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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Climate_and_geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Temperature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growing_season" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growing_season"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Growing season</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growing_season-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Precipitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precipitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Precipitation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precipitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glaciation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glaciation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Glaciation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glaciation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Soils</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flora" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flora"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Flora</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flora-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fauna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fauna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Fauna</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fauna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Fire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Climate change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_threats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_threats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Other threats</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_threats-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other threats subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_threats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Human_activities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_activities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Human activities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_activities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Insects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Insects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Pollution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Protection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_disturbance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_disturbance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Natural disturbance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_disturbance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taiga_ecoregions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taiga_ecoregions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Taiga ecoregions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taiga_ecoregions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Taiga</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 82 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-82" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">82 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%BA%D8%A7" title="تايغا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تايغا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tayqa" title="Tayqa – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Tayqa" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE" title="তৈগা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="তৈগা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Тайга – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Тайга" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Тайга – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Тайга" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Тайга – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Тайга" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajga" title="Tajga – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Tajga" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taig%C3%A0" title="Taigà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Taigà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Тайга – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Тайга" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajga" title="Tajga – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Tajga" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajga" title="Tajga – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tajga" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borealer_Nadelwald" title="Borealer Nadelwald – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Borealer Nadelwald" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%AC%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%B1" title="Τάιγκα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τάιγκα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajgo" title="Tajgo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Tajgo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%A7" title="تایگا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تایگا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%AFga" title="Taïga – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Taïga" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foraois%C3%AD_tuaisceartacha" title="Foraoisí tuaisceartacha – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Foraoisí tuaisceartacha" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%80%EC%9D%B4%EA%B0%80" title="타이가 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="타이가" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A3%D5%A1" title="Տայգա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տայգա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE" title="ताइगा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ताइगा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajga" title="Tajga – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Tajga" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrsk%C3%B3gabelti%C3%B0" title="Barrskógabeltið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Barrskógabeltið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%99%D7%99%D7%92%D7%94" title="טייגה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טייגה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%90" title="ტაიგა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ტაიგა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Тайга – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Тайга" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tayiga" title="Tayiga – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Tayiga" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Тайга – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Тайга" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silva_borealis" title="Silva borealis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Silva borealis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajga" title="Tajga – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tajga" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Тајга – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Тајга" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%97" title="ടൈഗ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ടൈഗ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BF%E3%82%A4%E3%82%AC" title="タイガ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="タイガ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boreal_barskog" title="Boreal barskog – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Boreal barskog" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tayga" title="Tayga – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tayga" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajga" title="Tajga – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Tajga" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Тайга – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Тайга" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D2%95%D0%B0" title="Тайҕа – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Тайҕа" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajga" title="Tajga – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Tajga" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajga" title="Tajga – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Tajga" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajga" title="Tajga – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Tajga" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tayga" title="Tayga – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Tayga" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%A7" title="تایگا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تایگا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Тајга – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Тајга" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajga" title="Tajga – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Tajga" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boreaalinen_vy%C3%B6hyke" title="Boreaalinen vyöhyke – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Boreaalinen vyöhyke" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajga" title="Tajga – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tajga" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE" title="தைகா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தைகா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Тайга – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Тайга" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2" title="ไทกา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ไทกา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tayga" title="Tayga – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tayga" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Тайга – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Тайга" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%A7" title="تائیگا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تائیگا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boreoale_busschn" title="Boreoale busschn – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Boreoale busschn" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Taiga" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E6%96%B9%E9%92%88%E5%8F%B6%E6%9E%97" title="北方针叶林 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="北方针叶林" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E6%96%B9%E6%A3%AE%E6%9E%97" title="北方森林 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="北方森林" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E6%96%B9%E9%87%9D%E8%91%89%E6%9E%97" title="北方針葉林 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="北方針葉林" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q69564#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Taiga_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Taiga (disambiguation)">Taiga (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/Tayga" title="Tayga">Tayga</a> is also a Russian town.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Tiger" title="Tiger">Tiger</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:25em;line-height:1.5em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#cde5b2;">Taiga</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jack_London_Lake_by_bartosh.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Jack_London_Lake_by_bartosh.jpg/272px-Jack_London_Lake_by_bartosh.jpg" decoding="async" width="272" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Jack_London_Lake_by_bartosh.jpg/408px-Jack_London_Lake_by_bartosh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Jack_London_Lake_by_bartosh.jpg/544px-Jack_London_Lake_by_bartosh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="986" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Jack_London_Lake" title="Jack London Lake">Jack London Lake</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kolyma" title="Kolyma">Kolyma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Taiga_ecoregion.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Taiga_ecoregion.png/300px-Taiga_ecoregion.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Taiga_ecoregion.png/450px-Taiga_ecoregion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Taiga_ecoregion.png/600px-Taiga_ecoregion.png 2x" data-file-width="3539" data-file-height="1769" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The taiga is found throughout the high northern <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitudes</a>, between the <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Temperate_forest" title="Temperate forest">temperate forest</a>, from about 50°N to 70°N, but with considerable regional variation.</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#cde5b2;">Ecology</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biome</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Terrestrial subarctic</li><li>humid</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#cde5b2;">Geography</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Countries</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Russia</li><li>Mongolia</li><li>Japan</li><li>Norway</li><li>Sweden</li><li>Iceland</li><li>Finland</li><li>United States</li><li>Canada</li><li>Scotland (United Kingdom)</li><li>Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon (France)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Climate type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification#Group_D:_Continental/microthermal_climates" title="Köppen climate classification"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Dfc</li><li>Dwc</li><li>Dsc</li><li>Dfd</li><li>Dwd</li><li>Dsd</li></ul></div></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Taiga</b> or <b>tayga</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">TY</span>-gə</i></a>; <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">тайга́</span>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ru-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[tɐjˈɡa]</a></span>), also known as <b>boreal forest</b> or <b>snow forest</b>, is a <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biome</a> characterized by <a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">coniferous</a> <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forests</a> consisting mostly of <a href="/wiki/Pine" title="Pine">pines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spruce" title="Spruce">spruces</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Larch" title="Larch">larches</a>. The taiga or boreal forest is the world's largest land <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Berkeley_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berkeley-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In North America, it covers most of inland <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>, and parts of the northern contiguous United States.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>, it covers most of <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>, much of <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> from <a href="/wiki/Karelia" title="Karelia">Karelia</a> in the west to the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> (including much of <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>), much of <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> and <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, some of the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" title="Scottish Highlands">Scottish Highlands</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="subalpine woods of different climate zone; no mention in "Taiga ecoregions", or indeed anywhere other than the infobox (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> some lowland/coastal areas of <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>, and areas of northern <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>, and northern <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> (on the island of <a href="/wiki/Hokkaid%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Hokkaidō">Hokkaidō</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adirondacks_in_May_2008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Adirondacks_in_May_2008.jpg/220px-Adirondacks_in_May_2008.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Adirondacks_in_May_2008.jpg/330px-Adirondacks_in_May_2008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Adirondacks_in_May_2008.jpg/440px-Adirondacks_in_May_2008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Adirondack_Mountains" title="Adirondack Mountains">Adirondack Mountains</a> of <a href="/wiki/Upstate_New_York" title="Upstate New York">Upstate New York</a> form the southernmost part of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_forest-boreal_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern forest-boreal transition">Eastern forest-boreal transition</a> <a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">ecoregion</a>, constituting part of the world's taiga <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biome</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The principal tree species, depending on the length of the growing season and summer temperatures, vary across the world. The taiga of North America is mostly spruce; <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finnish</a> taiga consists of a mix of <a href="/wiki/Norway_spruce" class="mw-redirect" title="Norway spruce">spruce</a>, pines and <a href="/wiki/Betula" class="mw-redirect" title="Betula">birch</a>; Russian taiga has spruces, pines and larches depending on the region; and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Siberian_taiga" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Siberian taiga">Eastern Siberian taiga</a> is a vast larch forest.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Taiga in its current form is a relatively recent phenomenon, having only existed for the last 12,000 years since the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> epoch, covering land that had been <a href="/wiki/Mammoth_steppe" title="Mammoth steppe">mammoth steppe</a> or under the <a href="/wiki/Weichselian_glaciation" title="Weichselian glaciation">Scandinavian Ice Sheet</a> in Eurasia and under the <a href="/wiki/Laurentide_Ice_Sheet" class="mw-redirect" title="Laurentide Ice Sheet">Laurentide Ice Sheet</a> in North America during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Pleistocene" title="Late Pleistocene">Late Pleistocene</a>. </p><p>Although at high elevations taiga grades into <a href="/wiki/Alpine_tundra" title="Alpine tundra">alpine tundra</a> through <a href="/wiki/Krummholz" title="Krummholz">Krummholz</a>, it is not exclusively an alpine biome, and unlike <a href="/wiki/Montane_ecology#Subalpine_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Montane ecology">subalpine forest</a>, much of taiga is lowlands. </p><p>The term "taiga" is not used consistently by all cultures. In the English language, "boreal forest" is used in the United States and <a href="/wiki/Boreal_forest_of_Canada" title="Boreal forest of Canada">Canada</a> in referring to more southerly regions, while "taiga" is used to describe the more northern, barren areas approaching the <a href="/wiki/Tree_line" title="Tree line">tree line</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a>. Hoffman (1958) discusses the origin of this differential use in North America and how this differentiation distorts established Russian usage.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoffman1958_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoffman1958-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> is a threat to taiga,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and how the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon dioxide absorbed</a> or <a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon emission">emitted</a><sup id="cite_ref-ucsusa_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ucsusa-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> should be treated by <a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">carbon accounting</a> is controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Picea_glauca_taiga.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Picea_glauca_taiga.jpg/220px-Picea_glauca_taiga.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Picea_glauca_taiga.jpg/330px-Picea_glauca_taiga.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Picea_glauca_taiga.jpg/440px-Picea_glauca_taiga.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/White_spruce" title="White spruce">White spruce</a> taiga in the <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Range" title="Alaska Range">Alaska Range</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climate_and_geography">Climate and geography</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siberian_autumn_in_taiga..JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Siberian_autumn_in_taiga..JPG/220px-Siberian_autumn_in_taiga..JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Siberian_autumn_in_taiga..JPG/330px-Siberian_autumn_in_taiga..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Siberian_autumn_in_taiga..JPG/440px-Siberian_autumn_in_taiga..JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberian</a> taiga</figcaption></figure> <p>Taiga covers 17 million square kilometres (6.6 million square miles) or 11.5% of the Earth's land area,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> second only to <a href="/wiki/Deserts_and_xeric_shrublands" title="Deserts and xeric shrublands">deserts and xeric shrublands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Berkeley_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berkeley-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest areas are located in Russia and Canada. In <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> taiga is associated with the <a href="/wiki/Norrland_terrain" title="Norrland terrain">Norrland terrain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature">Temperature</h3></div> <p>After the permanent ice caps and <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a>, taiga is the terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biome</a> with the lowest annual average temperatures, with mean annual temperature generally varying from −5 to 5 °C (23 to 41 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extreme winter minimums in the northern taiga are typically lower than those of the tundra. There are taiga areas of eastern Siberia and interior Alaska-<a href="/wiki/Yukon" title="Yukon">Yukon</a> where the mean annual temperature reaches down to −10 °C (14 °F),<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Oymyakon" title="Oymyakon">lowest reliably recorded temperatures</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere">Northern Hemisphere</a> were recorded in the taiga of northeastern Russia. </p><p>Taiga has a <a href="/wiki/Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">subarctic climate</a> with very large temperature range between seasons. −20 °C (−4 °F) would be a typical winter day temperature and 18 °C (64 °F) an average summer day, but the long, cold winter is the dominant feature. This climate is classified as <i>Dfc</i>, <i>Dwc</i>, <i>Dsc</i>, <i>Dfd</i> and <i>Dwd</i> in the <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification" title="Köppen climate classification">Köppen climate classification</a> scheme,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meaning that the short summers (24 h average 10 °C (50 °F) or more), although generally warm and humid, only last 1–3 months, while winters, with average temperatures below freezing, last 5–7 months. </p><p>In Siberian taiga the average temperature of the coldest month is between −6 °C (21 °F) and −50 °C (−58 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-VOL_page_568_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VOL_page_568-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also some much smaller areas grading towards the oceanic <i>Cfc</i> climate with milder winters, whilst the extreme south and (in Eurasia) west of the taiga reaches into <a href="/wiki/Humid_continental_climate" title="Humid continental climate">humid continental climates</a> (<i>Dfb</i>, <i>Dwb</i>) with longer summers. </p><p>According to some sources, the boreal forest grades into a temperate mixed forest when mean annual temperature reaches about 3 °C (37 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Discontinuous_permafrost" class="mw-redirect" title="Discontinuous permafrost">Discontinuous permafrost</a> is found in areas with mean annual temperature below freezing, whilst in the <i>Dfd</i> and <i>Dwd</i> climate zones <a href="/wiki/Continuous_permafrost" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuous permafrost">continuous permafrost</a> occurs and restricts growth to very shallow-rooted trees like <a href="/wiki/Siberian_larch" class="mw-redirect" title="Siberian larch">Siberian larch</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growing_season">Growing season</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shovel_Point1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Shovel_Point1.jpg/220px-Shovel_Point1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Shovel_Point1.jpg/330px-Shovel_Point1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Shovel_Point1.jpg/440px-Shovel_Point1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1232" /></a><figcaption>Boreal forest near Shovel Point in <a href="/wiki/Tettegouche_State_Park" title="Tettegouche State Park">Tettegouche State Park</a>, along the northern shore of Lake Superior in <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Growing_season" title="Growing season">growing season</a>, when the vegetation in the taiga comes alive, is usually slightly longer than the climatic definition of summer as the plants of the boreal biome have a lower temperature threshold to trigger growth than other plants. Some sources claim 130 days growing season as typical for the taiga.<sup id="cite_ref-Berkeley_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berkeley-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Canada and Scandinavia, the growing season is often estimated by using the period of the year when the 24-hour average temperature is +5 °C (41 °F) or more.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the Taiga Plains in Canada, growing season varies from 80 to 150 days, and in the Taiga Shield from 100 to 140 days.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other sources define growing season by frost-free days.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Data for locations in southwest Yukon gives 80–120 frost-free days.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The closed canopy boreal forest in <a href="/wiki/Kenozersky_National_Park" title="Kenozersky National Park">Kenozersky National Park</a> near <a href="/wiki/Plesetsk" title="Plesetsk">Plesetsk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arkhangelsk_Oblast" title="Arkhangelsk Oblast">Arkhangelsk Province</a>, Russia, on average has 108 frost-free days.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The longest growing season is found in the smaller areas with oceanic influences; in coastal areas of Scandinavia and Finland, the growing season of the closed boreal forest can be 145–180 days.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The shortest growing season is found at the northern taiga–tundra <a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">ecotone</a>, where the northern taiga forest no longer can grow and the tundra dominates the landscape when the growing season is down to 50–70 days,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the 24-hr average of the warmest month of the year usually is 10 °C (50 °F) or less.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>High <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitudes</a> mean that the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">sun</a> does not rise far above the horizon, and less <a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar energy</a> is received than further south. But the high latitude also ensures very long summer days, as the sun stays above the horizon nearly 20 hours each day, or up to 24 hours, with only around 6 hours of daylight, or none, occurring in the dark winters, depending on latitude. The areas of the taiga inside the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Circle" title="Arctic Circle">Arctic Circle</a> have <a href="/wiki/Midnight_sun" title="Midnight sun">midnight sun</a> in mid-summer and <a href="/wiki/Polar_night" title="Polar night">polar night</a> in mid-winter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precipitation">Precipitation</h3></div> <p>The taiga experiences relatively low <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a> throughout the year (generally 200–750 mm (7.9–29.5 in) annually, 1,000 mm (39 in) in some areas), primarily as <a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">rain</a> during the summer months, but also as <a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">snow</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">fog</a>. Snow may remain on the ground for as long as nine months in the northernmost extensions of the taiga biome.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fog, especially predominant in low-lying areas during and after the thawing of frozen Arctic seas, stops sunshine from getting through to plants even during the long summer days. As <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> is consequently low for most of the year, annual precipitation exceeds evaporation, and is sufficient to sustain the dense vegetation growth including large trees. This explains the striking difference in biomass per square metre between the Taiga and the <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">Steppe</a> biomes, (in warmer climates), where evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation, restricting vegetation to mostly grasses. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skjomtinden_%26_Kongsbakktinden_from_Bogen,_2010_September.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Skjomtinden_%26_Kongsbakktinden_from_Bogen%2C_2010_September.JPG/220px-Skjomtinden_%26_Kongsbakktinden_from_Bogen%2C_2010_September.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Skjomtinden_%26_Kongsbakktinden_from_Bogen%2C_2010_September.JPG/330px-Skjomtinden_%26_Kongsbakktinden_from_Bogen%2C_2010_September.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Skjomtinden_%26_Kongsbakktinden_from_Bogen%2C_2010_September.JPG/440px-Skjomtinden_%26_Kongsbakktinden_from_Bogen%2C_2010_September.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Late September in the <a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">fjords</a> near <a href="/wiki/Narvik" class="mw-redirect" title="Narvik">Narvik</a>, Norway. This oceanic part of the forest can see more than 1,000 mm (39 in) precipitation annually and has warmer winters than the vast inland taiga.</figcaption></figure> <p>In general, taiga grows to the south of the 10 °C (50 °F) July <a href="/wiki/Isotherm_(contour_line)" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotherm (contour line)">isotherm</a>, occasionally as far north as the 9 °C (48 °F) July isotherm,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the southern limit more variable. Depending on rainfall, and taiga may be replaced by <a href="/wiki/Forest_steppe" title="Forest steppe">forest steppe</a> south of the 15 °C (59 °F) July isotherm where rainfall is very low, but more typically extends south to the 18 °C (64 °F) July isotherm, and locally where rainfall is higher, such as in eastern <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> and adjacent <a href="/wiki/Outer_Manchuria" title="Outer Manchuria">Outer Manchuria</a>, south to the 20 °C (68 °F) July isotherm. </p><p>In these warmer areas the taiga has higher species diversity, with more warmth-loving species such as <a href="/wiki/Korean_pine" class="mw-redirect" title="Korean pine">Korean pine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jezo_spruce" class="mw-redirect" title="Jezo spruce">Jezo spruce</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Manchurian_fir" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchurian fir">Manchurian fir</a>, and merges gradually into <a href="/wiki/Temperate_broadleaf_and_mixed_forests" title="Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests">mixed temperate forest</a> or, more locally (on the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> coasts of North America and Asia), into coniferous <a href="/wiki/Temperate_rainforest" title="Temperate rainforest">temperate rainforests</a> where oak and hornbeam appear and join the conifers, birch and <a href="/wiki/Populus_tremula" title="Populus tremula">Populus tremula</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glaciation">Glaciation</h3></div> <p>The area currently classified as taiga in Europe and North America (except Alaska) was <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_glaciation" title="Wisconsin glaciation">recently glaciated</a>. As the glaciers receded they left <a href="/wiki/Kettle_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kettle (geology)">depressions</a> in the topography that have since filled with water, creating <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lakes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">bogs</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Muskeg" title="Muskeg">muskeg</a> soil) found throughout the taiga. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yukon_River_near_Carmacks,_Yukon_-a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Yukon_River_near_Carmacks%2C_Yukon_-a.jpg/220px-Yukon_River_near_Carmacks%2C_Yukon_-a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Yukon_River_near_Carmacks%2C_Yukon_-a.jpg/330px-Yukon_River_near_Carmacks%2C_Yukon_-a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Yukon_River_near_Carmacks%2C_Yukon_-a.jpg/440px-Yukon_River_near_Carmacks%2C_Yukon_-a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yukon_River" title="Yukon River">Yukon River</a>, Canada. Several of the world's longest rivers go through the taiga, including <a href="/wiki/Ob_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ob River">Ob</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yenisei_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yenisei River">Yenisei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lena_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Lena River">Lena</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mackenzie_River" title="Mackenzie River">Mackenzie</a>.</figcaption></figure> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Talkessel_von_Werchojansk.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The taiga in the river valley near Verkhoyansk, Russia, at 67°N, experiences the coldest winter temperatures in the northern hemisphere, but the extreme continentality of the climate gives an average daily high of 22 °C (72 °F) in July"><img alt="The taiga in the river valley near Verkhoyansk, Russia, at 67°N, experiences the coldest winter temperatures in the northern hemisphere, but the extreme continentality of the climate gives an average daily high of 22 °C (72 °F) in July" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Talkessel_von_Werchojansk.JPG/200px-Talkessel_von_Werchojansk.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Talkessel_von_Werchojansk.JPG/300px-Talkessel_von_Werchojansk.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Talkessel_von_Werchojansk.JPG/400px-Talkessel_von_Werchojansk.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The taiga in the river valley near <a href="/wiki/Verkhoyansk" title="Verkhoyansk">Verkhoyansk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, at 67°N, experiences the coldest winter temperatures in the northern hemisphere, but the extreme continentality of the climate gives an average daily high of 22 °C (72 °F) in July</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Helvetinj%C3%A4rvi.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Lakes and other water bodies are common in the taiga. The Helvetinjärvi National Park, Finland, is situated in the closed canopy taiga (mid-boreal to south-boreal)[27] with mean annual temperature of 4 °C (39 °F).[28]"><img alt="Lakes and other water bodies are common in the taiga. The Helvetinjärvi National Park, Finland, is situated in the closed canopy taiga (mid-boreal to south-boreal)[27] with mean annual temperature of 4 °C (39 °F).[28]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Helvetinj%C3%A4rvi.JPG/200px-Helvetinj%C3%A4rvi.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Helvetinj%C3%A4rvi.JPG/300px-Helvetinj%C3%A4rvi.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Helvetinj%C3%A4rvi.JPG/400px-Helvetinj%C3%A4rvi.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Lakes and other water bodies are common in the taiga. The <a href="/wiki/Helvetinj%C3%A4rvi_National_Park" title="Helvetinjärvi National Park">Helvetinjärvi National Park</a>, Finland, is situated in the closed canopy taiga (mid-boreal to south-boreal)<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with mean annual temperature of 4 °C (39 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Soils">Soils</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0_(%D0%AF%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F)._%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2_(%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D1%8E%D0%BD%D1%8B)._(10118322213).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0_%28%D0%AF%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%29._%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2_%28%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D1%8E%D0%BD%D1%8B%29._%2810118322213%29.jpg/220px-%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0_%28%D0%AF%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%29._%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2_%28%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D1%8E%D0%BD%D1%8B%29._%2810118322213%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0_%28%D0%AF%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%29._%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2_%28%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D1%8E%D0%BD%D1%8B%29._%2810118322213%29.jpg/330px-%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0_%28%D0%AF%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%29._%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2_%28%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D1%8E%D0%BD%D1%8B%29._%2810118322213%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0_%28%D0%AF%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%29._%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2_%28%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D1%8E%D0%BD%D1%8B%29._%2810118322213%29.jpg/440px-%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0_%28%D0%AF%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%29._%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2_%28%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D1%8E%D0%BD%D1%8B%29._%2810118322213%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5193" data-file-height="3510" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tukulan" title="Tukulan">Tukulan</a> sandy area in the taiga of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Yakutian_Lowland" title="Central Yakutian Lowland">Central Yakutian Lowland</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Taiga <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> tends to be young and poor in nutrients, lacking the deep, organically enriched <a href="/wiki/Soil_profile" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil profile">profile</a> present in temperate deciduous forests.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The colder climate hinders development of soil, and the ease with which plants can use its nutrients.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relative lack of deciduous trees, which drop huge volumes of leaves annually, and grazing animals, which contribute significant manure, are also factors. The diversity of soil organisms in the boreal forest is high, comparable to the <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">tropical rainforest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fallen leaves and <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">moss</a> can remain on the <a href="/wiki/Forest_floor" title="Forest floor">forest floor</a> for a long time in the cool, moist climate, which limits their organic contribution to the soil. <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">Acids</a> from <a href="/wiki/Evergreen" title="Evergreen">evergreen</a> <a href="/wiki/Pine_needle" class="mw-redirect" title="Pine needle">needles</a> further leach the soil, creating <a href="/wiki/Spodosol" class="mw-redirect" title="Spodosol">spodosol</a>, also known as <a href="/wiki/Podzol" title="Podzol">podzol</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the acidic forest floor often has only <a href="/wiki/Lichens" class="mw-redirect" title="Lichens">lichens</a> and some mosses growing on it. In clearings in the forest and in areas with more boreal deciduous trees, there are more herbs and berries growing, and soils are consequently deeper. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Flora">Flora</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BaikalForest_(pixinn.net).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/BaikalForest_%28pixinn.net%29.jpg/170px-BaikalForest_%28pixinn.net%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/BaikalForest_%28pixinn.net%29.jpg/255px-BaikalForest_%28pixinn.net%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/BaikalForest_%28pixinn.net%29.jpg/340px-BaikalForest_%28pixinn.net%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="718" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Boreal forest near <a href="/wiki/Lake_Baikal" title="Lake Baikal">Lake Baikal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Since <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> were originally connected by the <a href="/wiki/Bering_land_bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Bering land bridge">Bering land bridge</a>, a number of animal and plant <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, more animals than plants, were able to colonize both land masses, and are globally-distributed throughout the taiga biome (see <a href="/wiki/Circumboreal_Region" title="Circumboreal Region">Circumboreal Region</a>). Others differ regionally, typically with each <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> having several distinct species, each occupying different regions of the taiga. Taigas also have some small-leaved <a href="/wiki/Deciduous" title="Deciduous">deciduous</a> trees, like <a href="/wiki/Birch" title="Birch">birch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alder" title="Alder">alder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Willow" title="Willow">willow</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Populus" title="Populus">poplar</a>. These grow mostly in areas further south of the most extreme winter weather. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Larix_gmelinii" title="Larix gmelinii">Dahurian larch</a> tolerates the coldest winters of the Northern Hemisphere, in eastern Siberia. The very southernmost parts of the taiga may have trees such as <a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maple" title="Maple">maple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elm" title="Elm">elm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tilia" title="Tilia">lime</a> scattered among the conifers, and there is usually a gradual transition into a temperate, mixed forest, such as the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_forest-boreal_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern forest-boreal transition">eastern forest-boreal transition</a> of eastern Canada. In the interior of the continents, with the driest climates, the boreal forests might grade into temperate <a href="/wiki/Grassland" title="Grassland">grassland</a>. </p><p>There are two major types of taiga. The southern part is the <b>closed canopy forest</b>, consisting of many closely-spaced trees and mossy groundcover. In clearings in the forest, shrubs and wildflowers are common, such as the <a href="/wiki/Fireweed" class="mw-redirect" title="Fireweed">fireweed</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lupinus" title="Lupinus">lupine</a>. The other type is the <b>lichen woodland</b> or <b>sparse taiga</b>, with trees that are farther-spaced and <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichen</a> groundcover; the latter is common in the northernmost taiga.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the northernmost taiga, the forest cover is not only more sparse, but often stunted in growth form; moreover, <a href="/wiki/Ice_pruning" title="Ice pruning">ice-pruned</a>, asymmetric black spruce (in North America) are often seen, with diminished foliage on the windward side.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Canada, Scandinavia and Finland, the boreal forest is usually divided into three subzones: The <b>high boreal</b> (northern boreal/taiga zone), the <b>middle boreal</b> (closed forest), and the <b>southern boreal</b>, a closed-canopy, boreal forest with some scattered temperate, deciduous trees among the conifers.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commonly seen are species such as maple, elm and oak. This southern boreal forest experiences the longest and warmest growing season of the biome. In some regions, including Scandinavia and western Russia, this subzone is commonly used for agricultural purposes. </p><p>The boreal forest is home to many types of <a href="/wiki/Berries" class="mw-redirect" title="Berries">berries</a>. Some species are confined to the southern and middle closed-boreal forest (such as <a href="/wiki/Fragaria" title="Fragaria">wild strawberry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mitchella_repens" title="Mitchella repens">partridgeberry</a>); others grow in most areas of the taiga (such as <a href="/wiki/Cranberry" title="Cranberry">cranberry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cloudberry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloudberry">cloudberry</a>). Some berries can grow in both the taiga and the lower arctic (southern regions) tundra, such as <a href="/wiki/Bilberry" title="Bilberry">bilberry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornus_canadensis" title="Cornus canadensis">bunchberry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lingonberry" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingonberry">lingonberry</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SevenlakesAlaska.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/SevenlakesAlaska.JPG/220px-SevenlakesAlaska.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/SevenlakesAlaska.JPG/330px-SevenlakesAlaska.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/SevenlakesAlaska.JPG/440px-SevenlakesAlaska.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1232" /></a><figcaption>Taiga spruce forest in the <a href="/wiki/Kenai_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Kenai National Wildlife Refuge">Kenai National Wildlife Refuge</a>, Alaska. Trees in this environment tend to grow closer to the trunk and not "bush out" in the normal manner of spruce trees.</figcaption></figure> <p>The forests of the taiga are largely <a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">coniferous</a>, dominated by <a href="/wiki/Larch" title="Larch">larch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spruce" title="Spruce">spruce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fir" title="Fir">fir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pine" title="Pine">pine</a>. The woodland mix varies according to geography and climate; for example, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Canadian_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Canadian forests">Eastern Canadian forests</a> ecoregion (of the higher elevations of the <a href="/wiki/Laurentian_Mountains" title="Laurentian Mountains">Laurentian Mountains</a> and the northern <a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian Mountains</a>) in Canada is dominated by balsam fir <i><a href="/wiki/Abies_balsamea" title="Abies balsamea">Abies balsamea</a></i>, while further north, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Canadian_Shield_taiga" title="Eastern Canadian Shield taiga">Eastern Canadian Shield taiga</a> (of northern <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a> and <a href="/wiki/Labrador" title="Labrador">Labrador</a>) is mostly black spruce <i><a href="/wiki/Picea_mariana" title="Picea mariana">Picea mariana</a></i> and tamarack larch <i><a href="/wiki/Larix_laricina" title="Larix laricina">Larix laricina</a></i>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Evergreen" title="Evergreen">Evergreen</a> species in the taiga (spruce, fir, and pine) have a number of adaptations specifically for survival in harsh taiga winters, although larch, which is extremely cold-tolerant,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is <a href="/wiki/Deciduous" title="Deciduous">deciduous</a>. Taiga trees tend to have shallow roots to take advantage of the thin soils, while many of them seasonally alter their <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a> to make them more resistant to freezing, called "hardening".<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The narrow conical shape of northern conifers, and their downward-drooping limbs, also help them shed snow.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because the sun is low in the horizon for most of the year, it is difficult for plants to generate energy from <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. Pine, spruce and fir do not lose their leaves seasonally and are able to photosynthesize with their older leaves in late winter and spring when light is good but temperatures are still too low for new growth to commence. The adaptation of evergreen needles limits the water lost due to <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a> and their dark green color increases their absorption of sunlight. Although precipitation is not a limiting factor, the ground freezes during the winter months and plant roots are unable to absorb water, so desiccation can be a severe problem in late winter for evergreens. </p><p>Although the taiga is dominated by coniferous forests, some <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">broadleaf trees</a> also occur, including <a href="/wiki/Birch" title="Birch">birch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aspen" title="Aspen">aspen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Willow" title="Willow">willow</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rowan" title="Rowan">rowan</a>. Many smaller <a href="/wiki/Herbaceous" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbaceous">herbaceous</a> plants, such as <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a> and occasionally <a href="/wiki/Allium_tricoccum" title="Allium tricoccum">ramps</a> grow closer to the ground. Periodic stand-replacing <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfires</a> (with return times of between 20 and 200 years) clear out the tree canopies, allowing sunlight to invigorate new growth on the forest floor. For some species, wildfires are a necessary part of the life cycle in the taiga; some, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Jack_pine" title="Jack pine">jack pine</a> have cones which only open to release their seed after a fire, dispersing their seeds onto the newly cleared ground; certain species of fungi (such as <a href="/wiki/Morchella" title="Morchella">morels</a>) are also known to do this. <a href="/wiki/Grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Grass">Grasses</a> grow wherever they can find a patch of sun; <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">mosses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichens</a> thrive on the damp ground and on the sides of tree trunks. In comparison with other biomes, however, the taiga has low botanical diversity. </p><p>Coniferous trees are the dominant plants of the taiga biome. Very few species, in four main genera, are found: the evergreen spruce, fir and pine, and the deciduous larch. In North America, one or two species of fir, and one or two species of spruce, are dominant. Across Scandinavia and western Russia, the <a href="/wiki/Scots_pine" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots pine">Scots pine</a> is a common component of the taiga, while taiga of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Russian Far East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a> is dominated by <a href="/wiki/Larch" title="Larch">larch</a>. Rich in spruce and Scots pine (in the western Siberian plain), the taiga is dominated by larch in Eastern Siberia, before returning to its original floristic richness on the Pacific shores. Two deciduous trees mingle throughout southern Siberia: birch and <i><a href="/wiki/Populus_tremula" title="Populus tremula">Populus tremula</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-VOL_page_568_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VOL_page_568-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fire_Morels.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Conifer cones and morels after fire in a boreal forest."><img alt="Conifer cones and morels after fire in a boreal forest." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Fire_Morels.jpg/200px-Fire_Morels.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Fire_Morels.jpg/300px-Fire_Morels.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Fire_Morels.jpg/400px-Fire_Morels.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="435" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Conifer cones and morels after fire in a boreal forest.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptilium_crista-castrensis.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Moss (Ptilium crista-castrensis) cover on the floor of taiga"><img alt="Moss (Ptilium crista-castrensis) cover on the floor of taiga" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Ptilium_crista-castrensis.jpg/200px-Ptilium_crista-castrensis.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Ptilium_crista-castrensis.jpg/300px-Ptilium_crista-castrensis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Ptilium_crista-castrensis.jpg/400px-Ptilium_crista-castrensis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Moss (<i><a href="/wiki/Ptilium_crista-castrensis" title="Ptilium crista-castrensis">Ptilium crista-castrensis</a></i>) cover on the floor of taiga</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fauna">Fauna</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brown-bear-in-spring.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Brown-bear-in-spring.jpg/220px-Brown-bear-in-spring.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Brown-bear-in-spring.jpg/330px-Brown-bear-in-spring.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Brown-bear-in-spring.jpg/440px-Brown-bear-in-spring.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="538" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Brown_bear" title="Brown bear">Brown bear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kamchatka_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamchatka peninsula">Kamchatka peninsula</a>. Brown bears are among the largest and most widespread taiga <a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">omnivores</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The boreal forest/taiga supports a relatively small variety of highly specialized and adapted animals, due to the harshness of the climate. Canada's boreal forest includes 85 species of <a href="/wiki/Mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammals">mammals</a>, 130 species of fish, and an estimated 32,000 species of <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Insects play a critical role as <a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">pollinators</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decompose" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompose">decomposers</a>, and as a part of the food web. Many nesting birds, rodents, and small carnivorous mammals rely on them for food in the summer months. </p><p>The cold winters and short summers make the taiga a challenging biome for <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>, which depend on environmental conditions to regulate their body temperatures. There are only a few species in the boreal forest, including <a href="/wiki/Common_garter_snake" title="Common garter snake">red-sided garter snake</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vipera_berus" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipera berus">common European adder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blue-spotted_salamander" title="Blue-spotted salamander">blue-spotted salamander</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_two-lined_salamander" title="Northern two-lined salamander">northern two-lined salamander</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siberian_salamander" class="mw-redirect" title="Siberian salamander">Siberian salamander</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wood_frog" title="Wood frog">wood frog</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_leopard_frog" title="Northern leopard frog">northern leopard frog</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boreal_chorus_frog" title="Boreal chorus frog">boreal chorus frog</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_toad" title="American toad">American toad</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Canadian_toad" title="Canadian toad">Canadian toad</a>. Most hibernate underground in winter. </p><p>Fish of the taiga must be able to withstand cold water conditions and be able to adapt to life under ice-covered water. Species in the taiga include <a href="/wiki/Alaska_blackfish" title="Alaska blackfish">Alaska blackfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_pike" title="Northern pike">northern pike</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walleye" title="Walleye">walleye</a>, <a href="/wiki/Longnose_sucker" title="Longnose sucker">longnose sucker</a>, <a href="/wiki/White_sucker" title="White sucker">white sucker</a>, various species of <a href="/wiki/Cisco_(fish)" title="Cisco (fish)">cisco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lake_whitefish" title="Lake whitefish">lake whitefish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Round_whitefish" title="Round whitefish">round whitefish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pygmy_whitefish" title="Pygmy whitefish">pygmy whitefish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arctic_lamprey" title="Arctic lamprey">Arctic lamprey</a>, various <a href="/wiki/Thymallus" title="Thymallus">grayling</a> species, <a href="/wiki/Brook_trout" title="Brook trout">brook trout</a> (including sea-run brook trout in the Hudson Bay area), <a href="/wiki/Chum_salmon" title="Chum salmon">chum salmon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hucho_taimen" title="Hucho taimen">Siberian taimen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lenok" title="Lenok">lenok</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lake_chub" title="Lake chub">lake chub</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snowscape_(6701322581).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Snowscape_%286701322581%29.jpg/220px-Snowscape_%286701322581%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Snowscape_%286701322581%29.jpg/330px-Snowscape_%286701322581%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Snowscape_%286701322581%29.jpg/440px-Snowscape_%286701322581%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Seney_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Seney National Wildlife Refuge">Seney National Wildlife Refuge</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The taiga is mainly home to a number of large <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivorous</a> <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, such as <i>Alces alces</i> (<a href="/wiki/Moose" title="Moose">moose</a>), and a few subspecies of <i>Rangifer tarandus</i> (<a href="/wiki/Reindeer" title="Reindeer">reindeer</a> in Eurasia; <a href="/wiki/Caribou" class="mw-redirect" title="Caribou">caribou</a> in North America). Some areas of the more southern closed boreal forest have populations of other <a href="/wiki/Cervidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cervidae">Cervidae</a> species, such as the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_red_deer" title="Caspian red deer">maral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elk" title="Elk">elk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sitka_black-tailed_deer" class="mw-redirect" title="Sitka black-tailed deer">Sitka black-tailed deer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roe_deer" title="Roe deer">roe deer</a>. While normally a polar species, some southern herds of <a href="/wiki/Muskoxen" class="mw-redirect" title="Muskoxen">muskoxen</a> reside in the taiga of Russia's Far East and North America. The <a href="/wiki/Amur" title="Amur">Amur</a>-Kamchatka region of far eastern Russia also supports the <a href="/wiki/Snow_sheep" title="Snow sheep">snow sheep</a>, the Russian relative of the American <a href="/wiki/Bighorn_sheep" title="Bighorn sheep">bighorn sheep</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wild_boar" title="Wild boar">wild boar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Long-tailed_goral" title="Long-tailed goral">long-tailed goral</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest animal in the taiga is the <a href="/wiki/Wood_bison" title="Wood bison">wood bison</a> of northern Canada/Alaska; additionally, some numbers of the American <a href="/wiki/Plains_bison" title="Plains bison">plains bison</a> have been introduced into the Russian far-east, as part of the taiga regeneration project called <i><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene_Park" title="Pleistocene Park">Pleistocene Park</a></i>, in addition to <a href="/wiki/Przewalski%27s_horse" title="Przewalski's horse">Przewalski's horse</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Small mammals of the taiga biome include <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">rodent</a> species such as the <a href="/wiki/Beaver" title="Beaver">beaver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Squirrel" title="Squirrel">squirrel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chipmunk" title="Chipmunk">chipmunk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marmot" title="Marmot">marmot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lemming" title="Lemming">lemming</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_American_porcupine" title="North American porcupine">North American porcupine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vole" title="Vole">vole</a>, as well as a small number of <a href="/wiki/Lagomorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagomorph">lagomorph</a> species, such as the <a href="/wiki/Pika" title="Pika">pika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snowshoe_hare" title="Snowshoe hare">snowshoe hare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mountain_hare" title="Mountain hare">mountain hare</a>. These species have adapted to survive the harsh winters in their native ranges. Some larger mammals, such as <a href="/wiki/Bear" title="Bear">bears</a>, eat heartily during the summer in order to gain weight, and then go into <a href="/wiki/Hibernation" title="Hibernation">hibernation</a> during the winter. Other animals have adapted layers of fur or feathers to insulate them from the cold. </p><p>Predatory mammals of the taiga must be adapted to travel long distances in search of scattered prey, or be able to supplement their diet with vegetation or other forms of food (such as <a href="/wiki/Raccoon" title="Raccoon">raccoons</a>). Mammalian predators of the taiga include <a href="/wiki/Canada_lynx" title="Canada lynx">Canada lynx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_lynx" title="Eurasian lynx">Eurasian lynx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stoat" title="Stoat">stoat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siberian_weasel" title="Siberian weasel">Siberian weasel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Least_weasel" title="Least weasel">least weasel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sable" title="Sable">sable</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_marten" title="American marten">American marten</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_American_river_otter" title="North American river otter">North American river otter</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_otter" class="mw-redirect" title="European otter">European otter</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_mink" title="American mink">American mink</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolverine" title="Wolverine">wolverine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asian_badger" title="Asian badger">Asian badger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fisher_(animal)" title="Fisher (animal)">fisher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subspecies_of_Canis_lupus" title="Subspecies of Canis lupus">timber wolf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_wolf" title="Mongolian wolf">Mongolian wolf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coyote" title="Coyote">coyote</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_fox" title="Red fox">red fox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arctic_fox" title="Arctic fox">Arctic fox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grizzly_bear" title="Grizzly bear">grizzly bear</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_black_bear" title="American black bear">American black bear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asiatic_black_bear" class="mw-redirect" title="Asiatic black bear">Asiatic black bear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ussuri_brown_bear" title="Ussuri brown bear">Ussuri brown bear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polar_bear" title="Polar bear">polar bear</a> (only small areas of northern taiga), <a href="/wiki/Siberian_tiger" title="Siberian tiger">Siberian tiger</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amur_leopard" title="Amur leopard">Amur leopard</a>. </p><p>More than 300 species of <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> have their <a href="/wiki/Nest" title="Nest">nesting</a> grounds in the taiga.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Siberian_thrush" title="Siberian thrush">Siberian thrush</a>, <a href="/wiki/White-throated_sparrow" title="White-throated sparrow">white-throated sparrow</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Black-throated_green_warbler" title="Black-throated green warbler">black-throated green warbler</a> <a href="/wiki/Bird_migration" title="Bird migration">migrate</a> to this <a href="/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat (ecology)">habitat</a> to take advantage of the long summer days and abundance of <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a> found around the numerous bogs and lakes. Of the 300 species of birds that summer in the taiga, only 30 stay for the winter.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are either <a href="/wiki/Carrion" title="Carrion">carrion</a>-feeding or large <a href="/wiki/Bird_of_prey" title="Bird of prey">raptors</a> that can take live mammal prey, such as the <a href="/wiki/Golden_eagle" title="Golden eagle">golden eagle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rough-legged_buzzard" title="Rough-legged buzzard">rough-legged buzzard</a> (also known as the rough-legged hawk), <a href="/wiki/Steller%27s_sea_eagle" title="Steller's sea eagle">Steller's sea eagle</a> (in coastal northeastern Russia-Japan), <a href="/wiki/Great_gray_owl" class="mw-redirect" title="Great gray owl">great gray owl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snowy_owl" title="Snowy owl">snowy owl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barred_owl" title="Barred owl">barred owl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_horned_owl" title="Great horned owl">great horned owl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crow" title="Crow">crow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Raven" title="Raven">raven</a>. The only other viable adaptation is seed-eating birds, which include several species of <a href="/wiki/Grouse" title="Grouse">grouse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capercaillie" class="mw-redirect" title="Capercaillie">capercaillie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crossbill" title="Crossbill">crossbills</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fire">Fire</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Funny_River_Fire_Alaska.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Funny_River_Fire_Alaska.jpg/220px-Funny_River_Fire_Alaska.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Funny_River_Fire_Alaska.jpg/330px-Funny_River_Fire_Alaska.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Funny_River_Fire_Alaska.jpg/440px-Funny_River_Fire_Alaska.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Funny_River_Fire" title="Funny River Fire">Funny River Fire</a> in Alaska burned 193,597 acres (78,346 ha), mostly <a href="/wiki/Black_spruce" class="mw-redirect" title="Black spruce">Black spruce</a> taiga</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Fire</a> has been one of the most important factors shaping the composition and development of boreal forest stands;<sup id="cite_ref-rowe2_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rowe2-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is the dominant stand-renewing disturbance through much of the Canadian boreal forest.<sup id="cite_ref-amiro_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amiro-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fire history that characterizes an <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> is its <i>fire regime</i>, which has 3 elements: (1) fire type and intensity (e.g., crown fires, severe surface fires, and light surface fires), (2) size of typical fires of significance, and (3) frequency or return intervals for specific land units.<sup id="cite_ref-hein2_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hein2-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The average time within a fire regime to burn an area equivalent to the total area of an ecosystem is its <i>fire rotation</i> (Heinselman 1973)<sup id="cite_ref-hein1_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hein1-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <i>fire cycle</i> (Van Wagner 1978).<sup id="cite_ref-van_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as Heinselman (1981) noted,<sup id="cite_ref-hein2_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hein2-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> each physiographic site tends to have its own return interval, so that some areas are skipped for long periods, while others might burn two-times or more often during a nominal fire rotation. </p><p>The dominant fire regime in the boreal forest is high-intensity crown fires or severe surface fires of very large size, often more than 10,000 ha (100 km<sup>2</sup>), and sometimes more than 400,000 ha (4000 km<sup>2</sup>).<sup id="cite_ref-hein2_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hein2-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such fires kill entire stands. Fire rotations in the drier regions of western Canada and Alaska average 50–100 years, shorter than in the moister climates of eastern Canada, where they may average 200 years or more. Fire cycles also tend to be long near the tree line in the subarctic spruce-lichen woodlands. The longest cycles, possibly 300 years, probably occur in the western boreal in floodplain white spruce.<sup id="cite_ref-hein2_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hein2-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Amiro et al. (2001) calculated the mean fire cycle for the period 1980 to 1999 in the Canadian boreal forest (including taiga) at 126 years.<sup id="cite_ref-amiro_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amiro-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increased fire activity has been predicted for western Canada, but parts of eastern Canada may experience less fire in future because of greater precipitation in a warmer climate.<sup id="cite_ref-flann_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flann-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mature boreal forest pattern in the south shows <a href="/wiki/Abies_balsamea" title="Abies balsamea">balsam fir</a> dominant on well-drained sites in eastern Canada changing centrally and westward to a prominence of <a href="/wiki/Picea_engelmannii" title="Picea engelmannii">white spruce</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Picea_mariana" title="Picea mariana">black spruce</a> and <a href="/wiki/Larix_laricina" title="Larix laricina">tamarack</a> forming the forests on peats, and with jack pine usually present on dry sites except in the extreme east, where it is absent.<sup id="cite_ref-rowe4_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rowe4-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effects of fires are inextricably woven into the patterns of vegetation on the landscape, which in the east favour black spruce, paper birch, and jack pine over balsam fir, and in the west give the advantage to aspen, jack pine, black spruce, and birch over white spruce. Many investigators have reported the ubiquity of charcoal under the forest floor and in the upper soil profile.<sup id="cite_ref-la_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-la-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Charcoal in <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a> provided Bryson et al. (1965) with clues about the forest history of an area 280 km north of the then-current tree line at Ennadai Lake, District Keewatin, Northwest Territories.<sup id="cite_ref-bryson_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bryson-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shanta2_7-8-2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Shanta2_7-8-2009.jpg/220px-Shanta2_7-8-2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Shanta2_7-8-2009.jpg/330px-Shanta2_7-8-2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Shanta2_7-8-2009.jpg/440px-Shanta2_7-8-2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3039" data-file-height="2014" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Shanta_Creek_Fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanta Creek Fire">Shanta Creek Fire</a> began in a taiga area that had not had a major fire in over 130 years, and so was allowed to burn unchecked until it began to threaten populated areas.</figcaption></figure> <p>Two lines of evidence support the thesis that fire has always been an integral factor in the boreal forest: (1) direct, eye-witness accounts and forest-fire statistics, and (2) indirect, circumstantial evidence based on the effects of fire, as well as on persisting indicators.<sup id="cite_ref-rowe4_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rowe4-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The patchwork mosaic of forest stands in the boreal forest, typically with abrupt, irregular boundaries circumscribing homogenous stands, is indirect but compelling testimony to the role of fire in shaping the forest. The fact is that most boreal forest stands are less than 100 years old, and only in the rather few areas that have escaped burning are there stands of white spruce older than 250 years.<sup id="cite_ref-rowe4_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rowe4-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The prevalence of fire-adaptive morphologic and reproductive characteristics of many boreal plant species is further evidence pointing to a long and intimate association with fire. Seven of the ten most common trees in the boreal forest—<a href="/wiki/Jack_pine" title="Jack pine">jack pine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pinus_contorta" title="Pinus contorta">lodgepole pine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aspen" title="Aspen">aspen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Populus_balsamifera" title="Populus balsamifera">balsam poplar</a> (<i>Populus balsamifera</i>), <a href="/wiki/Betula_papyrifera" title="Betula papyrifera">paper birch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Larix_laricina" title="Larix laricina">tamarack</a>, <a href="/wiki/Picea_mariana" title="Picea mariana">black spruce</a> – can be classed as pioneers in their adaptations for rapid invasion of open areas. White spruce shows some pioneering abilities, too, but is less able than black spruce and the pines to disperse seed at all seasons. Only balsam fir and alpine fir seem to be poorly adapted to reproduce after fire, as their cones disintegrate at maturity, leaving no seed in the crowns. </p><p>The oldest forests in the northwest boreal region, some older than 300 years, are of white spruce occurring as pure stands on moist <a href="/wiki/Floodplain" title="Floodplain">floodplains</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-rowe3_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rowe3-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here, the frequency of fire is much less than on adjacent uplands dominated by pine, black spruce and aspen. In contrast, in the Cordilleran region, fire is most frequent in the valley bottoms, decreasing upward, as shown by a mosaic of young pioneer pine and broadleaf stands below, and older spruce–fir on the slopes above.<sup id="cite_ref-rowe4_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rowe4-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Without fire, the boreal forest would become more and more homogeneous, with the long-lived white spruce gradually replacing pine, aspen, balsam poplar, and birch, and perhaps even black spruce, except on the <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peatlands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-raup_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-raup-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h2></div> <p>During the last quarter of the twentieth century, the zone of latitude occupied by the boreal forest experienced some of the greatest temperature increases on Earth. Winter temperatures have increased more than summer temperatures. In summer, the daily low temperature has increased more than the daily high temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of days with extremely cold temperatures (e.g., −20 to −40 °C; −4 to −40 °F) has decreased irregularly but systematically in nearly all the boreal region, allowing better survival for tree-damaging insects.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Fairbanks,_Alaska" title="Fairbanks, Alaska">Fairbanks, Alaska</a>, the length of the frost-free season has increased from 60 to 90 days in the early twentieth century to about 120 days a century later. </p><p>It has been hypothesized that the boreal environments have only a few states which are stable in the long term - a treeless tundra/steppe, a forest with >75% tree cover and an open woodland with ~20% and ~45% tree cover. Thus, continued climate change would be able to force at least some of the presently existing taiga forests into one of the two woodland states or even into a treeless steppe - but it could also shift tundra areas into woodland or forest states as they warm and become more suitable for tree growth.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In keeping with this hypothesis, several studies published in the early 2010s found that there was already a substantial drought-induced tree loss in the western Canadian boreal forests since the 1960s: although this trend was weak or even non-existent in the eastern forests,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was particularly pronounced in the western coniferous forests.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in 2016, a study found no overall Canadian boreal forest trend between 1950 and 2012: while it also found improved growth in some southern boreal forests and dampened growth in the north (contrary to what the hypothesis would suggest), those patterns were statistically weak.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2018 <a href="/wiki/Landsat" class="mw-redirect" title="Landsat">Landsat</a> reanalysis confirmed that there was a drying trend and a loss of forest in western Canadian forests and some greening in the wetter east, but it had also concluded that most of the <a href="/wiki/Forest_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest loss">forest loss</a> attributed to climate change in the earlier studies had instead constituted a delayed response to anthropogenic disturbance.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequent research found that even in the forests where biomass trends did not change, there was a substantial shift towards the deciduous broad-leaved trees with higher drought tolerance over the past 65 years,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and another Landsat analysis of 100,000 undisturbed sites found that the areas with low tree cover became greener in response to warming, but tree mortality (browning) became the dominant response as the proportion of existing tree cover increased.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the majority of studies on boreal forest transitions have been done in Canada, similar trends have been detected in the other countries. Summer warming has been shown to increase water stress and reduce tree growth in dry areas of the southern boreal forest in central Alaska and portions of far eastern Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Siberia, the taiga is converting from predominantly needle-shedding larch trees to evergreen conifers in response to a warming climate. This is likely to further accelerate warming, as the evergreen trees will absorb more of the sun's rays. Given the vast size of the area, such a change has the potential to affect areas well outside of the region.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In much of the boreal forest in Alaska, the growth of white spruce trees are stunted by unusually warm summers, while trees on some of the coldest fringes of the forest are experiencing faster growth than previously.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lack of moisture in the warmer summers are also stressing the birch trees of central Alaska.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2018_boreal_tree_species_trends.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/2018_boreal_tree_species_trends.jpg/220px-2018_boreal_tree_species_trends.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/2018_boreal_tree_species_trends.jpg/330px-2018_boreal_tree_species_trends.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/2018_boreal_tree_species_trends.jpg/440px-2018_boreal_tree_species_trends.jpg 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="515" /></a><figcaption>The response of six tree species common in Quebec's forests to 2°C and 4°C warming under different precipitation levels.</figcaption></figure> <p>In addition to these observations, there has also been work on projecting future forest trends. A 2018 study of the seven tree species dominant in the Eastern Canadian forests found that while 2 °C warming alone increases their growth by around 13% on average, water availability is much more important than temperature and further warming of up to 4 °C would result in substantial declines unless matched by increases in precipitation.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2019 study suggested that the forest plots commonly used to evaluate boreal forest response to climate change tend to have less evolutionary competition between trees than the typical forest, and that with strong competition, there was little net growth in response to warming.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Climatic change only stimulated growth for trees under weak competition in central boreal forests. A 2021 paper had confirmed that the boreal forests are much more strongly affected by climate change than the other forest types in Canada and projected that most of the eastern Canadian boreal forests would reach a tipping point around 2080 under the <a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">RCP</a> 8.5 scenario which represents the largest potential increase in anthropogenic emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another 2021 study projected that under the "moderate" <a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">SSP2-4.5</a> scenario, boreal forests would experience a 15% worldwide increase in biomass by the end of the century, but this would be more than offset by the 41% biomass decline in the tropics.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2022, the results of a 5-year warming experiment in North America had shown that the juveniles of tree species which currently dominate the southern margins of the boreal forests fare the worst in response to even 1.5 °C or +3.1 °C of warming and the associated reductions in precipitation. While the temperate species which would benefit from such conditions are also present in the southern boreal forests, they are both rare and have slower growth rates.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2022 assessment of <a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">tipping points in the climate system</a> designated two inter-related tipping points associated with climate change - the die-off of taiga at its southern edge and the area's consequent reversion to <a href="/wiki/Grassland" title="Grassland">grassland</a> (similar to the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_rainforest" title="Amazon rainforest">Amazon rainforest</a> dieback) and the opposite process to the north, where the rapid warming of the adjacent <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a> areas converts them to taiga. While both of these processes can already be observed today, the assessment believes that they would likely not become unstoppable (and thus meet the definition of a tipping point) until global warming of around 4 °C. However, the certainty level is still limited and it is possible that 1.5 °C would be sufficient for either tipping point; on the other hand, the southern die-off may not be inevitable until 5 °C, while the replacement of tundra with taiga may require 7.2 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-Getting_tipsy_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Getting_tipsy-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Explainer_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Explainer-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once the "right" level of warming is met, either process would take at least 40–50 years to finish, and is more likely to unfold over a century or more. While the southern die-off would involve the loss of around 52 billion tons of carbon, the net result is <i>cooling</i> of around 0.18 °C globally and between 0.5 °C to 2 °C regionally. Likewise, boreal forest expansion into tundra has a net global warming effect of around 0.14 °C globally and 0.5 °C to 1 °C regionally, even though new forest growth captures around 6 billion tons of carbon. In both cases, this is due to the snow-covered ground having a much greater <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a> than the forests.<sup id="cite_ref-Getting_tipsy_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Getting_tipsy-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Explainer_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Explainer-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a later study, disappearing of boreal forests can also increase warming despite the effect on albedo, while the conclusion about cooling from deforestation in these areas made by previous studies results from the failure of models to properly capture the effects of evapotranspiration.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Primary boreal forests hold 1,042 billion tonnes of carbon, more than currently found in the atmosphere, 2 times more than all human caused GHG emissions since the year 1870. In a warmer climate their ability to store carbon will be reduced.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_threats">Other threats</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_activities">Human activities</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plesetsk_satellite_assembling_facilities.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Plesetsk_satellite_assembling_facilities.JPG/220px-Plesetsk_satellite_assembling_facilities.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Plesetsk_satellite_assembling_facilities.JPG/330px-Plesetsk_satellite_assembling_facilities.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Plesetsk_satellite_assembling_facilities.JPG/440px-Plesetsk_satellite_assembling_facilities.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Plesetsk_Cosmodrome" title="Plesetsk Cosmodrome">Plesetsk Cosmodrome</a> is situated in the taiga</figcaption></figure> <p>Some of the larger cities situated in this biome are <a href="/wiki/Murmansk" title="Murmansk">Murmansk</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Arkhangelsk" title="Arkhangelsk">Arkhangelsk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yakutsk" title="Yakutsk">Yakutsk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anchorage,_Alaska" title="Anchorage, Alaska">Anchorage</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Yellowknife" title="Yellowknife">Yellowknife</a>, <a href="/wiki/Troms%C3%B8" title="Tromsø">Tromsø</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lule%C3%A5" title="Luleå">Luleå</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oulu" title="Oulu">Oulu</a>. </p><p>Large areas of <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>'s taiga have been harvested for <a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">lumber</a> since the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. Previously, the forest was protected by the restrictions of the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Forestry" title="Ministry of Forestry">Ministry of Forestry</a>, but with the collapse of the Union, the restrictions regarding trade with Western nations have vanished. Trees are easy to harvest and sell well, so loggers have begun harvesting Russian taiga evergreen trees for sale to nations previously forbidden by Soviet law.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insects">Insects</h3></div> <p>Recent years<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (May 2021)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> have seen outbreaks of insect pests in forest-destroying plagues: the spruce-bark beetle (<i><a href="/wiki/Dendroctonus_rufipennis" title="Dendroctonus rufipennis">Dendroctonus rufipennis</a></i>) in <a href="/wiki/Yukon" title="Yukon">Yukon</a> and Alaska;<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Mountain_pine_beetle" title="Mountain pine beetle">mountain pine beetle</a> in <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Aspen" title="Aspen">aspen</a>-leaf miner; the <a href="/wiki/Larch_sawfly" class="mw-redirect" title="Larch sawfly">larch sawfly</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Spruce_budworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Spruce budworm">spruce budworm</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Choristoneura_fumiferana" title="Choristoneura fumiferana">Choristoneura fumiferana</a></i>);<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the spruce coneworm.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pollution">Pollution</h3></div> <p>The effect of <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulphur dioxide</a> on woody boreal forest species was investigated by Addison et al. (1984),<sup id="cite_ref-add_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-add-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who exposed plants growing on native soils and tailings to 15.2 μmol/m<sup>3</sup> (0.34 ppm) of SO<sub>2</sub> on CO<sub>2</sub> assimilation rate (NAR). The Canadian maximum acceptable limit for atmospheric SO<sub>2</sub> is 0.34 ppm. Fumigation with SO<sub>2</sub> significantly reduced NAR in all species and produced visible symptoms of injury in 2–20 days. The decrease in NAR of deciduous species (trembling aspen [<i>Populus tremuloides</i>], willow [<i>Salix</i>], green alder [<i>Alnus viridis</i>], and white birch [<i>Betula papyrifera</i>]) was significantly more rapid than of <a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">conifers</a> (white spruce, black spruce [<i>Picea mariana</i>], and jack pine [<i>Pinus banksiana</i>]) or an evergreen <a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">angiosperm</a> (Labrador tea) growing on a fertilized Brunisol. </p><p>These metabolic and visible injury responses seemed to be related to the differences in S uptake owing in part to higher gas exchange rates for <a href="/wiki/Deciduous" title="Deciduous">deciduous</a> species than for <a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">conifers</a>. Conifers growing in oil sands tailings responded to SO<sub>2</sub> with a significantly more rapid decrease in NAR compared with those growing in the Brunisol, perhaps because of predisposing toxic material in the tailings. However, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulphur</a> uptake and visible symptom development did not differ between conifers growing on the 2 substrates. </p><p>Acidification of precipitation by anthropogenic, acid-forming emissions has been associated with damage to vegetation and reduced forest productivity, but 2-year-old white spruce that were subjected to simulated <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a> (at <a href="/wiki/PH_indicator" title="PH indicator">pH</a> 4.6, 3.6, and 2.6) applied weekly for 7 weeks incurred no statistically significant (P 0.05) reduction in growth during the experiment compared with the background control (pH 5.6) (Abouguendia and Baschak 1987).<sup id="cite_ref-abou_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abou-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, symptoms of injury were observed in all treatments, the number of plants and the number of needles affected increased with increasing rain acidity and with time. Scherbatskoy and Klein (1983)<sup id="cite_ref-scher_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scher-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found no significant effect of <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a> concentration in <a href="/wiki/White_spruce" title="White spruce">white spruce</a> at pH 4.3 and 2.8, but Abouguendia and Baschak (1987)<sup id="cite_ref-abou_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abou-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found a significant reduction in white spruce at pH 2.6, while the foliar sulphur content significantly greater at pH 2.6 than any of the other treatments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Protection">Protection</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peatbogg-pine.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Peatbogg-pine.JPG/170px-Peatbogg-pine.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Peatbogg-pine.JPG/255px-Peatbogg-pine.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Peatbogg-pine.JPG/340px-Peatbogg-pine.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Peat bog in <a href="/wiki/Dalarna" title="Dalarna">Dalarna</a>, Sweden. <a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">Bogs</a> and peatland are widespread in the taiga. They are home to a unique flora, and store vast amounts of carbon. In western Eurasia, the <a href="/wiki/Scots_pine" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots pine">Scots pine</a> is common in the boreal forest.</figcaption></figure> <p>The taiga stores enormous quantities of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, more than the world's temperate and tropical forests combined, much of it in <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peatland" title="Peatland">peatland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, current estimates place boreal forests as storing twice as much carbon per unit area as tropical forests.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wildfires could use up a significant part of the global carbon budget, so fire management at about 12 dollars per tonne of carbon not released<sup id="cite_ref-ucsusa_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ucsusa-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is very cheap compared to the <a href="/wiki/Social_cost_of_carbon" title="Social cost of carbon">social cost of carbon</a>. </p><p>Some nations are discussing protecting areas of the taiga by prohibiting <a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">logging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuel exploration">oil and gas production</a>, and other forms of development. Responding to a letter signed by 1,500 scientists calling on political leaders to protect at least half of the boreal forest,<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> two Canadian provincial governments, Ontario and Quebec, offered election promises to discuss measures in 2008 that might eventually classify at least half of their northern boreal forest as "protected".<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although both provinces admitted it would take decades to plan, working with Aboriginal and local communities and ultimately mapping out precise boundaries of the areas off-limits to development, the measures were touted to create some of the largest protected areas networks in the world once completed. Since then, however, very little action has been taken. </p><p>For instance, in February 2010 the Canadian government established limited protection for 13,000 square kilometres of boreal forest by creating a new 10,700-square-kilometre park reserve in the Mealy Mountains area of eastern Canada and a 3,000-square-kilometre waterway provincial park that follows alongside the Eagle River from headwaters to sea.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_disturbance">Natural disturbance</h2></div> <p>One of the biggest areas of research and a topic still full of unsolved questions is the recurring disturbance of fire and the role it plays in propagating the lichen woodland.<sup id="cite_ref-Kurkowski_1911_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kurkowski_1911-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phenomenon of wildfire by lightning strike is the primary determinant of understory vegetation, and because of this, it is considered to be the predominant force behind community and ecosystem properties in the lichen woodland.<sup id="cite_ref-Nilsson_421_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nilsson_421-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The significance of fire is clearly evident when one considers that understory vegetation influences tree seedling germination in the short term and decomposition of biomass and nutrient availability in the long term.<sup id="cite_ref-Nilsson_421_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nilsson_421-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The recurrent cycle of large, damaging fire occurs approximately every 70 to 100 years.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Understanding the dynamics of this ecosystem is entangled with discovering the successional paths that the vegetation exhibits after a fire. Trees, shrubs, and lichens all recover from fire-induced damage through vegetative reproduction as well as invasion by propagules.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_200_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson_200-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seeds that have fallen and become buried provide little help in re-establishment of a species. The reappearance of lichens is reasoned to occur because of varying conditions and light/nutrient availability in each different microstate.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_200_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson_200-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several different studies have been done that have led to the formation of the theory that post-fire development can be propagated by any of four pathways: self replacement, species-dominance relay, species replacement, or gap-phase self replacement.<sup id="cite_ref-Kurkowski_1911_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kurkowski_1911-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Self-replacement is simply the re-establishment of the pre-fire dominant species. Species-dominance relay is a sequential attempt of tree species to establish dominance in the canopy. Species replacement is when fires occur in sufficient frequency to interrupt species dominance relay. Gap-Phase Self-Replacement is the least common and so far has only been documented in Western Canada. It is a self replacement of the surviving species into the canopy gaps after a fire kills another species. The particular pathway taken after fire disturbance depends on how the landscape is able to support trees as well as fire frequency.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fire frequency has a large role in shaping the original inception of the lower forest line of the lichen woodland taiga. </p><p>It has been hypothesized by Serge Payette that the spruce-moss forest ecosystem was changed into the lichen woodland biome due to the initiation of two compounded strong disturbances: large fire and the appearance and attack of the <a href="/wiki/Spruce_budworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Spruce budworm">spruce budworm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Payette_289_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Payette_289-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spruce budworm is a deadly insect to the spruce populations in the southern regions of the taiga. J.P. Jasinski confirmed this theory five years later stating, "Their [lichen woodlands] persistence, along with their previous moss forest histories and current occurrence adjacent to closed moss forests, indicate that they are an <a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">alternative stable state</a> to the spruce–moss forests".<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taiga_ecoregions">Taiga ecoregions</h2></div> <table class="wikitable" style="width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="background:lightgreen;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1045256916">.mw-parser-output .navbar-header{text-align:center;position:relative;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .navbar-header .navbar{position:absolute;right:0;top:0;margin:0 5px}</style><div class="navbar-header"><a href="/wiki/Palearctic_realm" title="Palearctic realm">Palearctic</a> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">boreal forests/taiga</a> <a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">ecoregions</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Palearctic_boreal_forests/taiga" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Palearctic boreal forests/taiga"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Palearctic_boreal_forests/taiga" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Palearctic boreal forests/taiga"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Palearctic_boreal_forests/taiga" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Palearctic boreal forests/taiga"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/East_Siberian_taiga" title="East Siberian taiga">East Siberian taiga</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Iceland_boreal_birch_forests_and_alpine_tundra" title="Iceland boreal birch forests and alpine tundra">Iceland boreal birch forests and alpine tundra</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kamchatka%E2%80%93Kurile_meadows_and_sparse_forests" title="Kamchatka–Kurile meadows and sparse forests">Kamchatka–Kurile meadows and sparse forests</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kamchatka%E2%80%93Kurile_taiga" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamchatka–Kurile taiga">Kamchatka–Kurile taiga</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Siberian_taiga" title="Northeast Siberian taiga">Northeast Siberian taiga</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Okhotsk%E2%80%93Manchurian_taiga" title="Okhotsk–Manchurian taiga">Okhotsk–Manchurian taiga</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sakhalin_Island_taiga" title="Sakhalin Island taiga">Sakhalin Island taiga</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_and_Russian_taiga" title="Scandinavian and Russian taiga">Scandinavian and Russian taiga</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Trans-Baikal_conifer_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-Baikal conifer forests">Trans-Baikal conifer forests</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Urals_montane_tundra_and_taiga" title="Urals montane tundra and taiga">Urals montane tundra and taiga</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/West_Siberian_taiga" title="West Siberian taiga">West Siberian taiga</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="background:lightgreen;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1045256916"><div class="navbar-header"><a href="/wiki/Nearctic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nearctic">Nearctic</a> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">boreal forests/taiga</a> <a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">ecoregions</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nearctic_boreal_forests/taiga" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Nearctic boreal forests/taiga"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nearctic_boreal_forests/taiga" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Nearctic boreal forests/taiga"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nearctic_boreal_forests/taiga" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nearctic boreal forests/taiga"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Peninsula_montane_taiga" title="Alaska Peninsula montane taiga">Alaska Peninsula montane taiga</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Central_Canadian_Shield_forests" title="Central Canadian Shield forests">Central Canadian Shield forests</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cook_Inlet_taiga" title="Cook Inlet taiga">Cook Inlet taiga</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Copper_Plateau_taiga" title="Copper Plateau taiga">Copper Plateau taiga</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Canadian_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Canadian forests">Eastern Canadian forests</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Canadian_Shield_taiga" title="Eastern Canadian Shield taiga">Eastern Canadian Shield taiga</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Interior_Alaska%E2%80%93Yukon_lowland_taiga" title="Interior Alaska–Yukon lowland taiga">Interior Alaska–Yukon lowland taiga</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mid-Continental_Canadian_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-Continental Canadian forests">Mid-Continental Canadian forests</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Midwestern_Canadian_Shield_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Midwestern Canadian Shield forests">Midwestern Canadian Shield forests</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Muskwa%E2%80%93Slave_Lake_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Muskwa–Slave Lake forests">Muskwa–Slave Lake forests</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_Highland_forests" title="Newfoundland Highland forests">Newfoundland Highland forests</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Northern_Canadian_Shield_taiga" title="Northern Canadian Shield taiga">Northern Canadian Shield taiga</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Northern_Cordillera_forests" title="Northern Cordillera forests">Northern Cordillera forests</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories_taiga" title="Northwest Territories taiga">Northwest Territories taiga</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/South_Avalon%E2%80%93Burin_oceanic_barrens" title="South Avalon–Burin oceanic barrens">South Avalon–Burin oceanic barrens</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> (<a href="/wiki/Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Southern_Appalachian_spruce%E2%80%93fir_forest" title="Southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest">Southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Southern_Hudson_Bay_taiga" title="Southern Hudson Bay taiga">Southern Hudson Bay taiga</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Yukon_Interior_dry_forests" title="Yukon Interior dry forests">Yukon Interior dry forests</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/48px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/64px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/48px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/64px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birds_of_North_American_boreal_forests" title="Birds of North American boreal forests">Birds of North American boreal forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boreal_Forest_Conservation_Framework" title="Boreal Forest Conservation Framework">Boreal Forest Conservation Framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drunken_trees" title="Drunken trees">Drunken trees</a> – effect of global warming on the taiga</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_and_carbon_cycling_in_boreal_forests" title="Fire and carbon cycling in boreal forests">Fire and carbon cycling in boreal forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape" title="Intact forest landscape">Intact forest landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agafia_Lykov" class="mw-redirect" title="Agafia Lykov">Agafia Lykov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_and_Russian_taiga" title="Scandinavian and Russian taiga">Scandinavian and Russian taiga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Success_of_fire_suppression_in_northern_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Success of fire suppression in northern forests">Success of fire suppression in northern forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiga_Rescue_Network" title="Taiga Rescue Network">Taiga Rescue Network (TRN)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Berkeley-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Berkeley_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Berkeley_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Berkeley_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190620145416/https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/forests.php#boreal">"Berkeley: The forest biome"</a>. 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"The Meaning of the Word 'Taiga'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Ecology</i>. <b>39</b> (3): 540–541. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1958Ecol...39..540H">1958Ecol...39..540H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1931768">10.2307/1931768</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1931768">1931768</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology&rft.atitle=The+Meaning+of+the+Word+%27Taiga%27&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=540-541&rft.date=1958&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1931768%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1931768&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1958Ecol...39..540H&rft.aulast=Hoffmann&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaiga" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJasinski2005" class="citation journal cs1">Jasinski, J. P. (2005). "The Creation of Alternative Stable States in Southern Boreal Forest: Quebec, Canada". <i>Ecological Monographs</i>. <b>75</b> (4): 561–583. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005EcoM...75..561J">2005EcoM...75..561J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F04-1621">10.1890/04-1621</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Monographs&rft.atitle=The+Creation+of+Alternative+Stable+States+in+Southern+Boreal+Forest%3A+Quebec%2C+Canada&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=561-583&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1890%2F04-1621&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005EcoM...75..561J&rft.aulast=Jasinski&rft.aufirst=J.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaiga" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1981" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson, E. A. (1981). "Vegetation Organization and Dynamics of Lichen Woodland Communities in the Northwest Territories". <i>Ecology</i>. <b>62</b> (1): 200–215. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1936682">10.2307/1936682</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1936682">1936682</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86749540">86749540</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology&rft.atitle=Vegetation+Organization+and+Dynamics+of+Lichen+Woodland+Communities+in+the+Northwest+Territories&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=200-215&rft.date=1981&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A86749540%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1936682%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1936682&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=E.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaiga" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurkowski2008" class="citation journal cs1">Kurkowski, Thomas (2008). "Relative Importance of Different Secondary Successional Pathways in an Alaskan Boreal Forest". <i>Canadian Journal of Forest Research</i>. <b>38</b> (7): 1911–1923. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1139%2FX08-039">10.1139/X08-039</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17586608">17586608</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Forest+Research&rft.atitle=Relative+Importance+of+Different+Secondary+Successional+Pathways+in+an+Alaskan+Boreal+Forest&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1911-1923&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1139%2FX08-039&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17586608%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kurkowski&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaiga" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayette2000" class="citation journal cs1">Payette, Serge (2000). "Origin of the lichen woodland at its southern range limit in eastern Canada: the catastrophic impact of insect defoliators and fire on the spruce-moss forest". <i>Canadian Journal of Forest Research</i>. <b>30</b> (2): 288–305. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fx99-207">10.1139/x99-207</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Forest+Research&rft.atitle=Origin+of+the+lichen+woodland+at+its+southern+range+limit+in+eastern+Canada%3A+the+catastrophic+impact+of+insect+defoliators+and+fire+on+the+spruce-moss+forest&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=288-305&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1139%2Fx99-207&rft.aulast=Payette&rft.aufirst=Serge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaiga" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNilsson2005" class="citation journal cs1">Nilsson, M. C. (2005). "Understory vegetation as a forest ecosystem driver, evidence from the northern Swedish boreal forest". <i>Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</i>. <b>3</b> (8): 421–428. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F1540-9295%282005%29003%5B0421%3AUVAAFE%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.1890/1540-9295(2005)003[0421:UVAAFE]2.0.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Ecology+and+the+Environment&rft.atitle=Understory+vegetation+as+a+forest+ecosystem+driver%2C+evidence+from+the+northern+Swedish+boreal+forest&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=421-428&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1890%2F1540-9295%282005%29003%5B0421%3AUVAAFE%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft.aulast=Nilsson&rft.aufirst=M.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaiga" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDayRichard_Garratt2006" class="citation book cs1">Day, Trevor; Richard Garratt (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n3sdmk_SCXsC&q=Taiga&pg=PP1"><i>Taiga</i></a>. Facts On File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5329-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5329-2"><bdi>978-0-8160-5329-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taiga&rft.pub=Facts+On+File&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-5329-2&rft.aulast=Day&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rft.au=Richard+Garratt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn3sdmk_SCXsC%26q%3DTaiga%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaiga" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGawthrop1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Gawthrop_(writer)" title="Daniel Gawthrop (writer)">Gawthrop, Daniel</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t-SDCgAAQBAJ"><i>Vanishing Halo: Saving the Boreal Forest</i></a>. Greystone Books/David Suzuki Foundation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89886-681-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89886-681-0"><bdi>978-0-89886-681-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vanishing+Halo%3A+Saving+the+Boreal+Forest&rft.pub=Greystone+Books%2FDavid+Suzuki+Foundation&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-89886-681-0&rft.aulast=Gawthrop&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt-SDCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaiga" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSayre1994" class="citation book cs1">Sayre, April Pulley (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yvGkDWBoXHsC&q=Taiga&pg=PP1"><i>Taiga</i></a>. Twenty-First Century Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-2830-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-2830-0"><bdi>978-0-8050-2830-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taiga&rft.pub=Twenty-First+Century+Books&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-2830-0&rft.aulast=Sayre&rft.aufirst=April+Pulley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyvGkDWBoXHsC%26q%3DTaiga%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaiga" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media 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data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Taiga" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Taiga">Taiga</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.borealbirds.org/ethnobotany.shtml">The Conservation Value of the North American Boreal Forest from an Ethnobotanical perspective</a> a report by the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://borealbirds.org">Boreal Songbird Initiative</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.borealcanada.ca">Boreal Canadian Initiative</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://regeneration.org/nexus/boreal-forests">Boreal Forests</a> Project Regeneration</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090710005908/http://www.interboreal.org/">International Boreal Conservation campaign</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.barrameda.com.ar/ecology/the-tundra-and-taiga.htm">Tundra and Taiga</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120129160029/http://www.greenpeace.org/canada/en/campaigns/boreal/">Threats to Boreal Forests</a> Greenpeace</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100501161515/http://ran.org/what_we_do/old_growth/campaigns/wake_up_weyerhaeuser">Campaign against lumber giant Weyerhaeuser's logging practices in the Canadian boreal forest</a> Rainforest Action Network</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060712230252/http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=artic&lang=">Arctic and Taiga</a> Canadian Geographic</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110228160520/http://taiga.terraformers.ca/">Terraformers</a> Canadian Taiga Conservation Foundation</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/bioconiferous.html">Coniferous Forest, Earth Observatory</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080704133614/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/bioconiferous.html">Archived</a> 2008-07-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> NASA</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.taigarescue.org">Taiga Rescue Network (TRN)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130406214022/http://www.taigarescue.org/">Archived</a> 2013-04-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> A network of NGOs, indigenous peoples or individuals that works to protect the boreal forests.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120905010259/http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/ecoframe-list.htm">Index of Boreal Forests/Taiga ecoregions</a> at bioimages.Vanderbilt.edu</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101213002253/http://www.nature.org/wherewework/northamerica/canada/work/art12507.html">The Canadian Boreal Forest</a> The Nature Conservancy and its partners</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090316135659/http://www.ups.edu/x6111.xml">Slater museum of natural history: Taiga</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wilds.mb.ca/taiga/index.html">Taiga Biological Station</a>—founded by William (Bill) Pruitt Jr., <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manitoba" title="University of Manitoba">University of Manitoba</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biomes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biomes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biogeographic_regionalisations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biogeography#Biogeographic_regionalisations" title="Biogeography">Biogeographic regionalisations</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#329B32;">Terrestrial<br />biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#90A010;">Polar/montane</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">Tundra</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Taiga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montane_grasslands_and_shrublands" title="Montane grasslands and shrublands">Montane grasslands and shrublands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_tundra" title="Alpine tundra">Alpine tundra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;">Temperate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_coniferous_forest" title="Temperate coniferous forest">Coniferous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_broadleaf_and_mixed_forests" title="Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests">Broadleaf and mixed forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_deciduous_forest" title="Temperate deciduous forest">Deciduous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#20A010;">Tropical and<br /> subtropical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">Tropical rainforest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_coniferous_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests">Coniferous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests">Moist broadleaf forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_dry_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests">Dry broadleaf forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFDC60;">Dry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_forests,_woodlands,_and_scrub" title="Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub">Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deserts_and_xeric_shrublands" title="Deserts and xeric shrublands">Deserts and xeric shrublands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">Steppe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:mediumseagreen;">Wet</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flooded_grasslands_and_savannas" title="Flooded grasslands and savannas">Flooded grasslands and savannas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_zone" title="Riparian zone">Riparian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#55AAFF;">Aquatic<br />biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritic_zone" title="Neritic zone">Neritic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:silver;">Other biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolithic zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_realm" title="Biogeographic realm">Biogeographic <br /> realms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#329B32;">Terrestrial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrotropical_realm" title="Afrotropical realm">Afrotropical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_realm" title="Antarctic realm">Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australasian_realm" title="Australasian realm">Australasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holarctic_realm" title="Holarctic realm">Holarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indomalayan_realm" title="Indomalayan realm">Indomalayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearctic_realm" title="Nearctic realm">Nearctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neotropical_realm" title="Neotropical realm">Neotropical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_realm" title="Oceanian realm">Oceanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palearctic_realm" title="Palearctic realm">Palearctic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#55AAFF;">Marine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_realm" title="Arctic realm">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Indo-Pacific" title="Central Indo-Pacific">Central Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Indo-Pacific" title="Eastern Indo-Pacific">Eastern Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Australasia" title="Temperate Australasia">Temperate Australasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Northern_Atlantic" title="Temperate Northern Atlantic">Temperate Northern Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Northern_Pacific" title="Temperate Northern Pacific">Temperate Northern Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_South_America" title="Temperate South America">Temperate South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Southern_Africa" title="Temperate Southern Africa">Temperate Southern Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Atlantic" title="Tropical Atlantic">Tropical Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Eastern_Pacific" title="Tropical Eastern Pacific">Tropical Eastern Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Indo-Pacific" title="Western Indo-Pacific">Western Indo-Pacific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biogeographic_provinces" title="List of biogeographic provinces">Biogeographic provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioregion" title="Bioregion">Bioregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">Ecoregions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ecoregions" title="Lists of ecoregions">Lists of ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_200" title="Global 200">Global 200 ecoregions</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altitudinal_zonation" title="Altitudinal zonation">Altitudinal zonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_land_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological land classification">Ecological land classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floristic_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Floristic kingdom">Floristic kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation_classification" title="Vegetation classification">Vegetation classifications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeographic_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoogeographic region">Zoogeographic regions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist 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