing parasit" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%98%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="תולעים טפיליות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תולעים טפיליות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AD%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ჭიები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჭიები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BA_%D2%9B%D2%B1%D1%80%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Ішек құрттары – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ішек құрттары" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Гельминттер – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Гельминттер" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%84%E7%94%9F%E8%99%AB" title="寄生虫 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="寄生虫" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelmintlar" title="Gelmintlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gelmintlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helminty" title="Helminty – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Helminty" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vierme_parazit" title="Vierme parazit – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Vierme parazit" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Гельминты – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гельминты" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%8A%D9%BD_%D8%AC%D8%A7_%DA%AA%D9%8A%DA%99%D8%A7" title="پيٽ جا ڪيڙا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="پيٽ جا ڪيڙا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masksjukdomar" title="Masksjukdomar – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Masksjukdomar" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulating_parasito" title="Bulating parasito – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Bulating parasito" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%81" title="ஒட்டுண்ணிப் புழு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஒட்டுண்ணிப் புழு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B4" title="พยาธิ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พยาธิ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D2%B3%D0%BE" title="Гелминтҳо – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Гелминтҳо" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmintler" title="Helmintler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Helmintler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muguthor_gur%C3%A7uklar" title="Muguthor gurçuklar – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Muguthor gurçuklar" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Гельмінти – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гельмінти" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giun_s%C3%A1n" title="Giun sán – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Giun sán" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%84%E7%94%9F%E8%99%AB" title="寄生虫 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="寄生虫" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%84%E7%94%9F%E8%9F%B2" title="寄生蟲 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="寄生蟲" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%84%E7%94%9F%E8%99%AB" title="寄生虫 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="寄生虫" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3129936#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Parasitic_worm" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Parasitic_worm" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Parasitic_worm"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Parasitic_worm"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Parasitic_worm" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Parasitic_worm" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&oldid=1259758690" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Parasitic_worm&id=1259758690&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FParasitic_worm"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FParasitic_worm"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Parasitic_worm&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Helminths" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3129936" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Large type of parasitic organism</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the group of organisms. For the infection caused by this group of organisms, see <a href="/wiki/Helminthiasis" title="Helminthiasis">Helminthiasis</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_worm_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Parasitic worm (disambiguation)">Parasitic worm (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Collage_of_various_helminth_eggs.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Collage_of_various_helminth_eggs.png/220px-Collage_of_various_helminth_eggs.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Collage_of_various_helminth_eggs.png/330px-Collage_of_various_helminth_eggs.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Collage_of_various_helminth_eggs.png/440px-Collage_of_various_helminth_eggs.png 2x" data-file-width="602" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Egg" title="Egg">Eggs</a> of different species of parasitic worm</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Parasitic worms</b>, also known as <b>helminths</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-CDC_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDC-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are a <a href="/wiki/Polyphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphyletic">polyphyletic</a> group of large <a href="/wiki/Parasitism#Basic_concepts" title="Parasitism">macroparasites</a>; adults can generally be seen with the naked eye. Many are <a href="/wiki/Intestinal_worms" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestinal worms">intestinal worms</a> that are <a href="/wiki/Soil-transmitted_helminth" title="Soil-transmitted helminth">soil-transmitted</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intestinal_parasite_infection" title="Intestinal parasite infection">infect</a> the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a>. Other parasitic worms such as <a href="/wiki/Schistosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Schistosomes">schistosomes</a> reside in blood vessels. </p><p>Some parasitic worms, including <a href="/wiki/Leeches" class="mw-redirect" title="Leeches">leeches</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monogenea" title="Monogenea">monogeneans</a>, are <a href="/wiki/Ectoparasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Ectoparasites">ectoparasites</a> –  thus, they are not classified as helminths, which are <a href="/wiki/Parasitism#Basic_concepts" title="Parasitism">endoparasites</a>. </p><p>Parasitic worms live in and feed in living <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">hosts</a>. They receive <a href="/wiki/Nourishment" class="mw-redirect" title="Nourishment">nourishment</a> and protection while disrupting their hosts' ability to absorb <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a>. This can cause weakness and <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a> in the host, and poses a global health and economic problem.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parasitic worms cannot reproduce entirely within their host's body; they have a life cycle that includes some stages that need to take place outside of the host.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Helminths are able to survive in their mammalian hosts for many years due to their ability to manipulate the host's <a href="/wiki/Immune_response" title="Immune response">immune response</a> by secreting immunomodulatory products.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All parasitic worms produce <a href="/wiki/Egg" title="Egg">eggs</a> during reproduction. These eggs have a strong shell that protects them against a range of environmental conditions. The eggs can therefore survive in the environment for many months or years. </p><p>Many of the worms referred to as helminths are intestinal parasites. An infection by a helminth is known as <a href="/wiki/Helminthiasis" title="Helminthiasis">helminthiasis</a>, helminth infection, or intestinal worm infection. There is a naming convention which applies to all helminths: the ending "-asis" (or in veterinary science: "-osis") is added at the end of the name of the worm to denote the infection with that particular worm.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> For example, <i><a href="/wiki/Ascaris" title="Ascaris">Ascaris</a></i> is the name of a type of helminth, and <a href="/wiki/Ascariasis" title="Ascariasis">ascariasis</a> is the name of the infection caused by that helminth. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taxonomy">Taxonomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Taxonomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hookworms.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Hookworms.JPG/220px-Hookworms.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Hookworms.JPG/330px-Hookworms.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Hookworms.JPG/440px-Hookworms.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1796" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hookworm" title="Hookworm">Hookworms</a> attached to the intestinal <a href="/wiki/Mucous_membrane" title="Mucous membrane">mucosa</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Threadworm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Threadworm.jpg/220px-Threadworm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Threadworm.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="273" data-file-height="181" /></a><figcaption>Two <a href="/wiki/Pinworm_(parasite)" title="Pinworm (parasite)">pinworms</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ascaris_lumbricoides_life_cycle.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Ascaris_lumbricoides_life_cycle.tif/lossless-page1-220px-Ascaris_lumbricoides_life_cycle.tif.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Ascaris_lumbricoides_life_cycle.tif/lossless-page1-330px-Ascaris_lumbricoides_life_cycle.tif.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Ascaris_lumbricoides_life_cycle.tif/lossless-page1-440px-Ascaris_lumbricoides_life_cycle.tif.png 2x" data-file-width="1058" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Image showing life cycle inside and outside of the human body of one fairly typical and well described helminth: <a href="/wiki/Ascaris" title="Ascaris">Ascaris</a> lumbricoides</figcaption></figure> <p>Helminths are a group of organisms which share a similar form but are not necessarily <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">evolutionarily related</a>. The term "helminth" is an artificial term.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no real consensus on the taxonomy (or groupings) of the helminths, particularly within the <a href="/wiki/Nematodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nematodes">nematodes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "helminth" contains a number of <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a>, many of which are completely unrelated. However, for practical considerations the term is currently used to describe four phyla with superficial similarities: <a href="/wiki/Annelida" class="mw-redirect" title="Annelida">Annelida</a> (ringed or segmented worms), <a href="/wiki/Platyhelminths" class="mw-redirect" title="Platyhelminths">Platyhelminthes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">flatworms</a>), <a href="/wiki/Nematoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nematoda">Nematoda</a> (roundworms), and <a href="/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala">Acanthocephala</a> (thorny-headed worms).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phylum <a href="/wiki/Platyhelminthes" class="mw-redirect" title="Platyhelminthes">Platyhelminthes</a> includes two classes of worms of particular medical significance: the <a href="/wiki/Cestodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Cestodes">cestodes</a> (tapeworms) and the <a href="/wiki/Trematodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Trematodes">trematodes</a> (flukes and <a href="/wiki/Schistosoma" title="Schistosoma">blood flukes</a>), depending on whether or not they have segmented bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-CDC_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDC-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There may be as many as 300,000 species of parasites affecting vertebrates,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as many as 300 affecting humans alone.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Helminths of importance in the <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> field are the human parasites, and are classified as <a href="/wiki/Nemathelminthes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nemathelminthes">Nemathelminthes</a> (nematodes) and <a href="/wiki/Platyhelminthes" class="mw-redirect" title="Platyhelminthes">Platyhelminthes</a>, depending on whether they possess a round or flattened body, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ringworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Ringworm">Ringworm</a> (dermatophytosis) is actually caused by various <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a>, and not by a parasitic worm.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reproduction_and_life_cycle">Reproduction and life cycle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Reproduction and life cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">lifetime</a> of adult worms varies tremendously from one species to another but is generally in the range of 1 to 8 years (see following table). This lifetime of several years is a result of their ability to manipulate the immune response of their hosts by secreting immunomodulatory products.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Helminths can be either hermaphroditic (having the sex organs of both sexes), like tapeworms and flukes (not including the blood fluke), or have their sexes differentiated, like the roundworms.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All helminths produce eggs (also called ova) for reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eggs">Eggs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Eggs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Generally, thousands or even hundreds of thousands of eggs are produced each time the female worm deposits its eggs - a process called <a href="/wiki/Oviposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Oviposition">oviposition</a>. There is a large variation in the number of eggs produced by different species of worm at one time; it varies in the range of 3,000 to 700,000. The frequency of egg deposition from an adult helminth is generally daily, and can occur up to six times per day for some <i>Taenia</i> species. Adult trematodes lay smaller numbers of eggs compared to cestodes or nematodes. However, the egg develops into a <a href="/wiki/Miracidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Miracidia">miracidia</a> from which thousands of <i><a href="/wiki/Cercariae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cercariae">cercariae</a></i>, or swimming larvae, develop. This means that one egg may produce thousands of adult worms.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Helminth eggs remain viable for 1–2 months in crops and for many months in soil, fresh water, and <a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">sewage</a>, or even for several years in <a href="/wiki/Human_feces" title="Human feces">feces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fecal_sludge" class="mw-redirect" title="Fecal sludge">fecal sludge</a> (historically called <a href="/wiki/Night_soil" title="Night soil">night soil</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Sewage_sludge" title="Sewage sludge">sewage sludge</a> – a period that is much longer compared to other microorganisms.<sup id="cite_ref-World_Health_Organization_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Helminth eggs are resistant to various environmental conditions due to the composition of the egg shell. Each helminth egg species has 3 to 4 layers with different physical and chemical characteristics:<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div><ol type="a"><li>the 1 to 2 outer layers are formed of <a href="/wiki/Mucopolysaccharide" class="mw-redirect" title="Mucopolysaccharide">mucopolysaccharides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>,</li><li>the middle layers consist of <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitinous</a> material and serve to give structure and mechanical resistance to the eggs, and</li><li>the inner layer is composed of <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a> and proteins and is useful to protect eggs from desiccation, strong acid and bases, oxidants and reductive agents as well as detergent and proteolytic compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Larvae">Larvae</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Larvae"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Larvae hatch from eggs, either inside or outside the host, depending on the type of helminth. For eggs in moist soil at optimal temperature and oxygen levels, the embryo develops into an infective larva after 2 to 4 weeks, named "second-stage larva". Once ingested by a host, this larva has the ability to get out of the egg, hatch in the small intestine and migrate to different organs. These infective larvae (or "infective eggs") may remain viable in soil for two years or longer.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The process of larval maturation in the host can take from about two weeks up to four months, depending on the helminth species.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The following table shows the principal morphological and reproductive distinctions for three helminth groups: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"></th> <th colspan="2">Tapeworms<br />(Cestodes)</th> <th colspan="1">Flukes<br />(Trematodes)</th> <th colspan="4">Roundworms<br />(Nematodes) </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Examples </td> <td colspan="2"><i><a href="/wiki/Taenia_solium" title="Taenia solium">Taenia solium</a>,</i> <i><a href="/wiki/Taenia_saginata" title="Taenia saginata">Taenia saginata</a>,</i> <i><a href="/wiki/Hymenolepis_(flatworm)" title="Hymenolepis (flatworm)">Hymenolepis</a> spp.,</i> <i><a href="/wiki/Echinococcus_granulosus" title="Echinococcus granulosus">Echinococcus granulosus</a>,</i> <i><a href="/wiki/Echinococcus_multilocularis" title="Echinococcus multilocularis">Echinococcus multilocularis</a></i>, <i>Multiceps multiceps</i> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Schistosoma_mansoni" title="Schistosoma mansoni">Schistosoma mansoni</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Schistosoma_japonicum" title="Schistosoma japonicum">Schistosoma japonicum</a></i>, <p><i><a href="/wiki/Fasciola_hepatica" title="Fasciola hepatica">Fasciola hepatica</a></i> </p> </td> <td colspan="4"><i><a href="/wiki/Ascaris" title="Ascaris">Ascaris spp.</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Pinworm_(parasite)" title="Pinworm (parasite)"><i>Enterobius</i></a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Filarioidea" title="Filarioidea">Filarioidea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Onchocerca" title="Onchocerca">Onchocerca spp.</a></i>, <i>Rhabditis spp.</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Trichuris" title="Trichuris">Trichuris spp.</a>,</i> <i><a href="/wiki/Necator_americanus" title="Necator americanus">Necator americanus</a></i>, <i>Ancylostoma spp.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Pathological conditions caused in humans </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Tapeworm_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapeworm infection">Tapeworm infection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Echinococcosis" title="Echinococcosis">echinococcosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_hydatid_disease" title="Alveolar hydatid disease">alveolar echinococcosis</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">Schistosomiasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swimmer%27s_itch" title="Swimmer's itch">swimmer's itch</a> </td> <td colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Ascariasis" title="Ascariasis">Ascariasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pinworm_infection" title="Pinworm infection">enterobiasis (pinworm infection, oxyuriasis)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Filariasis" title="Filariasis">filariasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dracunculiasis" title="Dracunculiasis">dracunculiasis</a> (guinea worm), <a href="/wiki/Elephantiasis_tropica" class="mw-redirect" title="Elephantiasis tropica">elephantiasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enterobiasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Enterobiasis">enterobiasis (pinworm)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Filariasis" title="Filariasis">filariasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hookworm" title="Hookworm">hookworm</a> infection (includes <a href="/wiki/Necatoriasis" title="Necatoriasis">Necatoriasis</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Ancylostoma_duodenale" title="Ancylostoma duodenale">Ancylostoma duodenale</a></i> infection), <a href="/wiki/Onchocerciasis" title="Onchocerciasis">onchocerciasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trichinosis" title="Trichinosis">trichinosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trichuriasis" title="Trichuriasis">trichuriasis (whipworm)</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Shape</td> <td colspan="2">Segmented plane</td> <td>Unsegmented plane</td> <td colspan="4">Cylindrical </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Body_cavity" title="Body cavity">Body cavity</a></td> <td colspan="2">None</td> <td>None</td> <td colspan="4">Present </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Body covering</td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Tegument_(Helminth)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tegument (Helminth)">Tegument</a></td> <td>Tegument</td> <td colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Cuticle" title="Cuticle">Cuticle</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Digestive tube</td> <td colspan="2">None</td> <td>Ends in cecum</td> <td colspan="4">Ends in anus </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Sex</td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Hermaphroditic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermaphroditic">Hermaphroditic</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hermaphroditic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermaphroditic">Hermaphroditic</a>, except <a href="/wiki/Schistosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Schistosomes">schistosomes</a> which are <a href="/wiki/Dioecious" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioecious">dioecious</a></td> <td colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Dioecious" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioecious">Dioecious</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Attachment organs</td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Sucker_(platyhelminth_anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sucker (platyhelminth anatomy)">Sucker</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bothridia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bothridia">bothridia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rostellum_(helminth)" title="Rostellum (helminth)">rostellum</a> with hooks</td> <td>Oral sucker and ventral sucker or <a href="/wiki/Acetabulum_(morphology)" title="Acetabulum (morphology)">acetabulum</a></td> <td colspan="4">Lips, teeth, filariform extremities, and dentary plates </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> <p>Number of species </p> </td> <td colspan="2">6000<sup id="cite_ref-:5_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Estimated > 15,000<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Registered > 9,000<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td colspan="4">Estimated > 800,000 to 1,000,000 <p>Registered > 25,000<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Number of species known to infect humans </td> <td colspan="2">40<sup id="cite_ref-:5_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>16<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td colspan="4">> 12,000<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Species </td> <td> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Hymenolepis_nana" title="Hymenolepis nana">Hymenolepis nana</a></i> </p> </td> <td> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Taenia_solium" title="Taenia solium">Taenia solium</a> /<a href="/wiki/Taenia_saginata" title="Taenia saginata">Taenia saginata</a></i> </p> </td> <td> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Fasciola_hepatica" title="Fasciola hepatica">Fasciola hepatica</a></i> </p> </td> <td> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Ascaris_lumbricoides" title="Ascaris lumbricoides">Ascaris lumbricoides</a></i> </p> </td> <td> <p>Hookworm </p> </td> <td> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Trichuris_trichiura" title="Trichuris trichiura">Trichuris trichiura</a></i> </p> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Toxocara" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxocara">Toxocara</a> spp.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">Timeline of lifecycle stages </td> <td>Larval formation </td> <td> </td> <td> <p>Some days (eggs can survive for months)<sup id="cite_ref-:11_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>9–15 days<sup id="cite_ref-:5_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>18 days to several weeks<sup id="cite_ref-:6_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>1–2 days<sup id="cite_ref-:7_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>15–30 days<sup id="cite_ref-:8_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Larval growth </td> <td> </td> <td> <p>After hatching, the larvae develop into cysticercoid, which can survive for years in an animal<sup id="cite_ref-:11_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>5–7 weeks as <i><a href="/wiki/Cercariae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cercariae">cercariae</a></i> in snails and longer periods in wet environments as encysted <i><a href="/wiki/Metacercariae" class="mw-redirect" title="Metacercariae">metacercariae</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-:9_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>10–14 days<sup id="cite_ref-:6_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>5–10 days (after maturing can survive for weeks outside the host)<sup id="cite_ref-:7_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td rowspan="2"> <p>60–70 days (from hatching to mature state)<sup id="cite_ref-:8_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>5–6 days<sup id="cite_ref-:5_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Maturation to adult </td> <td> </td> <td> <p>2 months (from cysticercoid to adult)<sup id="cite_ref-:11_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>3–4 months<sup id="cite_ref-:9_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>2–3 months<sup id="cite_ref-:6_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>2–8 weeks<sup id="cite_ref-:5_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (can become dormant for months) </p> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lifespan of adult worm </td> <td> <p>4–6 weeks </p> </td> <td> <p>Several years<sup id="cite_ref-:11_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>8–10 years<sup id="cite_ref-:5_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>1–2 years<sup id="cite_ref-:6_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>Several years<sup id="cite_ref-:7_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>1 year<sup id="cite_ref-:8_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Eggs laid per day </td> <td colspan="2">250,000<sup id="cite_ref-:10_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 700,000<sup id="cite_ref-:5_23-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>3,000 to 25,000<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td colspan="4">3,000<sup id="cite_ref-:10_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 250,000<sup id="cite_ref-:5_23-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Egg deposition </td> <td>Frequency </td> <td> </td> <td> <p>up to 6 times a day<sup id="cite_ref-:11_26-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> </td> <td> <p>daily<sup id="cite_ref-:6_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>daily<sup id="cite_ref-:7_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>daily<sup id="cite_ref-:8_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Number of eggs per event </td> <td> </td> <td> <p>50,000-100,000<sup id="cite_ref-:11_26-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> </td> <td> <p>200,000<sup id="cite_ref-:6_27-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:13_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 250,000 or more<sup id="cite_ref-:5_23-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>5,000-10,000<sup id="cite_ref-:5_23-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>3,000-20,000<sup id="cite_ref-:8_29-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Larvae per egg </td> <td>1 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>300 <i><a href="/wiki/Cercariae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cercariae">cercariae</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Schistosoma" title="Schistosoma">Schistosoma</a></i>), 250,000 <i><a href="/wiki/Metacercariae" class="mw-redirect" title="Metacercariae">metacercariae</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Fasciola" title="Fasciola">Fasciola</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>1 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Draft genomes for all categories of helminth have been sequenced in recent years and are available through the ParaSite sub-portal of <a href="/wiki/WormBase" title="WormBase">WormBase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_in_medicine">Use in medicine</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Use in medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Helminthic_therapy" title="Helminthic therapy">Helminthic therapy</a></div> <p>Parasitic worms have been used as a medical treatment for various diseases, particularly those involving an overactive <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune response</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a> have evolved with parasitic worms, proponents argue they are needed for a healthy immune system.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientists are looking for a connection between the prevention and control of parasitic worms and the increase in <a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">allergies</a> such as hay-fever in developed countries.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Removal of parasitic worms from areas is correlated with an increase in autoimmune disorders in those areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Weinstock_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weinstock-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parasitic worms may be able to damp down the immune system of their host, making it easier for them to live in the intestine without coming under attack.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may be one mechanism for their proposed medicinal effect.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>One study suggests a link between the rising rates of <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_syndrome" title="Metabolic syndrome">metabolic syndrome</a> in the developed worlds and the largely successful efforts of Westerners to eliminate intestinal parasites. The work suggests eosinophils (a type of white blood cell) in fat tissue play an important role in preventing insulin resistance by secreting interleukin 4, which in turn switches <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a> into "alternative activation". Alternatively-activated macrophages are important to maintaining glucose homeostasis (i.e., blood sugar regulation). Helminth infection causes an increase in eosinophils. In the study, the authors fed rodents a high-fat diet to induce metabolic syndrome, and then injected them with helminths. Helminth infestation improved the rodents' metabolism.<sup id="cite_ref-science_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-science-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors concluded: </p> <blockquote><p>Although sparse in blood of persons in developed countries, eosinophils are often elevated in individuals in rural developing countries where intestinal parasitism is prevalent and metabolic syndrome rare. We speculate that eosinophils may have evolved to optimize metabolic homeostasis during chronic infections by ubiquitous intestinal parasites….<sup id="cite_ref-science_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-science-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_stool_samples">Human stool samples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Human stool samples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For medical purposes, the exact number of helminth eggs is less important and therefore most <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis" title="Diagnosis">diagnoses</a> are made simply by identifying the appearance of the <a href="/wiki/Worm" title="Worm">worm</a> or eggs in <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">feces</a>. Due to the large quantity of eggs laid, <a href="/wiki/Physicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Physicians">physicians</a> can <a href="/wiki/Diagnose" class="mw-redirect" title="Diagnose">diagnose</a> using as few as one or two <a href="/wiki/Fecal_smear" class="mw-redirect" title="Fecal smear">fecal smears</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The <a href="/wiki/Kato_technique" title="Kato technique">Kato technique</a> (also called the Kato-Katz technique) is a laboratory method for preparing human stool samples prior to searching for parasite eggs. <a href="/wiki/Eggs_per_gram" title="Eggs per gram">Eggs per gram</a> is a laboratory test that determines the number of eggs per gram of feces in patients suspected of having a parasitological infection, such as schistosomiasis.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relevance_for_sanitation">Relevance for sanitation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Relevance for sanitation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Processed_helminth_eggs_samples_and_Mc_Master_slide_(4369782501).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Processed_helminth_eggs_samples_and_Mc_Master_slide_%284369782501%29.jpg/220px-Processed_helminth_eggs_samples_and_Mc_Master_slide_%284369782501%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Processed_helminth_eggs_samples_and_Mc_Master_slide_%284369782501%29.jpg/330px-Processed_helminth_eggs_samples_and_Mc_Master_slide_%284369782501%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Processed_helminth_eggs_samples_and_Mc_Master_slide_%284369782501%29.jpg/440px-Processed_helminth_eggs_samples_and_Mc_Master_slide_%284369782501%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Processed helminth eggs samples from a dry toilet in Kenya</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Helminth_Eggs_determination_(in_faeces)_(4369783299).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Helminth_Eggs_determination_%28in_faeces%29_%284369783299%29.jpg/220px-Helminth_Eggs_determination_%28in_faeces%29_%284369783299%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Helminth_Eggs_determination_%28in_faeces%29_%284369783299%29.jpg/330px-Helminth_Eggs_determination_%28in_faeces%29_%284369783299%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Helminth_Eggs_determination_%28in_faeces%29_%284369783299%29.jpg/440px-Helminth_Eggs_determination_%28in_faeces%29_%284369783299%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>Analysing for helminth eggs in samples of feces from a dry toilet in Kenya</figcaption></figure><p>Helminth eggs can reach the soil when polluted <a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">wastewater</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sewage_sludge" title="Sewage sludge">sewage sludge</a> or <a href="/wiki/Human_waste" title="Human waste">human waste</a> are used as <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</a>. Such soil is often characterized by moist and warm conditions. Therefore, the risk of using contaminated wastewater and sludge in agricultural fields is a real problem, especially in poor countries, where this practice is prevalent.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Helminth eggs are regarded as the main biological health risk when applying sewage sludge, fecal sludge or fecal matter on agricultural soils.<sup id="cite_ref-World_Health_Organization_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The eggs are the infective stage of the helminths’ life cycle for causing the disease <a href="/wiki/Helminthiasis" title="Helminthiasis">helminthiasis</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Due to this strong shell, helminth eggs or ova remain viable in soil, fresh water and sewage for many months. In feces, fecal sludge and sewage sludge they can even remain viable for several years.<sup id="cite_ref-World_Health_Organization_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Helminth eggs of concern in <a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">wastewater</a> used for <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> have a size between 20 and 90 μm and a relative density of 1.06–1.23.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is very difficult to inactivate helminth eggs, unless temperature is increased above 40 °C or moisture is reduced to less than 5%.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eggs that are no longer viable do not produce any larvae. In the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Ascaris_lumbricoides" title="Ascaris lumbricoides">Ascaris lumbricoides</a></i> (giant roundworm), which has been considered the most resistant and common helminth type, fertilized eggs deposited in soil are resistant to desiccation but are, at this stage of development, very sensitive to environmental temperatures: The reproduction of a fertilized egg within the eggshell develops at an environmental soil temperature about 25 °C which is lower than the body temperature of the host (i.e., 37 °C for humans).<sup id="cite_ref-:13_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, development of the larvae in the egg stops at temperatures below 15.5 °C, and eggs cannot survive temperatures much above 38 °C. If the temperature is around 25 °C, the infectiousness occurs after nearly 10 days of incubation.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Removal_versus_inactivation">Removal versus inactivation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Removal versus inactivation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Processes that remove particles, such as sedimentation, filtration or <a href="/wiki/Flocculation" title="Flocculation">coagulation-flocculation</a> physically remove helminth eggs from wastewater (but do not inactivate them).<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, <a href="/wiki/Stabilization_pond" class="mw-redirect" title="Stabilization pond">waste stabilization ponds</a> (lagoons), storage basins, <a href="/wiki/Constructed_wetlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructed wetlands">constructed wetlands</a>, rapid filtration or <a href="/wiki/Upflow_anaerobic_sludge_blanket" class="mw-redirect" title="Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket">upflow anaerobic sludge blanket</a> (UASB) reactors can be used. </p><p>Helminth ova cannot be inactivated with chlorine, UV light or ozone (in the latter case at least not with economical doses because >36 mg/L ozone are needed with 1 hour contact time).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Helminth ova can be inactivated in <a href="/wiki/Sewage_sludge_treatment" title="Sewage sludge treatment">sewage sludge treatment</a> if the temperature is increased over 40 °C or moisture is reduced to less than 5%.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Best results can be obtained when both of these conditions are met together for an extended period of time.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Details about the contact time under these conditions and other related environmental factors are generally not well-defined for every type of helminth egg species.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Helminth eggs are considered highly resistant biological structures.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_18-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Measurements">Measurements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Measurements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indicator_organism">Indicator organism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Indicator organism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Identification_and_quantification_of_helminth_eggs.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Identification_and_quantification_of_helminth_eggs.png/220px-Identification_and_quantification_of_helminth_eggs.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Identification_and_quantification_of_helminth_eggs.png/330px-Identification_and_quantification_of_helminth_eggs.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Identification_and_quantification_of_helminth_eggs.png/440px-Identification_and_quantification_of_helminth_eggs.png 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Identification and quantification of helminth eggs at UNAM university in Mexico City, Mexico</figcaption></figure> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Indicator_organism#Indicator_helminth_eggs" title="Indicator organism">Indicator organism § Indicator helminth eggs</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indicator_organism&action=edit#Indicator_helminth_eggs">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>The eggs from <a href="/wiki/Helminth" class="mw-redirect" title="Helminth">helminths</a> (parasitic worms) are a commonly used indicator organism to assess the safety of <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">wastewater</a> reuse systems (such schemes are also called <a href="/wiki/Reuse_of_human_excreta" title="Reuse of human excreta">reuse of human excreta</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Indicator_organism_Marcos2_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indicator_organism_Marcos2-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 55">: 55 </span></sup> This is because they are the most resistant <a href="/wiki/Pathogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogens">pathogens</a> of all types of pathogens (pathogens can be <a href="/wiki/Viruses" class="mw-redirect" title="Viruses">viruses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a> and helminths).<sup id="cite_ref-Indicator_organism_:5_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indicator_organism_:5-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It means they are relatively hard to destroy through conventional treatment methods. They can survive for 10–12 months in tropical climates.<sup id="cite_ref-Indicator_organism_:5_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indicator_organism_:5-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These eggs are also called <i>ova</i> in the literature.<sup id="cite_ref-Indicator_organism_:6_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indicator_organism_:6-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Helminth eggs that are found in wastewater and sludge stem from soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) which include <i><a href="/wiki/Ascaris_lumbricoides" title="Ascaris lumbricoides">Ascaris lumbricoides</a></i> (Ascaris), <i><a href="/wiki/Ancylostoma_duodenale" title="Ancylostoma duodenale">Anclostoma duodenale</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Necator_americanus" title="Necator americanus">Necator americanus</a></i> (hookworm), and <i><a href="/wiki/Trichuris_trichiura" title="Trichuris trichiura">Trichuris trichiura</a></i> (whipworm).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ascaris and whipworm that are identified in reusable wastewater systems can cause certain diseases and complications if ingested by humans and pigs.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hookworms will plant and hatch their larvae into the soil where they grow until maturity. Once the hookworm eggs are fully developed, they infect organisms by crawling through the organism’s skin.<sup id="cite_ref-Indicator_organism_:0_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indicator_organism_:0-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The presence or absence of viable helminth eggs ("viable" meaning that a larva would be able to hatch from the egg) in a sample of dried fecal matter, <a href="/wiki/Compost" title="Compost">compost</a> or <a href="/wiki/Faecal_sludge" class="mw-redirect" title="Faecal sludge">fecal sludge</a> is often used to assess the efficiency of diverse wastewater and sludge treatment processes in terms of pathogen removal.<sup id="cite_ref-Indicator_organism_Marcos2_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indicator_organism_Marcos2-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 55">: 55 </span></sup> In particular, the number of viable <a href="/wiki/Ascaris" title="Ascaris">Ascaris</a> eggs is often taken as an indicator for all helminth eggs in treatment processes as they are very common in many parts of the world and relatively easy to identify under the microscope. However, the exact inactivation characteristics may vary for different types of helminth eggs.<sup id="cite_ref-Indicator_organism_:22_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indicator_organism_:22-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> The technique used for testing depends on the type of sample.<sup id="cite_ref-Indicator_organism_:6_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indicator_organism_:6-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the helminth ova are in sludge, processes such as alkaline-post stabilization, acid treatment, and <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_digestion" title="Anaerobic digestion">anaerobic digestion</a> are used to reduce the amount of helminth ova in areas where there is a large amount. These methods make it possible for helminth ova to be within the healthy requirements of ≤1 helminth ova per liter. Dehydration is used to inactivate helminth ova in fecal sludge. This type of inactivation occurs when feces is stored between 1-2 years, a high total solids content (>50-60%) is present, items such as leaves, lime, earth, etc. are added, and at a temperature of 30°C or higher.<sup id="cite_ref-Indicator_organism_:0_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indicator_organism_:0-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Environmental_samples">Environmental samples</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Environmental samples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For the purpose of setting treatment standards and reuse legislation, it is important to be able to determine the amount of helminth eggs in an environmental sample with some accuracy. The detection of viable helminth eggs in samples of wastewater, sludge or fresh feces (as a diagnostic tool for the infection <a href="/wiki/Helminthiasis" title="Helminthiasis">helminthiasis</a>) is not straight forward. In fact, many laboratories in developing countries lack the right equipment or skilled staff required to do so. An important step in the analytical methods is usually the concentration of the eggs in the sample, especially in the case of wastewater samples. A concentration step may not be required in samples of dried feces, e.g. samples collected from <a href="/wiki/Urine-diverting_dry_toilet" title="Urine-diverting dry toilet">urine-diverting dry toilets</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/48px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/64px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/18px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/24px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helminthology" title="Helminthology">Helminthology</a> –  the study of parasitic worms and their effects on their <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">hosts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthelminthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthelminthic">Anthelmintic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">Schistosomiasis</a> –  a disease caused by parasitic <a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">flatworms</a> called <a href="/wiki/Schistosoma" title="Schistosoma">schistosomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_filariasis" title="Lymphatic filariasis">Lymphatic filariasis</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Filarial_worms" class="mw-redirect" title="Filarial worms">filarial worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dracunculiasis" title="Dracunculiasis">Dracunculiasis</a> caused by the <a href="/wiki/Roundworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Roundworm">roundworm</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Dracunculus_medinensis" title="Dracunculus medinensis">Dracunculus medinensis</a></i> (Guinea worm)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-CDC-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CDC_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/about.html">"CDC - Parasites - About Parasites"</a>. <i>www.cdc.gov</i>. 20 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cdc.gov&rft.atitle=CDC+-+Parasites+-+About+Parasites&rft.date=2018-04-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fparasites%2Fabout.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHildersleyMcNeillyGillanOtto2021" class="citation journal cs1">Hildersley, Katie A.; McNeilly, Tom N.; Gillan, Victoria; Otto, Thomas D.; Löser, Stephan; Gerbe, François; Jay, Philippe; Maizels, Rick M.; Devaney, Eileen; Britton, Collette (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8646091">"Tuft Cells Increase Following Ovine Intestinal Parasite Infections and Define Evolutionarily Conserved and Divergent Responses"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Immunology</i>. <b>12</b>: 781108. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffimmu.2021.781108">10.3389/fimmu.2021.781108</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8646091">8646091</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34880874">34880874</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Immunology&rft.atitle=Tuft+Cells+Increase+Following+Ovine+Intestinal+Parasite+Infections+and+Define+Evolutionarily+Conserved+and+Divergent+Responses&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=781108&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8646091%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34880874&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffimmu.2021.781108&rft.aulast=Hildersley&rft.aufirst=Katie+A.&rft.au=McNeilly%2C+Tom+N.&rft.au=Gillan%2C+Victoria&rft.au=Otto%2C+Thomas+D.&rft.au=L%C3%B6ser%2C+Stephan&rft.au=Gerbe%2C+Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.au=Jay%2C+Philippe&rft.au=Maizels%2C+Rick+M.&rft.au=Devaney%2C+Eileen&rft.au=Britton%2C+Collette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8646091&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/about.html">"CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, about parasites"</a>. CDC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CDC+Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention%2C+about+parasites&rft.pub=CDC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fparasites%2Fabout.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jirillo, E., Magrone, T., Miragliotta, G. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eurekaselect.com/125669/volume/2">"Immunomodulation by Parasitic Helminths and its Therapeutic Exploitation"</a>. In: Pineda, M.A., Harnett, W. (eds.), <i>Immune Response to Parasitic Infections</i> (Vol. 2, pp. 175–212), Bentham eBooks, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2174%2F97816080598501140201">10.2174/97816080598501140201</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60805-985-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60805-985-0">978-1-60805-985-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/help/navphylogeny.html">"Navigating the Phylogeny Wing, University of Berkeley, USA"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Navigating+the+Phylogeny+Wing%2C+University+of+Berkeley%2C+USA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fhelp%2Fnavphylogeny.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html">"Tree of Life web project"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tree+of+Life+web+project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tolweb.org%2Ftree%2Fphylogeny.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141013012251/http://www.path.cam.ac.uk/~schisto/helminth_taxonomy/index.html">"Schistosomiasis Research Group, University of Cambridge, UK"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.path.cam.ac.uk/~schisto/helminth_taxonomy/index.html">the original</a> on 13 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Schistosomiasis+Research+Group%2C+University+of+Cambridge%2C+UK&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.path.cam.ac.uk%2F~schisto%2Fhelminth_taxonomy%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaya_C.,_Torner-Morales_F.J.,_Lucario_E.S.,_Hernández_E.,_Jiménez_B.2012" class="citation journal cs1">Maya C., Torner-Morales F.J., Lucario E.S., Hernández E., Jiménez B. (2012). "Viability of six species of larval and non-larval helminth eggs for different conditions of temperature, pH and dryness". <i>Water Research</i>. <b>46</b> (15): 4770–4782. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012WatRe..46.4770M">2012WatRe..46.4770M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.watres.2012.06.014">10.1016/j.watres.2012.06.014</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22794801">22794801</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Water+Research&rft.atitle=Viability+of+six+species+of+larval+and+non-larval+helminth+eggs+for+different+conditions+of+temperature%2C+pH+and+dryness&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=4770-4782&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22794801&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.watres.2012.06.014&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012WatRe..46.4770M&rft.au=Maya+C.%2C+Torner-Morales+F.J.%2C+Lucario+E.S.%2C+Hern%C3%A1ndez+E.%2C+Jim%C3%A9nez+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobsonLaffertyKurisHechinger2008" class="citation journal cs1">Dobson, A.; Lafferty, K. D.; Kuris, A. M.; Hechinger, R. F.; Jetz, W. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2556407">"Homage to Linnaeus:How many parasites? How many hosts?"</a>. <i>PNAS</i>. <b>105</b> (Suppl 1): 11482–11489. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PNAS..10511482D">2008PNAS..10511482D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0803232105">10.1073/pnas.0803232105</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2556407">2556407</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18695218">18695218</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PNAS&rft.atitle=Homage+to+Linnaeus%3AHow+many+parasites%3F+How+many+hosts%3F&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=Suppl+1&rft.pages=11482-11489&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2556407%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18695218&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0803232105&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PNAS..10511482D&rft.aulast=Dobson&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Lafferty%2C+K.+D.&rft.au=Kuris%2C+A.+M.&rft.au=Hechinger%2C+R.+F.&rft.au=Jetz%2C+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2556407&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCox2002" class="citation journal cs1">Cox, F. E. G. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC126866">"History of Human Parasitology"</a>. <i>Clinical Microbiology Reviews</i>. <b>15</b> (4): 595–612. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FCMR.15.4.595-612.2002">10.1128/CMR.15.4.595-612.2002</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC126866">126866</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12364371">12364371</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Microbiology+Reviews&rft.atitle=History+of+Human+Parasitology&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=595-612&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC126866%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12364371&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FCMR.15.4.595-612.2002&rft.aulast=Cox&rft.aufirst=F.+E.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC126866&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayo_Clinic_Staff" class="citation web cs1">Mayo Clinic Staff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/ringworm-body/symptoms-causes/syc-20353780">"Ringworm (body) - Symptoms and causes"</a>. <i>Mayo Clinic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mayo+Clinic&rft.atitle=Ringworm+%28body%29+-+Symptoms+and+causes&rft.au=Mayo+Clinic+Staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mayoclinic.org%2Fdiseases-conditions%2Fringworm-body%2Fsymptoms-causes%2Fsyc-20353780&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aad.org/public/diseases/contagious-skin-diseases/ringworm">"Ringworm"</a>. <i>American Academy of Dermatology</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Academy+of+Dermatology&rft.atitle=Ringworm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aad.org%2Fpublic%2Fdiseases%2Fcontagious-skin-diseases%2Fringworm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalehiRazaviVahedi_Nouri2022" class="citation journal cs1">Salehi, Alireza; Razavi, Mahsa; Vahedi Nouri, Nasrollah (2022-12-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9797291">"Seasonal Prevalence of Helminthic Infections in the Gastrointestinal Tract of Sheep in Mazandaran Province, Northern Iran"</a>. <i>Journal of Parasitology Research</i>. <b>2022</b>: e7392801. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2022%2F7392801">10.1155/2022/7392801</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2090-0023">2090-0023</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9797291">9797291</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36588778">36588778</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Parasitology+Research&rft.atitle=Seasonal+Prevalence+of+Helminthic+Infections+in+the+Gastrointestinal+Tract+of+Sheep+in+Mazandaran+Province%2C+Northern+Iran&rft.volume=2022&rft.pages=e7392801&rft.date=2022-12-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9797291%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2090-0023&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36588778&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2022%2F7392801&rft.aulast=Salehi&rft.aufirst=Alireza&rft.au=Razavi%2C+Mahsa&rft.au=Vahedi+Nouri%2C+Nasrollah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9797291&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNouriRahmatianSalehi2022" class="citation journal cs1">Nouri, Nasrollah Vahedi; Rahmatian, Reza; Salehi, Alireza (2022-06-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9197603">"Prevalence of Helminthic Infections in the Gastrointestinal Tract of Cattle in Mazandaran Province (Northern Iran)"</a>. <i>Journal of Parasitology Research</i>. <b>2022</b>: e7424647. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2022%2F7424647">10.1155/2022/7424647</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2090-0023">2090-0023</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9197603">9197603</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35711670">35711670</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Parasitology+Research&rft.atitle=Prevalence+of+Helminthic+Infections+in+the+Gastrointestinal+Tract+of+Cattle+in+Mazandaran+Province+%28Northern+Iran%29&rft.volume=2022&rft.pages=e7424647&rft.date=2022-06-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9197603%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2090-0023&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35711670&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2022%2F7424647&rft.aulast=Nouri&rft.aufirst=Nasrollah+Vahedi&rft.au=Rahmatian%2C+Reza&rft.au=Salehi%2C+Alireza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9197603&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/fasciola/biology.html">"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Parasites - Fascioliasis (Fasciola Infection)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention%3A+Parasites+-+Fascioliasis+%28Fasciola+Infection%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fparasites%2Ffasciola%2Fbiology.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-World_Health_Organization-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-World_Health_Organization_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-World_Health_Organization_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-World_Health_Organization_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWHO2006" class="citation book cs1">WHO (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1004"><i>Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater, Volume 4 Excreta and Greywater Use in Agriculture</i></a> (third ed.). Geneva: World Health Organization. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9241546850" title="Special:BookSources/978-9241546850"><bdi>978-9241546850</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guidelines+for+the+Safe+Use+of+Wastewater%2C+Excreta+and+Greywater%2C+Volume+4+Excreta+and+Greywater+Use+in+Agriculture.&rft.place=Geneva&rft.edition=third&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-9241546850&rft.au=WHO&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.susana.org%2Fen%2Fresources%2Flibrary%2Fdetails%2F1004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Feachem, R., Bradley, D., Garelick, H., Mara, D. (1983). Sanitation and Disease: Health Aspects of Excreta and Wastewater Management. John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_18-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_18-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJimenez_B2007" class="citation journal cs1">Jimenez B (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2166%2Fwst.2007.046">"Helminth ova removal from wastewater for agriculture and aquaculture reuse"</a>. <i>Water Science & Technology</i>. <b>55</b> (1–2): 485–493. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007WSTec..55..485J">2007WSTec..55..485J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2166%2Fwst.2007.046">10.2166/wst.2007.046</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17305174">17305174</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Water+Science+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=Helminth+ova+removal+from+wastewater+for+agriculture+and+aquaculture+reuse&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=485-493&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17305174&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2166%2Fwst.2007.046&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007WSTec..55..485J&rft.au=Jimenez+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2166%252Fwst.2007.046&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access#Free_access" title="Free to read"><img alt="Free access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairweather_I.,_Threadgold_L.T.1981" class="citation journal cs1">Fairweather I., Threadgold L.T. (1981). "Hymenolepis nana: the fine structure of the embryonic envelopes". <i>Parasitology</i>. <b>82</b> (3): 429–443. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0031182000066968">10.1017/s0031182000066968</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7243350">7243350</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:222626">222626</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Parasitology&rft.atitle=Hymenolepis+nana%3A+the+fine+structure+of+the+embryonic+envelopes&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=429-443&rft.date=1981&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A222626%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7243350&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0031182000066968&rft.au=Fairweather+I.%2C+Threadgold+L.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLýsek_H.,_Malínský_J.,_Janisch_R.1985" class="citation journal cs1">Lýsek H., Malínský J., Janisch R. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://folia.paru.cas.cz/pdfs/fol/1985/04/15.pdf">"Ultrastructure of eggs of Ascaris lumbricoides Linnaeus, 1758. I. Egg-shells"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Folia Parasitologica</i>. <b>32</b> (4): 381–384. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4085927">4085927</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Folia+Parasitologica&rft.atitle=Ultrastructure+of+eggs+of+Ascaris+lumbricoides+Linnaeus%2C+1758.+I.+Egg-shells&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=381-384&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4085927&rft.au=L%C3%BDsek+H.%2C+Mal%C3%ADnsk%C3%BD+J.%2C+Janisch+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffolia.paru.cas.cz%2Fpdfs%2Ffol%2F1985%2F04%2F15.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuilès_F.,_Balandier_J.Y.,_Capizzi-Banas_S.2006" class="citation journal cs1">Quilès F., Balandier J.Y., Capizzi-Banas S. (2006). "In situ characterisation of a microorganism surface by Raman microspectroscopy: the shell of Ascaris eggs". <i>Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry</i>. <b>386</b> (2): 249–255. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00216-006-0638-4">10.1007/s00216-006-0638-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16900382">16900382</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39350893">39350893</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Analytical+and+Bioanalytical+Chemistry&rft.atitle=In+situ+characterisation+of+a+microorganism+surface+by+Raman+microspectroscopy%3A+the+shell+of+Ascaris+eggs&rft.volume=386&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=249-255&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A39350893%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16900382&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00216-006-0638-4&rft.au=Quil%C3%A8s+F.%2C+Balandier+J.Y.%2C+Capizzi-Banas+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:13_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBogitshCarterOeltmann2012" class="citation book cs1">Bogitsh, Burton J.; Carter, Clint E.; Oeltmann, Thomas N. (2012). "General Characteristics of the Nematoda (Chapter 15), Intestinal Nematodes (Chapter 16)". <i>Human Parasitology</i>. UK: Academic Press. pp. 269–345. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-415915-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-415915-0"><bdi>978-0-12-415915-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=General+Characteristics+of+the+Nematoda+%28Chapter+15%29%2C+Intestinal+Nematodes+%28Chapter+16%29&rft.btitle=Human+Parasitology&rft.place=UK&rft.pages=269-345&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-12-415915-0&rft.aulast=Bogitsh&rft.aufirst=Burton+J.&rft.au=Carter%2C+Clint+E.&rft.au=Oeltmann%2C+Thomas+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_23-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_23-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_23-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_23-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_23-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_23-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lamonthe Argumedo, R., Garcia Prieto, L. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/19890856899.html;jsessionid=02B0A5F1A56ABCF2168CCE818117C655;jsessionid=73E2DEA523DD5F13598E546729323C4B">Human helminthiasis in Mexico. Treatment and prophylaxis</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141229132708/http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/19890856899.html;jsessionid=02B0A5F1A56ABCF2168CCE818117C655;jsessionid=73E2DEA523DD5F13598E546729323C4B">Archived</a> 2014-12-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, A.G.T. Editor, S.A., 1st edition, Mexico. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9684630514" title="Special:BookSources/9684630514">9684630514</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pumarola, A., Rodríguez-Torres, A., García, R.J.A., Piedrola, A.G. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nlego0fDRUQC&pg=PR18&lpg=PP1&focus=viewport&dq=microbiolog%C3%ADa+y+parasitolog%C3%ADa+m%C3%A9dica+pumarola&hl=de">Medical Microbiology and Parasitology</a> (in Spanish), Ediciones Científicas y Técnicas, S. A., Barcelona, Spain, pp 850 – 880</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Trematoda/">"Animal diversity web"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Diversity_Web" title="Animal Diversity Web">Animal Diversity Web</a></i>. September 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Animal+Diversity+Web&rft.atitle=Animal+diversity+web&rft.date=2001-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fanimaldiversity.org%2Faccounts%2FTrematoda%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:11-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:11_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_26-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_26-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_26-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/taeniasis/biology.html">"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention"</a>. <i>Parasites - Taeniasis (Biology)</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Parasites+-+Taeniasis+%28Biology%29&rft.atitle=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fparasites%2Ftaeniasis%2Fbiology.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_27-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_27-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_27-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/ascariasis/biology.html">"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Parasites - Ascariasis"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention%3A+Parasites+-+Ascariasis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fparasites%2Fascariasis%2Fbiology.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_28-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/hookworm/biology.html">"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Parasites - Hookworm"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention%3A+Parasites+-+Hookworm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fparasites%2Fhookworm%2Fbiology.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_29-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_29-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/whipworm/biology.html">"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Parasites - Trichuriasis (also known as Whipworm Infection)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention%3A+Parasites+-+Trichuriasis+%28also+known+as+Whipworm+Infection%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fparasites%2Fwhipworm%2Fbiology.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://parasite.wormbase.org">"WormBase ParaSite"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=WormBase+ParaSite&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fparasite.wormbase.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BBC_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BBC_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BBC_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BBC_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3287733.stm">"Eat worms - feel better"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></i>. 3 December 2003<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Eat+worms+-+feel+better&rft.date=2003-12-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fhealth%2F3287733.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weinstock-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Weinstock_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinstock2015" class="citation journal cs1">Weinstock, Joel (October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org./10.1007/s12016-014-8458-3">"Do We Need Worms to Promote Immune Health?"</a>. <i>Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology</i>. <b>49</b> (2): 227–231. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12016-014-8458-3">10.1007/s12016-014-8458-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25326880">25326880</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22950215">22950215</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Reviews+in+Allergy+%26+Immunology&rft.atitle=Do+We+Need+Worms+to+Promote+Immune+Health%3F&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=227-231&rft.date=2015-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22950215%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25326880&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12016-014-8458-3&rft.aulast=Weinstock&rft.aufirst=Joel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org.%2F10.1007%2Fs12016-014-8458-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-science-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-science_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-science_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu2011" class="citation journal cs1">Wu, Davina; et al. (8 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160418231924/http://sabre.ucsf.edu/docs/Science-2011-Wu-243-7.pdf">"Eosinophils Sustain Adipose Alternatively Activated Macrophages Associated with Glucose Homeostasis"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>332</b> (6026): 243–247. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Sci...332..243W">2011Sci...332..243W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1201475">10.1126/science.1201475</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3144160">3144160</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21436399">21436399</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sabre.ucsf.edu/docs/Science-2011-Wu-243-7.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-04-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Eosinophils+Sustain+Adipose+Alternatively+Activated+Macrophages+Associated+with+Glucose+Homeostasis&rft.volume=332&rft.issue=6026&rft.pages=243-247&rft.date=2011-04-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3144160%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21436399&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1201475&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Sci...332..243W&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Davina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsabre.ucsf.edu%2Fdocs%2FScience-2011-Wu-243-7.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keraita B., Jiménez B., Drechsel P. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248908925">Extent and Implications of Agricultural Reuse of Untreated, partly Treated and Diluted Wastewater in Developing Countries</a>. CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources, Vol 3, No 58, pp 1–15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlouini_Z.,_Jemli_M.2001" class="citation journal cs1">Alouini Z., Jemli M. (2001). "Destruction of helminth eggs by photosensitized porphyrin". <i>Journal of Environmental Monitoring</i>. <b>3</b> (5): 548–551. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2Fb103471p">10.1039/b103471p</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11695127">11695127</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Environmental+Monitoring&rft.atitle=Destruction+of+helminth+eggs+by+photosensitized+porphyrin&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=548-551&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2Fb103471p&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11695127&rft.au=Alouini+Z.%2C+Jemli+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCapizzi-Banas_S.,_Deloge_M.,_Remy_M.,_Schwartzbrod_J.2004" class="citation journal cs1">Capizzi-Banas S., Deloge M., Remy M., Schwartzbrod J. (2004). "Liming as an advanced treatment for sludge sanitisation: helminth eggs elimination - Ascaris eggs as model". <i>Water Research</i>. <b>38</b> (14–15): 3251–3258. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004WatRe..38.3251C">2004WatRe..38.3251C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.watres.2004.04.015">10.1016/j.watres.2004.04.015</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15276741">15276741</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Water+Research&rft.atitle=Liming+as+an+advanced+treatment+for+sludge+sanitisation%3A+helminth+eggs+elimination+-+Ascaris+eggs+as+model&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=14%E2%80%9315&rft.pages=3251-3258&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15276741&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.watres.2004.04.015&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004WatRe..38.3251C&rft.au=Capizzi-Banas+S.%2C+Deloge+M.%2C+Remy+M.%2C+Schwartzbrod+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jimenez B., Chavez-Mejia A. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09593331808616590">Treatment of Mexico City Wastewater for Irrigation Purposes</a>. Environmental Technology, Vol 18, pp 721–730</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jiménez B., Maya C., Salgado G. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iwaponline.com/wst/article-pdf/43/12/179/429089/179.pdf">The Elimination of Helminth Ova, Fecal Coliforms, Salmonella and Protozoan Cysts by Various Physicochemical Processes in Wastewater and Sludge</a>. Water Science and Technology, Vol 43, No 12, pp 179–182 (DOI= 10.2166/wst.2001.0733) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access#Free_access" title="Free to read"><img alt="Free access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schmidt, G.D., Roberts, L.S. (1981). Foundations of Parasitology, second ed. C.V. Mosby Company, 795 pp</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Indicator_organism_Marcos2-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Indicator_organism_Marcos2_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Indicator_organism_Marcos2_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVon_Sperling2015" class="citation journal cs1">Von Sperling, M. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book/72/">"Wastewater Characteristics, Treatment and Disposal"</a>. <i>Water Intelligence Online</i>. <b>6</b>: 9781780402086. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2166%2F9781780402086">10.2166/9781780402086</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-1777">1476-1777</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Water+Intelligence+Online&rft.atitle=Wastewater+Characteristics%2C+Treatment+and+Disposal&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=9781780402086&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2166%2F9781780402086&rft.issn=1476-1777&rft.aulast=Von+Sperling&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiwaponline.com%2Febooks%2Fbook%2F72%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Indicator_organism_:5-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Indicator_organism_:5_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Indicator_organism_:5_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKonéCofieZurbrüggGallizzi2007" class="citation journal cs1">Koné, Doulaye; Cofie, Olufunke; Zurbrügg, Christian; Gallizzi, Katharina; Moser, Daya; Drescher, Silke; Strauss, Martin (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0043135407004009">"Helminth eggs inactivation efficiency by faecal sludge dewatering and co-composting in tropical climates"</a>. <i>Water Research</i>. <b>41</b> (19): 4397–4402. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007WatRe..41.4397K">2007WatRe..41.4397K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.watres.2007.06.024">10.1016/j.watres.2007.06.024</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17624391">17624391</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Water+Research&rft.atitle=Helminth+eggs+inactivation+efficiency+by+faecal+sludge+dewatering+and+co-composting+in+tropical+climates&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=19&rft.pages=4397-4402&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17624391&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.watres.2007.06.024&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007WatRe..41.4397K&rft.aulast=Kon%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Doulaye&rft.au=Cofie%2C+Olufunke&rft.au=Zurbr%C3%BCgg%2C+Christian&rft.au=Gallizzi%2C+Katharina&rft.au=Moser%2C+Daya&rft.au=Drescher%2C+Silke&rft.au=Strauss%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0043135407004009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Indicator_organism_:6-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Indicator_organism_:6_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Indicator_organism_:6_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayaJimenezSchwartzbrod2006" class="citation journal cs1">Maya, C.; Jimenez, B.; Schwartzbrod, J. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2175/106143005X89571">"Comparison of Techniques for the Detection of Helminth Ova in Drinking Water and Wastewater"</a>. <i>Water Environment Research</i>. <b>78</b> (2): 118–124. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006WaEnR..78..118M">2006WaEnR..78..118M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2175%2F106143005X89571">10.2175/106143005X89571</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1554-7531">1554-7531</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16566519">16566519</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46046758">46046758</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Water+Environment+Research&rft.atitle=Comparison+of+Techniques+for+the+Detection+of+Helminth+Ova+in+Drinking+Water+and+Wastewater&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=118-124&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46046758%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006WaEnR..78..118M&rft.issn=1554-7531&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2175%2F106143005X89571&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16566519&rft.aulast=Maya&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Jimenez%2C+B.&rft.au=Schwartzbrod%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.2175%2F106143005X89571&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrevention2021" class="citation web cs1">Prevention, CDC-Centers for Disease Control and (2021-01-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/sth/index.html">"CDC - Soil-Transmitted Helminths"</a>. <i>www.cdc.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cdc.gov&rft.atitle=CDC+-+Soil-Transmitted+Helminths&rft.date=2021-01-13&rft.aulast=Prevention&rft.aufirst=CDC-Centers+for+Disease+Control+and&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fparasites%2Fsth%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNavarroJiménez2011" class="citation journal cs1">Navarro, I.; Jiménez, B (2011-04-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iwaponline.com/wst/article/63/7/1499/14213/Evaluation-of-the-WHO-helminth-eggs-criteria-using">"Evaluation of the WHO helminth eggs criteria using a QMRA approach for the safe reuse of wastewater and sludge in developing countries"</a>. <i>Water Science and Technology</i>. <b>63</b> (7): 1499–1505. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011WSTec..63.1499N">2011WSTec..63.1499N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2166%2Fwst.2011.394">10.2166/wst.2011.394</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0273-1223">0273-1223</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21508556">21508556</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Water+Science+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Evaluation+of+the+WHO+helminth+eggs+criteria+using+a+QMRA+approach+for+the+safe+reuse+of+wastewater+and+sludge+in+developing+countries&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1499-1505&rft.date=2011-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2166%2Fwst.2011.394&rft.issn=0273-1223&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21508556&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011WSTec..63.1499N&rft.aulast=Navarro&rft.aufirst=I.&rft.au=Jim%C3%A9nez%2C+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiwaponline.com%2Fwst%2Farticle%2F63%2F7%2F1499%2F14213%2FEvaluation-of-the-WHO-helminth-eggs-criteria-using&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Indicator_organism_:0-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Indicator_organism_:0_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Indicator_organism_:0_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJiménezMayaGalván2007" class="citation journal cs1">Jiménez, B.; Maya, C.; Galván, M. (2007-09-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iwaponline.com/wst/article/56/5/43/14049/Helminth-ova-control-in-wastewater-and-sludge-for">"Helminth ova control in wastewater and sludge for advanced and conventional sanitation"</a>. <i>Water Science and Technology</i>. <b>56</b> (5): 43–51. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007WSTec..56...43J">2007WSTec..56...43J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2166%2Fwst.2007.555">10.2166/wst.2007.555</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0273-1223">0273-1223</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17881836">17881836</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Water+Science+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Helminth+ova+control+in+wastewater+and+sludge+for+advanced+and+conventional+sanitation&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=43-51&rft.date=2007-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2166%2Fwst.2007.555&rft.issn=0273-1223&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17881836&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007WSTec..56...43J&rft.aulast=Jim%C3%A9nez&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.au=Maya%2C+C.&rft.au=Galv%C3%A1n%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiwaponline.com%2Fwst%2Farticle%2F56%2F5%2F43%2F14049%2FHelminth-ova-control-in-wastewater-and-sludge-for&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Indicator_organism_:22-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Indicator_organism_:22_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaya_C.,_Torner-Morales_F.J.,_Lucario_E.S.,_Hernández_E.,_Jiménez_B.2012" class="citation journal cs1">Maya C., Torner-Morales F.J., Lucario E.S., Hernández E., Jiménez B. (2012). "Viability of six species of larval and non-larval helminth eggs for different conditions of temperature, pH and dryness". <i>Water Research</i>. <b>46</b> (15): 4770–4782. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012WatRe..46.4770M">2012WatRe..46.4770M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.watres.2012.06.014">10.1016/j.watres.2012.06.014</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22794801">22794801</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Water+Research&rft.atitle=Viability+of+six+species+of+larval+and+non-larval+helminth+eggs+for+different+conditions+of+temperature%2C+pH+and+dryness&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=4770-4782&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22794801&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.watres.2012.06.014&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012WatRe..46.4770M&rft.au=Maya+C.%2C+Torner-Morales+F.J.%2C+Lucario+E.S.%2C+Hern%C3%A1ndez+E.%2C+Jim%C3%A9nez+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitic+worm" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dickson_Despommier" title="Dickson Despommier">Dickson Despommier</a>, <i>People, Parasites, and Plowshares: Learning from Our Body's Most Terrifying Invaders</i>, <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>, 2016 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231161954" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231161954">978-0231161954</a>).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Helminths" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Helminths">Helminths</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071017030045/http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/roundwor.htm">Parasitic Roundworm Diseases</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/intestinal_worms/en/">World Health Organisation (WHO) topic page on Intestinal worms</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Parasitic_disease_caused_by_helminthiases" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Helminthiases" title="Template:Helminthiases"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Helminthiases" title="Template talk:Helminthiases"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Helminthiases" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Helminthiases"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Parasitic_disease_caused_by_helminthiases" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Parasitic_disease" title="Parasitic disease">Parasitic disease</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Helminthiasis" title="Helminthiasis">helminthiases</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">Flatworm/<br />platyhelminth</a><br />infection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Trematoda" title="Trematoda">Fluke/trematode</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Trematoda" title="Trematoda">Trematode infection</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schistosoma" title="Schistosoma">Blood fluke</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Schistosoma_mansoni" title="Schistosoma mansoni">Schistosoma mansoni</a></i> / <a href="/wiki/Schistosoma_japonicum" title="Schistosoma japonicum"><i>S. japonicum</i></a> / <a href="/wiki/Schistosoma_mekongi" title="Schistosoma mekongi"><i>S. mekongi</i></a> / <a href="/wiki/Schistosoma_haematobium" title="Schistosoma haematobium"><i>S. haematobium</i></a> / <a href="/wiki/Schistosoma_intercalatum" title="Schistosoma intercalatum"><i>S. intercalatum</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">Schistosomiasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trichobilharzia_regenti" title="Trichobilharzia regenti">Trichobilharzia regenti</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swimmer%27s_itch" title="Swimmer's itch">Swimmer's itch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liver_fluke" title="Liver fluke">Liver fluke</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Clonorchis_sinensis" title="Clonorchis sinensis">Clonorchis sinensis</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clonorchiasis" title="Clonorchiasis">Clonorchiasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dicrocoelium_dendriticum" title="Dicrocoelium dendriticum">Dicrocoelium dendriticum</a></i> / <a href="/wiki/Dicrocoelium_hospes" title="Dicrocoelium hospes"><i>D. hospes</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dicrocoeliasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicrocoeliasis">Dicrocoeliasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fasciola_hepatica" title="Fasciola hepatica">Fasciola hepatica</a></i> / <a href="/wiki/Fasciola_gigantica" title="Fasciola gigantica"><i>F. gigantica</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fasciolosis" title="Fasciolosis">Fasciolosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opisthorchis_viverrini" title="Opisthorchis viverrini">Opisthorchis viverrini</a></i> / <a href="/wiki/Opisthorchis_felineus" title="Opisthorchis felineus"><i>O. felineus</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opisthorchiasis" title="Opisthorchiasis">Opisthorchiasis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Paragonimus_westermani" title="Paragonimus westermani">Lung fluke</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Paragonimus_westermani" title="Paragonimus westermani">Paragonimus westermani</a></i> / <a href="/wiki/Paragonimus_kellicotti" title="Paragonimus kellicotti"><i>P. kellicotti</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paragonimiasis" title="Paragonimiasis">Paragonimiasis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fasciolopsis" title="Fasciolopsis">Intestinal fluke</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Echinostoma" title="Echinostoma">Echinostoma</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Echinostomiasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinostomiasis">Echinostomiasis</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fasciolopsis_buski" class="mw-redirect" title="Fasciolopsis buski">Fasciolopsis buski</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fasciolopsiasis" title="Fasciolopsiasis">Fasciolopsiasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gastrodiscoides_hominis" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrodiscoides hominis">Gastrodiscoides hominis</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphistomiasis" title="Amphistomiasis">Amphistomiasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heterophyes_heterophyes" title="Heterophyes heterophyes">Heterophyes heterophyes</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heterophyiasis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heterophyiasis (page does not exist)">Heterophyiasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metagonimus_yokogawai" title="Metagonimus yokogawai">Metagonimus yokogawai</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metagonimiasis" title="Metagonimiasis">Metagonimiasis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cestoda" title="Cestoda">Cestoda</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Tapeworm_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapeworm infection">Tapeworm infection</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyclophyllidea" title="Cyclophyllidea">Cyclophyllidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Echinococcus_granulosus" title="Echinococcus granulosus">Echinococcus granulosus</a></i> / <a href="/wiki/Echinococcus_multilocularis" title="Echinococcus multilocularis"><i>E. multilocularis</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Echinococcosis" title="Echinococcosis">Echinococcosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taenia_saginata" title="Taenia saginata">Taenia saginata</a></i> / <a href="/wiki/Taenia_asiatica" title="Taenia asiatica"><i>T. asiatica</i></a> / <a href="/wiki/Taenia_solium" title="Taenia solium"><i>T. solium</i> (pork)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taeniasis" title="Taeniasis">Taeniasis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cysticercosis" title="Cysticercosis">Cysticercosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hymenolepis_nana" title="Hymenolepis nana">Hymenolepis nana</a></i> / <a href="/wiki/Hymenolepis_diminuta" title="Hymenolepis diminuta"><i>H. diminuta</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hymenolepiasis" title="Hymenolepiasis">Hymenolepiasis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pseudophyllidea" title="Pseudophyllidea">Pseudophyllidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diphyllobothrium" title="Diphyllobothrium"><i>Diphyllobothrium latum</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diphyllobothriasis" title="Diphyllobothriasis">Diphyllobothriasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Spirometra_erinaceieuropaei" title="Spirometra erinaceieuropaei">Spirometra erinaceieuropaei</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sparganosis" title="Sparganosis">Sparganosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Diphyllobothrium_mansonoides" title="Diphyllobothrium mansonoides">Diphyllobothrium mansonoides</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sparganosis" title="Sparganosis">Sparganosis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roundworm/<br /><a href="/wiki/Nematode_infection" title="Nematode infection">Nematode<br />infection</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Secernentea" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Secernentea" title="Secernentea">Secernentea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spiruria" title="Spiruria">Spiruria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Camallanida" title="Camallanida">Camallanida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dracunculus_medinensis" title="Dracunculus medinensis">Dracunculus medinensis</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dracunculiasis" title="Dracunculiasis">Dracunculiasis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spirurida" title="Spirurida">Spirurida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Filarioidea" title="Filarioidea">Filarioidea</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Filariasis" title="Filariasis">Filariasis</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Onchocerca_volvulus" title="Onchocerca volvulus">Onchocerca volvulus</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Onchocerciasis" title="Onchocerciasis">Onchocerciasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loa_loa" title="Loa loa">Loa loa</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loa_loa_filariasis" title="Loa loa filariasis"><i>Loa loa</i> filariasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mansonella" title="Mansonella">Mansonella</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mansonelliasis" title="Mansonelliasis">Mansonelliasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dirofilaria_repens" title="Dirofilaria repens">Dirofilaria repens</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirofilaria_immitis" title="Dirofilaria immitis"><i>D. immitis</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dirofilariasis" title="Dirofilariasis">Dirofilariasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wuchereria_bancrofti" title="Wuchereria bancrofti">Wuchereria bancrofti</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Brugia_malayi" title="Brugia malayi">Brugia malayi</a></i> / <a href="/wiki/Brugia_timori" title="Brugia timori"><i>B. timori</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_filariasis" title="Lymphatic filariasis">Lymphatic filariasis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thelazioidea" title="Thelazioidea">Thelazioidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gnathostoma_spinigerum" title="Gnathostoma spinigerum">Gnathostoma spinigerum</a></i> / <a href="/wiki/Gnathostoma_hispidum" title="Gnathostoma hispidum"><i>G. hispidum</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnathostomiasis" title="Gnathostomiasis">Gnathostomiasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thelazia" title="Thelazia">Thelazia</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thelaziasis" title="Thelaziasis">Thelaziasis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spiruroidea" title="Spiruroidea">Spiruroidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gongylonema" title="Gongylonema">Gongylonema</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strongylida" title="Strongylida">Strongylida</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Hookworm" title="Hookworm">hookworm</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hookworm_infection" title="Hookworm infection">Hookworm infection</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ancylostoma_duodenale" title="Ancylostoma duodenale">Ancylostoma duodenale</a></i> / <a href="/wiki/Ancylostoma_braziliense" title="Ancylostoma braziliense"><i>A. braziliense</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancylostomiasis" title="Ancylostomiasis">Ancylostomiasis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cutaneous_larva_migrans" title="Cutaneous larva migrans">Cutaneous larva migrans</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Necator_americanus" title="Necator americanus">Necator americanus</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Necatoriasis" title="Necatoriasis">Necatoriasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Angiostrongylus_cantonensis" title="Angiostrongylus cantonensis">Angiostrongylus cantonensis</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angiostrongyliasis" title="Angiostrongyliasis">Angiostrongyliasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metastrongylus" title="Metastrongylus">Metastrongylus</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metastrongylosis" title="Metastrongylosis">Metastrongylosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oesophagostomum" title="Oesophagostomum">Oesophagostomum</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oesophagostomiasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Oesophagostomiasis">Oesophagostomiasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichostrongylus" title="Trichostrongylus"><i>Trichostrongylus</i> spp.</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trichostrongyliasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichostrongyliasis">Trichostrongyliasis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ascaridida" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascaridida">Ascaridida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ascaris_lumbricoides" title="Ascaris lumbricoides">Ascaris lumbricoides</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascariasis" title="Ascariasis">Ascariasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anisakis" title="Anisakis">Anisakis</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisakiasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Anisakiasis">Anisakiasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Toxocara_canis" title="Toxocara canis">Toxocara canis</a></i> / <a href="/wiki/Toxocara_cati" title="Toxocara cati"><i>T. cati</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visceral_larva_migrans" title="Visceral larva migrans">Visceral larva migrans</a> / <a href="/wiki/Toxocariasis" title="Toxocariasis">Toxocariasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Baylisascaris" title="Baylisascaris">Baylisascaris</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dioctophyme_renale" title="Dioctophyme renale">Dioctophyme renale</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dioctophymosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioctophymosis">Dioctophymosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Parascaris_equorum" title="Parascaris equorum">Parascaris equorum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rhabditida" title="Rhabditida">Rhabditida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Strongyloides_stercoralis" title="Strongyloides stercoralis">Strongyloides stercoralis</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strongyloidiasis" title="Strongyloidiasis">Strongyloidiasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Halicephalobus_gingivalis" title="Halicephalobus gingivalis">Halicephalobus gingivalis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oxyurida" title="Oxyurida">Oxyurida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Enterobius_vermicularis" class="mw-redirect" title="Enterobius vermicularis">Enterobius vermicularis</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enterobiasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Enterobiasis">Enterobiasis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adenophorea" title="Adenophorea">Adenophorea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Trichinella_spiralis" title="Trichinella spiralis">Trichinella spiralis</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trichinosis" title="Trichinosis">Trichinosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trichuris_trichiura" title="Trichuris trichiura">Trichuris trichiura</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Trichuriasis" title="Trichuriasis">Trichuriasis / Whipworm</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Capillaria_philippinensis" title="Capillaria philippinensis">Capillaria philippinensis</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intestinal_capillariasis" title="Intestinal capillariasis">Intestinal capillariasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capillaria_hepatica" title="Capillaria hepatica"><i>C. hepatica</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Diseases_of_poverty" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Diseases_of_poverty" title="Template:Diseases of poverty"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Diseases_of_poverty" title="Template talk:Diseases of poverty"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Diseases_of_poverty" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Diseases of poverty"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Diseases_of_poverty" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Diseases of poverty</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Diseases of poverty</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">Malaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">Measles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">Pneumonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">Diarrheal diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">Plague</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neglected_tropical_diseases" title="Neglected tropical diseases">Neglected diseases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">Cholera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagas_disease" title="Chagas disease">Chagas disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">African sleeping sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">Schistosomiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dracunculiasis" title="Dracunculiasis">Dracunculiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onchocerciasis" title="Onchocerciasis">River blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visceral_leishmaniasis" title="Visceral leishmaniasis">Leishmaniasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachoma" title="Trachoma">Trachoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">Malnutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_review" title="Priority review">Priority review voucher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3129936#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119597000">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119597000">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00565988">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Helminti"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000112040&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&oldid=1259758690">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&oldid=1259758690</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Worms_(obsolete_taxon)" title="Category:Worms (obsolete taxon)">Worms (obsolete taxon)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Conditions_diagnosed_by_stool_test" title="Category:Conditions diagnosed by stool test">Conditions diagnosed by stool test</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Foodborne_illnesses" title="Category:Foodborne illnesses">Foodborne illnesses</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Helminthiases" title="Category:Helminthiases">Helminthiases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Intestinal_infectious_diseases" title="Category:Intestinal infectious diseases">Intestinal infectious diseases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tropical_diseases" title="Category:Tropical diseases">Tropical diseases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Parasitic_protostomes" title="Category:Parasitic protostomes">Parasitic protostomes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sanitation" title="Category:Sanitation">Sanitation</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_September_2018" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2018">Articles with unsourced statements from September 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_January_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from January 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_August_2015" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015">Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2020" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2020">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_excerpts" title="Category:Articles with excerpts">Articles with excerpts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 26 November 2024, at 22:07<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_worm&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5cd4cd96d5-l26ms","wgBackendResponseTime":260,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.826","walltime":"1.025","ppvisitednodes":{"value":6070,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":198240,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":6308,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":12,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":199796,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 834.972 1 -total"," 36.59% 305.493 1 Template:Reflist"," 13.24% 110.570 9 Template:Navbox"," 13.15% 109.836 16 Template:Cite_web"," 13.00% 108.533 20 Template:Cite_journal"," 12.86% 107.379 1 Template:Excerpt"," 10.19% 85.108 1 Template:Helminthiases"," 9.93% 82.931 8 Template:Citation_needed"," 8.13% 67.924 8 Template:Fix"," 6.65% 55.493 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.513","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":8331649,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-668b59dc6c-rshwf","timestamp":"20241126220730","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Parasitic worm","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parasitic_worm","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q3129936","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q3129936","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2005-06-15T03:53:52Z","dateModified":"2024-11-26T22:07:29Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/45\/Collage_of_various_helminth_eggs.png","headline":"macroscopic, parasitic worm"}</script> </body> </html>