CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html><html lang="en-US"><head><title>Just a moment...</title><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"><meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=Edge"><meta name="robots" content="noindex,nofollow"><meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width,initial-scale=1"><style>*{box-sizing:border-box;margin:0;padding:0}html{line-height:1.15;-webkit-text-size-adjust:100%;color:#313131;font-family:system-ui,-apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,Segoe UI,Roboto,Helvetica Neue,Arial,Noto Sans,sans-serif,Apple Color Emoji,Segoe UI Emoji,Segoe UI Symbol,Noto Color Emoji}body{display:flex;flex-direction:column;height:100vh;min-height:100vh}.main-content{margin:8rem auto;max-width:60rem;padding-left:1.5rem}@media (width <= 720px){.main-content{margin-top:4rem}}.h2{font-size:1.5rem;font-weight:500;line-height:2.25rem}@media (width <= 720px){.h2{font-size:1.25rem;line-height:1.5rem}}#challenge-error-text{background-image:url(data:image/svg+xml;base64,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);background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:contain;padding-left:34px}@media (prefers-color-scheme:dark){body{background-color:#222;color:#d9d9d9}}</style><meta http-equiv="refresh" content="390"></head><body class="no-js"><div class="main-wrapper" role="main"><div class="main-content"><noscript><div class="h2"><span id="challenge-error-text">Enable JavaScript and cookies to continue</span></div></noscript></div></div><script>(function(){window._cf_chl_opt={cvId: '3',cZone: "journals.aps.org",cType: 'managed',cRay: '8e7589451a109c8d',cH: 'F.rCzMAqWe_Xvq3DXKlwI.UC2GPXrOL7P7Rv1ZL0ods-1732410804-1.2.1.1-3moQGU9bkS1J3m4xNIxQHb1kH.j3_Y9az1QnEvdFk3JTtTTYmQk9Ia8.Lv9oOXj0',cUPMDTk: "\/prapplied\/abstract\/10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.9.024015?__cf_chl_tk=pveoDzd26BT3VbGCzFgAcpr9wv8lvki1XqrnMuNB_2I-1732410804-1.0.1.1-dGq4ok2OWLjjupnOlaESY2Vly.hKdMFJ_KsbyHVCJio",cFPWv: 'g',cITimeS: '1732410804',cTTimeMs: '1000',cMTimeMs: '390000',cTplC: 0,cTplV: 5,cTplB: 'cf',cK: "",fa: "\/prapplied\/abstract\/10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.9.024015?__cf_chl_f_tk=pveoDzd26BT3VbGCzFgAcpr9wv8lvki1XqrnMuNB_2I-1732410804-1.0.1.1-dGq4ok2OWLjjupnOlaESY2Vly.hKdMFJ_KsbyHVCJio",md: "oUHUuR1A_HpsoqNEY6Do4m6C2UuwByOYT9CzoxH5CK0-1732410804-1.2.1.1-FHPtejUS9JEzHqXCrDmGI7PxuUXWWmMLLbf_09sDe_1PPtalcuyUlyWX_GkTrUiBp0BzhdwAb1BLElvad6KfZ2L0ADkdvui5pyu3raqqW61k6eZE_pwBagfYjU9mOrm5o5aFo7.tzF2cVASEtJIAQ_tNRhn6_8J.PHm3GjU_p0DMwiGvGaQ69JaxTE.JmltHK9Zk3scSZUqpOIn5rCnItiQnsIR0ytHs3q3pk6NPeXgY6KtsNIBjJerVgNRolWVe266zSDWh2aJlA78eWL6qUl9kOPfxBPm8Hf8rSYbx0I3gF9jtsDDK4f4Ad9qAfXaJFgLISbO6ndAKDDWTKglPVjZdeKRSaaPcURB9KGl2_8D_e_Jy39zawTHWPQdDeipuMjXnbtSksbiGW2Xlf5FoGyMyEp92DUXjHFaRb5yxIyXHaY5tP4W6VdK2sfIEdV9ZCLrvpxbbQbsYcMooFy28LadE93a9b4Ff86SuVVbW5LSakXYopmCt.rKAYuSGV369Yo.m.R3LS5AnSDa9rY4Ms23ZcTkEYYiEaT6IRjh8HY8ujWxwinhZVpcP.sX6cJhxcBtRbFB1lVfaPaW.son075BzgRE9jZMQHVzYk0wdU29hzN56xpmjW7uAuSMlmri_pxYt3FDerL6eABOd1F4sgHjiSKNtVLJI6PsQzOdAzaniODDXZyROMUmCcvnXp.ZBtrobZIK35KnYEKVDChxpThBPZEhEcV4iLqbxCqowy3kptbFUTE79C3YWMe8U5hKPtMcMXBnk8vJRS9u.XjC_9_ouw4RXESOOLX0_VoMvAmH5XXiSB5fo1AQ.RX_Dz9MYXp2yxfb5aC0C.iXP77vBDQvZE0UE3KgAVtNjV46YQDAzcUGKfQdA09EP931_FjpBfqa0wrG_cz7qYOvFhDTiqCH7c4QQ1b6rNeJnqWCoyWNgtoogphtOfhc.WOE0MuS81O.stuNhGc4gSN.xZewYueUzkr8K9SSkTGZCfmfn54Zje8If3r5e1zfVQ7TlbdNH0l0p1IbVvRIyBcFKu_kXnsBV.m8ibbmbAs1DcyhDi4PKCwT2xe6dEi3MaFhH2CB9Vr1ZyWHCoSM27MD0BuRUHmu4McuBtBC0OShB0sLH.pHq3OvHR7rM9pnJVzWzjhFYWfx1_CEE5aS0rEh7B3rmFzLevaYV_woAuJUBtuDSLb0UsO6lwtNb2g2DOf6Vy7yb1jBcTCmAzun5MXUlqoZU5NF2sUiULNwVicDeMxwwh_ptNmeDJ07TXMPht2y7_buOBarFSTtP_IH6rlrr9sHu4MuByYVBUyAX3v0ggNMznGhUlWrg62EnEYeebV.7E.uuI5.4G3sBN6lSwBEuG4vasvp3bhArD7sbXGmf8pryLEb5aVi6cbnPigSYbRuMKzpEkyH8GxfccX.ut1wuwTyDvTKRcVn0PsmwAszuY_Ei5LB7Xm8bBSOQSfm2rQYmkFWebnNfNEuyzpaGid6J16IZgapULXdUJxuHnShSkASi7gqacK2UKBHn1PIJdGqtOq6oj.zEoZl1cj88i13levc3uOP8FePd8XGMBdEcQot4oqarmTHIXOYOHwLHOvvfcIajgviy.giLDatCeVVnpfhAKCn_S3wFGOvzXqlFhppe.w3RIAT5cpFRLxF3DNGzGBZIOkKgBMpP1ZN3m3SNaxF3orFQ9XtPZa9KPA5CIecElw3V0QCK_dmTl4zkM9y..CjfWT4mg9ibokR_pb7L.k_Z1_8CBl54NqQ4UsZ0keilC.Oqedq7qnhL5VOQQRLYYCQJ3uwJQU3BYXP2BHJsMx0jJ_ATF8YiGCMcKjQD7hvrofx57Dsfd_99vL3s8yCwxmdsrrlzlxr.Bskhhfr7vweelGIaoa7U5LoskGpueS68Gx4bHabBT.7YvCDSELXCMoS8gnzQ9SPt0dEHQC_LYpCTM61ObQtlgnV1fnufMXx0ysBsmtPKqpgwHtSqexHYaEo8HsJE2zWhZ6ieUIZ6uSqKX0hTidYQGFeKRhiOd7w3jAIqoUXAQZ3hQDUp9bJOVz1FkoBVs6ZWe7HkYkc_8RsD1yNjOGnIiJTUASx5B_wOC1uLc9sx6AijMViDZrTlgkemeDMnJJsKLHodLhJ9jufkIBgBqsVznOYS.tZM4M22fNc9fZzXCysn.anx3EbOfUb7Jgu44qBWPoZxTgqsMcxZIHpSJa9oGSAv2R6rAIdHdZrm1Xo.Wz68xrHO7lpNDnlxHUL0tF0kh0CHvFSfq9kwo_fAHUgzeLS5145BOQhH0tC5kcwJVfdAZlV5D4kMAVlTjVcHYAvJ.MQPAbsPGWvUbSGjhWezLqlJinCifqWg6QneszJ4OfLmmX5xl4YR716O8KD4m0gfSJZ_mi77GEZwdgCvnVFFKRvxsalPIVZbVplzP_uiGh2pziKzbmxa0zZgnbtOMjv_J5dhrmWT7nXVXuD.iZQ8DQ.FuTVsroHdr0OUO6EvUISE8isZoP7xkjQfFPXs3_QAAAHNiyk6kWqgtaquU1hZDoScEVWAY8j1Zm.b4Zn7Ay0y_G6m9qyFk166eEwwtEuiEguRoFlaEECDliCz69weFix2WwIp0rk8HpwtXmwq_W6hLtSOdKA1.JSdfAtGOmy8wqi9MbrvMlNpeU9tvLXy7HyoVbGE0697u52FSlkQOF.7507bduyKpRoBZ3D2N6rcnthaOHbpq0aicAbc7lacJKvgrWKiN_9msLp1rPU.ZzSRppYZF1acOmM40DRGs13BB0pitvbEyhF9uJap1tSBMqYrvXfmB1rAyI4E5sRSJ1p85zOPahN41Wv2duQwvDmsFACgGkqWOB_gEjqwp9Wh7qb7uSifga_TcODN3BLh.0JAsEXI3jIPUgC0jzBxesTZ5Q1RT1YyhFZ6CiIWavwj_07U5jdjKLNRR5GmdmQO08PkhxnsaCun2jq2Ts94gj7SlNRUXX2grgf3MO7ob05N4dwHelzf3HCLRoqZAr5qF75GPyppHWLUVy.h",mdrd: "0ScPgVkpLmKyXvHl7V_h8lW0SOe4itPX0pBjYNGfF_w-1732410804-1.2.1.1-9gTTkFpRA5XauK2TdaapRKzrS45qWGxiAruxkGB19yYO_6DHK6x2hNX2vwnYcOx..UEx9P7V.ih4lGuH_RUSsptxw78exx67.7X1B1emCFjIVPNWxa2b1nS_XWg4QiArilKBSGfg7AMbrnGFKQyQfmmTKMS63h.Y7YnRqdDr3ERbz.VIl0OlfDfJFGFfdaYeD925Xa.O7fNb4fON_PbhY53q3eadgtJWJsp.4fo._Sa5QRbJ8TtrgrVja1WSrS8WCKwyoRlsBRXhKvkqWpVBnc4VnvK9kqm_FOelD9Zc219P1pLTX73W5UmvLqwQWXFUi8FTfSc8YmUxbL7kI1lrJHMdd.8Pvc5DuH_etmETWIqPKLTmCZOhvFohcckADkzIzAay9Oo4ddAKEGUKg28gnO4rOsVbN6TPrBubGTpjQ3uT8SgcvjKdn84tUC6LVJHEILZP0W4bdjKVucXPMySzMTZpUbm_NLnaFDWdDKiFwux954yGXoP6qHAMsPrvYNVW2DAMkVi7hCYSKxxdgaifxiHr5XiD0tzFKy5EcBLDkqKNXQAwC5r6GxF28IwFmjJQiLjM8TKzVb50TTjWNIhnVz2i3fnD6C5DqCFk0lpGbL4SFTM4XJB3CyX14356bXZ0mEM09VVyID8AwsWxZwNO_.5v5Ti4VfNbhN2B9DhtUYpINw1XDApLw5GTgE0dYw2rtVnB6Tym6IuVdjrS.uHrgsoG806mlFKaGDVbCo0fVCxu9RcjsdIjuYOTAxqqm_1Qd5U2B4JBVvTeI_8282oHTT7TGqTc4xTL.7fq835CmzbeWvD0vtK7IeQXb8KKhm.332TxTFHQiGI9gYXLQX3Mdi1AiMz.XTfsXctR_flGKq3t74E610eeCruphsFgVxiZpVp5FHGYEXlGQaxPyFaHUNoKU8bTTFCb.zjYb5QoTF4qK0cememkeD_NzZhiE5JIn9WM6wJnYruCR.1Y6qvIPpqLq29anUbS5cMAJZjCVg4RJyEteBMwI_WQtEtwB3swKnVPsvfxHJ0jm6If2K4EIfcyaCgovb0yo5otPmx_nct3iFWHU.sfe6ZBXbu24zksgVwajW6pvkAgPIftoZ3vl6yO2iU.YjclTNkAKRQHrPA2eG5WFB4iBxZ6CLfwIVHkvTlJ.Z3qyUj8IGWlMNxtV8hTu6pOC.FY2W0xfqlX6QYeIcmzrIUzQxfphC.OPdLRei_huFiTv6fg58r45C.LuHIuV7zIccCAAYDzBhz7XxVz4rU44SQLirvZgqHzFFGRpingBgYrvWWDeI4oqlVN3QVrykDhTk9Ws.SE_pz65mIIiM8z4DoIOkgeSuaIdlQ4JjaU8UAMVTgX45vhj6ILv_jMnCnhSj0DJyQhvOAkk3.jEVnDzvDolSQemnXZg5GeJ.Zo3Qah_SYXvVZqFwWeoH_QDfO4ZFVWGbfKoJLqGjylBClNnF4Drmlt8BuD_IFxqMz_i5DNfVgmCZjbPDYOQuPBXlxzJiFHGkmf7nYi.6ZizU7AWzimLKHjINXbILXGAkGPK.yWkXQOVPmK8scA87oWYjznvEQ771j_jezvbp_8xxOdWLvquetVnow2zrpnsMvKdMWNN0NduNSPPG.eEuW28LY9JLKvEi.AtsppVWVl8skvEQU9A6coDHrPsPUy9XY2NFOnhv2Ram8_caHwNVUT1GmQBvv.KARk9q9Gfl.o.auoxBjvYsJHNMx4hAmHAHowO9Isc5vQnPH1vMujm03MvXQm1q1xAYFBB4SB54_6yMTWRHfxQ2Sz4qoyQj_9dxUhrodOqdaq7RTOFtKiFFwqLs5pYWSk68FgCjMeGymotQKESg7wh.0IYFOToJiSQDifu45M8KEXt8mtWCvvb9LAsxcsSp1wsXHYryaJLq76AhtU8OKktzMtXWbkOIuXIY8fjOsxu8PQkKJU2yLPa_ydnL7G4bXDNgjOGbyD3pczR7O.8KyTX1QuEdbmuzOd"};var cpo = document.createElement('script');cpo.src = '/cdn-cgi/challenge-platform/h/g/orchestrate/chl_page/v1?ray=8e7589451a109c8d';window._cf_chl_opt.cOgUHash = location.hash === '' && location.href.indexOf('#') !== -1 ? '#' : location.hash;window._cf_chl_opt.cOgUQuery = location.search === '' && location.href.slice(0, location.href.length - window._cf_chl_opt.cOgUHash.length).indexOf('?') !== -1 ? '?' : location.search;if (window.history && window.history.replaceState) {var ogU = location.pathname + window._cf_chl_opt.cOgUQuery + window._cf_chl_opt.cOgUHash;history.replaceState(null, null, "\/prapplied\/abstract\/10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.9.024015?__cf_chl_rt_tk=pveoDzd26BT3VbGCzFgAcpr9wv8lvki1XqrnMuNB_2I-1732410804-1.0.1.1-dGq4ok2OWLjjupnOlaESY2Vly.hKdMFJ_KsbyHVCJio" + window._cf_chl_opt.cOgUHash);cpo.onload = function() {history.replaceState(null, null, ogU);}}document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(cpo);}());</script></body></html>