CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs skin-theme-clientpref-day mf-expand-sections-clientpref-0 mf-font-size-clientpref-small mw-mf-amc-clientpref-0" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Big Bang - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js skin-theme-clientpref-day mf-expand-sections-clientpref-0 mf-font-size-clientpref-small mw-mf-amc-clientpref-0";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"0dce3570-a157-4613-b59e-59b370ef0773","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Big_Bang","wgTitle":"Big Bang","wgCurRevisionId":1256958881,"wgRevisionId":1256958881,"wgArticleId":4116,"wgIsArticle":true ,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Big_Bang","wgRelevantArticleId":4116,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["sysop"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFMode":"stable","wgMFAmc":false,"wgMFAmcOutreachActive":false,"wgMFAmcOutreachUserEligible":false,"wgMFLazyLoadImages":true,"wgMFEditNoticesFeatureConflict":false,"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgMFIsSupportedEditRequest":true,"wgMFScriptPath":"", "wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":true,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgSectionTranslationMissingLanguages":[{"lang":"ace","autonym":"Acèh","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ady","autonym":"адыгабзэ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"alt","autonym":"алтай тил","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ami","autonym":"Pangcah","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ang","autonym":"Ænglisc","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ann","autonym":"Obolo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"av","autonym":"авар","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"avk","autonym":"Kotava","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"awa","autonym":"अवधी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ay","autonym":"Aymar aru","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ban","autonym":"Basa Bali","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bbc","autonym":"Batak Toba","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bcl","autonym":"Bikol Central","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bdr","autonym":"Bajau Sama","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bew","autonym":"Betawi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bho","autonym":"भोजपुरी", "dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bi","autonym":"Bislama","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bjn","autonym":"Banjar","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"blk","autonym":"ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bm","autonym":"bamanankan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bug","autonym":"Basa Ugi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cdo","autonym":"閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ch","autonym":"Chamoru","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"chr","autonym":"ᏣᎳᎩ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"co","autonym":"corsu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cr","autonym":"Nēhiyawēwin / ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"crh","autonym":"qırımtatarca","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cu","autonym":"словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dag","autonym":"dagbanli","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dga","autonym":"Dagaare","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"din","autonym":"Thuɔŋjäŋ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"diq","autonym":"Zazaki","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dsb","autonym":"dolnoserbski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dtp","autonym":"Kadazandusun", "dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dv","autonym":"ދިވެހިބަސް","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"dz","autonym":"ཇོང་ཁ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ee","autonym":"eʋegbe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fat","autonym":"mfantse","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ff","autonym":"Fulfulde","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fj","autonym":"Na Vosa Vakaviti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fo","autonym":"føroyskt","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fon","autonym":"fɔ̀ngbè","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"frp","autonym":"arpetan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fur","autonym":"furlan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gag","autonym":"Gagauz","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gan","autonym":"贛語","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gom","autonym":"गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gor","autonym":"Bahasa Hulontalo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gpe","autonym":"Ghanaian Pidgin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"guc","autonym":"wayuunaiki","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gur","autonym":"farefare","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"guw","autonym":"gungbe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gv","autonym":"Gaelg","dir":"ltr"},{ "lang":"ha","autonym":"Hausa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hak","autonym":"客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"haw","autonym":"Hawaiʻi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hsb","autonym":"hornjoserbsce","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hyw","autonym":"Արեւմտահայերէն","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"iba","autonym":"Jaku Iban","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ie","autonym":"Interlingue","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"igl","autonym":"Igala","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"iu","autonym":"ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kab","autonym":"Taqbaylit","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kbd","autonym":"адыгэбзэ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kcg","autonym":"Tyap","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kg","autonym":"Kongo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kge","autonym":"Kumoring","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ki","autonym":"Gĩkũyũ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kl","autonym":"kalaallisut","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"km","autonym":"ភាសាខ្មែរ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"koi","autonym":"перем коми","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ks","autonym": "कॉशुर / کٲشُر","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"kus","autonym":"Kʋsaal","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kv","autonym":"коми","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lad","autonym":"Ladino","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lg","autonym":"Luganda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lij","autonym":"Ligure","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ln","autonym":"lingála","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ltg","autonym":"latgaļu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mad","autonym":"Madhurâ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mai","autonym":"मैथिली","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"map-bms","autonym":"Basa Banyumasan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mdf","autonym":"мокшень","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mg","autonym":"Malagasy","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mhr","autonym":"олык марий","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mi","autonym":"Māori","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"min","autonym":"Minangkabau","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mni","autonym":"ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mnw","autonym":"ဘာသာမန်","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mos","autonym":"moore","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mrj","autonym": "кырык мары","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mt","autonym":"Malti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"myv","autonym":"эрзянь","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nah","autonym":"Nāhuatl","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nan","autonym":"閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nap","autonym":"Napulitano","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nb","autonym":"norsk bokmål","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nds-nl","autonym":"Nedersaksies","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nia","autonym":"Li Niha","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nqo","autonym":"ߒߞߏ","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"nr","autonym":"isiNdebele seSewula","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nso","autonym":"Sesotho sa Leboa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ny","autonym":"Chi-Chewa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"os","autonym":"ирон","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pag","autonym":"Pangasinan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pam","autonym":"Kapampangan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pap","autonym":"Papiamentu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pcd","autonym":"Picard","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pcm","autonym":"Naijá","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pdc","autonym":"Deitsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang" :"pwn","autonym":"pinayuanan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rm","autonym":"rumantsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rn","autonym":"ikirundi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rsk","autonym":"руски","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rup","autonym":"armãneashti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rw","autonym":"Ikinyarwanda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sat","autonym":"ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sc","autonym":"sardu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sg","autonym":"Sängö","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sgs","autonym":"žemaitėška","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"shi","autonym":"Taclḥit","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"shn","autonym":"ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"skr","autonym":"سرائیکی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"sm","autonym":"Gagana Samoa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"smn","autonym":"anarâškielâ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sn","autonym":"chiShona","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"so","autonym":"Soomaaliga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"srn","autonym":"Sranantongo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ss","autonym":"SiSwati","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"st","autonym":"Sesotho", "dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"szl","autonym":"ślůnski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tay","autonym":"Tayal","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tdd","autonym":"ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tet","autonym":"tetun","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ti","autonym":"ትግርኛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tly","autonym":"tolışi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tn","autonym":"Setswana","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"to","autonym":"lea faka-Tonga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tpi","autonym":"Tok Pisin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"trv","autonym":"Seediq","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ts","autonym":"Xitsonga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tum","autonym":"chiTumbuka","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tw","autonym":"Twi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ty","autonym":"reo tahiti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tyv","autonym":"тыва дыл","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"udm","autonym":"удмурт","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ve","autonym":"Tshivenda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vls","autonym":"West-Vlams","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vo","autonym":"Volapük","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vro","autonym":"võro","dir": "ltr"},{"lang":"wa","autonym":"walon","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wo","autonym":"Wolof","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xal","autonym":"хальмг","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xh","autonym":"isiXhosa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"yo","autonym":"Yorùbá","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"yue","autonym":"粵語","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"za","autonym":"Vahcuengh","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"zgh","autonym":"ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"zu","autonym":"isiZulu","dir":"ltr"}],"wgSectionTranslationTargetLanguages":["ace","ady","alt","am","ami","an","ang","ann","anp","ar","ary","arz","as","ast","av","avk","awa","ay","az","azb","ba","ban","bar","bbc","bcl","bdr","be","bew","bg","bho","bi","bjn","blk","bm","bn","bo","bpy","br","bs","btm","bug","ca","cdo","ce","ceb","ch","chr","ckb","co","cr","crh","cs","cu","cy","da","dag","de","dga","din","diq","dsb","dtp","dv","dz","ee","el","eml","eo","es","et","eu","fa","fat","ff","fi","fj","fo","fon","fr","frp","frr","fur","fy","gag","gan","gcr","gl","glk","gn" ,"gom","gor","gpe","gu","guc","gur","guw","gv","ha","hak","haw","he","hi","hif","hr","hsb","ht","hu","hy","hyw","ia","iba","ie","ig","igl","ilo","io","is","it","iu","ja","jam","jv","ka","kaa","kab","kbd","kbp","kcg","kg","kge","ki","kk","kl","km","kn","ko","koi","krc","ks","ku","kus","kv","kw","ky","lad","lb","lez","lg","li","lij","lld","lmo","ln","lo","lt","ltg","lv","mad","mai","map-bms","mdf","mg","mhr","mi","min","mk","ml","mn","mni","mnw","mos","mr","mrj","ms","mt","mwl","my","myv","mzn","nah","nan","nap","nb","nds","nds-nl","ne","new","nia","nl","nn","nqo","nr","nso","ny","oc","om","or","os","pa","pag","pam","pap","pcd","pcm","pdc","pl","pms","pnb","ps","pt","pwn","qu","rm","rn","ro","rsk","rue","rup","rw","sa","sah","sat","sc","scn","sco","sd","se","sg","sgs","sh","shi","shn","si","sk","skr","sl","sm","smn","sn","so","sq","sr","srn","ss","st","stq","su","sv","sw","szl","ta","tay","tcy","tdd","te","tet","tg","th","ti","tk","tl","tly","tn","to","tpi","tr","trv","ts","tt","tum", "tw","ty","tyv","udm","ur","uz","ve","vec","vep","vi","vls","vo","vro","wa","war","wo","wuu","xal","xh","xmf","yi","yo","yue","za","zgh","zh","zu"],"isLanguageSearcherCXEntrypointEnabled":true,"mintEntrypointLanguages":["ace","ast","azb","bcl","bjn","bh","crh","ff","fon","ig","is","ki","ks","lmo","min","sat","ss","tn","vec"],"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q323","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false,"wgMinervaPermissions":{"watchable":true,"watch":false},"wgMinervaFeatures":{"beta":false,"donate":true,"mobileOptionsLink":true,"categories":false,"pageIssues":true,"talkAtTop":true,"historyInPageActions":false,"overflowSubmenu":false,"tabsOnSpecials":true,"personalMenu":false,"mainMenuExpanded":false,"echo":true,"nightMode":true}, "wgMinervaDownloadNamespaces":[0]};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.math.styles":"ready","ext.tmh.player.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.content.styles.images":"ready","mediawiki.hlist":"ready","skins.minerva.codex.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.icons":"ready","skins.minerva.amc.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","mobile.init.styles":"ready","ext.relatedArticles.styles":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.tmh.player","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","skins.minerva.scripts","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","ext.popups","mobile.init","ext.echo.centralauth", "ext.relatedArticles.readMore.bootstrap","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.entrypoints.mffrequentlanguages","ext.cx.entrypoints.languagesearcher.init","mw.externalguidance.init","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.math.styles%7Cext.relatedArticles.styles%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cmediawiki.hlist%7Cmobile.init.styles%7Cskins.minerva.amc.styles%7Cskins.minerva.codex.styles%7Cskins.minerva.content.styles.images%7Cskins.minerva.icons%2Cstyles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=minerva"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=minerva"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=minerva"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#eaecf0"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/1200px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="792"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/800px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="528"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/640px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="422"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, user-scalable=yes, minimum-scale=0.25, maximum-scale=5.0"> <meta property="og:title" content="Big Bang - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="manifest" href="/w/api.php?action=webapp-manifest"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Big_Bang rootpage-Big_Bang stable issues-group-B skin-minerva action-view skin--responsive mw-mf-amc-disabled mw-mf"><div id="mw-mf-viewport"> <div id="mw-mf-page-center"> <a class="mw-mf-page-center__mask" href="#"></a> <header class="header-container header-chrome"> <div class="minerva-header"> <nav class="navigation-drawer toggle-list view-border-box"> <input type="checkbox" id="main-menu-input" class="toggle-list__checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" aria-expanded="false" aria-labelledby="mw-mf-main-menu-button"> <label role="button" for="main-menu-input" id="mw-mf-main-menu-button" aria-hidden="true" data-event-name="ui.mainmenu" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet toggle-list__toggle"> </label> <div id="mw-mf-page-left" class="menu view-border-box"> <ul id="p-navigation" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--home" href="/wiki/Main_Page" data-mw="interface"> Home </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--random" href="/wiki/Special:Random" data-mw="interface"> Random </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item skin-minerva-list-item-jsonly"> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--nearby" href="/wiki/Special:Nearby" data-event-name="menu.nearby" data-mw="interface"> Nearby </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="p-personal" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--login" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Big+Bang" data-event-name="menu.login" data-mw="interface"> Log in </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="pt-preferences" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item skin-minerva-list-item-jsonly"> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--settings" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:MobileOptions&returnto=Big+Bang" data-event-name="menu.settings" data-mw="interface"> Settings </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="p-donation" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--donate" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en&utm_key=minerva" data-event-name="menu.donate" data-mw="interface"> Donate </a> </li> </ul> <ul class="hlist"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--about" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" data-mw="interface"> About Wikipedia </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--disclaimers" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer" data-mw="interface"> Disclaimers </a> </li> </ul> </div> <label class="main-menu-mask" for="main-menu-input"></label> </nav> <div class="branding-box"> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page"> <img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </a> </div> <form action="/w/index.php" method="get" class="minerva-search-form"> <div class="search-box"> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"/> <input class="search skin-minerva-search-trigger" id="searchInput" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> </div> <button id="searchIcon" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet skin-minerva-search-trigger"> Search </button> </form> <nav class="minerva-user-navigation" aria-label="User navigation"> </nav> </div> </header> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <div class="banner-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Big Bang</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Big_Bang" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Big_Bang" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Big+Bang" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-viewsource" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Big_Bang&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.viewsource" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-viewsource"> View source </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the theory. For the television series, see <a href="/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory" title="The Big Bang Theory">The Big Bang Theory</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Big Bang (disambiguation)">Big Bang (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_Theory_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Big Bang Theory (disambiguation)">Big Bang Theory (disambiguation)</a>.</div> The Big Bang is a <a href="/wiki/Physical_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical theory">physical theory</a> that describes how the <a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">universe expanded</a> from an initial state of high <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">density</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HTUW-1">[1]</a> The notion of an expanding universe was first scientifically originated by <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Friedmann" title="Alexander Friedmann">Alexander Friedmann</a> in 1922 with the mathematical derivation of the <a href="/wiki/Friedmann_equations" title="Friedmann equations">Friedmann equations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-m853-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-z155-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-c686-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-c625-5">[5]</a> The earliest empirical observation of the notion of an expanding universe is known as <a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble's Law">Hubble's Law</a>, published in work by physicist <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a> in 1929, which discerned that galaxies are moving away from Earth at a rate that accelerates proportionally with distance. <a href="/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries#20th_century" title="List of multiple discoveries">Independent</a> of Friedmann's work, and independent of Hubble's observations, physicist <a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Georges Lemaître</a> proposed that the universe emerged from a "primeval <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a>" in 1931, introducing the modern notion of the Big Bang. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A model of the expanding universe opening up from the viewer's left, facing the viewer in a 3/4 pose." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/330px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/495px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/660px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1980"></a><figcaption>Timeline of the <a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">expansion of the universe</a>, where space, including hypothetical non-observable portions of the universe, is represented at each time by the circular sections. On the left, the dramatic expansion occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Inflationary_epoch" title="Inflationary epoch">inflationary epoch</a>; and at the center, the expansion <a href="/wiki/Accelerating_expansion_of_the_universe" title="Accelerating expansion of the universe">accelerates</a> (artist's concept; neither time nor size are to scale).</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> Various <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">cosmological models</a> of the Big Bang explain the evolution of the <a href="/wiki/Observable_universe" title="Observable universe">observable universe</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Planck_units#Cosmology" title="Planck units">earliest known periods</a> through its subsequent large-scale form.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilk2009208-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2004560-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> These models offer a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of observed phenomena, including the abundance of <a href="/wiki/Light_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Light element">light elements</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic microwave background</a> (CMB) <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">radiation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_structure_of_the_Universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale structure of the Universe">large-scale structure</a>. The uniformity of the universe, known as the <a href="/wiki/Flatness_problem" title="Flatness problem">flatness problem</a>, is explained through <a href="/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation (cosmology)">cosmic inflation</a>: a sudden and very rapid expansion of space during the earliest moments. Extrapolating this cosmic expansion backward in time using the known <a href="/wiki/Scientific_law#Laws_of_physics" title="Scientific law">laws of physics</a>, the models describe an increasingly concentrated cosmos preceded by <a href="/wiki/Initial_singularity" title="Initial singularity">a singularity</a> in which <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">space and time</a> lose meaning (typically named "the Big Bang singularity").<a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-9">[9]</a> Physics lacks a widely accepted theory of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a> that can model the earliest conditions of the Big Bang. In 1964 the CMB was discovered, which convinced many cosmologists that the competing <a href="/wiki/Steady-state_model" title="Steady-state model">steady-state model</a> of cosmic evolution was <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsified</a>, since the Big Bang models predict a uniform background radiation caused by high temperatures and densities in the distant past.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> A wide range of empirical evidence strongly favors the Big Bang event, which is now essentially universally accepted.<a href="#cite_note-Kragh_1996-11">[11]</a> Detailed measurements of the expansion rate of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> place the Big Bang singularity at an estimated 13.787±0.020 <a href="/wiki/1,000,000,000_(number)" class="mw-redirect" title="1,000,000,000 (number)">billion</a> years ago, which is considered the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">age of the universe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-esa-12">[12]</a> There remain aspects of the observed universe that are not yet adequately explained by the Big Bang models. After its initial expansion, the universe cooled sufficiently to allow the formation of <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particles</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>. The unequal abundances of matter and <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a> that allowed this to occur is an unexplained effect known as <a href="/wiki/Baryon_asymmetry" title="Baryon asymmetry">baryon asymmetry</a>. These primordial elements—mostly <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, with some <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a>—later coalesced through <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>, forming early <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a> and galaxies. Astronomers observe the gravitational effects of an unknown <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> surrounding galaxies. Most of the <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_potential" title="Gravitational potential">gravitational potential</a> in the universe seems to be in this form, and the Big Bang models and various observations indicate that this excess gravitational potential is not created by <a href="/wiki/Baryonic_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Baryonic matter">baryonic matter</a>, such as normal atoms. Measurements of the redshifts of <a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_supernova" title="Type Ia supernova">supernovae</a> indicate that the <a href="/wiki/Accelerating_expansion_of_the_universe" title="Accelerating expansion of the universe">expansion of the universe is accelerating</a>, an observation attributed to an unexplained phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-peebles-13">[13]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Features_of_the_models">1 Features of the models</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Horizons">1.1 Horizons</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Thermalization">1.2 Thermalization</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Timeline">2 Timeline</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Singularity">2.1 Singularity</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Inflation_and_baryogenesis">2.2 Inflation and baryogenesis</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Cooling">2.3 Cooling</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Structure_formation">2.4 Structure formation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Cosmic_acceleration">2.5 Cosmic acceleration</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Concept_history">3 Concept history</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Etymology">3.1 Etymology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Development">3.2 Development</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Observational_evidence">4 Observational evidence</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Hubble's_law_and_the_expansion_of_the_universe">4.1 Hubble's law and the expansion of the universe</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation">4.2 Cosmic microwave background radiation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Abundance_of_primordial_elements">4.3 Abundance of primordial elements</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Galactic_evolution_and_distribution">4.4 Galactic evolution and distribution</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Primordial_gas_clouds">4.5 Primordial gas clouds</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Other_lines_of_evidence">4.6 Other lines of evidence</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Future_observations">4.7 Future observations</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Problems_and_related_issues_in_physics">5 Problems and related issues in physics</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Baryon_asymmetry">5.1 Baryon asymmetry</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Dark_energy">5.2 Dark energy</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Dark_matter">5.3 Dark matter</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Horizon_problem">5.4 Horizon problem</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Magnetic_monopoles">5.5 Magnetic monopoles</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Flatness_problem">5.6 Flatness problem</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Misconceptions">6 Misconceptions</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Implications">7 Implications</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Pre%E2%80%93Big_Bang_cosmology">7.1 Pre–Big Bang cosmology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe">7.2 Ultimate fate of the universe</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Religious_and_philosophical_interpretations">7.3 Religious and philosophical interpretations</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#See_also">8 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#Notes">9 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#References">10 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Bibliography">10.1 Bibliography</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#Further_reading">11 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#External_links">12 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Features_of_the_models">Features of the models</h2></div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> The Big Bang models offer a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of observed phenomena, including the abundances of the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">light elements</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">CMB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Observable_universe#Large-scale_structure" title="Observable universe">large-scale structure</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wright2009-14">[14]</a> The models depend on two major assumptions: the universality of physical laws and the <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_principle" title="Cosmological principle">cosmological principle</a>. The universality of physical laws is one of the underlying principles of the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a>. The cosmological principle states that on large scales the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> is <a href="/wiki/Homogeneous_space" title="Homogeneous space">homogeneous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isotropy" title="Isotropy">isotropic</a>—appearing the same in all directions regardless of location.<a href="#cite_note-Francis2018-15">[15]</a> These ideas were initially taken as postulates, but later efforts were made to test each of them. For example, the first assumption has been tested by observations showing that the largest possible deviation of the <a href="/wiki/Fine-structure_constant" title="Fine-structure constant">fine-structure constant</a> over much of the age of the universe is of order 10−5.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Also, <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a> has passed stringent <a href="/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity" title="Tests of general relativity">tests</a> on the scale of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> and <a href="/wiki/Binary_star" title="Binary star">binary stars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[notes 1]</a> The large-scale universe appears isotropic as viewed from Earth. If it is indeed isotropic, the cosmological principle can be derived from the simpler <a href="/wiki/Copernican_principle" title="Copernican principle">Copernican principle</a>, which states that there is no preferred (or special) observer or vantage point. To this end, the cosmological principle has been confirmed to a level of 10−5 via observations of the temperature of the CMB. At the scale of the CMB horizon, the universe has been measured to be homogeneous with an upper bound <a href="/wiki/On_the_order_of" class="mw-redirect" title="On the order of">on the order of</a> 10% inhomogeneity, as of 1995.<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Horizons">Horizons</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_horizon" title="Cosmological horizon">Cosmological horizon</a></div> An important feature of the Big Bang spacetime is the presence of <a href="/wiki/Particle_horizon" title="Particle horizon">particle horizons</a>. Since the universe has a finite age, and <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> travels at a finite speed, there may be events in the past whose light has not yet had time to reach earth. This places a limit or a past horizon on the most distant objects that can be observed. Conversely, because space is expanding, and more distant objects are receding ever more quickly, light emitted by us today may never "catch up" to very distant objects. This defines a future horizon, which limits the events in the future that we will be able to influence. The presence of either type of horizon depends on the details of the <a href="/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Robertson%E2%80%93Walker_metric" title="Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric">Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) metric</a> that describes the expansion of the universe.<a href="#cite_note-kolb_c3-21">[20]</a> Our understanding of the universe back to very early times suggests that there is a past horizon, though in practice our view is also limited by the opacity of the universe at early times. So our view cannot extend further backward in time, though the horizon recedes in space. If the expansion of the universe continues to accelerate, there is a future horizon as well.<a href="#cite_note-kolb_c3-21">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermalization">Thermalization</h3></div> Some processes in the early universe occurred too slowly, compared to the expansion rate of the universe, to reach approximate <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">thermodynamic equilibrium</a>. Others were fast enough to reach <a href="/wiki/Thermalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermalization">thermalization</a>. The parameter usually used to find out whether a process in the very early universe has reached thermal equilibrium is the ratio between the rate of the process (usually rate of collisions between particles) and the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_parameter" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble parameter">Hubble parameter</a>. The larger the ratio, the more time particles had to thermalize before they were too far away from each other.<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Timeline">Timeline</h2></div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe" title="Chronology of the universe">Chronology of the universe</a></div> <table class="wikitable noprint" style="float:right; clear:right; margin: 0.5em 0em 0.5em 0.5em"> <tbody><tr> <td><noscript><img alt="External Timeline" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Timeline_icon.svg/50px-Timeline_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 50px;height: 50px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Timeline_icon.svg/50px-Timeline_icon.svg.png" data-alt="External Timeline" data-width="50" data-height="50" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Timeline_icon.svg/75px-Timeline_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Timeline_icon.svg/100px-Timeline_icon.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  </td> <td width="215px">A graphical timeline is available at <a href="/wiki/Graphical_timeline_of_the_Big_Bang" title="Graphical timeline of the Big Bang">Graphical timeline of the Big Bang</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> According to the Big Bang models, the universe at the beginning was very hot and very compact, and since then it has been expanding and cooling. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Singularity">Singularity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_singularity" title="Gravitational singularity">Gravitational singularity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Initial_singularity" title="Initial singularity">Initial singularity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Planck_units#Cosmology" title="Planck units">Planck units § Cosmology</a></div> In the absence of a <a href="/wiki/Perfect_cosmological_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfect cosmological principle">perfect cosmological principle</a>, extrapolation of the expansion of the universe backwards in time using general relativity yields an <a href="/wiki/Infinity#Physics" title="Infinity">infinite</a> <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> at a finite time in the past.<a href="#cite_note-Hawking_Ellis_1973-23">[22]</a> This irregular behavior, known as the <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_singularity" title="Gravitational singularity">gravitational singularity</a>, indicates that general relativity is not an adequate description of the laws of physics in this regime. Models based on general relativity alone cannot fully extrapolate toward the singularity.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-9">[9]</a> In some proposals, such as the <a href="/wiki/Emergent_Universe" title="Emergent Universe">emergent Universe</a> models, the singularity is replaced by another cosmological epoch. A different approach identifies the <a href="/wiki/Initial_singularity" title="Initial singularity">initial singularity</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_singularity" title="Gravitational singularity">singularity</a> predicted by some models of the Big Bang theory to have existed before the Big Bang event.<a href="#cite_note-handf-space-24">[23]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] This primordial singularity is itself sometimes called "the Big Bang",<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> but the term can also refer to a more generic early hot, dense phase<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[notes 2]</a> of the universe. In either case, "the Big Bang" as an event is also colloquially referred to as the "birth" of our universe since it represents the point in history where the universe can be verified to have entered into a <a href="/wiki/Equation_of_state_(cosmology)" title="Equation of state (cosmology)">regime</a> where the laws of physics as we understand them (specifically general relativity and the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> of <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>) work. Based on measurements of the expansion using <a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_supernova" title="Type Ia supernova">Type Ia supernovae</a> and measurements of temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background, the time that has passed since that event—known as the "<a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">age of the universe</a>"—is 13.8 billion years.<a href="#cite_note-Planck_2015-28">[26]</a> Despite being extremely dense at this time—far denser than is usually required to form a <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a>—the universe did not re-collapse into a singularity. Commonly used calculations and limits for explaining <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">gravitational collapse</a> are usually based upon objects of relatively constant size, such as stars, and do not apply to rapidly expanding space such as the Big Bang. Since the early universe did not immediately collapse into a multitude of black holes, matter at that time must have been very evenly distributed with a negligible <a href="/wiki/Density_gradient" title="Density gradient">density gradient</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Musser2003-29">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inflation_and_baryogenesis">Inflation and baryogenesis</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation (cosmology)">Inflation (cosmology)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baryogenesis" title="Baryogenesis">Baryogenesis</a></div> The earliest phases of the Big Bang are subject to much speculation, given the lack of available data. In the most common models the universe was filled homogeneously and isotropically with a very high <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a> and huge temperatures and <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressures</a>, and was very rapidly expanding and cooling. The period up to 10−43 seconds into the expansion, the <a href="/wiki/Planck_epoch" class="mw-redirect" title="Planck epoch">Planck epoch</a>, was a phase in which the four <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental force">fundamental forces</a>—the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic force">electromagnetic force</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Strong_nuclear_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong nuclear force">strong nuclear force</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Weak-Nuclear_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak-Nuclear Force">weak nuclear force</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational force">gravitational force</a>, were unified as one.<a href="#cite_note-:0-30">[28]</a> In this stage, the <a href="/wiki/Characteristic_length" title="Characteristic length">characteristic scale length</a> of the universe was the <a href="/wiki/Planck_length" class="mw-redirect" title="Planck length">Planck length</a>, 1.6×10−35 m, and consequently had a temperature of approximately 1032 degrees Celsius. Even the very concept of a particle breaks down in these conditions. A proper understanding of this period awaits the development of a theory of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hawley_Holcomb_2005-31">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a> The Planck epoch was succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/Grand_unification_epoch" title="Grand unification epoch">grand unification epoch</a> beginning at 10−43 seconds, where gravitation separated from the other forces as the universe's temperature fell.<a href="#cite_note-:0-30">[28]</a> At approximately 10−37 seconds into the expansion, a <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase transition</a> caused a <a href="/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation (cosmology)">cosmic inflation</a>, during which the universe grew <a href="/wiki/Exponential_growth" title="Exponential growth">exponentially</a>, unconstrained by the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">light speed invariance</a>, and temperatures dropped by a factor of 100,000. This concept is motivated by the <a href="/wiki/Flatness_problem" title="Flatness problem">flatness problem</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Density_of_the_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Density of the universe">density of matter and energy</a> is very close to the critical density needed to produce a <a href="/wiki/Flat_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Flat universe">flat universe</a>. That is, the <a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe" title="Shape of the universe">shape of the universe</a> has no overall <a href="/wiki/Spacetime_curvature" class="mw-redirect" title="Spacetime curvature">geometric curvature</a> due to gravitational influence. Microscopic <a href="/wiki/Quantum_fluctuation" title="Quantum fluctuation">quantum fluctuations</a> that occurred because of <a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Heisenberg's uncertainty principle</a> were "frozen in" by inflation, becoming amplified into the seeds that would later form the large-scale structure of the universe.<a href="#cite_note-Guth1998-33">[31]</a> At a time around 10−36 seconds, the <a href="/wiki/Electroweak_epoch" title="Electroweak epoch">electroweak epoch</a> begins when the strong nuclear force separates from the other forces, with only the electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force remaining unified.<a href="#cite_note-:1-34">[32]</a> Inflation stopped locally at around 10−33 to 10−32 seconds, with the observable universe's volume having increased by a factor of at least 1078. Reheating followed as the <a href="/wiki/Inflaton_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflaton field">inflaton field</a> decayed, until the universe obtained the temperatures required for the <a href="/wiki/Pair_production" title="Pair production">production</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma" title="Quark–gluon plasma">quark–gluon plasma</a> as well as all other <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">elementary particles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a> Temperatures were so high that the random motions of particles were at <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">relativistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_speed" title="Relativistic speed">speeds</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">particle–antiparticle pairs</a> of all kinds were being continuously created and destroyed in collisions.<a href="#cite_note-HTUW-1">[1]</a> At some point, an unknown reaction called <a href="/wiki/Baryogenesis" title="Baryogenesis">baryogenesis</a> violated the conservation of <a href="/wiki/Baryon_number" title="Baryon number">baryon number</a>, leading to a very small excess of <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">leptons</a> over antiquarks and antileptons—of the order of one part in 30 million. This resulted in the predominance of matter over antimatter in the present universe.<a href="#cite_note-kolb_c6-37">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cooling">Cooling</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">Cosmic microwave background</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2MASS_LSS_chart-NEW_Nasa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="A map of the universe, with specks and strands of light of different colors." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/2MASS_LSS_chart-NEW_Nasa.jpg/550px-2MASS_LSS_chart-NEW_Nasa.jpg" decoding="async" width="550" height="278" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1239" data-file-height="627"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 550px;height: 278px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/2MASS_LSS_chart-NEW_Nasa.jpg/550px-2MASS_LSS_chart-NEW_Nasa.jpg" data-alt="A map of the universe, with specks and strands of light of different colors." data-width="550" data-height="278" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/2MASS_LSS_chart-NEW_Nasa.jpg/825px-2MASS_LSS_chart-NEW_Nasa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/2MASS_LSS_chart-NEW_Nasa.jpg/1100px-2MASS_LSS_chart-NEW_Nasa.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Panoramic view of the entire <a href="/wiki/Infrared#Regions_within_the_infrared" title="Infrared">near-infrared</a> sky reveals the distribution of galaxies beyond the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>. Galaxies are color-coded by <a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">redshift</a>.</figcaption></figure> The universe continued to decrease in density and fall in temperature, hence the typical energy of each particle was decreasing. <a href="/wiki/Explicit_symmetry_breaking" title="Explicit symmetry breaking">Symmetry-breaking</a> phase transitions put the <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental force">fundamental forces</a> of physics and the parameters of elementary particles into their present form, with the electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force separating at about 10−12 seconds.<a href="#cite_note-:1-34">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-kolb_c7-38">[36]</a> After about 10−11 seconds, the picture becomes less speculative, since particle energies drop to values that can be attained in <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a>. At about 10−6 seconds, <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">gluons</a> combined to form <a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">baryons</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>. The small excess of quarks over antiquarks led to a small excess of baryons over antibaryons. The temperature was no longer high enough to create either new proton–antiproton or neutron–antineutron pairs. A mass <a href="/wiki/Annihilation" title="Annihilation">annihilation</a> immediately followed, leaving just one in 108 of the original matter particles and none of their <a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">antiparticles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> A similar process happened at about 1 second for electrons and positrons. After these annihilations, the remaining protons, neutrons and electrons were no longer moving relativistically and the energy density of the universe was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a> (with a minor contribution from <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrinos</a>). A few minutes into the expansion, when the temperature was about a billion <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvin</a> and the density of matter in the universe was comparable to the current density of Earth's atmosphere, neutrons combined with protons to form the universe's <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nuclei</a> in a process called <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</a> (BBN).<a href="#cite_note-kolb_c4-40">[38]</a> Most protons remained uncombined as hydrogen nuclei.<a href="#cite_note-peacock_c9-41">[39]</a> As the universe cooled, the <a href="/wiki/Rest_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Rest mass">rest energy</a> density of matter came to gravitationally dominate that of the photon <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">radiation</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Recombination_(cosmology)" title="Recombination (cosmology)">recombination</a> epoch began after about 379,000 years, when the electrons and nuclei combined into <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> (mostly <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>), which were able to emit radiation. This relic radiation, which continued through space largely unimpeded, is known as the cosmic microwave background.<a href="#cite_note-peacock_c9-41">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure_formation">Structure formation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Structure_formation" title="Structure formation">Structure formation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heic1401a-Abell2744-20140107.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Heic1401a-Abell2744-20140107.jpg/330px-Heic1401a-Abell2744-20140107.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="368" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3909" data-file-height="4360"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 330px;height: 368px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Heic1401a-Abell2744-20140107.jpg/330px-Heic1401a-Abell2744-20140107.jpg" data-width="330" data-height="368" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Heic1401a-Abell2744-20140107.jpg/495px-Heic1401a-Abell2744-20140107.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Heic1401a-Abell2744-20140107.jpg/660px-Heic1401a-Abell2744-20140107.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Abell_2744" title="Abell 2744">Abell 2744</a> <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_cluster" title="Galaxy cluster">galaxy cluster</a> – <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope#Frontier_Fields_program" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Frontier Fields view</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20140107-42">[40]</a></figcaption></figure> After the recombination epoch, the slightly denser regions of the uniformly distributed matter gravitationally attracted nearby matter and thus grew even denser, forming gas clouds, stars, galaxies, and the other astronomical structures observable today.<a href="#cite_note-HTUW-1">[1]</a> The details of this process depend on the amount and type of matter in the universe. The four possible types of matter are known as <a href="/wiki/Cold_dark_matter" title="Cold dark matter">cold dark matter</a> (CDM), <a href="/wiki/Warm_dark_matter" title="Warm dark matter">warm dark matter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hot_dark_matter" title="Hot dark matter">hot dark matter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Baryon#Baryonic_matter" title="Baryon">baryonic matter</a>. The best measurements available, from the <a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe</a> (WMAP), show that the data is well-fit by a <a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">Lambda-CDM model</a> in which dark matter is assumed to be cold. (Warm dark matter is ruled out by early <a href="/wiki/Reionization" title="Reionization">reionization</a>.)<a href="#cite_note-WMAP2003Spergel-43">[41]</a> This CDM is estimated to make up about 23% of the matter/energy of the universe, while baryonic matter makes up about 4.6%.<a href="#cite_note-wmap7year-44">[42]</a> In an "extended model" which includes hot dark matter in the form of neutrinos,<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20200415-45">[43]</a> then the "physical baryon density" <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Omega _{\text{b}}h^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ω</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>b</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Omega _{\text{b}}h^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a989f9a980520e3bf3b4a76bc93a18ca5fccfe3a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.217ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Omega _{\text{b}}h^{2}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 5.217ex;height: 3.009ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a989f9a980520e3bf3b4a76bc93a18ca5fccfe3a" data-alt="{\displaystyle \Omega _{\text{b}}h^{2}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert">  is estimated at 0.023. (This is different from the 'baryon density' <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Omega _{\text{b}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ω</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>b</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Omega _{\text{b}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7407465543b008530fcc4c44cb30880bacd98fd9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.824ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Omega _{\text{b}}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.824ex;height: 2.509ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7407465543b008530fcc4c44cb30880bacd98fd9" data-alt="{\displaystyle \Omega _{\text{b}}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert">  expressed as a fraction of the total matter/energy density, which is about 0.046.) The corresponding cold dark matter density <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Omega _{\text{c}}h^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ω</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>c</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Omega _{\text{c}}h^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c12d26a73654e377b8ebf25465013d9f44ae18cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.034ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Omega _{\text{c}}h^{2}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 5.034ex;height: 3.009ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c12d26a73654e377b8ebf25465013d9f44ae18cb" data-alt="{\displaystyle \Omega _{\text{c}}h^{2}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert">  is about 0.11, and the corresponding neutrino density <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Omega _{\text{v}}h^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ω</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>v</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Omega _{\text{v}}h^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a78dfb3d8853c8ca949417082393a9c9457c5352" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.172ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Omega _{\text{v}}h^{2}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 5.172ex;height: 3.009ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a78dfb3d8853c8ca949417082393a9c9457c5352" data-alt="{\displaystyle \Omega _{\text{v}}h^{2}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert">  is estimated to be less than 0.0062.<a href="#cite_note-wmap7year-44">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmic_acceleration">Cosmic acceleration</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Accelerating_expansion_of_the_universe" title="Accelerating expansion of the universe">Accelerating expansion of the universe</a></div> Independent lines of evidence from Type Ia supernovae and the CMB imply that the universe today is dominated by a mysterious form of energy known as <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>, which appears to homogeneously permeate all of space. Observations suggest that 73% of the total energy density of the present day universe is in this form. When the universe was very young it was likely infused with dark energy, but with everything closer together, <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> predominated, braking the expansion. Eventually, after billions of years of expansion, the declining density of matter relative to the density of dark energy allowed the expansion of the universe to begin to accelerate.<a href="#cite_note-peebles-13">[13]</a> Dark energy in its simplest formulation is modeled by a <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_constant" title="Cosmological constant">cosmological constant</a> term in <a href="/wiki/Einstein_field_equations" title="Einstein field equations">Einstein field equations</a> of general relativity, but its composition and mechanism are unknown. More generally, the details of its equation of state and relationship with the Standard Model of particle physics continue to be investigated both through observation and theory.<a href="#cite_note-peebles-13">[13]</a> All of this cosmic evolution after the <a href="/wiki/Inflationary_epoch" title="Inflationary epoch">inflationary epoch</a> can be rigorously described and modeled by the lambda-CDM model of cosmology, which uses the independent frameworks of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> and general relativity. There are no easily testable models that would describe the situation prior to approximately 10−15 seconds.<sup id='cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManly2011chpt._7:_"The_Ultimate_Free_Lunch"[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2020]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2020)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_46-0' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManly2011chpt._7:_%22The_Ultimate_Free_Lunch%22%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2020%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2020)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-46">[44]</a> Understanding this earliest of eras in the history of the universe is one of the greatest <a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics" title="List of unsolved problems in physics">unsolved problems in physics</a>. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Concept_history">Concept history</h2></div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Big_Bang_theory" title="History of the Big Bang theory">History of the Big Bang theory</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">Timeline of cosmological theories</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etymology">Etymology</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English</a> <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomer</a> <a href="/wiki/Fred_Hoyle" title="Fred Hoyle">Fred Hoyle</a> is credited with coining the term "Big Bang" during a talk for a March 1949 <a href="/wiki/BBC_Radio" title="BBC Radio">BBC Radio</a> broadcast,<a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a> saying: "These theories were based on the hypothesis that all the matter in the universe was created in one big bang at a particular time in the remote past."<a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kragh2013-49">[47]</a> However, it did not catch on until the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-Kragh2013-49">[47]</a> It is popularly reported that Hoyle, who favored an alternative "<a href="/wiki/Steady-state_model" title="Steady-state model">steady-state</a>" cosmological model, intended this to be pejorative,<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mathew2013-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ferris_Quote-52">[50]</a> but Hoyle explicitly denied this and said it was just a striking image meant to highlight the difference between the two models.<a href="#cite_note-Croswell1995_chpt9-53">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mitton2011_p129-54">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Helge_Kragh" title="Helge Kragh">Helge Kragh</a> writes that the evidence for the claim that it was meant as a pejorative is "unconvincing", and mentions a number of indications that it was not a pejorative.<a href="#cite_note-Kragh2013-49">[47]</a> The term itself has been argued to be a misnomer because it evokes an explosion.<a href="#cite_note-Kragh2013-49">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a> The argument is that whereas an explosion suggests expansion into a surrounding space, the Big Bang only describes the intrinsic expansion of the contents of the universe.<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> Another issue pointed out by Santhosh Mathew is that bang implies sound, which is not an important feature of the model.<a href="#cite_note-Mathew2013-51">[49]</a> An attempt to find a more suitable alternative was not successful.<a href="#cite_note-Kragh2013-49">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ferris_Quote-52">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:404px;max-width:404px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader"><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Ultra-Deep_Field#Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field" title="Hubble Ultra-Deep Field">Hubble eXtreme Deep Field (XDF)</a></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:402px;max-width:402px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:XDF-scale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/XDF-scale.jpg/400px-XDF-scale.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="415" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2489"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 400px;height: 415px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/XDF-scale.jpg/400px-XDF-scale.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="400" data-height="415" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/XDF-scale.jpg/600px-XDF-scale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/XDF-scale.jpg/800px-XDF-scale.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Ultra-Deep_Field#Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field" title="Hubble Ultra-Deep Field">XDF</a> size compared to the size of the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> (XDF is the small box to the left of, and nearly below, the Moon) – several thousand galaxies, each consisting of billions of stars, are in this small view.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:402px;max-width:402px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg/400px-The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="349" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2382" data-file-height="2078"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 400px;height: 349px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg/400px-The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="400" data-height="349" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg/600px-The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg/800px-The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Ultra-Deep_Field#Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field" title="Hubble Ultra-Deep Field">XDF</a> (2012) view – each light speck is a galaxy – some of these are as old as 13.2 billion years<a href="#cite_note-Space-20120925-61">[59]</a> – the universe is estimated to contain 200 billion galaxies.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:402px;max-width:402px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:XDF-separated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/XDF-separated.jpg/400px-XDF-separated.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="280" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2101"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 400px;height: 280px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/XDF-separated.jpg/400px-XDF-separated.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="400" data-height="280" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/XDF-separated.jpg/600px-XDF-separated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/XDF-separated.jpg/800px-XDF-separated.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Ultra-Deep_Field#Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field" title="Hubble Ultra-Deep Field">XDF</a> image shows fully mature galaxies in the foreground plane – nearly mature galaxies from 5 to 9 billion years ago – <a href="/wiki/Protogalaxy" title="Protogalaxy">protogalaxies</a>, blazing with <a href="/wiki/Young_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Young star">young stars</a>, beyond 9 billion years.</div></div></div></div></div> The Big Bang models developed from observations of the structure of the universe and from theoretical considerations. In 1912, <a href="/wiki/Vesto_Slipher" title="Vesto Slipher">Vesto Slipher</a> measured the first <a href="/wiki/Doppler_effect" title="Doppler effect">Doppler shift</a> of a "<a href="/wiki/Spiral_galaxy#Spiral_nebula" title="Spiral galaxy">spiral nebula</a>" (spiral nebula is the obsolete term for spiral galaxies), and soon discovered that almost all such nebulae were receding from Earth. He did not grasp the cosmological implications of this fact, and indeed at the time it was <a href="/wiki/Great_Debate_(astronomy)" title="Great Debate (astronomy)">highly controversial</a> whether or not these nebulae were "island universes" outside our <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> Ten years later, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Friedmann" title="Alexander Friedmann">Alexander Friedmann</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian</a> <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">cosmologist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a>, derived the <a href="/wiki/Friedmann_equations" title="Friedmann equations">Friedmann equations</a> from the Einstein field equations, showing that the universe might be expanding in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Static_universe" title="Static universe">static universe</a> model advocated by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> at that time.<a href="#cite_note-af1922-64">[62]</a> In 1924, <a href="/wiki/Americans" title="Americans">American</a> astronomer <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a>'s measurement of the great distance to the nearest spiral nebulae showed that these systems were indeed other galaxies. Starting that same year, Hubble painstakingly developed a series of distance indicators, the forerunner of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_distance_ladder" title="Cosmic distance ladder">cosmic distance ladder</a>, using the 100-inch (2.5 m) <a href="/wiki/100-inch_Hooker_telescope" class="mw-redirect" title="100-inch Hooker telescope">Hooker telescope</a> at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Wilson_Observatory" title="Mount Wilson Observatory">Mount Wilson Observatory</a>. This allowed him to estimate distances to galaxies whose <a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">redshifts</a> had already been measured, mostly by Slipher. In 1929, Hubble discovered a correlation between distance and <a href="/wiki/Recessional_velocity" title="Recessional velocity">recessional velocity</a>—now known as Hubble's law.<a href="#cite_note-hubble-65">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-christianson-66">[64]</a> Independently deriving Friedmann's equations in 1927, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Georges Lemaître</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgian</a> <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_priest" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic priest">Roman Catholic priest</a>, proposed that the recession of the nebulae was due to the expansion of the universe.<a href="#cite_note-gl1927-67">[65]</a> He inferred the relation that Hubble would later observe, given the cosmological principle.<a href="#cite_note-peebles-13">[13]</a> In 1931, Lemaître went further and suggested that the evident expansion of the universe, if projected back in time, meant that the further in the past the smaller the universe was, until at some finite time in the past all the mass of the universe was concentrated into a single point, a "primeval atom" where and when the fabric of time and space came into existence.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> In the 1920s and 1930s, almost every major cosmologist preferred an eternal steady-state universe, and several complained that the beginning of time implied by the Big Bang imported religious concepts into physics; this objection was later repeated by supporters of the steady-state theory.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> This perception was enhanced by the fact that the originator of the Big Bang concept, Lemaître, was a Roman Catholic priest.<a href="#cite_note-WGBH1927-70">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Arthur Eddington</a> agreed with <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> that the universe did not have a beginning in time, viz., that <a href="/wiki/Eternity_of_the_world" title="Eternity of the world">matter is eternal</a>. A beginning in time was "repugnant" to him.<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> Lemaître, however, disagreed: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">If the world has begun with a single <a href="/wiki/Quantum" title="Quantum">quantum</a>, the notions of space and time would altogether fail to have any meaning at the beginning; they would only begin to have a sensible meaning when the original quantum had been divided into a sufficient number of quanta. If this suggestion is correct, the beginning of the world happened a little before the beginning of space and time.<a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a></blockquote> During the 1930s, other ideas were proposed as <a href="/wiki/Non-standard_cosmology" title="Non-standard cosmology">non-standard cosmologies</a> to explain Hubble's observations, including the <a href="/wiki/Milne_model" title="Milne model">Milne model</a>,<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Cyclic_model" title="Cyclic model">oscillatory universe</a> (originally suggested by Friedmann, but advocated by Albert Einstein and <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. Tolman">Richard C. Tolman</a>)<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Zwicky" title="Fritz Zwicky">Fritz Zwicky</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Tired_light" title="Tired light">tired light</a> hypothesis.<a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a> After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, two distinct possibilities emerged. One was Fred Hoyle's steady-state model, whereby new matter would be created as the universe seemed to expand. In this model the universe is roughly the same at any point in time.<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> The other was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by <a href="/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow">George Gamow</a>, who introduced BBN<a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a> and whose associates, <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Alpher" title="Ralph Alpher">Ralph Alpher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Herman" title="Robert Herman">Robert Herman</a>, predicted the CMB.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> Ironically, it was Hoyle who coined the phrase that came to be applied to Lemaître's theory, referring to it as "this big bang idea" during a BBC Radio broadcast in March 1949.<a href="#cite_note-Mitton2011_p129-54">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kragh2013-49">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[notes 3]</a> For a while, support was split between these two theories. Eventually, the observational evidence, most notably from radio <a href="/wiki/Source_counts" title="Source counts">source counts</a>, began to favor Big Bang over steady state. The discovery and confirmation of the CMB in 1964 secured the Big Bang as the best theory of the origin and evolution of the universe.<a href="#cite_note-penzias-81">[78]</a> In 1968 and 1970, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Roger Penrose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_F._R._Ellis" title="George F. R. Ellis">George F. R. Ellis</a> published papers where they showed that <a href="/wiki/Singularity_(mathematics)" title="Singularity (mathematics)">mathematical singularities</a> were an inevitable initial condition of relativistic models of the Big Bang.<a href="#cite_note-82">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[80]</a> Then, from the 1970s to the 1990s, cosmologists worked on characterizing the features of the Big Bang universe and resolving outstanding problems. In 1981, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Guth" title="Alan Guth">Alan Guth</a> made a breakthrough in theoretical work on resolving certain outstanding theoretical problems in the Big Bang models with the introduction of an epoch of rapid expansion in the early universe he called "inflation".<a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a> Meanwhile, during these decades, two questions in <a href="/wiki/Observational_cosmology" title="Observational cosmology">observational cosmology</a> that generated much discussion and disagreement were over the precise values of the Hubble Constant<a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a> and the matter-density of the universe (before the discovery of dark energy, thought to be the key predictor for the eventual <a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">fate of the universe</a>).<a href="#cite_note-86">[83]</a> In the mid-1990s, observations of certain <a href="/wiki/Globular_cluster" title="Globular cluster">globular clusters</a> appeared to indicate that they were about 15 billion years old, which <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_age_problem" title="Cosmic age problem">conflicted</a> with most then-current estimates of the age of the universe (and indeed with the age measured today). This issue was later resolved when new computer simulations, which included the effects of mass loss due to <a href="/wiki/Stellar_wind" title="Stellar wind">stellar winds</a>, indicated a much younger age for globular clusters.<a href="#cite_note-87">[84]</a> Significant progress in Big Bang cosmology has been made since the late 1990s as a result of advances in <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a> technology as well as the analysis of data from satellites such as the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">Cosmic Background Explorer</a> (COBE),<a href="#cite_note-cobe-88">[85]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> and WMAP.<a href="#cite_note-wmap1year-89">[86]</a> Cosmologists now have fairly precise and accurate measurements of many of the parameters of the Big Bang model, and have made the unexpected discovery that the expansion of the universe appears to be accelerating.<a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Observational_evidence">Observational evidence</h2></div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:27%; ; padding:8px;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> "[The] big bang picture is too firmly grounded in data from every area to be proved invalid in its general features." </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">— <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Krauss" title="Lawrence Krauss">Lawrence Krauss</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[89]</a></cite> </div> The earliest and most direct observational evidence of the validity of the theory are the expansion of the universe according to Hubble's law (as indicated by the redshifts of galaxies), discovery and measurement of the cosmic microwave background and the relative abundances of light elements produced by <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</a> (BBN). More recent evidence includes observations of <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">galaxy formation and evolution</a>, and the distribution of <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_structure_of_the_cosmos" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale structure of the cosmos">large-scale cosmic structures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a> These are sometimes called the "four pillars" of the Big Bang models.<a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a> Precise modern models of the Big Bang appeal to various exotic physical phenomena that have not been observed in terrestrial laboratory experiments or incorporated into the Standard Model of particle physics. Of these features, <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> is currently the subject of most active laboratory investigations.<a href="#cite_note-95">[92]</a> Remaining issues include the <a href="/wiki/Cuspy_halo_problem" title="Cuspy halo problem">cuspy halo problem</a><a href="#cite_note-Diemand2005-96">[93]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dwarf_galaxy_problem" title="Dwarf galaxy problem">dwarf galaxy problem</a><a href="#cite_note-Mart%C3%ADnez-Delgado-97">[94]</a> of cold dark matter. Dark energy is also an area of intense interest for scientists, but it is not clear whether direct detection of dark energy will be possible.<a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> Inflation and baryogenesis remain more speculative features of current Big Bang models. Viable, quantitative explanations for such phenomena are still being sought. These are unsolved problems in physics. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hubble's_law_and_the_expansion_of_the_universe">Hubble's law and the expansion of the universe</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">Expansion of the universe</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Distance_measures_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Distance measures (cosmology)">Distance measures (cosmology)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scale_factor_(cosmology)" title="Scale factor (cosmology)">Scale factor (cosmology)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Redshifted.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Redshifted.png/220px-Redshifted.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="301"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Redshifted.png/220px-Redshifted.png" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Redshifted.png/330px-Redshifted.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Redshifted.png/440px-Redshifted.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Redshift of absorption lines due to recessional velocity</figcaption></figure> Observations of distant galaxies and <a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">quasars</a> show that these objects are redshifted: the light emitted from them has been shifted to longer wavelengths. This can be seen by taking a <a href="/wiki/Spectral_density" title="Spectral density">frequency spectrum</a> of an object and matching the <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopic</a> pattern of <a href="/wiki/Spectral_line" title="Spectral line">emission or absorption lines</a> corresponding to atoms of the chemical elements interacting with the light. These redshifts are <a href="/wiki/Homogeneity_(physics)" title="Homogeneity (physics)">uniformly</a> isotropic, distributed evenly among the observed objects in all directions. If the redshift is interpreted as a Doppler shift, the recessional velocity of the object can be calculated. For some galaxies, it is possible to estimate distances via the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_distance_ladder" title="Cosmic distance ladder">cosmic distance ladder</a>. When the recessional velocities are plotted against these distances, a linear relationship known as <a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a> is observed:<a href="#cite_note-hubble-65">[63]</a> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v=H_{0}D}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>v</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mi>D</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v=H_{0}D}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f54dd8bb79c20c2f3240c51cee81c418ea0f9d83" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.136ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v=H_{0}D}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 9.136ex;height: 2.509ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f54dd8bb79c20c2f3240c51cee81c418ea0f9d83" data-alt="{\displaystyle v=H_{0}D}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert">  where <ul><li><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>v</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e07b00e7fc0847fbd16391c778d65bc25c452597" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.128ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.128ex;height: 1.676ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e07b00e7fc0847fbd16391c778d65bc25c452597" data-alt="{\displaystyle v}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert">  is the recessional velocity of the galaxy or other distant object,</li> <li><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f34a0c600395e5d4345287e21fb26efd386990e6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.924ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.924ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f34a0c600395e5d4345287e21fb26efd386990e6" data-alt="{\displaystyle D}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert">  is the <a href="/wiki/Proper_length" title="Proper length">proper distance</a> to the object, and</li> <li><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/43910602a221b7a4c373791f94793e3008622070" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.985ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H_{0}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.985ex;height: 2.509ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/43910602a221b7a4c373791f94793e3008622070" data-alt="{\displaystyle H_{0}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert">  is <a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's constant</a>, measured to be 70.4+1.3 −1.4 <a href="/wiki/Kilometres" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilometres">km</a>/<a href="/wiki/Second" title="Second">s</a>/<a href="/wiki/Megaparsec" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaparsec">Mpc</a> by the WMAP.<a href="#cite_note-wmap7year-44">[42]</a></li></ul> Hubble's law implies that the universe is uniformly expanding everywhere. This cosmic expansion was predicted from general relativity by Friedmann in 1922<a href="#cite_note-af1922-64">[62]</a> and Lemaître in 1927,<a href="#cite_note-gl1927-67">[65]</a> well before Hubble made his 1929 analysis and observations, and it remains the cornerstone of the Big Bang model as developed by Friedmann, Lemaître, Robertson, and Walker. The theory requires the relation <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v=HD}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>v</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>H</mi> <mi>D</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v=HD}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cf4c255ecc475a7ce9c30bbc9dde534d48f88892" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:8.214ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v=HD}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 8.214ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cf4c255ecc475a7ce9c30bbc9dde534d48f88892" data-alt="{\displaystyle v=HD}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert">  to hold at all times, where <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f34a0c600395e5d4345287e21fb26efd386990e6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.924ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.924ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f34a0c600395e5d4345287e21fb26efd386990e6" data-alt="{\displaystyle D}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert">  is the proper distance, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>v</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e07b00e7fc0847fbd16391c778d65bc25c452597" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.128ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.128ex;height: 1.676ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e07b00e7fc0847fbd16391c778d65bc25c452597" data-alt="{\displaystyle v}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert">  is the recessional velocity, and <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>v</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e07b00e7fc0847fbd16391c778d65bc25c452597" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.128ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.128ex;height: 1.676ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e07b00e7fc0847fbd16391c778d65bc25c452597" data-alt="{\displaystyle v}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> , <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>H</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/75a9edddcca2f782014371f75dca39d7e13a9c1b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.064ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.064ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/75a9edddcca2f782014371f75dca39d7e13a9c1b" data-alt="{\displaystyle H}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> , and <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f34a0c600395e5d4345287e21fb26efd386990e6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.924ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.924ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f34a0c600395e5d4345287e21fb26efd386990e6" data-alt="{\displaystyle D}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert">  vary as the universe expands (hence we write <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/43910602a221b7a4c373791f94793e3008622070" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.985ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H_{0}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.985ex;height: 2.509ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/43910602a221b7a4c373791f94793e3008622070" data-alt="{\displaystyle H_{0}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert">  to denote the present-day Hubble "constant"). For distances much smaller than the size of the <a href="/wiki/Observable_universe" title="Observable universe">observable universe</a>, the Hubble redshift can be thought of as the Doppler shift corresponding to the recession velocity <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>v</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e07b00e7fc0847fbd16391c778d65bc25c452597" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.128ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.128ex;height: 1.676ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e07b00e7fc0847fbd16391c778d65bc25c452597" data-alt="{\displaystyle v}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> . For distances comparable to the size of the observable universe, the attribution of the cosmological redshift becomes more ambiguous, although its interpretation as a kinematic Doppler shift remains the most natural one.<a href="#cite_note-Hogg-99">[96]</a> An unexplained discrepancy with the determination of the Hubble constant is known as <a href="/wiki/Hubble_tension" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble tension">Hubble tension</a>. Techniques based on observation of the CMB suggest a lower value of this constant compared to the quantity derived from measurements based on the cosmic distance ladder.<a href="#cite_note-di_Valentino_2021_153001-100">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation">Cosmic microwave background radiation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">Cosmic microwave background</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cmbr.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Cmbr.svg/220px-Cmbr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="480"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 176px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Cmbr.svg/220px-Cmbr.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="176" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Cmbr.svg/330px-Cmbr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Cmbr.svg/440px-Cmbr.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic microwave background</a> spectrum measured by the FIRAS instrument on the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">COBE</a> satellite is the most-precisely measured <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">blackbody</a> spectrum in nature.<a href="#cite_note-dpf99-101">[98]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Data_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Data point">data points</a> and <a href="/wiki/Standard_error_of_estimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard error of estimation">error bars</a> on this graph are obscured by the theoretical curve.</figcaption></figure> In 1964, <a href="/wiki/Arno_Allan_Penzias" title="Arno Allan Penzias">Arno Penzias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">Robert Wilson</a> serendipitously discovered the cosmic background radiation, an omnidirectional signal in the <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> band.<a href="#cite_note-penzias-81">[78]</a> Their discovery provided substantial confirmation of the big-bang predictions by Alpher, Herman and Gamow around 1950. Through the 1970s, the radiation was found to be approximately consistent with a <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">blackbody</a> spectrum in all directions; this spectrum has been redshifted by the expansion of the universe, and today corresponds to approximately 2.725 K. This tipped the balance of evidence in favor of the Big Bang model, and Penzias and Wilson were awarded the 1978 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a>. The surface of last scattering corresponding to emission of the CMB occurs shortly after <a href="/wiki/Recombination_(cosmology)" title="Recombination (cosmology)">recombination</a>, the epoch when neutral hydrogen becomes stable. Prior to this, the universe comprised a hot dense photon-baryon plasma sea where photons were quickly <a href="/wiki/Thomson_scattering" title="Thomson scattering">scattered</a> from free charged particles. Peaking at around 372±14 kyr,<a href="#cite_note-WMAP2003Spergel-43">[41]</a> the mean free path for a photon becomes long enough to reach the present day and the universe becomes transparent. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WMAP_2012.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/280px-WMAP_2012.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="140" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2048"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 280px;height: 140px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/280px-WMAP_2012.png" data-width="280" data-height="140" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/420px-WMAP_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/560px-WMAP_2012.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>9 year WMAP image of the cosmic microwave background radiation (2012).<a href="#cite_note-arXiv-20121220-102">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-Space-20121221-103">[100]</a> The radiation is <a href="/wiki/Isotropy" title="Isotropy">isotropic</a> to roughly one part in 100,000.<a href="#cite_note-104">[101]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1989, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> launched COBE, which made two major advances: in 1990, high-precision spectrum measurements showed that the CMB frequency spectrum is an almost perfect blackbody with no deviations at a level of 1 part in 104, and measured a residual temperature of 2.726 K (more recent measurements have revised this figure down slightly to 2.7255 K); then in 1992, further COBE measurements discovered tiny fluctuations (<a href="/wiki/Anisotropy" title="Anisotropy">anisotropies</a>) in the CMB temperature across the sky, at a level of about one part in 105.<a href="#cite_note-cobe-88">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_C._Mather" title="John C. Mather">John C. Mather</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Smoot" title="George Smoot">George Smoot</a> were awarded the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physics for their leadership in these results. During the following decade, CMB anisotropies were further investigated by a large number of ground-based and balloon experiments. In 2000–2001, several experiments, most notably <a href="/wiki/BOOMERanG_experiment" title="BOOMERanG experiment">BOOMERanG</a>, found the <a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe" title="Shape of the universe">shape of the universe</a> to be spatially almost flat by measuring the typical angular size (the size on the sky) of the anisotropies.<a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[104]</a> In early 2003, the first results of the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe were released, yielding what were at the time the most accurate values for some of the cosmological parameters. The results disproved several specific cosmic inflation models, but are consistent with the inflation theory in general.<a href="#cite_note-wmap1year-89">[86]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck</a> space probe was launched in May 2009. Other ground and balloon-based <a href="/wiki/List_of_cosmic_microwave_background_experiments" title="List of cosmic microwave background experiments">cosmic microwave background experiments</a> are ongoing. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abundance_of_primordial_elements">Abundance of primordial elements</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Universe-09-00183-g004.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Universe-09-00183-g004.png/350px-Universe-09-00183-g004.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="261" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3149" data-file-height="2352"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 350px;height: 261px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Universe-09-00183-g004.png/350px-Universe-09-00183-g004.png" data-width="350" data-height="261" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Universe-09-00183-g004.png/525px-Universe-09-00183-g004.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Universe-09-00183-g004.png/700px-Universe-09-00183-g004.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Time evolution of light element abundances during Big Bang nucleosynthesis</figcaption></figure> Using Big Bang models, it is possible to calculate the expected concentration of the isotopes <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">helium-4</a> (4He), <a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">helium-3</a> (3He), deuterium (2H), and <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_lithium#Lithium-7" title="Isotopes of lithium">lithium-7</a> (7Li) in the universe as ratios to the amount of ordinary hydrogen.<a href="#cite_note-kolb_c4-40">[38]</a> The relative abundances depend on a single parameter, the ratio of photons to baryons. This value can be calculated independently from the detailed structure of CMB fluctuations. The ratios predicted (by mass, not by abundance) are about 0.25 for 4He:H, about 10−3 for 2H:H, about 10−4 for 3He:H, and about 10−9 for 7Li:H.<a href="#cite_note-kolb_c4-40">[38]</a> The measured abundances all agree at least roughly with those predicted from a single value of the baryon-to-photon ratio. The agreement is excellent for deuterium, close but formally discrepant for 4He, and off by a factor of two for 7Li (this anomaly is known as the <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_lithium_problem" title="Cosmological lithium problem">cosmological lithium problem</a>); in the latter two cases, there are substantial <a href="/wiki/Observational_error#Random_errors_versus_systematic_errors" title="Observational error">systematic uncertainties</a>. Nonetheless, the general consistency with abundances predicted by BBN is strong evidence for the Big Bang, as the theory is the only known explanation for the relative abundances of light elements, and it is virtually impossible to "tune" the Big Bang to produce much more or less than 20–30% helium.<a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a> Indeed, there is no obvious reason outside of the Big Bang that, for example, the young universe before <a href="/wiki/Star_formation" title="Star formation">star formation</a>, as determined by studying matter supposedly free of <a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">stellar nucleosynthesis</a> products, should have more helium than deuterium or more deuterium than 3He, and in constant ratios, too.<a href="#cite_note-Ryden2003-109">[106]</a>: 182–185 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Galactic_evolution_and_distribution">Galactic evolution and distribution</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">Galaxy formation and evolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Structure_formation" title="Structure formation">Structure formation</a></div> Detailed observations of the <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_morphological_classification" title="Galaxy morphological classification">morphology</a> and distribution of galaxies and <a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">quasars</a> are in agreement with the current Big Bang models. A combination of observations and theory suggest that the first quasars and galaxies formed within a billion years after the Big Bang,<a href="#cite_note-110">[107]</a> and since then, larger structures have been forming, such as <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_cluster" title="Galaxy cluster">galaxy clusters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Supercluster" title="Supercluster">superclusters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bertschinger-111">[108]</a> Populations of stars have been aging and evolving, so that distant galaxies (which are observed as they were in the early universe) appear very different from nearby galaxies (observed in a more recent state). Moreover, galaxies that formed relatively recently appear markedly different from galaxies formed at similar distances but shortly after the Big Bang. These observations are strong arguments against the steady-state model. Observations of star formation, galaxy and quasar distributions and larger structures, agree well with Big Bang simulations of the formation of structure in the universe, and are helping to complete details of the theory.<a href="#cite_note-Bertschinger-111">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primordial_gas_clouds">Primordial gas clouds</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA17993-DetectorsForInfantUniverseStudies-20140317.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/PIA17993-DetectorsForInfantUniverseStudies-20140317.jpg/220px-PIA17993-DetectorsForInfantUniverseStudies-20140317.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2884"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 211px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/PIA17993-DetectorsForInfantUniverseStudies-20140317.jpg/220px-PIA17993-DetectorsForInfantUniverseStudies-20140317.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="211" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/PIA17993-DetectorsForInfantUniverseStudies-20140317.jpg/330px-PIA17993-DetectorsForInfantUniverseStudies-20140317.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/PIA17993-DetectorsForInfantUniverseStudies-20140317.jpg/440px-PIA17993-DetectorsForInfantUniverseStudies-20140317.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Focal_plane" class="mw-redirect" title="Focal plane">Focal plane</a> of <a href="/wiki/BICEP_and_Keck_Array" title="BICEP and Keck Array">BICEP2 telescope</a> under a microscope – used to search for polarization in the CMB<a href="#cite_note-BICEP2-2014-113">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20140317-114">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140317-115">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140324-116">[113]</a></figcaption></figure> In 2011, astronomers found what they believe to be pristine clouds of primordial gas by analyzing absorption lines in the spectra of distant quasars. Before this discovery, all other astronomical objects have been observed to contain heavy elements that are formed in stars. Despite being sensitive to carbon, oxygen, and silicon, these three elements were not detected in these two clouds.<a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[115]</a> Since the clouds of gas have no detectable levels of heavy elements, they likely formed in the first few minutes after the Big Bang, during BBN. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_lines_of_evidence">Other lines of evidence</h3></div> The age of the universe as estimated from the Hubble expansion and the CMB is now in agreement with other estimates using the ages of the oldest stars, both as measured by applying the theory of <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">stellar evolution</a> to globular clusters and through <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dating</a> of individual <a href="/wiki/Stellar_population#Population_II_stars" title="Stellar population">Population II</a> stars.<a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a> It is also in agreement with age estimates based on measurements of the expansion using <a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_supernova" title="Type Ia supernova">Type Ia supernovae</a> and measurements of temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background.<a href="#cite_note-Planck_2015-28">[26]</a> The agreement of independent measurements of this age supports the <a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">Lambda-CDM</a> (ΛCDM) model, since the model is used to relate some of the measurements to an age estimate, and all estimates turn agree. Still, some observations of objects from the relatively early universe (in particular quasar <a href="/wiki/APM_08279%2B5255" title="APM 08279+5255">APM 08279+5255</a>) raise concern as to whether these objects had enough time to form so early in the ΛCDM model.<a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a> The prediction that the CMB temperature was higher in the past has been experimentally supported by observations of very low temperature absorption lines in gas clouds at high redshift.<a href="#cite_note-122">[119]</a> This prediction also implies that the amplitude of the <a href="/wiki/Sunyaev%E2%80%93Zeldovich_effect" title="Sunyaev–Zeldovich effect">Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect</a> in clusters of galaxies does not depend directly on redshift. Observations have found this to be roughly true, but this effect depends on cluster properties that do change with cosmic time, making precise measurements difficult.<a href="#cite_note-123">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Future_observations">Future observations</h3></div> Future <a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_observatory" title="Gravitational-wave observatory">gravitational-wave observatories</a> might be able to detect primordial <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">gravitational waves</a>, relics of the early universe, up to less than a second after the Big Bang.<a href="#cite_note-Ghosh-125">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-Billings-126">[123]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Problems_and_related_issues_in_physics">Problems and related issues in physics</h2></div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics" title="List of unsolved problems in physics">List of unsolved problems in physics</a></div> As with any theory, a number of mysteries and problems have arisen as a result of the development of the Big Bang models. Some of these mysteries and problems have been resolved while others are still outstanding. Proposed solutions to some of the problems in the Big Bang model have revealed new mysteries of their own. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Horizon_problem" title="Horizon problem">horizon problem</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)#Magnetic-monopole_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation (cosmology)">magnetic monopole problem</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Flatness_problem" title="Flatness problem">flatness problem</a> are most commonly resolved with inflation theory, but the details of the inflationary universe are still left unresolved and many, including some founders of the theory, say it has been disproven.<a href="#cite_note-127">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[127]</a> What follows are a list of the mysterious aspects of the Big Bang concept still under intense investigation by cosmologists and <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysicists</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baryon_asymmetry">Baryon asymmetry</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Baryon_asymmetry" title="Baryon asymmetry">Baryon asymmetry</a></div> It is not yet understood why the universe has more matter than antimatter.<a href="#cite_note-kolb_c6-37">[35]</a> It is generally assumed that when the universe was young and very hot it was in <a href="/wiki/Statistical_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical physics">statistical equilibrium</a> and contained equal numbers of baryons and antibaryons. However, observations suggest that the universe, including its most distant parts, is made almost entirely of normal matter, rather than antimatter. A process called baryogenesis was hypothesized to account for the asymmetry. For baryogenesis to occur, the <a href="/wiki/Sakharov_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakharov conditions">Sakharov conditions</a> must be satisfied. These require that baryon number is not conserved, that <a href="/wiki/C-symmetry" title="C-symmetry">C-symmetry</a> and <a href="/wiki/CP_violation" title="CP violation">CP-symmetry</a> are violated and that the universe depart from <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">thermodynamic equilibrium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sakharov-131">[128]</a> All these conditions occur in the Standard Model, but the effects are not strong enough to explain the present baryon asymmetry. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dark_energy">Dark energy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark energy</a></div> Measurements of the redshift–<a href="/wiki/Apparent_magnitude" title="Apparent magnitude">magnitude</a> relation for <a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_supernova" title="Type Ia supernova">type Ia supernovae</a> indicate that the expansion of the universe has been accelerating since the universe was about half its present age. To explain this acceleration, general relativity requires that much of the energy in the universe consists of a component with large negative pressure, dubbed "dark energy".<a href="#cite_note-peebles-13">[13]</a> Dark energy, though speculative, solves numerous problems. Measurements of the cosmic microwave background indicate that the universe is very nearly spatially flat, and therefore according to general relativity the universe must have almost exactly the <a href="/wiki/Friedmann_equations#Density_parameter" title="Friedmann equations">critical density</a> of mass/energy. But the mass density of the universe can be measured from its gravitational clustering, and is found to have only about 30% of the critical density.<a href="#cite_note-peebles-13">[13]</a> Since theory suggests that dark energy does not cluster in the usual way it is the best explanation for the "missing" energy density. Dark energy also helps to explain two geometrical measures of the overall curvature of the universe, one using the frequency of <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_lens" title="Gravitational lens">gravitational lenses</a>,<a href="#cite_note-132">[129]</a> and the other using the characteristic pattern of the large-scale structure--<a href="/wiki/Baryon_acoustic_oscillations" title="Baryon acoustic oscillations">baryon acoustic oscillations</a>--as a cosmic ruler.<a href="#cite_note-133">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[131]</a> Negative pressure is believed to be a property of <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_energy" title="Vacuum energy">vacuum energy</a>, but the exact nature and existence of dark energy remains one of the great mysteries of the Big Bang. Results from the WMAP team in 2008 are in accordance with a universe that consists of 73% dark energy, 23% dark matter, 4.6% regular matter and less than 1% neutrinos.<a href="#cite_note-wmap7year-44">[42]</a> According to theory, the energy density in matter decreases with the expansion of the universe, but the dark energy density remains constant (or nearly so) as the universe expands. Therefore, matter made up a larger fraction of the total energy of the universe in the past than it does today, but its fractional contribution will fall in the <a href="/wiki/Far_future" class="mw-redirect" title="Far future">far future</a> as dark energy becomes even more dominant.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The dark energy component of the universe has been explained by theorists using a variety of competing theories including Einstein's cosmological constant but also extending to more exotic forms of <a href="/wiki/Quintessence_(physics)" title="Quintessence (physics)">quintessence</a> or other modified gravity schemes.<a href="#cite_note-135">[132]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_constant_problem" title="Cosmological constant problem">cosmological constant problem</a>, sometimes called the "most embarrassing problem in physics", results from the apparent discrepancy between the measured energy density of dark energy, and the one naively predicted from <a href="/wiki/Planck_units" title="Planck units">Planck units</a>.<a href="#cite_note-136">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dark_matter">Dark matter</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cosmological_Composition_%E2%80%93_Pie_Chart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Cosmological_Composition_%E2%80%93_Pie_Chart.svg/350px-Cosmological_Composition_%E2%80%93_Pie_Chart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="140" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="298"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 350px;height: 140px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Cosmological_Composition_%E2%80%93_Pie_Chart.svg/350px-Cosmological_Composition_%E2%80%93_Pie_Chart.svg.png" data-width="350" data-height="140" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Cosmological_Composition_%E2%80%93_Pie_Chart.svg/525px-Cosmological_Composition_%E2%80%93_Pie_Chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Cosmological_Composition_%E2%80%93_Pie_Chart.svg/700px-Cosmological_Composition_%E2%80%93_Pie_Chart.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pie_chart" title="Pie chart">Chart</a> shows the proportion of different components of the universe – about 95% is <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>.</figcaption></figure> During the 1970s and the 1980s, various observations showed that there is not sufficient visible matter in the universe to account for the apparent strength of gravitational forces within and between galaxies. This led to the idea that up to 90% of the matter in the universe is dark matter that does not emit light or interact with normal baryonic matter. In addition, the assumption that the universe is mostly normal matter led to predictions that were strongly inconsistent with observations. In particular, the universe today is far more lumpy and contains far less deuterium than can be accounted for without dark matter. While dark matter has always been controversial, it is inferred by various observations: the anisotropies in the CMB, <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_cluster" title="Galaxy cluster">galaxy cluster</a> <a href="/wiki/Velocity_dispersion" title="Velocity dispersion">velocity dispersions</a>, large-scale structure distributions, <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_lens" title="Gravitational lens">gravitational lensing</a> studies, and <a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy" title="X-ray astronomy">X-ray measurements</a> of galaxy clusters.<a href="#cite_note-137">[134]</a> Indirect evidence for dark matter comes from its gravitational influence on other matter, as no dark matter particles have been observed in laboratories. Many particle physics candidates for dark matter have been proposed, and several projects to detect them directly are underway.<a href="#cite_note-pdg-138">[135]</a> Additionally, there are outstanding problems associated with the currently favored cold dark matter model which include the <a href="/wiki/Dwarf_galaxy_problem" title="Dwarf galaxy problem">dwarf galaxy problem</a><a href="#cite_note-Mart%C3%ADnez-Delgado-97">[94]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cuspy_halo_problem" title="Cuspy halo problem">cuspy halo problem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Diemand2005-96">[93]</a> Alternative theories have been proposed that do not require a large amount of undetected matter, but instead modify the laws of gravity established by Newton and Einstein; yet no alternative theory has been as successful as the cold dark matter proposal in explaining all extant observations.<a href="#cite_note-139">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Horizon_problem">Horizon problem</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Horizon_problem" title="Horizon problem">Horizon problem</a></div> The horizon problem results from the premise that information cannot travel <a href="/wiki/Faster-than-light" title="Faster-than-light">faster than light</a>. In a universe of finite age this sets a limit—the particle horizon—on the separation of any two regions of space that are in <a href="/wiki/Causality_(physics)" title="Causality (physics)">causal</a> contact.<a href="#cite_note-kolb_c8-140">[137]</a> The observed isotropy of the CMB is problematic in this regard: if the universe had been dominated by radiation or matter at all times up to the epoch of last scattering, the particle horizon at that time would correspond to about 2 degrees on the sky. There would then be no mechanism to cause wider regions to have the same temperature.<a href="#cite_note-Ryden2003-109">[106]</a>: 191–202 A resolution to this apparent inconsistency is offered by inflation theory in which a homogeneous and isotropic <a href="/wiki/Scalar_field" title="Scalar field">scalar energy field</a> dominates the universe at some very early period (before baryogenesis). During inflation, the universe undergoes <a href="/wiki/Exponential_growth" title="Exponential growth">exponential</a> expansion, and the particle horizon expands much more rapidly than previously assumed, so that regions presently on opposite sides of the observable universe are well inside each other's particle horizon. The observed isotropy of the CMB then follows from the fact that this larger region was in causal contact before the beginning of inflation.<a href="#cite_note-Guth1998-33">[31]</a>: 180–186 Heisenberg's uncertainty principle predicts that during the inflationary phase there would be <a href="/wiki/Primordial_fluctuations" title="Primordial fluctuations">quantum thermal fluctuations</a>, which would be magnified to a cosmic scale. These fluctuations served as the seeds for all the current structures in the universe.<a href="#cite_note-Ryden2003-109">[106]</a>: 207 Inflation predicts that the primordial fluctuations are nearly <a href="/wiki/Scale_invariance" title="Scale invariance">scale invariant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Normal_distribution" title="Normal distribution">Gaussian</a>, which has been confirmed by measurements of the CMB.<a href="#cite_note-wmap1year-89">[86]</a>: sec 6 A related issue to the classic horizon problem arises because in most standard cosmological inflation models, inflation ceases well before <a href="/wiki/Higgs_mechanism" title="Higgs mechanism">electroweak symmetry breaking</a> occurs, so inflation should not be able to prevent large-scale discontinuities in the <a href="/wiki/False_vacuum" title="False vacuum">electroweak vacuum</a> since distant parts of the observable universe were causally separate when the <a href="/wiki/Electroweak_epoch" title="Electroweak epoch">electroweak epoch</a> ended.<a href="#cite_note-141">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetic_monopoles">Magnetic monopoles</h3></div> The magnetic monopole objection was raised in the late 1970s. <a href="/wiki/Grand_Unified_Theory" title="Grand Unified Theory">Grand unified theories</a> (GUTs) predicted <a href="/wiki/Topological_defect" title="Topological defect">topological defects</a> in space that would manifest as <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_monopole" title="Magnetic monopole">magnetic monopoles</a>. These objects would be produced efficiently in the hot early universe, resulting in a density much higher than is consistent with observations, given that no monopoles have been found. This problem is resolved by cosmic inflation, which removes all point defects from the observable universe, in the same way that it drives the geometry to flatness.<a href="#cite_note-kolb_c8-140">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flatness_problem">Flatness problem</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:End_of_universe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/End_of_universe.jpg/330px-End_of_universe.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="297" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="557" data-file-height="501"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 330px;height: 297px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/End_of_universe.jpg/330px-End_of_universe.jpg" data-width="330" data-height="297" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/End_of_universe.jpg/495px-End_of_universe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/End_of_universe.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The overall <a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe" title="Shape of the universe">geometry of the universe</a> is determined by whether the <a href="/wiki/Friedmann_equations#Density_parameter" title="Friedmann equations">Omega cosmological parameter</a> is less than, equal to or greater than 1. Shown from top to bottom are a <a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe#Universe_with_positive_curvature" title="Shape of the universe">closed universe</a> with positive curvature, a <a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe#Universe_with_negative_curvature" title="Shape of the universe">hyperbolic universe</a> with negative curvature and a <a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe#Universe_with_zero_curvature" title="Shape of the universe">flat universe</a> with zero curvature.</figcaption></figure> The flatness problem (also known as the oldness problem) is an observational problem associated with a FLRW.<a href="#cite_note-kolb_c8-140">[137]</a> The universe may have positive, negative, or zero spatial <a href="/wiki/Curvature" title="Curvature">curvature</a> depending on its total energy density. Curvature is negative if its density is less than the critical density; positive if greater; and zero at the critical density, in which case space is said to be flat. Observations indicate the universe is consistent with being flat.<a href="#cite_note-Filippenko2002-142">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-Krauss2009-143">[140]</a> The problem is that any small departure from the critical density grows with time, and yet the universe today remains very close to flat.<a href="#cite_note-144">[notes 4]</a> Given that a natural timescale for departure from flatness might be the <a href="/wiki/Planck_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Planck time">Planck time</a>, 10−43 seconds,<a href="#cite_note-HTUW-1">[1]</a> the fact that the universe has reached neither a <a href="/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe" title="Heat death of the universe">heat death</a> nor a <a href="/wiki/Big_Crunch" title="Big Crunch">Big Crunch</a> after billions of years requires an explanation. For instance, even at the relatively late age of a few minutes (the time of nucleosynthesis), the density of the universe must have been within one part in 1014 of its critical value, or it would not exist as it does today.<a href="#cite_note-145">[141]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Misconceptions">Misconceptions</h2></div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> One of the common misconceptions about the Big Bang model is that it fully explains the <a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">origin of the universe</a>. However, the Big Bang model does not describe how energy, time, and space were caused, but rather it describes the emergence of the present universe from an ultra-dense and high-temperature initial state.<a href="#cite_note-146">[142]</a> It is misleading to visualize the Big Bang by comparing its size to everyday objects. When the size of the universe at Big Bang is described, it refers to the size of the observable universe, and not the entire universe.<a href="#cite_note-Davis_Lineweaver2004-147">[143]</a> Another common misconception is that the Big Bang must be understood as the expansion of space and not in terms of the contents of space exploding apart. In fact, either description can be accurate. The expansion of space (implied by the FLRW metric) is only a mathematical convention, corresponding to a choice of <a href="/wiki/Coordinate_conditions" title="Coordinate conditions">coordinates</a> on spacetime. There is no <a href="/wiki/General_covariance" title="General covariance">generally covariant</a> sense in which space expands.<a href="#cite_note-Peacock-148">[144]</a> The recession speeds associated with Hubble's law are not velocities in a relativistic sense (for example, they are not related to the spatial components of <a href="/wiki/4-velocity" class="mw-redirect" title="4-velocity">4-velocities</a>). Therefore, it is not remarkable that according to Hubble's law, galaxies farther than the Hubble distance recede faster than the speed of light. Such recession speeds do not correspond to <a href="/wiki/Faster-than-light" title="Faster-than-light">faster-than-light</a> travel. Many popular accounts attribute the cosmological redshift to the expansion of space. This can be misleading because the expansion of space is only a coordinate choice. The most natural interpretation of the cosmological redshift is that it is a <a href="/wiki/Doppler_shift" class="mw-redirect" title="Doppler shift">Doppler shift</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hogg-99">[96]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Implications">Implications</h2></div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> Given current understanding, scientific extrapolations about the future of the universe are only possible for finite durations, albeit for much longer periods than the current age of the universe. Anything beyond that becomes increasingly speculative. Likewise, at present, a proper understanding of the origin of the universe can only be subject to conjecture.<a href="#cite_note-Starobinsky_2000-149">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre–Big_Bang_cosmology">Pre–Big Bang cosmology</h3></div> The Big Bang explains the evolution of the universe from a starting density and temperature that is well beyond humanity's capability to replicate, so extrapolations to the most extreme conditions and earliest times are necessarily more speculative. Lemaître called this initial state the "primeval atom" while Gamow called the material "<a href="/wiki/Ylem" title="Ylem">ylem</a>". How the initial state of the universe originated is still an open question, but the Big Bang model does constrain some of its characteristics. For example, if specific <a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">laws of nature</a> were to come to existence in a random way, inflation models show, some combinations of these are far more probable,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawking198869-150">[146]</a> partly explaining why our Universe is rather stable. Another possible explanation for the stability of the Universe could be a hypothetical multiverse, which assumes every possible universe to exist, and thinking species could only emerge in those stable enough.<a href="#cite_note-151">[147]</a> A flat universe implies a balance between <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_energy" title="Gravitational energy">gravitational potential energy</a> and other energy forms, requiring no additional energy to be created.<a href="#cite_note-Filippenko2002-142">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-Krauss2009-143">[140]</a> The Big Bang theory, built upon the equations of classical general relativity, indicates a singularity at the origin of cosmic time, and such an infinite energy density may be a physical impossibility. However, the physical theories of general relativity and quantum mechanics as currently realized are not applicable before the Planck epoch, and correcting this will require the development of a correct treatment of quantum gravity.<a href="#cite_note-Hawking_Ellis_1973-23">[22]</a> Certain quantum gravity treatments, such as the <a href="/wiki/Wheeler%E2%80%93DeWitt_equation" title="Wheeler–DeWitt equation">Wheeler–DeWitt equation</a>, imply that time itself could be an <a href="/wiki/Emergence#Nonliving,_physical_systems" title="Emergence">emergent property</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[148]</a> As such, physics may conclude that <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a> did not exist before the Big Bang.<a href="#cite_note-153">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[150]</a> While it is not known what could have preceded the hot dense state of the early universe or how and why it originated, or even whether such questions are sensible, speculation abounds on the subject of "<a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">cosmogony</a>". Some speculative proposals in this regard, each of which entails untested hypotheses, are: <ul><li>The simplest models, in which the Big Bang was caused by <a href="/wiki/Quantum_fluctuation" title="Quantum fluctuation">quantum fluctuations</a>. That scenario had very little chance of happening, but, according to the <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian_principle" title="Totalitarian principle">totalitarian principle</a>, even the most improbable event will eventually happen. It took place instantly, in our perspective, due to the absence of perceived time before the Big Bang.<a href="#cite_note-155">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[154]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_Universe" title="Emergent Universe">Emergent Universe</a> models, which feature a low-activity past-eternal era before the Big Bang, resembling ancient ideas of a <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_egg" title="Cosmic egg">cosmic egg</a> and birth of the world out of <a href="/wiki/Chaos_(cosmogony)" title="Chaos (cosmogony)">primordial chaos</a>.</li> <li>Models in which the whole of spacetime is finite, including the <a href="/wiki/Hartle%E2%80%93Hawking_state" title="Hartle–Hawking state">Hartle–Hawking no-boundary condition</a>. For these cases, the Big Bang does represent the limit of time but without a singularity.<a href="#cite_note-159">[155]</a> In such a case, the universe is self-sufficient.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawking198871-160">[156]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brane_cosmology" title="Brane cosmology">Brane cosmology</a> models, in which inflation is due to the movement of <a href="/wiki/Brane" title="Brane">branes</a> in <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">string theory</a>; the pre-Big Bang model; the <a href="/wiki/Ekpyrotic_universe" title="Ekpyrotic universe">ekpyrotic</a> model, in which the Big Bang is the result of a collision between branes; and the <a href="/wiki/Cyclic_model" title="Cyclic model">cyclic model</a>, a variant of the ekpyrotic model in which collisions occur periodically. In the latter model the Big Bang was preceded by a Big Crunch and the universe cycles from one process to the other.<a href="#cite_note-161">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-rebirth-163">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-rebirth2-164">[160]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternal_inflation" title="Eternal inflation">Eternal inflation</a>, in which universal inflation ends locally here and there in a random fashion, each end-point leading to a bubble universe, expanding from its own big bang.<a href="#cite_note-165">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[162]</a></li></ul> Proposals in the last two categories see the Big Bang as an event in either a much larger and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose#An_earlier_universe" title="Roger Penrose">older universe</a> or in a <a href="/wiki/Multiverse" title="Multiverse">multiverse</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe">Ultimate fate of the universe</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">Ultimate fate of the universe</a></div> Before observations of dark energy, cosmologists considered two scenarios for the future of the universe. If the mass density of the universe were greater than the critical density, then the universe would reach a maximum size and then begin to collapse. It would become denser and hotter again, ending with a state similar to that in which it started—a <a href="/wiki/Big_Crunch" title="Big Crunch">Big Crunch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-kolb_c3-21">[20]</a> Alternatively, if the density in the universe were equal to or below the critical density, the expansion would slow down but never stop. Star formation would cease with the consumption of interstellar gas in each galaxy; stars would burn out, leaving <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">white dwarfs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron stars</a>, and black holes. Collisions between these would result in mass accumulating into larger and larger black holes. The average temperature of the universe would very gradually asymptotically approach <a href="/wiki/Absolute_zero" title="Absolute zero">absolute zero</a>—a <a href="/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe" title="Future of an expanding universe">Big Freeze</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[163]</a> Moreover, if protons are <a href="/wiki/Proton_decay" title="Proton decay">unstable</a>, then baryonic matter would disappear, leaving only radiation and black holes. Eventually, black holes would evaporate by emitting <a href="/wiki/Hawking_radiation" title="Hawking radiation">Hawking radiation</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> of the universe would increase to the point where no organized form of energy could be extracted from it, a scenario known as heat death.<a href="#cite_note-dying-168">[164]</a> Modern observations of accelerating expansion imply that more and more of the currently visible universe will pass beyond our <a href="/wiki/Event_horizon" title="Event horizon">event horizon</a> and out of contact with us. The eventual result is not known. The ΛCDM model of the universe contains dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant. This theory suggests that only gravitationally bound systems, such as galaxies, will remain together, and they too will be subject to heat death as the universe expands and cools. Other explanations of dark energy, called <a href="/wiki/Phantom_energy" title="Phantom energy">phantom energy</a> theories, suggest that ultimately galaxy clusters, stars, planets, atoms, nuclei, and matter itself will be torn apart by the ever-increasing expansion in a so-called <a href="/wiki/Big_Rip" title="Big Rip">Big Rip</a>.<a href="#cite_note-169">[165]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_and_philosophical_interpretations">Religious and philosophical interpretations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religious_interpretations_of_the_Big_Bang_theory" title="Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory">Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory</a></div> As a description of the origin of the universe, the Big Bang has significant bearing on religion and philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-Harris2002-170">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-Frame2009-171">[167]</a> As a result, it has become one of the liveliest areas in the discourse between <a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">science and religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Harrison2010-172">[168]</a> Some believe the Big Bang implies a creator,<a href="#cite_note-173">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[170]</a> while others argue that Big Bang cosmology makes the notion of a creator superfluous.<a href="#cite_note-Frame2009-171">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawking1988Introduction:_%22...&nbsp;a_universe_with_no_edge_in_space,_no_beginning_or_end_in_time,_and_nothing_for_a_Creator_to_do.%22_%E2%80%94_%5B%5BCarl_Sagan%5D%5D-175">[171]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropic_principle" title="Anthropic principle">Anthropic principle</a> – Hypothesis about sapient life and the universe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bounce" title="Big Bounce">Big Bounce</a> – Model for the origin of the universe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Crunch" title="Big Crunch">Big Crunch</a> – Hypothetical scenario for the ultimate fate of the universe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_Big_Bang" title="Cold Big Bang">Cold Big Bang</a> – Designation of an absolute zero temperature at the beginning of the Universe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Calendar" title="Cosmic Calendar">Cosmic Calendar</a> – Method to visualize the chronology of the universe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">Cosmogony</a> – Theory or model concerning the origin of the universe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eureka:_A_Prose_Poem" title="Eureka: A Prose Poem">Eureka: A Prose Poem</a> – Lengthy non-fiction work by American author Edgar Allan Poe, a Big Bang speculation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe" title="Future of an expanding universe">Future of an expanding universe</a> – Future scenario if the expansion of the universe will continue forever or not</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe" title="Heat death of the universe">Heat death of the universe</a> – Possible fate of the universe. Also known as the Big Chill and the Big Freeze</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-standard_cosmology" title="Non-standard cosmology">Non-standard cosmology</a> – Models of the universe which deviate from then-current scientific consensus</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe" title="Shape of the universe">Shape of the universe</a> – Local and global geometry of the universe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steady-state_model" title="Steady-state model">Steady-state model</a> – Model of the universe – alternative to the Big Bang model, a discredited theory that denied the Big Bang and posited that the universe always existed</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Further information of, and references for, tests of general relativity are given in the article <a href="/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity" title="Tests of general relativity">tests of general relativity</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> There is no consensus about how long the Big Bang phase lasted. For some writers, this denotes only the initial singularity, for others the whole history of the universe. Usually, at least the first few minutes (during which helium is synthesized) are said to occur "during the Big Bang". </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> It is commonly reported that Hoyle intended this to be pejorative. However, Hoyle later denied that, saying that it was just a striking image meant to emphasize the difference between the two theories for radio listeners.<a href="#cite_note-Croswell1995_chpt9-53">[51]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Strictly, dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant drives the universe towards a flat state; however, our universe remained close to flat for several billion years before the dark energy density became significant. </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-HTUW-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HTUW_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HTUW_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HTUW_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HTUW_1-3">d</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBridge2014" class="citation serial cs1">Bridge, Mark (Director) (30 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencechannel.com/tv-shows/how-the-universe-works/full-episodes/first-second">First Second of the Big Bang</a>. <a href="/wiki/How_the_Universe_Works#Season_3_(2014)" title="How the Universe Works">How The Universe Works</a>. Silver Spring, Maryland. <a href="/wiki/Science_Channel" title="Science Channel">Science Channel</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=First+Second+of+the+Big+Bang&rft.place=Silver+Spring%2C+Maryland&rft.series=%27%27How+The+Universe+Works%27%27&rft.date=2014-07-30&rft.aulast=Bridge&rft.aufirst=Mark+%28Director%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencechannel.com%2Ftv-shows%2Fhow-the-universe-works%2Ffull-episodes%2Ffirst-second&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-m853-2"><a href="#cite_ref-m853_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelenkiy2012" class="citation journal cs1">Belenkiy, Ari (1 October 2012). "Alexander Friedmann and the origins of modern cosmology". Physics Today. 65 (10): 38–43. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PhT....65j..38B">2012PhT....65j..38B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2FPT.3.1750">10.1063/PT.3.1750</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9228">0031-9228</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=Alexander+Friedmann+and+the+origins+of+modern+cosmology&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=38-43&rft.date=2012-10-01&rft.issn=0031-9228&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2FPT.3.1750&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012PhT....65j..38B&rft.aulast=Belenkiy&rft.aufirst=Ari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-z155-3"><a href="#cite_ref-z155_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNemiroffPatla2008" class="citation journal cs1">Nemiroff, Robert J.; Patla, Bijunath (1 March 2008). "Adventures in Friedmann cosmology: A detailed expansion of the cosmological Friedmann equations". American Journal of Physics. 76 (3): 265–276. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0703739">astro-ph/0703739</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008AmJPh..76..265N">2008AmJPh..76..265N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.2830536">10.1119/1.2830536</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9505">0002-9505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=Adventures+in+Friedmann+cosmology%3A+A+detailed+expansion+of+the+cosmological+Friedmann+equations&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=265-276&rft.date=2008-03-01&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0703739&rft.issn=0002-9505&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.2830536&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008AmJPh..76..265N&rft.aulast=Nemiroff&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft.au=Patla%2C+Bijunath&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-c686-4"><a href="#cite_ref-c686_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrollKaplinghat2002" class="citation journal cs1">Carroll, Sean M.; Kaplinghat, Manoj (27 February 2002). "Testing the Friedmann equation: The expansion of the universe during big-bang nucleosynthesis". Physical Review D. 65 (6): 063507. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0108002">astro-ph/0108002</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002PhRvD..65f3507C">2002PhRvD..65f3507C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.65.063507">10.1103/PhysRevD.65.063507</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0556-2821">0556-2821</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+D&rft.atitle=Testing+the+Friedmann+equation%3A+The+expansion+of+the+universe+during+big-bang+nucleosynthesis&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=063507&rft.date=2002-02-27&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0108002&rft.issn=0556-2821&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.65.063507&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002PhRvD..65f3507C&rft.aulast=Carroll&rft.aufirst=Sean+M.&rft.au=Kaplinghat%2C+Manoj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-c625-5"><a href="#cite_ref-c625_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMörtsell2016" class="citation journal cs1">Mörtsell, Edvard (1 September 2016). "Cosmological histories from the Friedmann equation: the Universe as a particle". European Journal of Physics. 37 (5): 055603. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1606.09556">1606.09556</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016EJPh...37e5603M">2016EJPh...37e5603M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0143-0807%2F37%2F5%2F055603">10.1088/0143-0807/37/5/055603</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0143-0807">0143-0807</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=Cosmological+histories+from+the+Friedmann+equation%3A+the+Universe+as+a+particle&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=055603&rft.date=2016-09-01&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1606.09556&rft.issn=0143-0807&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0143-0807%2F37%2F5%2F055603&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016EJPh...37e5603M&rft.aulast=M%C3%B6rtsell&rft.aufirst=Edvard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESilk2009208-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilk2009208_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSilk2009">Silk 2009</a>, p. 208. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2004560-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2004560_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSingh2004">Singh 2004</a>, p. 560. Book limited to 532 pages. Correct source page requested. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNASA/WMAP_Science_Team2011" class="citation web cs1">NASA/WMAP Science Team (6 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/">"Cosmology: The Study of the Universe"</a>. Universe 101: Big Bang Theory. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629050256/https://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2019. <q>The second section discusses the classic tests of the Big Bang theory that make it so compelling as the most likely valid and accurate description of our universe.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Universe+101%3A+Big+Bang+Theory&rft.atitle=Cosmology%3A+The+Study+of+the+Universe&rft.date=2011-06-06&rft.au=NASA%2FWMAP+Science+Team&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmap.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Funiverse%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.com-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_9-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChow2008">Chow 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fp9wrkMYHvMC&pg=PA211">211</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPartridge1995">Partridge 1995</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5G3wdV1IPE4C&pg=PR17">xvii</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kragh_1996-11"><a href="#cite_ref-Kragh_1996_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKragh1996">Kragh 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cosmologycontrov00helg">319</a>: "At the same time that observations tipped the balance definitely in favor of the relativistic big-bang theory, ..." </li> <li id="cite_note-esa-12"><a href="#cite_ref-esa_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mpg.de/7044245/Planck_cmb_universe">"Planck reveals an almost perfect universe"</a>. Max-Planck-Gesellschaft. 21 March 2013. Retrieved 17 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Planck+reveals+an+almost+perfect+universe&rft.pub=Max-Planck-Gesellschaft&rft.date=2013-03-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mpg.de%2F7044245%2FPlanck_cmb_universe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-peebles-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-peebles_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-peebles_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-peebles_13-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-peebles_13-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-peebles_13-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-peebles_13-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeeblesRatra2003" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jim_Peebles" title="Jim Peebles">Peebles, P. J. E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bharat_Ratra" title="Bharat Ratra">Ratra, Bharat</a> (22 April 2003). "The cosmological constant and dark energy". <a href="/wiki/Reviews_of_Modern_Physics" title="Reviews of Modern Physics">Reviews of Modern Physics</a>. 75 (2): 559–606. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0207347">astro-ph/0207347</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003RvMP...75..559P">2003RvMP...75..559P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.75.559">10.1103/RevModPhys.75.559</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0034-6861">0034-6861</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118961123">118961123</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=The+cosmological+constant+and+dark+energy&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=559-606&rft.date=2003-04-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A118961123%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003RvMP...75..559P&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0207347&rft.issn=0034-6861&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.75.559&rft.aulast=Peebles&rft.aufirst=P.+J.+E.&rft.au=Ratra%2C+Bharat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wright2009-14"><a href="#cite_ref-Wright2009_14-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2013" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_L._Wright" title="Edward L. Wright">Wright, Edward L.</a> (24 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/cosmology_faq.html#BBevidence">"Frequently Asked Questions in Cosmology: What is the evidence for the Big Bang?"</a>. Ned Wright's Cosmology Tutorial. Los Angeles: Division of Astronomy & Astrophysics, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130620105441/http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/cosmology_faq.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 25 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ned+Wright%27s+Cosmology+Tutorial&rft.atitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions+in+Cosmology%3A+What+is+the+evidence+for+the+Big+Bang%3F&rft.date=2013-05-24&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Edward+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astro.ucla.edu%2F~wright%2Fcosmology_faq.html%23BBevidence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Francis2018-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Francis2018_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancis2018" class="citation book cs1">Francis, Charles (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TVhiDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA199">Light after Dark I: Structures of the Sky</a>. Troubador Publishing Ltd. p. 199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781785897122" title="Special:BookSources/9781785897122"><bdi>9781785897122</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Light+after+Dark+I%3A+Structures+of+the+Sky&rft.pages=199&rft.pub=Troubador+Publishing+Ltd&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781785897122&rft.aulast=Francis&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTVhiDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA199&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIvanchikPotekhinVarshalovich1999" class="citation journal cs1">Ivanchik, Alexandre V.; Potekhin, Alexander Y.; Varshalovich, Dmitry A. (March 1999). "The fine-structure constant: a new observational limit on its cosmological variation and some theoretical consequences". <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_%26_Astrophysics" title="Astronomy & Astrophysics">Astronomy & Astrophysics</a>. 343 (2): 439–445. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9810166">astro-ph/9810166</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999A&A...343..439I">1999A&A...343..439I</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomy+%26+Astrophysics&rft.atitle=The+fine-structure+constant%3A+a+new+observational+limit+on+its+cosmological+variation+and+some+theoretical+consequences&rft.volume=343&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=439-445&rft.date=1999-03&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F9810166&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999A%26A...343..439I&rft.aulast=Ivanchik&rft.aufirst=Alexandre+V.&rft.au=Potekhin%2C+Alexander+Y.&rft.au=Varshalovich%2C+Dmitry+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuryshev2008" class="citation journal cs1">Turyshev, Slava G. (November 2008). "Experimental Tests of General Relativity". Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science. 58 (1): 207–248. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0806.1731">0806.1731</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008ARNPS..58..207T">2008ARNPS..58..207T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.nucl.58.020807.111839">10.1146/annurev.nucl.58.020807.111839</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119199160">119199160</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Nuclear+and+Particle+Science&rft.atitle=Experimental+Tests+of+General+Relativity&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=207-248&rft.date=2008-11&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0806.1731&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119199160%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.nucl.58.020807.111839&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008ARNPS..58..207T&rft.aulast=Turyshev&rft.aufirst=Slava+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIshak2019" class="citation journal cs1">Ishak, Mustapha (December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6299071">"Testing general relativity in cosmology"</a>. Living Reviews in Relativity. 22 (1): 204. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1806.10122">1806.10122</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019LRR....22....1I">2019LRR....22....1I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs41114-018-0017-4">10.1007/s41114-018-0017-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6299071">6299071</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30613193">30613193</a>. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Living+Reviews+in+Relativity&rft.atitle=Testing+general+relativity+in+cosmology&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=204&rft.date=2019-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6299071%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019LRR....22....1I&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1806.10122&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30613193&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs41114-018-0017-4&rft.aulast=Ishak&rft.aufirst=Mustapha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6299071&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman1995" class="citation journal cs1">Goodman, Jeremy (15 August 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cds.cern.ch/record/283096/files/9506068.pdf">"Geocentrism reexamined"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_D" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical Review D">Physical Review D</a>. 52 (4): 1821–1827. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9506068">astro-ph/9506068</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995PhRvD..52.1821G">1995PhRvD..52.1821G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.52.1821">10.1103/PhysRevD.52.1821</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10019408">10019408</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37979862">37979862</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190502001358/https://cds.cern.ch/record/283096/files/9506068.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+D&rft.atitle=Geocentrism+reexamined&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1821-1827&rft.date=1995-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A37979862%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995PhRvD..52.1821G&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F9506068&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10019408&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.52.1821&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcds.cern.ch%2Frecord%2F283096%2Ffiles%2F9506068.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kolb_c3-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kolb_c3_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kolb_c3_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kolb_c3_21-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFKolbTurner1988">Kolb & Turner 1988</a>, chpt. 3 </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnqvistSirkka1993" class="citation journal cs1">Enqvist, K.; Sirkka, J. (September 1993). "Chemical equilibrium in QCD gas in the early universe". Physics Letters B. 314 (3–4): 298–302. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/9304273">hep-ph/9304273</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993PhLB..314..298E">1993PhLB..314..298E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0370-2693%2893%2991239-J">10.1016/0370-2693(93)91239-J</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119406262">119406262</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Letters+B&rft.atitle=Chemical+equilibrium+in+QCD+gas+in+the+early+universe&rft.volume=314&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=298-302&rft.date=1993-09&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-ph%2F9304273&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119406262%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0370-2693%2893%2991239-J&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993PhLB..314..298E&rft.aulast=Enqvist&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Sirkka%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hawking_Ellis_1973-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hawking_Ellis_1973_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hawking_Ellis_1973_23-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHawkingEllis1973">Hawking & Ellis 1973</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-handf-space-24"><a href="#cite_ref-handf-space_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWall,_Mike2011" class="citation news cs1">Wall, Mike (21 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.space.com/13347-big-bang-origins-universe-birth.html">"The Big Bang: What Really Happened at Our Universe's Birth?"</a>. The History & Future of the Cosmos. Space.com. Retrieved 7 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+History+%26+Future+of+the+Cosmos&rft.atitle=The+Big+Bang%3A+What+Really+Happened+at+Our+Universe%27s+Birth%3F&rft.date=2011-10-21&rft.au=Wall%2C+Mike&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F13347-big-bang-origins-universe-birth.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoos2012">Roos 2012</a>, p. 216: "This singularity is termed the Big Bang." </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrees1990">Drees 1990</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/beyondbigbangqua0000dree/page/223">223–224</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Planck_2015-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Planck_2015_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Planck_2015_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlanck_Collaboration2016" class="citation journal cs1">Planck Collaboration (October 2016). "Planck 2015 results. XIII. Cosmological parameters". <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_%26_Astrophysics" title="Astronomy & Astrophysics">Astronomy & Astrophysics</a>. 594: Article A13. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1502.01589">1502.01589</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016A&A...594A..13P">2016A&A...594A..13P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%2F201525830">10.1051/0004-6361/201525830</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119262962">119262962</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomy+%26+Astrophysics&rft.atitle=Planck+2015+results.+XIII.+Cosmological+parameters&rft.volume=594&rft.pages=Article+A13&rft.date=2016-10&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1502.01589&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119262962%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1051%2F0004-6361%2F201525830&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016A%26A...594A..13P&rft.au=Planck+Collaboration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> (See Table 4, Age/Gyr, last column.) </li> <li id="cite_note-Musser2003-29"><a href="#cite_ref-Musser2003_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMusser2003" class="citation web cs1">Musser, George (22 September 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/according-to-the-big-bang/">"Why didn't all this matter immediately collapse into a black hole?"</a>. Scientific American. Retrieved 22 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+didn%27t+all+this+matter+immediately+collapse+into+a+black+hole%3F&rft.pub=Scientific+American&rft.date=2003-09-22&rft.aulast=Musser&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Faccording-to-the-big-bang%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnruhSemenoff1988" class="citation book cs1">Unruh, W.G.; Semenoff, G.W., eds. (1988). The early universe. Reidel. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-277-2619-1" title="Special:BookSources/90-277-2619-1"><bdi>90-277-2619-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/905464231">905464231</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+early+universe&rft.pub=Reidel&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F905464231&rft.isbn=90-277-2619-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hawley_Holcomb_2005-31"><a href="#cite_ref-Hawley_Holcomb_2005_31-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawleyHolcomb2005" class="citation book cs1">Hawley, John F.; Holcomb, Katherine A. (7 July 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s5MUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA355">Foundations of Modern Cosmology</a>. OUP Oxford. p. 355. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198530961" title="Special:BookSources/9780198530961"><bdi>9780198530961</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Modern+Cosmology&rft.pages=355&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2005-07-07&rft.isbn=9780198530961&rft.aulast=Hawley&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft.au=Holcomb%2C+Katherine+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds5MUDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA355&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/BBhistory.html">"Brief History of the Universe"</a>. www.astro.ucla.edu. Retrieved 28 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.astro.ucla.edu&rft.atitle=Brief+History+of+the+Universe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astro.ucla.edu%2F~wright%2FBBhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guth1998-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guth1998_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guth1998_33-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuth1998">Guth 1998</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_34-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Astro/planck.html">"Big Bang models back to Planck time"</a>. hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 28 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu&rft.atitle=Big+Bang+models+back+to+Planck+time&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu%2Fhbase%2FAstro%2Fplanck.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheweStein2005" class="citation magazine cs1">Schewe, Phillip F.; Stein, Ben P. (20 April 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050423224100/http://www.aip.org/pnu/2005/split/728-1.html">"An Ocean of Quarks"</a>. Physics News Update. Vol. 728, no. 1. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aip.org/pnu/2005/split/728-1.html">the original</a> on 23 April 2005. Retrieved 30 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+News+Update&rft.atitle=An+Ocean+of+Quarks&rft.volume=728&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2005-04-20&rft.aulast=Schewe&rft.aufirst=Phillip+F.&rft.au=Stein%2C+Ben+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aip.org%2Fpnu%2F2005%2Fsplit%2F728-1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHøg2014" class="citation journal cs1">Høg, Erik (2014). "Astrosociology: Interviews about an infinite universe". Asian Journal of Physics. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1408.4795">1408.4795</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014arXiv1408.4795H">2014arXiv1408.4795H</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=Astrosociology%3A+Interviews+about+an+infinite+universe&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1408.4795&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014arXiv1408.4795H&rft.aulast=H%C3%B8g&rft.aufirst=Erik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kolb_c6-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kolb_c6_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kolb_c6_37-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKolbTurner1988">Kolb & Turner 1988</a>, chpt. 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-kolb_c7-38"><a href="#cite_ref-kolb_c7_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKolbTurner1988">Kolb & Turner 1988</a>, chpt. 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeenink2009" class="citation web cs1">Weenink, Jan (26 February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~proko101/JanGWeenink_bg3.pdf">"Baryogenesis"</a> (PDF). Tomislav Prokopec. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~proko101/JanGWeenink_bg3.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Baryogenesis&rft.pub=Tomislav+Prokopec&rft.date=2009-02-26&rft.aulast=Weenink&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwebspace.science.uu.nl%2F~proko101%2FJanGWeenink_bg3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kolb_c4-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kolb_c4_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kolb_c4_40-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kolb_c4_40-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFKolbTurner1988">Kolb & Turner 1988</a>, chpt. 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-peacock_c9-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-peacock_c9_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-peacock_c9_41-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPeacock1999">Peacock 1999</a>, chpt. 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-NASA-20140107-42"><a href="#cite_ref-NASA-20140107_42-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClavinJenkinsVillard2014" class="citation web cs1">Clavin, Whitney; Jenkins, Ann; Villard, Ray (7 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-007">"NASA's Hubble and Spitzer Team up to Probe Faraway Galaxies"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory" title="Jet Propulsion Laboratory">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190903225105/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-007">Archived</a> from the original on 3 September 2019. Retrieved 8 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jet+Propulsion+Laboratory&rft.atitle=NASA%27s+Hubble+and+Spitzer+Team+up+to+Probe+Faraway+Galaxies&rft.date=2014-01-07&rft.aulast=Clavin&rft.aufirst=Whitney&rft.au=Jenkins%2C+Ann&rft.au=Villard%2C+Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpl.nasa.gov%2Fnews%2Fnews.php%3Frelease%3D2014-007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WMAP2003Spergel-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WMAP2003Spergel_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WMAP2003Spergel_43-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpergelVerdePeirisKomatsu2003" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Spergel" title="David Spergel">Spergel, David N.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Licia_Verde" title="Licia Verde">Verde, Licia</a>; <a href="/wiki/Hiranya_Peiris" title="Hiranya Peiris">Peiris, Hiranya V.</a>; et al. (September 2003). "First-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Determination of Cosmological Parameters". <a href="/wiki/The_Astrophysical_Journal" title="The Astrophysical Journal">The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series</a>. 148 (1): 175–194. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0302209">astro-ph/0302209</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003ApJS..148..175S">2003ApJS..148..175S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F377226">10.1086/377226</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10794058">10794058</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal+Supplement+Series&rft.atitle=First-Year+Wilkinson+Microwave+Anisotropy+Probe+%28WMAP%29+Observations%3A+Determination+of+Cosmological+Parameters&rft.volume=148&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=175-194&rft.date=2003-09&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0302209&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10794058%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F377226&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003ApJS..148..175S&rft.aulast=Spergel&rft.aufirst=David+N.&rft.au=Verde%2C+Licia&rft.au=Peiris%2C+Hiranya+V.&rft.au=Komatsu%2C+E.&rft.au=Nolta%2C+M.+R.&rft.au=Bennett%2C+C.+L.&rft.au=Halpern%2C+M.&rft.au=Hinshaw%2C+G.&rft.au=Jarosik%2C+N.&rft.au=Kogut%2C+A.&rft.au=Limon%2C+M.&rft.au=Meyer%2C+S.+S.&rft.au=Page%2C+L.&rft.au=Tucker%2C+G.+S.&rft.au=Weiland%2C+J.+L.&rft.au=Wollack%2C+E.&rft.au=Wright%2C+E.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-wmap7year-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wmap7year_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wmap7year_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wmap7year_44-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wmap7year_44-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJarosikBennettDunkleyGold2011" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Jarosik" title="Norman Jarosik">Jarosik, Norman</a>; <a href="/wiki/Charles_L._Bennett" title="Charles L. Bennett">Bennett, Charles L.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jo_Dunkley" title="Jo Dunkley">Dunkley, Jo</a>; et al. (February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/product/map/dr4/pub_papers/sevenyear/basic_results/wmap_7yr_basic_results.pdf">"Seven-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Sky Maps, Systematic Errors, and Basic Results"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/The_Astrophysical_Journal" title="The Astrophysical Journal">The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series</a>. 192 (2): Article 14. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1001.4744">1001.4744</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011ApJS..192...14J">2011ApJS..192...14J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0067-0049%2F192%2F2%2F14">10.1088/0067-0049/192/2/14</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2152%2F43001">2152/43001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46171526">46171526</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190914181522/https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/product/map/dr4/pub_papers/sevenyear/basic_results/wmap_7yr_basic_results.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 14 September 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal+Supplement+Series&rft.atitle=Seven-Year+Wilkinson+Microwave+Anisotropy+Probe+%28WMAP%29+Observations%3A+Sky+Maps%2C+Systematic+Errors%2C+and+Basic+Results&rft.volume=192&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=Article+14&rft.date=2011-02&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2152%2F43001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46171526%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011ApJS..192...14J&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1001.4744&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0067-0049%2F192%2F2%2F14&rft.aulast=Jarosik&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft.au=Bennett%2C+Charles+L.&rft.au=Dunkley%2C+Jo&rft.au=Gold%2C+B.&rft.au=Greason%2C+M.+R.&rft.au=Halpern%2C+M.&rft.au=Hill%2C+R.+S.&rft.au=Hinshaw%2C+G.&rft.au=Kogut%2C+A.&rft.au=Komatsu%2C+E.&rft.au=Larson%2C+D.&rft.au=Limon%2C+M.&rft.au=Meyer%2C+S.+S.&rft.au=Nolta%2C+M.+R.&rft.au=Odegard%2C+N.&rft.au=Page%2C+L.&rft.au=Smith%2C+K.+M.&rft.au=Spergel%2C+D.+N.&rft.au=Tucker%2C+G.+S.&rft.au=Weiland%2C+J.+L.&rft.au=Wollack%2C+E.&rft.au=Wright%2C+E.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flambda.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fproduct%2Fmap%2Fdr4%2Fpub_papers%2Fsevenyear%2Fbasic_results%2Fwmap_7yr_basic_results.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> (See Table 8.) </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT-20200415-45"><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20200415_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverbye2020" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Overbye" title="Dennis Overbye">Overbye, Dennis</a> (15 April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/15/science/physics-neutrino-antimatter-ichikawa-t2k.html">"Why The Big Bang Produced Something Rather Than Nothing – How did matter gain the edge over antimatter in the early universe? Maybe, just maybe, neutrinos"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200415151520/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/15/science/physics-neutrino-antimatter-ichikawa-t2k.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2020. Retrieved 16 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Why+The+Big+Bang+Produced+Something+Rather+Than+Nothing+%E2%80%93+How+did+matter+gain+the+edge+over+antimatter+in+the+early+universe%3F+Maybe%2C+just+maybe%2C+neutrinos.&rft.date=2020-04-15&rft.aulast=Overbye&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2020%2F04%2F15%2Fscience%2Fphysics-neutrino-antimatter-ichikawa-t2k.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id='cite_note-FOOTNOTEManly2011chpt._7:_"The_Ultimate_Free_Lunch"[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2020]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2020)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-46'><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManly2011chpt._7:_%22The_Ultimate_Free_Lunch%22%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2020%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2020)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFManly2011">Manly 2011</a>, chpt. 7: "The Ultimate Free Lunch"[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/1503721.stm">"'Big bang' astronomer dies"</a>. Sci/Tech. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. 22 August 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190903152416/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/1503721.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 3 September 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=%27Big+bang%27+astronomer+dies&rft.date=2001-08-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fuk_news%2F1503721.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.joh.cam.ac.uk/library/special_collections/hoyle/exhibition/radio/">"Hoyle on the Radio: Creating the 'Big Bang'"</a>. Fred Hoyle: An Online Exhibition. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="St John's College, Cambridge">St John's College</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140526084945/https://www.joh.cam.ac.uk/library/special_collections/hoyle/exhibition/radio/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2014. Retrieved 2 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fred+Hoyle%3A+An+Online+Exhibition&rft.atitle=Hoyle+on+the+Radio%3A+Creating+the+%27Big+Bang%27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.joh.cam.ac.uk%2Flibrary%2Fspecial_collections%2Fhoyle%2Fexhibition%2Fradio%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kragh2013-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2013_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2013_49-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2013_49-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2013_49-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2013_49-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2013_49-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2013_49-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKragh2013" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Helge_Kragh" title="Helge Kragh">Kragh, Helge</a> (April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fastrogeo%2Fatt035">"Big Bang: the etymology of a name"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_%26_Geophysics" title="Astronomy & Geophysics">Astronomy & Geophysics</a>. 54 (2): 2.28–2.30. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013A&G....54b2.28K">2013A&G....54b2.28K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fastrogeo%2Fatt035">10.1093/astrogeo/att035</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomy+%26+Geophysics&rft.atitle=Big+Bang%3A+the+etymology+of+a+name&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=2.28-2.30&rft.date=2013-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fastrogeo%2Fatt035&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013A%26G....54b2.28K&rft.aulast=Kragh&rft.aufirst=Helge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fastrogeo%252Fatt035&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMattson2017" class="citation web cs1">Mattson, Barbara (Project Leader) (8 December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/educators/programs/cosmictimes/online_edition/1955/hoyle.html">"Hoyle Scoffs at 'Big Bang' Universe Theory"</a>. Cosmic Times (hosted by Imagine the Universe!). Greenbelt, Maryland: <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>: <a href="/wiki/Goddard_Space_Flight_Center#High_Energy_Astrophysics_Science_Archive_Research_Center" title="Goddard Space Flight Center">High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/227004453">227004453</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180310172435/https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/educators/programs/cosmictimes/online_edition/1955/hoyle.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 March 2018. Retrieved 2 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cosmic+Times+%28hosted+by+Imagine+the+Universe%21%29&rft.atitle=Hoyle+Scoffs+at+%27Big+Bang%27+Universe+Theory&rft.date=2017-12-08&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F227004453&rft.aulast=Mattson&rft.aufirst=Barbara+%28Project+Leader%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fimagine.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Feducators%2Fprograms%2Fcosmictimes%2Fonline_edition%2F1955%2Fhoyle.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mathew2013-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mathew2013_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mathew2013_51-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathew2013" class="citation book cs1">Mathew, Santhosh (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1--3BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13">Essays on the Frontiers of Modern Astrophysics and Cosmology</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-01887-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-01887-4"><bdi>978-3-319-01887-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essays+on+the+Frontiers+of+Modern+Astrophysics+and+Cosmology&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-3-319-01887-4&rft.aulast=Mathew&rft.aufirst=Santhosh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1--3BAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ferris_Quote-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ferris_Quote_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ferris_Quote_52-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Ferris" title="Timothy Ferris">Timothy Ferris</a> writes: "The term "big bang" was coined with derisive intent by Fred Hoyle, and its endurance testifies to Sir Fred's creativity and wit. Indeed, the term survived an international competition in which three judges — the television science reporter Hugh Downs, the astronomer Carl Sagan, and myself — sifted through 13,099 entries from 41 countries and concluded that none was apt enough to replace it. No winner was declared, and like it or not, we are stuck with "big bang.""<a href="#cite_note-Ferris-60">[58]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Croswell1995_chpt9-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Croswell1995_chpt9_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Croswell1995_chpt9_53-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCroswell1995">Croswell 1995</a>, p. 113, chapter 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-Mitton2011_p129-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mitton2011_p129_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mitton2011_p129_54-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMitton2011">Mitton 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MWKQhXo2eaIC&pg=PA129">129</a>: "To create a picture in the mind of the listener, Hoyle had likened the explosive theory of the universe's origin to a 'big bang'." </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKragh2014" class="citation book cs1">Kragh, Helge (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZripBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT210">Masters of the Universe: Conversations with Cosmologists of the Past</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 210n30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-103442-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-103442-8"><bdi>978-0-19-103442-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Masters+of+the+Universe%3A+Conversations+with+Cosmologists+of+the+Past&rft.pages=210n30&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-103442-8&rft.aulast=Kragh&rft.aufirst=Helge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZripBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Hoyle stated: "I was constantly striving over the radio – where I had no visual aids, nothing except the spoken word – for visual images. And that seemed to be one way of distinguishing between the steady-state and the explosive big bang. And so that was the language I used."<a href="#cite_note-Kragh2013-49">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaler2013" class="citation book cs1">Kaler, James B. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l8S9BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4">The Little Book of Stars</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-21621-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-21621-8"><bdi>978-0-387-21621-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Little+Book+of+Stars&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-387-21621-8&rft.aulast=Kaler&rft.aufirst=James+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl8S9BwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmam2021" class="citation book cs1">Emam, Moataz (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wX4fEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA208">Covariant Physics: From Classical Mechanics to General Relativity and Beyond</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 208–246. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-886489-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-886489-9"><bdi>978-0-19-886489-9</bdi></a>. <q>The term "Big Bang" is an unfortunate misnomer. It implies an "explosion," and explosions are events that happen in space. This is incorrect; the term describes the first instant in the expansion of space itself. Some would even interpret it as the very beginning of the universe, evolving from "nothing." It is hard to imagine exactly what it was, but an explosion it most definitely wasn't.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Covariant+Physics%3A+From+Classical+Mechanics+to+General+Relativity+and+Beyond&rft.pages=208-246&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-886489-9&rft.aulast=Emam&rft.aufirst=Moataz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwX4fEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoskowitz2010" class="citation web cs1">Moskowitz, Clara (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/32278-was-the-big-bang-really-an-explosion.html">"Was the Big Bang Really an Explosion?"</a>. Live Science.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Live+Science&rft.atitle=Was+the+Big+Bang+Really+an+Explosion%3F&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Moskowitz&rft.aufirst=Clara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F32278-was-the-big-bang-really-an-explosion.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ferris-60"><a href="#cite_ref-Ferris_60-0">^</a> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerris1998" class="citation book cs1">Ferris, Timothy (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qjYbQ7EBAKwC&pg=PA323">The Whole Shebang: A State of the Universe Report</a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 323n10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-83861-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-83861-8"><bdi>978-0-684-83861-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Whole+Shebang%3A+A+State+of+the+Universe+Report&rft.pages=323n10&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-684-83861-8&rft.aulast=Ferris&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqjYbQ7EBAKwC%26pg%3DPA323&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaitherCavazos-Gaither2012" class="citation book cs1">Gaither, Carl C.; Cavazos-Gaither, Alma E. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zQaCSlEM-OEC&pg=PA272">Gaither's Dictionary of Scientific Quotations</a> (2nd ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-1114-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-1114-7"><bdi>978-1-4614-1114-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gaither%27s+Dictionary+of+Scientific+Quotations&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4614-1114-7&rft.aulast=Gaither&rft.aufirst=Carl+C.&rft.au=Cavazos-Gaither%2C+Alma+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzQaCSlEM-OEC%26pg%3DPA272&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> (quoting Ferris)</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-Space-20120925-61"><a href="#cite_ref-Space-20120925_61-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoskowitz2012" class="citation web cs1">Moskowitz, Clara (25 September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.space.com/17755-farthest-universe-view-hubble-space-telescope.html">"Hubble Telescope Reveals Farthest View Into Universe Ever"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Space.com" title="Space.com">Space.com</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191012164808/https://www.space.com/17755-farthest-universe-view-hubble-space-telescope.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2019. Retrieved 3 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Space.com&rft.atitle=Hubble+Telescope+Reveals+Farthest+View+Into+Universe+Ever&rft.date=2012-09-25&rft.aulast=Moskowitz&rft.aufirst=Clara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F17755-farthest-universe-view-hubble-space-telescope.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlipher1913" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vesto_Slipher" title="Vesto Slipher">Slipher, Vesto M.</a> (1913). "The Radial Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula". <a href="/wiki/Lowell_Observatory_Bulletin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lowell Observatory Bulletin">Lowell Observatory Bulletin</a>. 1 (8): 56–57. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1913LowOB...2...56S">1913LowOB...2...56S</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lowell+Observatory+Bulletin&rft.atitle=The+Radial+Velocity+of+the+Andromeda+Nebula&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=56-57&rft.date=1913&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1913LowOB...2...56S&rft.aulast=Slipher&rft.aufirst=Vesto+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlipher1915" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vesto_Slipher" title="Vesto Slipher">Slipher, Vesto M.</a> (January 1915). "Spectrographic Observations of Nebulae". <a href="/wiki/Popular_Astronomy_(US_magazine)" title="Popular Astronomy (US magazine)">Popular Astronomy</a>. 23: 21–24. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1915PA.....23...21S">1915PA.....23...21S</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Astronomy&rft.atitle=Spectrographic+Observations+of+Nebulae&rft.volume=23&rft.pages=21-24&rft.date=1915-01&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1915PA.....23...21S&rft.aulast=Slipher&rft.aufirst=Vesto+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-af1922-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-af1922_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-af1922_64-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman1922" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Friedmann" title="Alexander Friedmann">Friedman, Alexander</a> (December 1922). "Über die Krümmung des Raumes". <a href="/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Physik" title="Zeitschrift für Physik">Zeitschrift für Physik</a> (in German). 10 (1): 377–386. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1922ZPhy...10..377F">1922ZPhy...10..377F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01332580">10.1007/BF01332580</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:125190902">125190902</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Physik&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+die+Kr%C3%BCmmung+des+Raumes&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=377-386&rft.date=1922-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A125190902%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01332580&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1922ZPhy...10..377F&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> <ul><li>Translated in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedmann1999" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Friedmann" title="Alexander Friedmann">Friedmann, Alexander</a> (December 1999). "On the Curvature of Space". <a href="/wiki/General_Relativity_and_Gravitation" title="General Relativity and Gravitation">General Relativity and Gravitation</a>. 31 (12): 1991–2000. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999GReGr..31.1991F">1999GReGr..31.1991F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1026751225741">10.1023/A:1026751225741</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122950995">122950995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=General+Relativity+and+Gravitation&rft.atitle=On+the+Curvature+of+Space&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1991-2000&rft.date=1999-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A122950995%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1026751225741&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999GReGr..31.1991F&rft.aulast=Friedmann&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-hubble-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hubble_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hubble_65-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHubble1929" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Hubble, Edwin</a> (15 March 1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apod.nasa.gov/debate/1996/hub_1929.html">"A Relation Between Distance and Radial Velocity Among Extra-Galactic Nebulae"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>. 15 (3): 168–173. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1929PNAS...15..168H">1929PNAS...15..168H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.15.3.168">10.1073/pnas.15.3.168</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC522427">522427</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16577160">16577160</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061001060258/https://apod.nasa.gov/debate/1996/hub_1929.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1 October 2006. Retrieved 28 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=A+Relation+Between+Distance+and+Radial+Velocity+Among+Extra-Galactic+Nebulae&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=168-173&rft.date=1929-03-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC522427%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16577160&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.15.3.168&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1929PNAS...15..168H&rft.aulast=Hubble&rft.aufirst=Edwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapod.nasa.gov%2Fdebate%2F1996%2Fhub_1929.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-christianson-66"><a href="#cite_ref-christianson_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChristianson1995">Christianson 1995</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-gl1927-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gl1927_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gl1927_67-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemaître1927" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Lemaître, Georges</a> (April 1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/B-001-004-204">"Un Univers homogène de masse constante et de rayon croissant rendant compte de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses extra-galactiques"</a>. Annales de la Société scientifique de Bruxelles (in French). 47: 49–59. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1927ASSB...47...49L">1927ASSB...47...49L</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+scientifique+de+Bruxelles&rft.atitle=Un+Univers+homog%C3%A8ne+de+masse+constante+et+de+rayon+croissant+rendant+compte+de+la+vitesse+radiale+des+n%C3%A9buleuses+extra-galactiques&rft.volume=47&rft.pages=49-59&rft.date=1927-04&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1927ASSB...47...49L&rft.aulast=Lema%C3%AEtre&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FB-001-004-204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> <ul><li>Translated in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemaître1931" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Lemaître, Georges</a> (March 1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2F91.5.483">"A Homogeneous Universe of Constant Mass and Increasing Radius accounting for the Radial Velocity of Extra-galactic Nebulæ"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Monthly_Notices_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>. 91 (5): 483–490. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1931MNRAS..91..483L">1931MNRAS..91..483L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2F91.5.483">10.1093/mnras/91.5.483</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Notices+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=A+Homogeneous+Universe+of+Constant+Mass+and+Increasing+Radius+accounting+for+the+Radial+Velocity+of+Extra-galactic+Nebul%C3%A6&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=483-490&rft.date=1931-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmnras%2F91.5.483&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1931MNRAS..91..483L&rft.aulast=Lema%C3%AEtre&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fmnras%252F91.5.483&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemaître1931" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Lemaître, Abbé Georges</a> (24 October 1931). "Contributions to a British Association Discussion on the Evolution of the Universe". <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>. 128 (3234): 704–706. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1931Natur.128..704L">1931Natur.128..704L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F128704a0">10.1038/128704a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4028196">4028196</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Contributions+to+a+British+Association+Discussion+on+the+Evolution+of+the+Universe&rft.volume=128&rft.issue=3234&rft.pages=704-706&rft.date=1931-10-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4028196%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F128704a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1931Natur.128..704L&rft.aulast=Lema%C3%AEtre&rft.aufirst=Abb%C3%A9+Georges&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKragh1996">Kragh 1996</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-WGBH1927-70"><a href="#cite_ref-WGBH1927_70-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/dp27bi.html">"Big bang theory is introduced – 1927"</a>. A Science Odyssey. Boston, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/WGBH-TV" title="WGBH-TV">WGBH Boston</a>. 1998. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19990423033457/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/dp27bi.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 1999. Retrieved 31 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=A+Science+Odyssey&rft.atitle=Big+bang+theory+is+introduced+%E2%80%93+1927&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Faso%2Fdatabank%2Fentries%2Fdp27bi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEddington1931" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Eddington, Arthur S.</a> (21 March 1931). "The End of the World: from the Standpoint of Mathematical Physics". <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>. 127 (3203): 447–453. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1931Natur.127..447E">1931Natur.127..447E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F127447a0">10.1038/127447a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4140648">4140648</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+End+of+the+World%3A+from+the+Standpoint+of+Mathematical+Physics&rft.volume=127&rft.issue=3203&rft.pages=447-453&rft.date=1931-03-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4140648%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F127447a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1931Natur.127..447E&rft.aulast=Eddington&rft.aufirst=Arthur+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAppolloni2011" class="citation journal cs1">Appolloni, Simon (17 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journal.ibsu.edu.ge/index.php/ibsusj/article/view/180">"'Repugnant', 'Not Repugnant at All': How the Respective Epistemic Attitudes of Georges Lemaitre and Sir Arthur Eddington Influenced How Each Approached the Idea of a Beginning of the Universe"</a>. IBSU Scientific Journal. 5 (1): 19–44.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IBSU+Scientific+Journal&rft.atitle=%27Repugnant%27%2C+%27Not+Repugnant+at+All%27%3A+How+the+Respective+Epistemic+Attitudes+of+Georges+Lemaitre+and+Sir+Arthur+Eddington+Influenced+How+Each+Approached+the+Idea+of+a+Beginning+of+the+Universe&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=19-44&rft.date=2011-06-17&rft.aulast=Appolloni&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournal.ibsu.edu.ge%2Findex.php%2Fibsusj%2Farticle%2Fview%2F180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemaître1931" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Lemaître, Georges</a> (9 May 1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F127706b0">"The Beginning of the World from the Point of View of Quantum Theory"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>. 127 (3210): 706. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1931Natur.127..706L">1931Natur.127..706L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F127706b0">10.1038/127706b0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4089233">4089233</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+Beginning+of+the+World+from+the+Point+of+View+of+Quantum+Theory&rft.volume=127&rft.issue=3210&rft.pages=706&rft.date=1931-05-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F127706b0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4089233%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1931Natur.127..706L&rft.aulast=Lema%C3%AEtre&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F127706b0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMilne1935">Milne 1935</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTolman1934">Tolman 1934</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZwicky1929" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Zwicky" title="Fritz Zwicky">Zwicky, Fritz</a> (15 October 1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC522555">"On the Red Shift of Spectral Lines through Interstellar Space"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 15 (10): 773–779. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1929PNAS...15..773Z">1929PNAS...15..773Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.15.10.773">10.1073/pnas.15.10.773</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC522555">522555</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16577237">16577237</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=On+the+Red+Shift+of+Spectral+Lines+through+Interstellar+Space&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=773-779&rft.date=1929-10-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC522555%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16577237&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.15.10.773&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1929PNAS...15..773Z&rft.aulast=Zwicky&rft.aufirst=Fritz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC522555&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoyle1948" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hoyle" title="Fred Hoyle">Hoyle, Fred</a> (October 1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2F108.5.372">"A New Model for the Expanding Universe"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Monthly_Notices_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>. 108 (5): 372–382. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1948MNRAS.108..372H">1948MNRAS.108..372H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2F108.5.372">10.1093/mnras/108.5.372</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Notices+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=A+New+Model+for+the+Expanding+Universe&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=372-382&rft.date=1948-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmnras%2F108.5.372&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1948MNRAS.108..372H&rft.aulast=Hoyle&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fmnras%252F108.5.372&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlpherBetheGamow1948" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Asher_Alpher" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph Asher Alpher">Alpher, Ralph A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe, Hans</a>; <a href="/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow">Gamow, George</a> (1 April 1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.73.803">"The Origin of Chemical Elements"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a>. 73 (7): 803–804. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1948PhRv...73..803A">1948PhRv...73..803A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.73.803">10.1103/PhysRev.73.803</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18877094">18877094</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Origin+of+Chemical+Elements&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=803-804&rft.date=1948-04-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18877094&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.73.803&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1948PhRv...73..803A&rft.aulast=Alpher&rft.aufirst=Ralph+A.&rft.au=Bethe%2C+Hans&rft.au=Gamow%2C+George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1103%252FPhysRev.73.803&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlpherHerman1948" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Asher_Alpher" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph Asher Alpher">Alpher, Ralph A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Herman" title="Robert Herman">Herman, Robert</a> (13 November 1948). "Evolution of the Universe". <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>. 162 (4124): 774–775. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1948Natur.162..774A">1948Natur.162..774A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F162774b0">10.1038/162774b0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4113488">4113488</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+the+Universe&rft.volume=162&rft.issue=4124&rft.pages=774-775&rft.date=1948-11-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4113488%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F162774b0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1948Natur.162..774A&rft.aulast=Alpher&rft.aufirst=Ralph+A.&rft.au=Herman%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-penzias-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-penzias_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-penzias_81-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenziasWilson1965" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arno_Allan_Penzias" title="Arno Allan Penzias">Penzias, Arno A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">Wilson, R. W.</a> (July 1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fermatslibrary.com/s/a-measurement-of-excess-antenna-temperature-at-4080-mc-s">"A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Astrophysical_Journal" title="The Astrophysical Journal">The Astrophysical Journal</a>. 142: 419–421. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965ApJ...142..419P">1965ApJ...142..419P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F148307">10.1086/148307</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191014185903/https://fermatslibrary.com/s/a-measurement-of-excess-antenna-temperature-at-4080-mc-s">Archived</a> from the original on 14 October 2019. Retrieved 5 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=A+Measurement+of+Excess+Antenna+Temperature+at+4080+Mc%2Fs&rft.volume=142&rft.pages=419-421&rft.date=1965-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F148307&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1965ApJ...142..419P&rft.aulast=Penzias&rft.aufirst=Arno+A.&rft.au=Wilson%2C+R.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffermatslibrary.com%2Fs%2Fa-measurement-of-excess-antenna-temperature-at-4080-mc-s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawkingEllis1968" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking, Stephen W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/George_F._R._Ellis" title="George F. R. Ellis">Ellis, George F. R.</a> (April 1968). "The Cosmic Black-Body Radiation and the Existence of Singularities in our Universe". <a href="/wiki/The_Astrophysical_Journal" title="The Astrophysical Journal">The Astrophysical Journal</a>. 152: 25. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1968ApJ...152...25H">1968ApJ...152...25H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F149520">10.1086/149520</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Cosmic+Black-Body+Radiation+and+the+Existence+of+Singularities+in+our+Universe&rft.volume=152&rft.pages=25&rft.date=1968-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F149520&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1968ApJ...152...25H&rft.aulast=Hawking&rft.aufirst=Stephen+W.&rft.au=Ellis%2C+George+F.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawkingPenrose1970" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking, Stephen W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose, Roger</a> (27 January 1970). "The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology". <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_A:_Mathematical,_Physical_and_Engineering_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences">Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences</a>. 314 (1519): 529–548. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970RSPSA.314..529H">1970RSPSA.314..529H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1970.0021">10.1098/rspa.1970.0021</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120208756">120208756</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+A%3A+Mathematical%2C+Physical+and+Engineering+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Singularities+of+Gravitational+Collapse+and+Cosmology&rft.volume=314&rft.issue=1519&rft.pages=529-548&rft.date=1970-01-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A120208756%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspa.1970.0021&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1970RSPSA.314..529H&rft.aulast=Hawking&rft.aufirst=Stephen+W.&rft.au=Penrose%2C+Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuth1981" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Guth" title="Alan Guth">Guth, Alan</a> (15 January 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.23.347">"Inflationary universe: A possible solution to the horizon and flatness problems"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_D" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical Review D">Physical Review D</a>. 23 (2): 347–356. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981PhRvD..23..347G">1981PhRvD..23..347G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.23.347">10.1103/PhysRevD.23.347</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+D&rft.atitle=Inflationary+universe%3A+A+possible+solution+to+the+horizon+and+flatness+problems&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=347-356&rft.date=1981-01-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.23.347&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1981PhRvD..23..347G&rft.aulast=Guth&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1103%252FPhysRevD.23.347&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuchra2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Huchra" title="John Huchra">Huchra, John P.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190930124013/https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/~dfabricant/huchra/hubble/">"The Hubble Constant"</a>. Science. 256 (5055): 321–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.256.5055.321">10.1126/science.256.5055.321</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17743107">17743107</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206574821">206574821</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/~dfabricant/huchra/hubble/">the original</a> on 30 September 2019. Retrieved 5 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+Hubble+Constant&rft.volume=256&rft.issue=5055&rft.pages=321-5&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206574821%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17743107&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.256.5055.321&rft.aulast=Huchra&rft.aufirst=John+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cfa.harvard.edu%2F~dfabricant%2Fhuchra%2Fhubble%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLivio2000">Livio 2000</a>, p. 160 </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNavabiRiazi2003" class="citation journal cs1">Navabi, Ali Akbar; Riazi, Nematollah (March 2003). "Is the Age Problem Resolved?". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Astrophysics_and_Astronomy" title="Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy">Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy</a>. 24 (1–2): 3–10. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003JApA...24....3N">2003JApA...24....3N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF03012187">10.1007/BF03012187</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123471347">123471347</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Astrophysics+and+Astronomy&rft.atitle=Is+the+Age+Problem+Resolved%3F&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=3-10&rft.date=2003-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A123471347%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF03012187&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003JApA...24....3N&rft.aulast=Navabi&rft.aufirst=Ali+Akbar&rft.au=Riazi%2C+Nematollah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cobe-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cobe_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cobe_88-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoggessMatherWeissBennett1992" class="citation journal cs1">Boggess, Nancy W.; <a href="/wiki/John_C._Mather" title="John C. Mather">Mather, John C.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Rainer_Weiss" title="Rainer Weiss">Weiss, Rainer</a>; et al. (1 October 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F171797">"The COBE Mission: Its Design and Performance Two Years after the launch"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Astrophysical_Journal" title="The Astrophysical Journal">The Astrophysical Journal</a>. 397: 420–429. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992ApJ...397..420B">1992ApJ...397..420B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F171797">10.1086/171797</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+COBE+Mission%3A+Its+Design+and+Performance+Two+Years+after+the+launch&rft.volume=397&rft.pages=420-429&rft.date=1992-10-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F171797&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992ApJ...397..420B&rft.aulast=Boggess&rft.aufirst=Nancy+W.&rft.au=Mather%2C+John+C.&rft.au=Weiss%2C+Rainer&rft.au=Bennett%2C+C.+L.&rft.au=Cheng%2C+E.+S.&rft.au=Dwek%2C+E.&rft.au=Gulkis%2C+S.&rft.au=Hauser%2C+M.+G.&rft.au=Janssen%2C+M.+A.&rft.au=Kelsall%2C+T.&rft.au=Meyer%2C+S.+S.&rft.au=Moseley%2C+S.+H.&rft.au=Murdock%2C+T.+L.&rft.au=Shafer%2C+R.+A.&rft.au=Silverberg%2C+R.+F.&rft.au=Smoot%2C+G.+F.&rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+D.+T.&rft.au=Wright%2C+E.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1086%252F171797&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-wmap1year-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wmap1year_89-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wmap1year_89-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wmap1year_89-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpergelBeanDoré2007" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Spergel" title="David Spergel">Spergel, David N.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Rachel_Bean" title="Rachel Bean">Bean, Rachel</a>; <a href="/wiki/Olivier_Dor%C3%A9" title="Olivier Doré">Doré, Olivier</a>; et al. (June 2007). "Three-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Implications for Cosmology". <a href="/wiki/The_Astrophysical_Journal_Supplement_Series" class="mw-redirect" title="The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series">The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series</a>. 170 (2): 377–408. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0603449">astro-ph/0603449</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007ApJS..170..377S">2007ApJS..170..377S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F513700">10.1086/513700</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1386346">1386346</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal+Supplement+Series&rft.atitle=Three-Year+Wilkinson+Microwave+Anisotropy+Probe+%28WMAP%29+Observations%3A+Implications+for+Cosmology&rft.volume=170&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=377-408&rft.date=2007-06&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0603449&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1386346%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F513700&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007ApJS..170..377S&rft.aulast=Spergel&rft.aufirst=David+N.&rft.au=Bean%2C+Rachel&rft.au=Dor%C3%A9%2C+Olivier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReissFilippenkoChallisClocchiatti1998" class="citation journal cs1">Reiss, Adam G.; Filippenko, Alexei V.; Challis, Peter; Clocchiatti, Alejandro; Diercks, Alan; Garnavich, Peter M.; Gilliland, Ron L.; Hogan, Craig J.; Jha, Saurabh; Kirshner, Robert P.; Leibundgut, B.; Phillips, M. M.; Reiss, David; Schmidt, Brian P.; Schommer, Robert A.; Smith, R. Chris; Spyromilio, J.; Stubbs, Christopher; Suntzeff, Nicholas B.; Tonry, John (1998). "Observational Evidence from Supernovae for an Accelerating Universe and a Cosmological Constant". <a href="/wiki/The_Astronomical_Journal" title="The Astronomical Journal">The Astronomical Journal</a>. 116 (3): 1009–1038. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9805201">astro-ph/9805201</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998AJ....116.1009R">1998AJ....116.1009R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F300499">10.1086/300499</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15640044">15640044</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astronomical+Journal&rft.atitle=Observational+Evidence+from+Supernovae+for+an+Accelerating+Universe+and+a+Cosmological+Constant&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1009-1038&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F9805201&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15640044%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F300499&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998AJ....116.1009R&rft.aulast=Reiss&rft.aufirst=Adam+G.&rft.au=Filippenko%2C+Alexei+V.&rft.au=Challis%2C+Peter&rft.au=Clocchiatti%2C+Alejandro&rft.au=Diercks%2C+Alan&rft.au=Garnavich%2C+Peter+M.&rft.au=Gilliland%2C+Ron+L.&rft.au=Hogan%2C+Craig+J.&rft.au=Jha%2C+Saurabh&rft.au=Kirshner%2C+Robert+P.&rft.au=Leibundgut%2C+B.&rft.au=Phillips%2C+M.+M.&rft.au=Reiss%2C+David&rft.au=Schmidt%2C+Brian+P.&rft.au=Schommer%2C+Robert+A.&rft.au=Smith%2C+R.+Chris&rft.au=Spyromilio%2C+J.&rft.au=Stubbs%2C+Christopher&rft.au=Suntzeff%2C+Nicholas+B.&rft.au=Tonry%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerlmutterAlderingGoldhaberKnop1999" class="citation journal cs1">Perlmutter, S.; Aldering, G.; Goldhaber, G.; Knop, R.A.; Nugent, P.; Castro, P.G.; Deustua, S.; Fabbro, S.; Goobar, A.; Groom, D.E.; Hook, I.M.; Kim, A.G.; Kim, M.Y.; Lee, J.C.; Nunes, N.J.; Pain, R.; Pennypacker, C.R.; Quimby, R.; Lidman, C.; Ellis, R.S.; Irwin, M.; McMahon, R.G.; Ruiz-Lapuente, P.; Walton, N.; Schaefer, B.; Boyle, B.J.; Filippenko, A.V.; Matheson, T.; Fruchter, A.S.; Panagia, N.; Newberg, H.J.M.; Couch, W.J. (1999). "Measurements of Omega and Lambda from 42 High-Redshift Supernovae". <a href="/wiki/The_Astrophysical_Journal" title="The Astrophysical Journal">The Astrophysical Journal</a>. 517 (2): 565–586. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9812133">astro-ph/9812133</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999ApJ...517..565P">1999ApJ...517..565P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F307221">10.1086/307221</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118910636">118910636</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=Measurements+of+Omega+and+Lambda+from+42+High-Redshift+Supernovae&rft.volume=517&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=565-586&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F9812133&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A118910636%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F307221&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999ApJ...517..565P&rft.aulast=Perlmutter&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Aldering%2C+G.&rft.au=Goldhaber%2C+G.&rft.au=Knop%2C+R.A.&rft.au=Nugent%2C+P.&rft.au=Castro%2C+P.G.&rft.au=Deustua%2C+S.&rft.au=Fabbro%2C+S.&rft.au=Goobar%2C+A.&rft.au=Groom%2C+D.E.&rft.au=Hook%2C+I.M.&rft.au=Kim%2C+A.G.&rft.au=Kim%2C+M.Y.&rft.au=Lee%2C+J.C.&rft.au=Nunes%2C+N.J.&rft.au=Pain%2C+R.&rft.au=Pennypacker%2C+C.R.&rft.au=Quimby%2C+R.&rft.au=Lidman%2C+C.&rft.au=Ellis%2C+R.S.&rft.au=Irwin%2C+M.&rft.au=McMahon%2C+R.G.&rft.au=Ruiz-Lapuente%2C+P.&rft.au=Walton%2C+N.&rft.au=Schaefer%2C+B.&rft.au=Boyle%2C+B.J.&rft.au=Filippenko%2C+A.V.&rft.au=Matheson%2C+T.&rft.au=Fruchter%2C+A.S.&rft.au=Panagia%2C+N.&rft.au=Newberg%2C+H.J.M.&rft.au=Couch%2C+W.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKrauss2012">Krauss 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/universefromnoth0000krau/page/118">118</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGladdersYeeMajumdarBarrientos2007" class="citation journal cs1">Gladders, Michael D.; Yee, H. K. C.; Majumdar, Subhabrata; et al. (20 January 2007). "Cosmological Constraints from the Red-Sequence Cluster Survey". <a href="/wiki/The_Astrophysical_Journal" title="The Astrophysical Journal">The Astrophysical Journal</a>. 655 (1): 128–134. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0603588">astro-ph/0603588</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007ApJ...655..128G">2007ApJ...655..128G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F509909">10.1086/509909</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10855653">10855653</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=Cosmological+Constraints+from+the+Red-Sequence+Cluster+Survey&rft.volume=655&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=128-134&rft.date=2007-01-20&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0603588&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10855653%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F509909&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007ApJ...655..128G&rft.aulast=Gladders&rft.aufirst=Michael+D.&rft.au=Yee%2C+H.+K.+C.&rft.au=Majumdar%2C+Subhabrata&rft.au=Barrientos%2C+L.+Felipe&rft.au=Hoekstra%2C+Henk&rft.au=Hall%2C+Patrick+B.&rft.au=Infante%2C+Leopoldo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShellard2012" class="citation web cs1">Shellard, Paul; et al., eds. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ctc.cam.ac.uk/outreach/origins/big_bang_four.php">"The Four Pillars of the Standard Cosmology"</a>. Outreach. Cambridge, UK: <a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Theoretical_Cosmology" title="Centre for Theoretical Cosmology">Centre for Theoretical Cosmology</a>; <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131102133646/http://www.ctc.cam.ac.uk/outreach/origins/big_bang_four.php">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2013. Retrieved 6 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Outreach&rft.atitle=The+Four+Pillars+of+the+Standard+Cosmology&rft.date=2012&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ctc.cam.ac.uk%2Foutreach%2Forigins%2Fbig_bang_four.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> <ul><li>From retired website: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShellard2006" class="citation web cs1">Shellard, Paul; et al., eds. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19980128054235/http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/gr/public/bb_pillars.html">"The Four Pillars of the Standard Cosmology"</a>. Cambridge Relativity and Cosmology. Cambridge, UK: University of Cambridge. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/gr/public/bb_pillars.html">the original</a> on 28 January 1998. Retrieved 6 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Relativity+and+Cosmology&rft.atitle=The+Four+Pillars+of+the+Standard+Cosmology&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.damtp.cam.ac.uk%2Fuser%2Fgr%2Fpublic%2Fbb_pillars.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadoulet" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Sadoulet" title="Bernard Sadoulet">Sadoulet, Bernard</a>; et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www8.nationalacademies.org/astro2010/DetailFileDisplay.aspx?id=225">"Direct Searches for Dark Matter"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_and_Astrophysics_Decadal_Survey" title="Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Survey">Astro2010: The Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Survey</a> (white paper). Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/National_Academies_Press" title="National Academies Press">National Academies Press</a> on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/National_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine#Program_units" title="National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine">National Research Council</a> of the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/850950122">850950122</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090413141208/https://www8.nationalacademies.org/astro2010/DetailFileDisplay.aspx?id=225">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2009. Retrieved 8 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Astro2010%3A+The+Astronomy+and+Astrophysics+Decadal+Survey&rft.atitle=Direct+Searches+for+Dark+Matter&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F850950122&rft.aulast=Sadoulet&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww8.nationalacademies.org%2Fastro2010%2FDetailFileDisplay.aspx%3Fid%3D225&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Diemand2005-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Diemand2005_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diemand2005_96-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiemandZempMooreStadel2005" class="citation journal cs1">Diemand, Jürg; Zemp, Marcel; Moore, Ben; Stadel, Joachim; <a href="/wiki/C._Marcella_Carollo" title="C. Marcella Carollo">Carollo, C. Marcella</a> (December 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2966.2005.09601.x">"Cusps in cold dark matter haloes"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Monthly_Notices_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>. 364 (2): 665–673. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0504215">astro-ph/0504215</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005MNRAS.364..665D">2005MNRAS.364..665D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2966.2005.09601.x">10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09601.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:117769706">117769706</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Notices+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=Cusps+in+cold+dark+matter+haloes&rft.volume=364&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=665-673&rft.date=2005-12&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0504215&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A117769706%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-2966.2005.09601.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005MNRAS.364..665D&rft.aulast=Diemand&rft.aufirst=J%C3%BCrg&rft.au=Zemp%2C+Marcel&rft.au=Moore%2C+Ben&rft.au=Stadel%2C+Joachim&rft.au=Carollo%2C+C.+Marcella&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1365-2966.2005.09601.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Martínez-Delgado-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mart%C3%ADnez-Delgado_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mart%C3%ADnez-Delgado_97-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBullock2010" class="citation book cs1">Bullock, James S. (2010). "Notes on the Missing Satellites Problem". In Martinez-Delgado, David; Mediavilla, Evencio (eds.). Local Group Cosmology. pp. 95–122. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1009.4505">1009.4505</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139152303.004">10.1017/CBO9781139152303.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139152303" title="Special:BookSources/9781139152303"><bdi>9781139152303</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119270708">119270708</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Notes+on+the+Missing+Satellites+Problem&rft.btitle=Local+Group+Cosmology&rft.pages=95-122&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1009.4505&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119270708%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9781139152303.004&rft.isbn=9781139152303&rft.aulast=Bullock&rft.aufirst=James+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCahn2009" class="citation journal cs1">Cahn, Robert N.; et al. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www8.nationalacademies.org/astro2010/DetailFileDisplay.aspx?id=243">"Whitepaper: For a Comprehensive Space-Based Dark Energy Mission"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_and_Astrophysics_Decadal_Survey" title="Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Survey">Astro2010: The Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Survey, Science White Papers, no. 35</a> (white paper). 2010. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/National_Academies_Press" title="National Academies Press">National Academies Press</a> on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/National_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine#Program_units" title="National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine">National Research Council</a> of the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a>: 35. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009astro2010S..35B">2009astro2010S..35B</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/850950122">850950122</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110807103919/http://www8.nationalacademies.org/astro2010/DetailFileDisplay.aspx?id=243">Archived</a> from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 8 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astro2010%3A+The+Astronomy+and+Astrophysics+Decadal+Survey%2C+Science+White+Papers%2C+no.+35&rft.atitle=Whitepaper%3A+For+a+Comprehensive+Space-Based+Dark+Energy+Mission&rft.volume=2010&rft.pages=35&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F850950122&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009astro2010S..35B&rft.aulast=Cahn&rft.aufirst=Robert+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww8.nationalacademies.org%2Fastro2010%2FDetailFileDisplay.aspx%3Fid%3D243&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hogg-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hogg_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hogg_99-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunnHogg2009" class="citation journal cs1">Bunn, E. F.; Hogg, D. W. (2009). "The kinematic origin of the cosmological redshift". American Journal of Physics. 77 (8): 688–694. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0808.1081">0808.1081</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009AmJPh..77..688B">2009AmJPh..77..688B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.3129103">10.1119/1.3129103</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1365918">1365918</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=The+kinematic+origin+of+the+cosmological+redshift&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=688-694&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0808.1081&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1365918%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.3129103&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009AmJPh..77..688B&rft.aulast=Bunn&rft.aufirst=E.+F.&rft.au=Hogg%2C+D.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-di_Valentino_2021_153001-100"><a href="#cite_ref-di_Valentino_2021_153001_100-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDi_ValentinoMenaPanVisinelli2021" class="citation journal cs1">Di Valentino, Eleonora; Mena, Olga; Pan, Supriya; Visinelli, Luca; Yang, Weiqiang; Melchiorri, Alessandro; Mota, David F.; Riess, Adam G.; Silk, Joseph (2021). "In the realm of the Hubble tension—a review of solutions". Classical and Quantum Gravity. 38 (15): 153001. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2103.01183">2103.01183</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021CQGra..38o3001D">2021CQGra..38o3001D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1361-6382%2Fac086d">10.1088/1361-6382/ac086d</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232092525">232092525</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Classical+and+Quantum+Gravity&rft.atitle=In+the+realm+of+the+Hubble+tension%E2%80%94a+review+of+solutions&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=153001&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2103.01183&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A232092525%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1361-6382%2Fac086d&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021CQGra..38o3001D&rft.aulast=Di+Valentino&rft.aufirst=Eleonora&rft.au=Mena%2C+Olga&rft.au=Pan%2C+Supriya&rft.au=Visinelli%2C+Luca&rft.au=Yang%2C+Weiqiang&rft.au=Melchiorri%2C+Alessandro&rft.au=Mota%2C+David+F.&rft.au=Riess%2C+Adam+G.&rft.au=Silk%2C+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dpf99-101"><a href="#cite_ref-dpf99_101-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite1999" class="citation conference cs1">White, Martin (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dpf99.library.ucla.edu/session9/white0910.pdf">"Anisotropies in the CMB"</a> (PDF). In Arisaka, Katsushi; <a href="/wiki/Zvi_Bern" title="Zvi Bern">Bern, Zvi</a> (eds.). DPF 99: Proceedings of the Los Angeles Meeting. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.physics.ucla.edu/calendar/conferences/dpf99/">Division of Particles and Fields Conference 1999 (DPF '99)</a>. Los Angeles: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a> on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9903232">astro-ph/9903232</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999dpf..conf.....W">1999dpf..conf.....W</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43669022">43669022</a>. Talk #9–10: The Cosmic Microwave Background. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170204083018/http://www.dpf99.library.ucla.edu/session9/white0910.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 4 February 2017. Retrieved 9 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Anisotropies+in+the+CMB&rft.btitle=DPF+99%3A+Proceedings+of+the+Los+Angeles+Meeting&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+Los+Angeles+on+behalf+of+the+American+Physical+Society&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F9903232&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43669022&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999dpf..conf.....W&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dpf99.library.ucla.edu%2Fsession9%2Fwhite0910.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-arXiv-20121220-102"><a href="#cite_ref-arXiv-20121220_102-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennettLarsonWeiland2013" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_L._Bennett" title="Charles L. Bennett">Bennett, Charles L.</a>; Larson, Davin; Weiland, Janet L.; et al. (October 2013). "Nine-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Final Maps and Results". <a href="/wiki/The_Astrophysical_Journal" title="The Astrophysical Journal">The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series</a>. 208 (2): Article 20. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1212.5225">1212.5225</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013ApJS..208...20B">2013ApJS..208...20B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0067-0049%2F208%2F2%2F20">10.1088/0067-0049/208/2/20</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119271232">119271232</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal+Supplement+Series&rft.atitle=Nine-Year+Wilkinson+Microwave+Anisotropy+Probe+%28WMAP%29+Observations%3A+Final+Maps+and+Results&rft.volume=208&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=Article+20&rft.date=2013-10&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1212.5225&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119271232%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0067-0049%2F208%2F2%2F20&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013ApJS..208...20B&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Charles+L.&rft.au=Larson%2C+Davin&rft.au=Weiland%2C+Janet+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Space-20121221-103"><a href="#cite_ref-Space-20121221_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGannon2012" class="citation web cs1">Gannon, Megan (21 December 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.space.com/19027-universe-baby-picture-wmap.html">"New 'Baby Picture' of Universe Unveiled"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Space.com" title="Space.com">Space.com</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191029114309/https://www.space.com/19027-universe-baby-picture-wmap.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 October 2019. Retrieved 9 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Space.com&rft.atitle=New+%27Baby+Picture%27+of+Universe+Unveiled&rft.date=2012-12-21&rft.aulast=Gannon&rft.aufirst=Megan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F19027-universe-baby-picture-wmap.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2004">Wright 2004</a>, p. 291 </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelchiorriAdede_Bernardis2000" class="citation journal cs1">Melchiorri, Alessandro; Ade, Peter A.R.; de Bernardis, Paolo; et al. (20 June 2000). "A Measurement of Ω from the North American Test Flight of Boomerang". <a href="/wiki/The_Astrophysical_Journal" title="The Astrophysical Journal">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>. 536 (2): L63–L66. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9911445">astro-ph/9911445</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000ApJ...536L..63M">2000ApJ...536L..63M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F312744">10.1086/312744</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10859119">10859119</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27518923">27518923</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal+Letters&rft.atitle=A+Measurement+of+%CE%A9+from+the+North+American+Test+Flight+of+Boomerang&rft.volume=536&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=L63-L66&rft.date=2000-06-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27518923%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000ApJ...536L..63M&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F9911445&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10859119&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F312744&rft.aulast=Melchiorri&rft.aufirst=Alessandro&rft.au=Ade%2C+Peter+A.R.&rft.au=de+Bernardis%2C+Paolo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_BernardisAdeBock2000" class="citation journal cs1">de Bernardis, Paolo; Ade, Peter A.R.; Bock, James J.; et al. (27 April 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spiral.imperial.ac.uk/bitstream/10044/1/60851/2/0004404v1.pdf">"A Flat Universe from High-Resolution Maps of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>. 404 (6781): 955–959. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0004404">astro-ph/0004404</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Natur.404..955D">2000Natur.404..955D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35010035">10.1038/35010035</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10044%2F1%2F60851">10044/1/60851</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10801117">10801117</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4412370">4412370</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190502001358/https://spiral.imperial.ac.uk/bitstream/10044/1/60851/2/0004404v1.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=A+Flat+Universe+from+High-Resolution+Maps+of+the+Cosmic+Microwave+Background+Radiation&rft.volume=404&rft.issue=6781&rft.pages=955-959&rft.date=2000-04-27&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10044%2F1%2F60851&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4412370%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000Natur.404..955D&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0004404&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10801117&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35010035&rft.aulast=de+Bernardis&rft.aufirst=Paolo&rft.au=Ade%2C+Peter+A.R.&rft.au=Bock%2C+James+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspiral.imperial.ac.uk%2Fbitstream%2F10044%2F1%2F60851%2F2%2F0004404v1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerCaldwellDevlin1999" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, Andre D.; Caldwell, Robert H.; Devlin, Mark Joseph; et al. (10 October 1999). "A Measurement of the Angular Power Spectrum of the Cosmic Microwave Background from l = 100 to 400". <a href="/wiki/The_Astrophysical_Journal" title="The Astrophysical Journal">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>. 524 (1): L1–L4. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9906421">astro-ph/9906421</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999ApJ...524L...1M">1999ApJ...524L...1M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F312293">10.1086/312293</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1924091">1924091</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal+Letters&rft.atitle=A+Measurement+of+the+Angular+Power+Spectrum+of+the+Cosmic+Microwave+Background+from+l+%3D+100+to+400&rft.volume=524&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=L1-L4&rft.date=1999-10-10&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F9906421&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1924091%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F312293&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999ApJ...524L...1M&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Andre+D.&rft.au=Caldwell%2C+Robert+H.&rft.au=Devlin%2C+Mark+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteigman2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gary_Steigman" title="Gary Steigman">Steigman, Gary</a> (February 2006). "Primordial Nucleosynthesis: Successes And Challenges". <a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Modern_Physics_E" class="mw-redirect" title="International Journal of Modern Physics E">International Journal of Modern Physics E</a>. 15 (1): 1–36. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0511534">astro-ph/0511534</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006IJMPE..15....1S">2006IJMPE..15....1S</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.337.542">10.1.1.337.542</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2FS0218301306004028">10.1142/S0218301306004028</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12188807">12188807</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Modern+Physics+E&rft.atitle=Primordial+Nucleosynthesis%3A+Successes+And+Challenges&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-36&rft.date=2006-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12188807%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006IJMPE..15....1S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.337.542%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2FS0218301306004028&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0511534&rft.aulast=Steigman&rft.aufirst=Gary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ryden2003-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ryden2003_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ryden2003_109-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ryden2003_109-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFRyden2003">Ryden 2003</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Callaghan2022" class="citation web cs1">O'Callaghan, Jonathan (6 December 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/astronomers-grapple-with-jwsts-discovery-of-early-galaxies1/">"Astronomers Grapple with JWST's Discovery of Early Galaxies"</a>. Scientific American. Retrieved 13 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Astronomers+Grapple+with+JWST%27s+Discovery+of+Early+Galaxies&rft.pub=Scientific+American&rft.date=2022-12-06&rft.aulast=O%27Callaghan&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fastronomers-grapple-with-jwsts-discovery-of-early-galaxies1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bertschinger-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bertschinger_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bertschinger_111-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertschinger2000" class="citation arxiv cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Bertschinger" title="Edmund Bertschinger">Bertschinger, Edmund</a> (2000). "Cosmological Perturbation Theory and Structure Formation". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0101009">astro-ph/0101009</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=Cosmological+Perturbation+Theory+and+Structure+Formation&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0101009&rft.aulast=Bertschinger&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertschinger1998" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Bertschinger" title="Edmund Bertschinger">Bertschinger, Edmund</a> (September 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190309060807/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ffc4/1045e433c10454ba32e811d25eafd3ac324f.pdf">"Simulations of Structure Formation in the Universe"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Astronomy_and_Astrophysics" title="Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics">Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics</a>. 36 (1): 599–654. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998ARA&A..36..599B">1998ARA&A..36..599B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.astro.36.1.599">10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.599</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29015610">29015610</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ffc4/1045e433c10454ba32e811d25eafd3ac324f.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 9 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Astronomy+and+Astrophysics&rft.atitle=Simulations+of+Structure+Formation+in+the+Universe&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=599-654&rft.date=1998-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29015610%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.astro.36.1.599&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998ARA%26A..36..599B&rft.aulast=Bertschinger&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2Fffc4%2F1045e433c10454ba32e811d25eafd3ac324f.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BICEP2-2014-113"><a href="#cite_ref-BICEP2-2014_113-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bicepkeck.org/bicep2_2014_release.html">"BICEP2 March 2014 Results and Data Products"</a>. The BICEP and Keck Array CMB Experiments. Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Faculty_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences">FAS Research Computing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>. 16 December 2014 [Results originally released on 17 March 2014]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140318190423/http://bicepkeck.org/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 March 2014. Retrieved 10 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+BICEP+and+Keck+Array+CMB+Experiments&rft.atitle=BICEP2+March+2014+Results+and+Data+Products&rft.date=2014-12-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbicepkeck.org%2Fbicep2_2014_release.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NASA-20140317-114"><a href="#cite_ref-NASA-20140317_114-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClavin2014" class="citation web cs1">Clavin, Whitney (17 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-082">"NASA Technology Views Birth of the Universe"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory" title="Jet Propulsion Laboratory">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191010183450/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-082">Archived</a> from the original on 10 October 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jet+Propulsion+Laboratory&rft.atitle=NASA+Technology+Views+Birth+of+the+Universe&rft.date=2014-03-17&rft.aulast=Clavin&rft.aufirst=Whitney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpl.nasa.gov%2Fnews%2Fnews.php%3Frelease%3D2014-082&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT-20140317-115"><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20140317_115-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverbye2014" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Overbye" title="Dennis Overbye">Overbye, Dennis</a> (17 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/18/science/space/detection-of-waves-in-space-buttresses-landmark-theory-of-big-bang.html">"Space Ripples Reveal Big Bang's Smoking Gun"</a>. Space & Cosmos. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. New York. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140317154023/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/18/science/space/detection-of-waves-in-space-buttresses-landmark-theory-of-big-bang.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2014. Retrieved 11 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Space+Ripples+Reveal+Big+Bang%27s+Smoking+Gun&rft.date=2014-03-17&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Overbye&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2014%2F03%2F18%2Fscience%2Fspace%2Fdetection-of-waves-in-space-buttresses-landmark-theory-of-big-bang.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> "A version of this article appears in print on March 18, 2014, Section A, Page 1 of the New York edition with the headline: Space Ripples Reveal Big Bang's Smoking Gun." The online version of this article was originally titled "Detection of Waves in Space Buttresses Landmark Theory of Big Bang". </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT-20140324-116"><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20140324_116-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverbye2014" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Overbye" title="Dennis Overbye">Overbye, Dennis</a> (24 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/25/science/space/ripples-from-the-big-bang.html">"Ripples From the Big Bang"</a>. Out There. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. New York. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140325015901/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/25/science/space/ripples-from-the-big-bang.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 March 2014. Retrieved 24 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Ripples+From+the+Big+Bang&rft.date=2014-03-24&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Overbye&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2014%2F03%2F25%2Fscience%2Fspace%2Fripples-from-the-big-bang.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> "A version of this article appears in print on March 25, 2014, Section D, Page 1 of the New York edition with the headline: Ripples From the Big Bang." </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFumagalliO'MearaProchaska2011" class="citation journal cs1">Fumagalli, Michele; O'Meara, John M.; Prochaska, J. Xavier (2 December 2011). "Detection of Pristine Gas Two Billion Years After the Big Bang". <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a>. 334 (6060): 1245–1249. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1111.2334">1111.2334</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Sci...334.1245F">2011Sci...334.1245F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1213581">10.1126/science.1213581</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22075722">22075722</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2434386">2434386</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Detection+of+Pristine+Gas+Two+Billion+Years+After+the+Big+Bang&rft.volume=334&rft.issue=6060&rft.pages=1245-1249&rft.date=2011-12-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2434386%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Sci...334.1245F&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1111.2334&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22075722&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1213581&rft.aulast=Fumagalli&rft.aufirst=Michele&rft.au=O%27Meara%2C+John+M.&rft.au=Prochaska%2C+J.+Xavier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephens2011" class="citation news cs1">Stephens, Tim (10 November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111114140012/https://news.ucsc.edu/2011/11/pristine-gas.html">"Astronomers find clouds of primordial gas from the early universe"</a>. Uc Santa Cruz News. Santa Cruz, CA: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Santa_Cruz" title="University of California, Santa Cruz">University of California, Santa Cruz</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.ucsc.edu/2011/11/pristine-gas.html">the original</a> on 14 November 2011. Retrieved 11 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Uc+Santa+Cruz+News&rft.atitle=Astronomers+find+clouds+of+primordial+gas+from+the+early+universe&rft.date=2011-11-10&rft.aulast=Stephens&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.ucsc.edu%2F2011%2F11%2Fpristine-gas.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerley2005" class="citation web cs1">Perley, Daniel (21 February 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060911000604/https://astro.berkeley.edu/~dperley/univage/univage.html">"Determination of the Universe's Age, to"</a>. Berkeley, California: Department of Astronomy, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://astro.berkeley.edu/~dperley/univage/univage.html">the original</a> on 11 September 2006. Retrieved 11 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Determination+of+the+Universe%27s+Age%2C+t%3Csub%3Eo%3C%2Fsub%3E&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.pub=Department+of+Astronomy%2C+University+of+California%2C+Berkeley&rft.date=2005-02-21&rft.aulast=Perley&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fastro.berkeley.edu%2F~dperley%2Funivage%2Funivage.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Yang, R. J., & Zhang, S. N. (2010). The age problem in the ΛCDM model. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 407(3), pp. 1835–1841. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Yu, H., & Wang, F. Y. (2014). Reconciling the cosmic age problem in the $$ R_\mathrm {h}= ct $$ universe. The European Physical Journal C, 74(10), 3090. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSrianandNoterdaemeLedouxPetitjean2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raghunathan_Srianand" title="Raghunathan Srianand">Srianand, Raghunathan</a>; Noterdaeme, Pasquier; Ledoux, Cédric; et al. (May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A200809727">"First detection of CO in a high-redshift damped Lyman-α system"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_%26_Astrophysics" title="Astronomy & Astrophysics">Astronomy & Astrophysics</a>. 482 (3): L39–L42. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0804.0116">0804.0116</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008A&A...482L..39S">2008A&A...482L..39S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A200809727">10.1051/0004-6361:200809727</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomy+%26+Astrophysics&rft.atitle=First+detection+of+CO+in+a+high-redshift+damped+Lyman-%CE%B1+system&rft.volume=482&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=L39-L42&rft.date=2008-05&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0804.0116&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A200809727&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008A%26A...482L..39S&rft.aulast=Srianand&rft.aufirst=Raghunathan&rft.au=Noterdaeme%2C+Pasquier&rft.au=Ledoux%2C+C%C3%A9dric&rft.au=Petitjean%2C+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1051%252F0004-6361%253A200809727&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAvgoustidisLuzziMartinsMonteiro2012" class="citation journal cs1">Avgoustidis, Anastasios; Luzzi, Gemma; Martins, Carlos J.A.P.; et al. (14 February 2012). "Constraints on the CMB temperature-redshift dependence from SZ and distance measurements". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Cosmology_and_Astroparticle_Physics" title="Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics">Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics</a>. 2012 (2): Article 013. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1112.1862">1112.1862</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012JCAP...02..013A">2012JCAP...02..013A</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.758.6956">10.1.1.758.6956</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1475-7516%2F2012%2F02%2F013">10.1088/1475-7516/2012/02/013</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119261969">119261969</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cosmology+and+Astroparticle+Physics&rft.atitle=Constraints+on+the+CMB+temperature-redshift+dependence+from+SZ+and+distance+measurements&rft.volume=2012&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=Article+013&rft.date=2012-02-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119261969%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012JCAP...02..013A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.758.6956%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1475-7516%2F2012%2F02%2F013&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1112.1862&rft.aulast=Avgoustidis&rft.aufirst=Anastasios&rft.au=Luzzi%2C+Gemma&rft.au=Martins%2C+Carlos+J.A.P.&rft.au=Monteiro%2C+Ana+M.R.V.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBelu%C5%A1evi%C4%872008">Belušević 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/42/35274076/3527407642.pdf">16</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ghosh-125"><a href="#cite_ref-Ghosh_125-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhosh2016" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pallab_Ghosh" title="Pallab Ghosh">Ghosh, Pallab</a> (11 February 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-35524440">"Einstein's gravitational waves 'seen' from black holes"</a>. Science & Environment. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160211235836/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-35524440">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Einstein%27s+gravitational+waves+%27seen%27+from+black+holes&rft.date=2016-02-11&rft.aulast=Ghosh&rft.aufirst=Pallab&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-35524440&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Billings-126"><a href="#cite_ref-Billings_126-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBillings2016" class="citation magazine cs1">Billings, Lee (12 February 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-future-of-gravitational-wave-astronomy/">"The Future of Gravitational Wave Astronomy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160213012852/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-future-of-gravitational-wave-astronomy/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+Future+of+Gravitational+Wave+Astronomy&rft.date=2016-02-12&rft.aulast=Billings&rft.aufirst=Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fthe-future-of-gravitational-wave-astronomy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEarmanMosterín1999" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Earman" title="John Earman">Earman, John</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jes%C3%BAs_Moster%C3%ADn" title="Jesús Mosterín">Mosterín, Jesús</a> (March 1999). "A Critical Look at Inflationary Cosmology". <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Science_(journal)" title="Philosophy of Science (journal)">Philosophy of Science</a>. 66 (1): 1–49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F392675">10.1086/392675</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/188736">188736</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120393154">120393154</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=A+Critical+Look+at+Inflationary+Cosmology&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-49&rft.date=1999-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A120393154%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F188736%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F392675&rft.aulast=Earman&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Moster%C3%ADn%2C+Jes%C3%BAs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHawkingIsrael2010">Hawking & Israel 2010</a>, pp. 581–638, chpt. 12: "Singularities and time-asymmetry" by <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Roger Penrose</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPenrose1989">Penrose 1989</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinhardt2011" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Steinhardt" title="Paul Steinhardt">Steinhardt, Paul J.</a> (April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.princeton.edu/~steinh/0411036.pdf">"The Inflation Debate: Is the theory at the heart of modern cosmology deeply flawed?"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>. Vol. 304, no. 4. pp. 36–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0411-36">10.1038/scientificamerican0411-36</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191101165817/https://physics.princeton.edu/~steinh/0411036.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 1 November 2019. Retrieved 23 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+Inflation+Debate%3A+Is+the+theory+at+the+heart+of+modern+cosmology+deeply+flawed%3F&rft.volume=304&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=36-43&rft.date=2011-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0411-36&rft.aulast=Steinhardt&rft.aufirst=Paul+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.princeton.edu%2F~steinh%2F0411036.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sakharov-131"><a href="#cite_ref-sakharov_131-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSakharov1967" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov" title="Andrei Sakharov">Sakharov, Andrei D.</a> (10 January 1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/808/article_12459.pdf">"Нарушение СР-инвариантности, С-асимметрия и барионная асимметрия Вселенной"</a> [Violation of CP-invariance, C-asymmetry and baryon asymmetry of the Universe] (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Experimental_and_Theoretical_Physics" title="Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics">Pis'ma v ZhETF</a> (in Russian). 5 (1): 32–35. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180728190714/http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/808/article_12459.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 28 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pis%27ma+v+ZhETF&rft.atitle=%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%A1%D0%A0-%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%2C+%D0%A1-%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B8+%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%92%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=32-35&rft.date=1967-01-10&rft.aulast=Sakharov&rft.aufirst=Andrei+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jetpletters.ac.ru%2Fps%2F808%2Farticle_12459.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> <ul><li>Translated in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSakharov1967" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov" title="Andrei Sakharov">Sakharov, Andrei D.</a> (10 January 1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/1643/article_25089.pdf">"Violation of CP Invariance, С Asymmetry, and Baryon Asymmetry of the Universe"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Experimental_and_Theoretical_Physics" title="Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics">JETP Letters</a>. 5 (1): 24–27. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191109163819/http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/1643/article_25089.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 November 2019. Retrieved 13 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JETP+Letters&rft.atitle=Violation+of+CP+Invariance%2C+%D0%A1+Asymmetry%2C+and+Baryon+Asymmetry+of+the+Universe&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=24-27&rft.date=1967-01-10&rft.aulast=Sakharov&rft.aufirst=Andrei+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jetpletters.ac.ru%2Fps%2F1643%2Farticle_25089.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> <ul><li>Reprinted in: <a href="#CITEREFKolbTurner1988">Kolb & Turner 1988</a>, pp. 371–373</li></ul></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinbergKamionkowski2003" class="citation journal cs1">Weinberg, Nevin N.; Kamionkowski, Marc (May 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-8711.2003.06421.x">"Constraining dark energy from the abundance of weak gravitational lenses"</a>. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 341 (1): 251–262. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0210134">astro-ph/0210134</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003MNRAS.341..251W">2003MNRAS.341..251W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-8711.2003.06421.x">10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06421.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1193946">1193946</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Notices+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=Constraining+dark+energy+from+the+abundance+of+weak+gravitational+lenses&rft.volume=341&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=251-262&rft.date=2003-05&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0210134&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1193946%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1365-8711.2003.06421.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003MNRAS.341..251W&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Nevin+N.&rft.au=Kamionkowski%2C+Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1046%252Fj.1365-8711.2003.06421.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite" class="citation web cs1">White, Martin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://w.astro.berkeley.edu/~mwhite/bao/">"Baryon acoustic oscillations and dark energy"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Baryon+acoustic+oscillations+and+dark+energy&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fw.astro.berkeley.edu%2F~mwhite%2Fbao%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlam2021" class="citation journal cs1">Alam, Shadab; et al. (April 2021). "Completed SDSS-IV extended Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey: Cosmological implications from two decades of spectroscopic surveys at the Apache Point Observatory". Physical Review D. 103 (8): 083533. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2007.08991">2007.08991</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021PhRvD.103h3533A">2021PhRvD.103h3533A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.103.083533">10.1103/PhysRevD.103.083533</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+D&rft.atitle=Completed+SDSS-IV+extended+Baryon+Oscillation+Spectroscopic+Survey%3A+Cosmological+implications+from+two+decades+of+spectroscopic+surveys+at+the+Apache+Point+Observatory&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=083533&rft.date=2021-04&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2007.08991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.103.083533&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021PhRvD.103h3533A&rft.aulast=Alam&rft.aufirst=Shadab&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTanabashi,_M.2018">Tanabashi, M. 2018</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdg.lbl.gov/2018/reviews/rpp2018-rev-dark-energy.pdf">406–413</a>, chpt. 27: "Dark Energy" (Revised September 2017) by David H. Weinberg and Martin White. <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFOlive2014">Olive 2014</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdg.lbl.gov/2014/reviews/rpp2014-rev-dark-energy.pdf">361–368</a>, chpt. 26: "Dark Energy" (November 2013) by Michael J. Mortonson, David H. Weinberg, and Martin White. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014arXiv1401.0046M/abstract">2014arXiv1401.0046M</a></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRughZinkernagel2002" class="citation journal cs1">Rugh, Svend E.; Zinkernagel, Henrik (December 2002). "The quantum vacuum and the cosmological constant problem". <a href="/wiki/Studies_in_History_and_Philosophy_of_Science_Part_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B">Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B</a>. 33 (4): 663–705. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0012253">hep-th/0012253</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002SHPMP..33..663R">2002SHPMP..33..663R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1355-2198%2802%2900033-3">10.1016/S1355-2198(02)00033-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9007190">9007190</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+History+and+Philosophy+of+Science+Part+B&rft.atitle=The+quantum+vacuum+and+the+cosmological+constant+problem&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=663-705&rft.date=2002-12&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-th%2F0012253&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9007190%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1355-2198%2802%2900033-3&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002SHPMP..33..663R&rft.aulast=Rugh&rft.aufirst=Svend+E.&rft.au=Zinkernagel%2C+Henrik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeel2009" class="citation web cs1">Keel, William C. (October 2009) [Last changes: February 2015]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pages.astronomy.ua.edu/keel/galaxies/darkmatter.html">"Dark Matter"</a>. Bill Keel's Lecture Notes – Galaxies and the Universe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190503112916/http://pages.astronomy.ua.edu/keel/galaxies/darkmatter.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 15 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bill+Keel%27s+Lecture+Notes+%E2%80%93+Galaxies+and+the+Universe&rft.atitle=Dark+Matter&rft.date=2009-10&rft.aulast=Keel&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpages.astronomy.ua.edu%2Fkeel%2Fgalaxies%2Fdarkmatter.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pdg-138"><a href="#cite_ref-pdg_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTanabashi,_M.2018">Tanabashi, M. 2018</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdg.lbl.gov/2018/reviews/rpp2018-rev-dark-matter.pdf">396–405</a>, chpt. 26: "Dark Matter" (Revised September 2017) by Manuel Drees and Gilles Gerbier. <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFYao,_W.-M.2006">Yao, W.-M. 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdg.lbl.gov/2006/reviews/darkmatrpp.pdf">233–237</a>, chpt. 22: "Dark Matter" (September 2003) by Manuel Drees and Gilles Gerbier.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodelson2011" class="citation journal cs1">Dodelson, Scott (31 December 2011). "The Real Problem with MOND". <a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Modern_Physics_D" class="mw-redirect" title="International Journal of Modern Physics D">International Journal of Modern Physics D</a>. 20 (14): 2749–2753. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1112.1320">1112.1320</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011IJMPD..20.2749D">2011IJMPD..20.2749D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2FS0218271811020561">10.1142/S0218271811020561</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119194106">119194106</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Modern+Physics+D&rft.atitle=The+Real+Problem+with+MOND&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=2749-2753&rft.date=2011-12-31&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1112.1320&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119194106%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2FS0218271811020561&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011IJMPD..20.2749D&rft.aulast=Dodelson&rft.aufirst=Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kolb_c8-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kolb_c8_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kolb_c8_140-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kolb_c8_140-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFKolbTurner1988">Kolb & Turner 1988</a>, chpt. 8 </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPenrose2007">Penrose 2007</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Filippenko2002-142">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Filippenko2002_142-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Filippenko2002_142-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFilippenkoPasachoff2002" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alex_Filippenko" title="Alex Filippenko">Filippenko, Alexei V.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jay_Pasachoff" title="Jay Pasachoff">Pasachoff, Jay M.</a> (March–April 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131022135932/http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs/mercury/31_02/nothing.html">"A Universe from Nothing"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(magazine)" title="Mercury (magazine)">Mercury</a>. Vol. 31, no. 2. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Mercu..31b..15F">2002Mercu..31b..15F</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.astrosociety.org/pubs/mercury/31_02/nothing.html">the original</a> on 22 October 2013. Retrieved 10 March 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mercury&rft.atitle=A+Universe+from+Nothing&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=15&rft.date=2002-03%2F2002-04&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Mercu..31b..15F&rft.aulast=Filippenko&rft.aufirst=Alexei+V.&rft.au=Pasachoff%2C+Jay+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astrosociety.org%2Fpubs%2Fmercury%2F31_02%2Fnothing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Krauss2009-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Krauss2009_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Krauss2009_143-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Krauss" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence M. Krauss">Lawrence M. Krauss</a> (Speaker); R. Elisabeth Cornwell (Producer) (21 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ImvlS8PLIo">'A Universe From Nothing' by Lawrence Krauss, AAI 2009</a> (Video). Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins_Foundation_for_Reason_and_Science" title="Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science">Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211123/7ImvlS8PLIo">Archived</a> from the original on 23 November 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27A+Universe+From+Nothing%27+by+Lawrence+Krauss%2C+AAI+2009&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Richard+Dawkins+Foundation+for+Reason+and+Science&rft.date=2009-10-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D7ImvlS8PLIo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHawkingIsrael2010">Hawking & Israel 2010</a>, pp. 504–517, chpt. 9: "The big bang cosmology — enigmas and nostrums" by <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Dicke" title="Robert H. Dicke">Robert H. Dicke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jim_Peebles" title="Jim Peebles">Phillip J.E. Peebles</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lweb.cfa.harvard.edu/seuforum/faq.htm#m12">"Brief Answers to Cosmic Questions"</a>. Universe Forum. Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Harvard%E2%80%93Smithsonian_Center_for_Astrophysics" title="Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics">Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160413195349/https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/seuforum/faq.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Universe+Forum&rft.atitle=Brief+Answers+to+Cosmic+Questions&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flweb.cfa.harvard.edu%2Fseuforum%2Ffaq.htm%23m12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> Archival site: "The Universe Forum's role as part of NASA's Education Support Network concluded in September, 2009." </li> <li id="cite_note-Davis_Lineweaver2004-147"><a href="#cite_ref-Davis_Lineweaver2004_147-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavisLineweaver2004" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tamara_Davis" title="Tamara Davis">Davis, Tamara M.</a>; Lineweaver, Charles H. (31 March 2004). "Expanding Confusion: Common Misconceptions of Cosmological Horizons and the Superluminal Expansion of the Universe". <a href="/wiki/Publications_of_the_Astronomical_Society_of_Australia" title="Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia">Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia</a>. 21 (1): 97–109. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0310808">astro-ph/0310808</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PASA...21...97D">2004PASA...21...97D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1071%2Fas03040">10.1071/as03040</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13068122">13068122</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Publications+of+the+Astronomical+Society+of+Australia&rft.atitle=Expanding+Confusion%3A+Common+Misconceptions+of+Cosmological+Horizons+and+the+Superluminal+Expansion+of+the+Universe&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=97-109&rft.date=2004-03-31&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0310808&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13068122%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1071%2Fas03040&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004PASA...21...97D&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Tamara+M.&rft.au=Lineweaver%2C+Charles+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peacock-148"><a href="#cite_ref-Peacock_148-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeacock2008" class="citation arxiv cs1">Peacock, J. A. (2008). "A diatribe on expanding space". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0809.4573">0809.4573</a> [<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/archive/astro-ph">astro-ph</a>].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=A+diatribe+on+expanding+space&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0809.4573&rft.aulast=Peacock&rft.aufirst=J.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Starobinsky_2000-149"><a href="#cite_ref-Starobinsky_2000_149-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStarobinsky2000" class="citation book cs1">Starobinsky, Alexei (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V7zhUBg1qesC&pg=PA71">"Future and Origin of Our Universe: Modern View"</a>. In Burdyuzha, V.; Khozin, G. (eds.). The Future of the Universe and the Future of Our Civilization. Proceedings of a symposium held in Budapest-Debrecen, Hungary, 2–6 July 1999. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000fufc.conf...71S">2000fufc.conf...71S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2F9789812793324_0008">10.1142/9789812793324_0008</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9810242646" title="Special:BookSources/9810242646"><bdi>9810242646</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37813302">37813302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Future+and+Origin+of+Our+Universe%3A+Modern+View&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+the+Universe+and+the+Future+of+Our+Civilization&rft.place=Singapore&rft.series=Proceedings+of+a+symposium+held+in+Budapest-Debrecen%2C+Hungary%2C+2%E2%80%936+July+1999&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=World+Scientific+Publishing&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2F9789812793324_0008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A37813302%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000fufc.conf...71S&rft.isbn=9810242646&rft.aulast=Starobinsky&rft.aufirst=Alexei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV7zhUBg1qesC%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawking198869-150"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHawking198869_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHawking1988">Hawking 1988</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn2015" class="citation web cs1">Kuhn, Robert Lawrence (23 December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.space.com/31465-is-our-universe-just-one-of-many-in-a-multiverse.html">"Confronting the Multiverse: What 'Infinite Universes' Would Mean"</a>. Space.com. Retrieved 7 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Space.com&rft.atitle=Confronting+the+Multiverse%3A+What+%27Infinite+Universes%27+Would+Mean&rft.date=2015-12-23&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Robert+Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F31465-is-our-universe-just-one-of-many-in-a-multiverse.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCarrolln.d.">Carroll n.d.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckers2015" class="citation magazine cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Beckers, Mike (16 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spektrum.de/news/quantentrick-schafft-urknall-singularitaet-ab/1332377">"Quantentrick schafft Urknall-Singularität ab"</a> [Quantum Trick Eliminates the Big Bang Singularity]. Cosmology. <a href="/wiki/Spektrum_der_Wissenschaft" class="mw-redirect" title="Spektrum der Wissenschaft">Spektrum der Wissenschaft</a> (in German). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170721041648/https://www.spektrum.de/news/quantentrick-schafft-urknall-singularitaet-ab/1332377">Archived</a> from the original on 21 July 2017. Retrieved 19 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Spektrum+der+Wissenschaft&rft.atitle=Quantentrick+schafft+Urknall-Singularit%C3%A4t+ab&rft.date=2015-02-16&rft.aulast=Beckers&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spektrum.de%2Fnews%2Fquantentrick-schafft-urknall-singularitaet-ab%2F1332377&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/translate?sl=de&tl=en&prev=_t&hl=en&u=www.spektrum.de/news/quantentrick-schafft-urknall-singularitaet-ab/1332377">Google translation</a> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAliDas2015" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ahmed_Farag_Ali&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ahmed Farag Ali (page does not exist)">Ali, Ahmed Farag</a>; Das, Saurya (4 February 2015). "Cosmology from quantum potential". <a href="/wiki/Physics_Letters" title="Physics Letters">Physics Letters B</a>. 741: 276–279. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1404.3093v3">1404.3093v3</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PhLB..741..276F">2015PhLB..741..276F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physletb.2014.12.057">10.1016/j.physletb.2014.12.057</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55463396">55463396</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Letters+B&rft.atitle=Cosmology+from+quantum+potential&rft.volume=741&rft.pages=276-279&rft.date=2015-02-04&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1404.3093v3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55463396%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.physletb.2014.12.057&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PhLB..741..276F&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=Ahmed+Farag&rft.au=Das%2C+Saurya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLashin2016" class="citation journal cs1">Lashin, Elsayed I. (7 March 2016). "On the correctness of cosmology from quantum potential". <a href="/wiki/Modern_Physics_Letters_A" title="Modern Physics Letters A">Modern Physics Letters A</a>. 31 (7): 1650044. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1505.03070">1505.03070</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016MPLA...3150044L">2016MPLA...3150044L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2FS0217732316500449">10.1142/S0217732316500449</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119220266">119220266</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Physics+Letters+A&rft.atitle=On+the+correctness+of+cosmology+from+quantum+potential&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1650044&rft.date=2016-03-07&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1505.03070&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119220266%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2FS0217732316500449&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016MPLA...3150044L&rft.aulast=Lashin&rft.aufirst=Elsayed+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDasRajat_K.2015" class="citation journal cs1">Das, Saurya; Rajat K., Bhaduri (21 May 2015). "Dark matter and dark energy from a Bose–Einstein condensate". <a href="/wiki/Classical_and_Quantum_Gravity" title="Classical and Quantum Gravity">Classical and Quantum Gravity</a>. 32 (10): 105003. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1411.0753">1411.0753</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015CQGra..32j5003D">2015CQGra..32j5003D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0264-9381%2F32%2F10%2F105003">10.1088/0264-9381/32/10/105003</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119247745">119247745</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Classical+and+Quantum+Gravity&rft.atitle=Dark+matter+and+dark+energy+from+a+Bose%E2%80%93Einstein+condensate&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=105003&rft.date=2015-05-21&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1411.0753&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119247745%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0264-9381%2F32%2F10%2F105003&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015CQGra..32j5003D&rft.aulast=Das&rft.aufirst=Saurya&rft.au=Rajat+K.%2C+Bhaduri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawking1996" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking, Stephen W.</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hawking.org.uk/the-beginning-of-time.html">"The Beginning of Time"</a>. Stephen Hawking (Lecture). London: The Stephen Hawking Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191106162705/http://www.hawking.org.uk/the-beginning-of-time.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 November 2019. Retrieved 26 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stephen+Hawking&rft.atitle=The+Beginning+of+Time&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Hawking&rft.aufirst=Stephen+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hawking.org.uk%2Fthe-beginning-of-time.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWall2012" class="citation web cs1">Wall, Mike (24 June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.space.com/16281-big-bang-god-intervention-science.html">"The Big Bang Didn't Need God to Start Universe, Researchers Say"</a>. Space.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Space.com&rft.atitle=The+Big+Bang+Didn%27t+Need+God+to+Start+Universe%2C+Researchers+Say&rft.date=2012-06-24&rft.aulast=Wall&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F16281-big-bang-god-intervention-science.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverbye2001" class="citation news cs1">Overbye, Dennis (22 May 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2001/05/22/science/before-the-big-bang-there-was-what.html">"Before the Big Bang, There Was . . . What?"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130227035220/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/05/22/science/before-the-big-bang-there-was-what.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Before+the+Big+Bang%2C+There+Was+.+.+.+What%3F&rft.date=2001-05-22&rft.aulast=Overbye&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2001%2F05%2F22%2Fscience%2Fbefore-the-big-bang-there-was-what.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeGaoCai2014" class="citation journal cs1">He, Dongshan; Gao, Dongfeng; Cai, Qing-yu (3 April 2014). "Spontaneous creation of the universe from nothing". Physical Review D. 89 (8): 083510. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1404.1207">1404.1207</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PhRvD..89h3510H">2014PhRvD..89h3510H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.89.083510">10.1103/PhysRevD.89.083510</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118371273">118371273</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+D&rft.atitle=Spontaneous+creation+of+the+universe+from+nothing&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=083510&rft.date=2014-04-03&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1404.1207&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A118371273%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.89.083510&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PhRvD..89h3510H&rft.aulast=He&rft.aufirst=Dongshan&rft.au=Gao%2C+Dongfeng&rft.au=Cai%2C+Qing-yu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLincolnWasser2013" class="citation journal cs1">Lincoln, Maya; Wasser, Avi (1 December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.dark.2013.11.004">"Spontaneous creation of the Universe Ex Nihilo"</a>. Physics of the Dark Universe. 2 (4): 195–199. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PDU.....2..195L">2013PDU.....2..195L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.dark.2013.11.004">10.1016/j.dark.2013.11.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2212-6864">2212-6864</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+of+the+Dark+Universe&rft.atitle=Spontaneous+creation+of+the+Universe+Ex+Nihilo&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=195-199&rft.date=2013-12-01&rft.issn=2212-6864&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.dark.2013.11.004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013PDU.....2..195L&rft.aulast=Lincoln&rft.aufirst=Maya&rft.au=Wasser%2C+Avi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.dark.2013.11.004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartleHawking1983" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Hartle" title="James Hartle">Hartle, James H.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking, Stephen W.</a> (15 December 1983). "Wave function of the Universe". <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_D" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical Review D">Physical Review D</a>. 28 (12): 2960–2975. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983PhRvD..28.2960H">1983PhRvD..28.2960H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.28.2960">10.1103/PhysRevD.28.2960</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121947045">121947045</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+D&rft.atitle=Wave+function+of+the+Universe&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=2960-2975&rft.date=1983-12-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A121947045%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.28.2960&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983PhRvD..28.2960H&rft.aulast=Hartle&rft.aufirst=James+H.&rft.au=Hawking%2C+Stephen+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawking198871-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHawking198871_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHawking1988">Hawking 1988</a>, p. 71. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanglois2003" class="citation journal cs1">Langlois, David (2003). "Brane Cosmology". <a href="/wiki/Progress_of_Theoretical_Physics_Supplement" class="mw-redirect" title="Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement">Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement</a>. 148: 181–212. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0209261">hep-th/0209261</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002PThPS.148..181L">2002PThPS.148..181L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1143%2FPTPS.148.181">10.1143/PTPS.148.181</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9751130">9751130</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Progress+of+Theoretical+Physics+Supplement&rft.atitle=Brane+Cosmology&rft.volume=148&rft.pages=181-212&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-th%2F0209261&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9751130%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1143%2FPTPS.148.181&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002PThPS.148..181L&rft.aulast=Langlois&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibbonsShellardRankin2003">Gibbons, Shellard & Rankin 2003</a>, pp. 801–838, chpt. 43: "Inflationary theory versus the ekpyrotic/cyclic scenario" by <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Linde" title="Andrei Linde">Andrei Linde</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003ftpc.book..801L/abstract">2003ftpc.book..801L</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-rebirth-163"><a href="#cite_ref-rebirth_163-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThan2006" class="citation web cs1">Than, Ker (8 May 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.space.com/2372-recycled-universe-theory-solve-cosmic-mystery.html">"Recycled Universe: Theory Could Solve Cosmic Mystery"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Space.com" title="Space.com">Space.com</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190906000057/https://www.space.com/2372-recycled-universe-theory-solve-cosmic-mystery.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2019. Retrieved 19 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Space.com&rft.atitle=Recycled+Universe%3A+Theory+Could+Solve+Cosmic+Mystery&rft.date=2006-05-08&rft.aulast=Than&rft.aufirst=Ker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F2372-recycled-universe-theory-solve-cosmic-mystery.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rebirth2-164"><a href="#cite_ref-rebirth2_164-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2007" class="citation web cs1">Kennedy, Barbara K. (1 July 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science.psu.edu/news-and-events/2007-news/Bojowald6-2007.htm">"What Happened Before the Big Bang?"</a>. News and Events. University Park, PA: <a href="/wiki/Eberly_College_of_Science" title="Eberly College of Science">Eberly College of Science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_State_University" title="Pennsylvania State University">Pennsylvania State University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191215041942/http://science.psu.edu/news-and-events/2007-news/Bojowald6-2007.htm/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 December 2019. Retrieved 19 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=News+and+Events&rft.atitle=What+Happened+Before+the+Big+Bang%3F&rft.date=2007-07-01&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Barbara+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscience.psu.edu%2Fnews-and-events%2F2007-news%2FBojowald6-2007.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBojowald2007" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Bojowald" title="Martin Bojowald">Bojowald, Martin</a> (August 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/896670">"What happened before the Big Bang?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nature_Physics" title="Nature Physics">Nature Physics</a>. 3 (8): 523–525. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007NatPh...3..523B">2007NatPh...3..523B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnphys654">10.1038/nphys654</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Physics&rft.atitle=What+happened+before+the+Big+Bang%3F&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=523-525&rft.date=2007-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnphys654&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007NatPh...3..523B&rft.aulast=Bojowald&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F896670&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinde1986" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Linde" title="Andrei Linde">Linde, Andrei D.</a> (May 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cds.cern.ch/record/167897">"Eternal Chaotic Inflation"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Modern_Physics_Letters_A" title="Modern Physics Letters A">Modern Physics Letters A</a>. 1 (2): 81–85. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986MPLA....1...81L">1986MPLA....1...81L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2FS0217732386000129">10.1142/S0217732386000129</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123472763">123472763</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190417211031/https://cds.cern.ch/record/167897/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Physics+Letters+A&rft.atitle=Eternal+Chaotic+Inflation&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=81-85&rft.date=1986-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A123472763%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2FS0217732386000129&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1986MPLA....1...81L&rft.aulast=Linde&rft.aufirst=Andrei+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcds.cern.ch%2Frecord%2F167897&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinde1986" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Linde" title="Andrei Linde">Linde, Andrei D.</a> (14 August 1986). "Eternally Existing Self-Reproducing Chaotic Inflationary Universe". <a href="/wiki/Physics_Letters" title="Physics Letters">Physics Letters B</a>. 175 (4): 395–400. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986PhLB..175..395L">1986PhLB..175..395L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0370-2693%2886%2990611-8">10.1016/0370-2693(86)90611-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Letters+B&rft.atitle=Eternally+Existing+Self-Reproducing+Chaotic+Inflationary+Universe&rft.volume=175&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=395-400&rft.date=1986-08-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0370-2693%2886%2990611-8&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1986PhLB..175..395L&rft.aulast=Linde&rft.aufirst=Andrei+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNASA/WMAP_Science_Team2015" class="citation web cs1">NASA/WMAP Science Team (29 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_fate.html">"What is the Ultimate Fate of the Universe?"</a>. Universe 101: Big Bang Theory. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191015052245/https://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_fate.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 October 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Universe+101%3A+Big+Bang+Theory&rft.atitle=What+is+the+Ultimate+Fate+of+the+Universe%3F&rft.date=2015-06-29&rft.au=NASA%2FWMAP+Science+Team&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmap.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Funiverse%2Funi_fate.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dying-168"><a href="#cite_ref-dying_168-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsLaughlin1997" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fred_Adams" title="Fred Adams">Adams, Fred C.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Gregory_P._Laughlin" title="Gregory P. Laughlin">Laughlin, Gregory</a> (April 1997). "A dying universe: the long-term fate and evolution of astrophysical objects". <a href="/wiki/Reviews_of_Modern_Physics" title="Reviews of Modern Physics">Reviews of Modern Physics</a>. 69 (2): 337–372. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9701131">astro-ph/9701131</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997RvMP...69..337A">1997RvMP...69..337A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.69.337">10.1103/RevModPhys.69.337</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12173790">12173790</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=A+dying+universe%3A+the+long-term+fate+and+evolution+of+astrophysical+objects&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=337-372&rft.date=1997-04&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F9701131&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12173790%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.69.337&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997RvMP...69..337A&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Fred+C.&rft.au=Laughlin%2C+Gregory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaldwellKamionkowskiWeinberg2003" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Caldwell" title="Robert R. Caldwell">Caldwell, Robert R.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Marc_Kamionkowski" title="Marc Kamionkowski">Kamionkowski, Marc</a>; Weinberg, Nevin N. (15 August 2003). "Phantom Energy: Dark Energy with w<−1 Causes a Cosmic Doomsday". <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_Letters" title="Physical Review Letters">Physical Review Letters</a>. 91 (7): 071301. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0302506">astro-ph/0302506</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PhRvL..91g1301C">2003PhRvL..91g1301C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.91.071301">10.1103/PhysRevLett.91.071301</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12935004">12935004</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119498512">119498512</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Phantom+Energy%3A+Dark+Energy+with+w%3C%E2%88%921+Causes+a+Cosmic+Doomsday&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=071301&rft.date=2003-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119498512%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003PhRvL..91g1301C&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0302506&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12935004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.91.071301&rft.aulast=Caldwell&rft.aufirst=Robert+R.&rft.au=Kamionkowski%2C+Marc&rft.au=Weinberg%2C+Nevin+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harris2002-170"><a href="#cite_ref-Harris2002_170-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris2002">Harris 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rx2Qf9ieFKYC&pg=PA128">128</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frame2009-171">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frame2009_171-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frame2009_171-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrame2009">Frame 2009</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1mb-h1lom9IC&pg=PA137">137–141</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harrison2010-172"><a href="#cite_ref-Harrison2010_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarrison2010">Harrison 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0mSCHC0QMUgC&pg=PA9">9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris2002">Harris 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rx2Qf9ieFKYC&pg=PA129">129</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig1999" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">Craig, William Lane</a> (December 1999). "The Ultimate Question of Origins: God and the Beginning of the Universe". <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics_and_Space_Science" title="Astrophysics and Space Science">Astrophysics and Space Science</a> (Lecture). 269–270 (1–4): 721–738. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999Ap&SS.269..721C">1999Ap&SS.269..721C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1017083700096">10.1023/A:1017083700096</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:117794135">117794135</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astrophysics+and+Space+Science&rft.atitle=The+Ultimate+Question+of+Origins%3A+God+and+the+Beginning+of+the+Universe&rft.volume=269%E2%80%93270&rft.issue=1%E2%80%934&rft.pages=721-738&rft.date=1999-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A117794135%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1017083700096&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999Ap%26SS.269..721C&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=William+Lane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFBlockPuerariStocktonFerreira2000">Block et al. 2000</a>, pp. 723–740 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-011-4114-7_85">10.1007/978-94-011-4114-7_85</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">Craig, William Lane</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reasonablefaith.org/writings/scholarly-writings/the-existence-of-god/the-ultimate-question-of-origins-god-and-the-beginning-of-the-universe">"The Ultimate Question of Origins: God and the Beginning of the Universe"</a>. Scholarly Writings: The Existence of God. Reasonable Faith. Dallas, TX. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191229042029/https://www.reasonablefaith.org/writings/scholarly-writings/the-existence-of-god/the-ultimate-question-of-origins-god-and-the-beginning-of-the-universe">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 21 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reasonable+Faith&rft.atitle=The+Ultimate+Question+of+Origins%3A+God+and+the+Beginning+of+the+Universe&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=William+Lane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reasonablefaith.org%2Fwritings%2Fscholarly-writings%2Fthe-existence-of-god%2Fthe-ultimate-question-of-origins-god-and-the-beginning-of-the-universe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id='cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawking1988Introduction:_"...&nbsp;a_universe_with_no_edge_in_space,_no_beginning_or_end_in_time,_and_nothing_for_a_Creator_to_do."_—_[[Carl_Sagan]]-175'><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHawking1988Introduction:_%22...&nbsp;a_universe_with_no_edge_in_space,_no_beginning_or_end_in_time,_and_nothing_for_a_Creator_to_do.%22_%E2%80%94_%5B%5BCarl_Sagan%5D%5D_175-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHawking1988">Hawking 1988</a>, Introduction: "... a universe with no edge in space, no beginning or end in time, and nothing for a Creator to do." — <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelušević2008" class="citation book cs1">Belušević, Radoje (2008). Relativity, Astrophysics and Cosmology. Vol. 1. Weinheim: <a href="/wiki/Wiley-VCH" title="Wiley-VCH">Wiley-VCH</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-40764-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-527-40764-4"><bdi>978-3-527-40764-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/876678499">876678499</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Relativity%2C+Astrophysics+and+Cosmology&rft.place=Weinheim&rft.pub=Wiley-VCH&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F876678499&rft.isbn=978-3-527-40764-4&rft.aulast=Belu%C5%A1evi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Radoje&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlockPuerariStocktonFerreira2000" class="citation book cs1">Block, David L.; Puerari, Ivânio; Stockton, Alan; et al., eds. (2000). Toward a New Millennium in Galaxy Morphology: Proceedings of an International Conference 'Toward a New Millennium in Galaxy Morphology: from z=0 to the Lyman Break, held at the Eskom Conference Centre, Midrand, South Africa, September 13–18, 1999. Dordrecht: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Kluwer Academic Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-011-4114-7">10.1007/978-94-011-4114-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-010-5801-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-010-5801-8"><bdi>978-94-010-5801-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/00042415">00042415</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/851369444">851369444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toward+a+New+Millennium+in+Galaxy+Morphology%3A+Proceedings+of+an+International+Conference+%27Toward+a+New+Millennium+in+Galaxy+Morphology%3A+from+z%3D0+to+the+Lyman+Break%2C+held+at+the+Eskom+Conference+Centre%2C+Midrand%2C+South+Africa%2C+September+13%E2%80%9318%2C+1999&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F851369444&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F00042415&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-011-4114-7&rft.isbn=978-94-010-5801-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> "Reprinted from <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics_and_Space_Science" title="Astrophysics and Space Science">Astrophysics and Space Science</a> Volumes 269–270, Nos. 1–4, 1999".</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlock2012" class="citation book cs1">Block, David L. (2012). "Georges Lemaître and Stigler's Law of Eponymy". In Holder, Rodney D.; <a href="/wiki/Simon_Mitton" title="Simon Mitton">Mitton, Simon</a> (eds.). A Hubble Eclipse: Lemaitre and Censorship. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 395. Heidelberg; New York: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. pp. 89–96. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1106.3928v2">1106.3928v2</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012ASSL..395...89B">2012ASSL..395...89B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-32254-9_8">10.1007/978-3-642-32254-9_8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-32253-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-32253-2"><bdi>978-3-642-32253-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2012956159">2012956159</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/839779611">839779611</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119205665">119205665</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Georges+Lema%C3%AEtre+and+Stigler%27s+Law+of+Eponymy&rft.btitle=A+Hubble+Eclipse%3A+Lemaitre+and+Censorship&rft.place=Heidelberg%3B+New+York&rft.series=Astrophysics+and+Space+Science+Library&rft.pages=89-96&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119205665%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-32254-9_8&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012ASSL..395...89B&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1106.3928v2&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2012956159&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F839779611&rft.isbn=978-3-642-32253-2&rft.aulast=Block&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrolln.d." class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sean_M._Carroll" title="Sean M. Carroll">Carroll, Sean M.</a> (n.d.). "Why Is There Something, Rather Than Nothing?". In Knox, Eleanor; Wilson, Alastair (eds.). Routledge Companion to the Philosophy of Physics. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1802.02231v2">1802.02231v2</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018arXiv180202231C">2018arXiv180202231C</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Why+Is+There+Something%2C+Rather+Than+Nothing%3F&rft.btitle=Routledge+Companion+to+the+Philosophy+of+Physics&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1802.02231v2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018arXiv180202231C&rft.aulast=Carroll&rft.aufirst=Sean+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChow2008" class="citation book cs1">Chow, Tai L. (2008). Gravity, Black Holes, and the Very Early Universe: An Introduction to General Relativity and Cosmology. New York: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-73629-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-73629-7"><bdi>978-0-387-73629-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2007936678">2007936678</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/798281050">798281050</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gravity%2C+Black+Holes%2C+and+the+Very+Early+Universe%3A+An+Introduction+to+General+Relativity+and+Cosmology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F798281050&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2007936678&rft.isbn=978-0-387-73629-7&rft.aulast=Chow&rft.aufirst=Tai+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristianson1995" class="citation book cs1">Christianson, Gale E. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/edwinhubblemarin00chri">Edwin Hubble: Mariner of the Nebulae</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Farrar,_Straus_and_Giroux" title="Farrar, Straus and Giroux">Farrar, Straus and Giroux</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-14660-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-374-14660-3"><bdi>978-0-374-14660-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/94045995">94045995</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/461940674">461940674</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edwin+Hubble%3A+Mariner+of+the+Nebulae&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F461940674&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F94045995&rft.isbn=978-0-374-14660-3&rft.aulast=Christianson&rft.aufirst=Gale+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fedwinhubblemarin00chri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroswell1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ken_Croswell" title="Ken Croswell">Croswell, Ken</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alchemyofheavens00cros/page/">Alchemy of the Heavens: Searching for Meaning in the Milky Way</a>. Illustrations by Philippe Van (1st Anchor Books ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Anchor_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchor Books">Anchor Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-47213-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-47213-5"><bdi>978-0-385-47213-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/94030452">94030452</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1100389944">1100389944</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alchemy+of+the+Heavens%3A+Searching+for+Meaning+in+the+Milky+Way&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st+Anchor+Books&rft.pub=Anchor+Books&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1100389944&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F94030452&rft.isbn=978-0-385-47213-5&rft.aulast=Croswell&rft.aufirst=Ken&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falchemyofheavens00cros%2Fpage%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFd'Inverno1992" class="citation book cs1">d'Inverno, Ray (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introducingeinst0000dinv">Introducing Einstein's Relativity</a>. Oxford, UK; New York: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarendon Press">Clarendon Press</a>; <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-859686-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-859686-8"><bdi>978-0-19-859686-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/91024894">91024894</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/554124256">554124256</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Einstein%27s+Relativity&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press%3B+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F554124256&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F91024894&rft.isbn=978-0-19-859686-8&rft.aulast=d%27Inverno&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroducingeinst0000dinv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrees1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Willem_B._Drees" title="Willem B. Drees">Drees, William B.</a> (1990). Beyond the Big Bang: Quantum Cosmologies and God. La Salle, IL: <a href="/wiki/Open_Court_Publishing_Company" title="Open Court Publishing Company">Open Court Publishing Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8126-9118-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8126-9118-4"><bdi>978-0-8126-9118-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/90038498">90038498</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1088758264">1088758264</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+Big+Bang%3A+Quantum+Cosmologies+and+God&rft.place=La+Salle%2C+IL&rft.pub=Open+Court+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1088758264&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F90038498&rft.isbn=978-0-8126-9118-4&rft.aulast=Drees&rft.aufirst=William+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarrell2005" class="citation book cs1">Farrell, John (2005). The Day Without Yesterday: Lemaître, Einstein, and the Birth of Modern Cosmology. New York: <a href="/wiki/Thunder%27s_Mouth_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Thunder's Mouth Press">Thunder's Mouth Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56025-660-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56025-660-1"><bdi>978-1-56025-660-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2006272995">2006272995</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/61672162">61672162</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Day+Without+Yesterday%3A+Lema%C3%AEtre%2C+Einstein%2C+and+the+Birth+of+Modern+Cosmology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Thunder%27s+Mouth+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F61672162&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2006272995&rft.isbn=978-1-56025-660-1&rft.aulast=Farrell&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrame2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tom_Frame_(bishop)" title="Tom Frame (bishop)">Frame, Tom</a> (2009). Losing My Religion: Unbelief in Australia. Sydney: UNSW Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-921410-19-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-921410-19-2"><bdi>978-1-921410-19-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/782015652">782015652</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Losing+My+Religion%3A+Unbelief+in+Australia&rft.place=Sydney&rft.pub=UNSW+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F782015652&rft.isbn=978-1-921410-19-2&rft.aulast=Frame&rft.aufirst=Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbonsShellardRankin2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gary_Gibbons" title="Gary Gibbons">Gibbons, Gary W.</a>; Shellard, E.P.S.; Rankin, Stuart John, eds. (2003). The Future of Theoretical Physics and Cosmology: Celebrating Stephen Hawking's 60th Birthday. Cambridge, UK; New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82081-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82081-3"><bdi>978-0-521-82081-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2002041704">2002041704</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1088190774">1088190774</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+Theoretical+Physics+and+Cosmology%3A+Celebrating+Stephen+Hawking%27s+60th+Birthday&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1088190774&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2002041704&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82081-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuth1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Guth" title="Alan Guth">Guth, Alan H.</a> (1998) [Originally published 1997]. <a href="/wiki/The_Inflationary_Universe" title="The Inflationary Universe">The Inflationary Universe: Quest for a New Theory of Cosmic Origins</a>. Foreword by <a href="/wiki/Alan_Lightman" title="Alan Lightman">Alan Lightman</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Vintage_Books" title="Vintage Books">Vintage Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-995950-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-09-995950-2"><bdi>978-0-09-995950-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/96046117">96046117</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/919672203">919672203</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Inflationary+Universe%3A+Quest+for+a+New+Theory+of+Cosmic+Origins&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F919672203&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F96046117&rft.isbn=978-0-09-995950-2&rft.aulast=Guth&rft.aufirst=Alan+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2002" class="citation book cs1">Harris, James F. (2002). Analytic Philosophy of Religion. Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion. Vol. 3. Dordrecht: <a href="/wiki/Kluwer_Academic_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Kluwer Academic Publishers">Kluwer Academic Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-0530-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-0530-5"><bdi>978-1-4020-0530-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2002071095">2002071095</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/237734029">237734029</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Analytic+Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.series=Handbook+of+Contemporary+Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F237734029&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2002071095&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-0530-5&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=James+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Harrison_(historian)" title="Peter Harrison (historian)">Harrison, Peter</a>, ed. (2010). The Cambridge Companion to Science and Religion. Cambridge Companions to Religion. Cambridge, UK; New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-71251-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-71251-4"><bdi>978-0-521-71251-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2010016793">2010016793</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/972341489">972341489</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Science+and+Religion&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK%3B+New+York&rft.series=Cambridge+Companions+to+Religion&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F972341489&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2010016793&rft.isbn=978-0-521-71251-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawkingEllis1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking, Stephen W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/George_F._R._Ellis" title="George F. R. Ellis">Ellis, George F. R.</a> (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TheLargeScaleStructureOfSpaceTime">The Large-Scale Structure of Space-Time</a>. Cambridge, UK: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20016-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20016-5"><bdi>978-0-521-20016-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/72093671">72093671</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1120809270">1120809270</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Large-Scale+Structure+of+Space-Time&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1120809270&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F72093671&rft.isbn=978-0-521-20016-5&rft.aulast=Hawking&rft.aufirst=Stephen+W.&rft.au=Ellis%2C+George+F.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FTheLargeScaleStructureOfSpaceTime&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawking1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking, Stephen W.</a> (1988). <a href="/wiki/A_Brief_History_of_Time" title="A Brief History of Time">A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes</a>. Introduction by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a>; illustrations by Ron Miller. New York: <a href="/wiki/Bantam_Dell_Publishing_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantam Dell Publishing Group">Bantam Dell Publishing Group</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-553-10953-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-553-10953-5"><bdi>978-0-553-10953-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/87033333">87033333</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39256652">39256652</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Time%3A+From+the+Big+Bang+to+Black+Holes&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Bantam+Dell+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39256652&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F87033333&rft.isbn=978-0-553-10953-5&rft.aulast=Hawking&rft.aufirst=Stephen+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawkingIsrael2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking, Stephen W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Werner_Israel" title="Werner Israel">Israel, Werner</a>, eds. (2010) [Originally published 1979]. General Relativity: An Einstein Centenary Survey. Cambridge, UK: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-13798-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-13798-0"><bdi>978-0-521-13798-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/78062112">78062112</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/759923541">759923541</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+Relativity%3A+An+Einstein+Centenary+Survey&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F759923541&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F78062112&rft.isbn=978-0-521-13798-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolbTurner1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Kolb" title="Edward Kolb">Kolb, Edward</a>; <a href="/wiki/Michael_Turner_(cosmologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Turner (cosmologist)">Turner, Michael</a>, eds. (1988). The Early Universe. Frontiers in Physics. Vol. 70. Redwood City, CA: <a href="/wiki/Addison-Wesley" title="Addison-Wesley">Addison-Wesley</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-11604-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-201-11604-5"><bdi>978-0-201-11604-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/87037440">87037440</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/488800074">488800074</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Universe&rft.place=Redwood+City%2C+CA&rft.series=Frontiers+in+Physics&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F488800074&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F87037440&rft.isbn=978-0-201-11604-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKragh1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Helge_Kragh" title="Helge Kragh">Kragh, Helge</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cosmologycontrov00helg">Cosmology and Controversy: The Historical Development of Two Theories of the Universe</a>. Princeton, NJ: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02623-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02623-7"><bdi>978-0-691-02623-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/96005612">96005612</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/906709898">906709898</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmology+and+Controversy%3A+The+Historical+Development+of+Two+Theories+of+the+Universe&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F906709898&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F96005612&rft.isbn=978-0-691-02623-7&rft.aulast=Kragh&rft.aufirst=Helge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcosmologycontrov00helg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrauss2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Krauss" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence M. Krauss">Krauss, Lawrence M.</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/universefromnoth0000krau">A Universe From Nothing: Why there is Something Rather than Nothing</a>. Afterword by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a> (1st Free Press hardcover ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Free_Press_(publisher)" title="Free Press (publisher)">Free Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-2445-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-2445-8"><bdi>978-1-4516-2445-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2011032519">2011032519</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/709673181">709673181</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Universe+From+Nothing%3A+Why+there+is+Something+Rather+than+Nothing&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st+Free+Press+hardcover&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F709673181&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2011032519&rft.isbn=978-1-4516-2445-8&rft.aulast=Krauss&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funiversefromnoth0000krau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLivio2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mario_Livio" title="Mario Livio">Livio, Mario</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Mario_Livio-The_Accelerating_Universe-AUDiOBOOK-WEB-2018-PROLOG">The Accelerating Universe: Infinite Expansion, the Cosmological Constant, and the Beauty of the Cosmos</a> (Audio book performance by Tom Parks, <a href="/wiki/Brilliance_Audio" class="mw-redirect" title="Brilliance Audio">Brilliance Audio</a>). Foreword by <a href="/wiki/Allan_Sandage" title="Allan Sandage">Allan Sandage</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Wiley_(publisher)" title="Wiley (publisher)">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-32969-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-32969-5"><bdi>978-0-471-32969-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/99022278">99022278</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/226086793">226086793</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Accelerating+Universe%3A+Infinite+Expansion%2C+the+Cosmological+Constant%2C+and+the+Beauty+of+the+Cosmos&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F226086793&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F99022278&rft.isbn=978-0-471-32969-5&rft.aulast=Livio&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FMario_Livio-The_Accelerating_Universe-AUDiOBOOK-WEB-2018-PROLOG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManly2011" class="citation book cs1">Manly, Steven L. (2011). Brandon, Jodi (ed.). Visions of the Multiverse. <a href="/wiki/Pequannock_Township,_New_Jersey" title="Pequannock Township, New Jersey">Pompton Plains, NJ</a>: <a href="/wiki/Red_Wheel/Weiser/Conari" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Wheel/Weiser/Conari">New Page Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60163-720-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60163-720-8"><bdi>978-1-60163-720-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2010052741">2010052741</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/609531953">609531953</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visions+of+the+Multiverse&rft.place=Pompton+Plains%2C+NJ&rft.pub=New+Page+Books&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F609531953&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2010052741&rft.isbn=978-1-60163-720-8&rft.aulast=Manly&rft.aufirst=Steven+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartínez-Delgado2013" class="citation book cs1">Martínez-Delgado, David, ed. (2013). Local Group Cosmology. Cambridge, UK: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02380-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02380-2"><bdi>978-1-107-02380-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2013012345">2013012345</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/875920635">875920635</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Local+Group+Cosmology&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F875920635&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2013012345&rft.isbn=978-1-107-02380-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> "Lectures presented at the XX Canary Islands Winter School of Astrophysics, held in Tenerife, Spain, November 17–18, 2008."</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilne1935" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Arthur_Milne" title="Edward Arthur Milne">Milne, Edward Arthur</a> (1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/RelativityGravitationAndWorldStructure">Relativity, Gravitation and World-Structure</a>. The International Series of Monographs on Physics. Oxford, UK; London: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarendon Press">Clarendon Press</a>; <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/35019093">35019093</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1319934">1319934</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Relativity%2C+Gravitation+and+World-Structure&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK%3B+London&rft.series=The+International+Series+of+Monographs+on+Physics&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press%3B+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1935&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1319934&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F35019093&rft.aulast=Milne&rft.aufirst=Edward+Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FRelativityGravitationAndWorldStructure&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitton2011" class="citation book cs1">Mitton, Simon (2011). Fred Hoyle: A Life in Science. Cambridge, UK; New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-18947-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-18947-7"><bdi>978-0-521-18947-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2011293530">2011293530</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/774201415">774201415</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fred+Hoyle%3A+A+Life+in+Science&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F774201415&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2011293530&rft.isbn=978-0-521-18947-7&rft.aulast=Mitton&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlive2014" class="citation journal cs1">Olive, K.A.; et al. (<a href="/wiki/Particle_Data_Group" title="Particle Data Group">Particle Data Group</a>) (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdg.lbl.gov/2015/download/rpp2014-Chin.Phys.C.38.090001.pdf">"Review of Particle Physics"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Physics_C" title="Chinese Physics C">Chinese Physics C</a>. 38 (9): 1–708. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1412.1408">1412.1408</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014ChPhC..38i0001O">2014ChPhC..38i0001O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1674-1137%2F38%2F9%2F090001">10.1088/1674-1137/38/9/090001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10020536">10020536</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118395784">118395784</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170130212215/http://pdg.lbl.gov/2015/download/rpp2014-Chin.Phys.C.38.090001.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 30 January 2017. Retrieved 13 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chinese+Physics+C&rft.atitle=Review+of+Particle+Physics&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1-708&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A118395784%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014ChPhC..38i0001O&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1412.1408&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10020536&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1674-1137%2F38%2F9%2F090001&rft.aulast=Olive&rft.aufirst=K.A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdg.lbl.gov%2F2015%2Fdownload%2Frpp2014-Chin.Phys.C.38.090001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPartridge1995" class="citation book cs1">Partridge, R. Bruce (1995). 3K: The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation. Cambridge Astrophysics Series. Vol. 25 (Illustrated ed.). Cambridge, UK: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35808-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35808-8"><bdi>978-0-521-35808-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/94014980">94014980</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1123849709">1123849709</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=3K%3A+The+Cosmic+Microwave+Background+Radiation&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.series=Cambridge+Astrophysics+Series&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1123849709&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F94014980&rft.isbn=978-0-521-35808-8&rft.aulast=Partridge&rft.aufirst=R.+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeacock1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_A._Peacock" title="John A. Peacock">Peacock, John A.</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cosmologicalphys0000peac">Cosmological Physics</a>. Cambridge Astrophysics Series. Cambridge, UK; New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42270-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42270-3"><bdi>978-0-521-42270-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/98029460">98029460</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60157380">60157380</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmological+Physics&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK%3B+New+York&rft.series=Cambridge+Astrophysics+Series&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F60157380&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F98029460&rft.isbn=978-0-521-42270-3&rft.aulast=Peacock&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcosmologicalphys0000peac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenrose1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose, Roger</a> (1989). "Difficulties with Inflationary Cosmology". In Fenyves, Ervin J. (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Ivor_Robinson_(physicist)#Symposium_series" title="Ivor Robinson (physicist)">Fourteenth Texas Symposium on Relativistic Astrophysics</a>. <a href="/wiki/Annals_of_the_New_York_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences">Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences</a>. Vol. 571. New York: <a href="/wiki/New_York_Academy_of_Sciences" title="New York Academy of Sciences">New York Academy of Sciences</a>. pp. 249–264. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989NYASA.571..249P">1989NYASA.571..249P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.1989.tb50513.x">10.1111/j.1749-6632.1989.tb50513.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89766-526-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89766-526-1"><bdi>978-0-89766-526-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0077-8923">0077-8923</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/89014030">89014030</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/318253659">318253659</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122383812">122383812</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Difficulties+with+Inflationary+Cosmology&rft.btitle=Fourteenth+Texas+Symposium+on+Relativistic+Astrophysics&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Annals+of+the+New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.pages=249-264&rft.pub=New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A122383812%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.1989.tb50513.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989NYASA.571..249P&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F318253659&rft.issn=0077-8923&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F89014030&rft.isbn=978-0-89766-526-1&rft.aulast=Penrose&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> "Symposium held in Dallas, Tex., Dec. 11-16, 1988."</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenrose2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose, Roger</a> (2007) [Originally published: London: <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Cape" title="Jonathan Cape">Jonathan Cape</a>, 2004]. <a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Reality" title="The Road to Reality">The Road to Reality</a> (1st Vintage Books ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Vintage_Books" title="Vintage Books">Vintage Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-77631-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-77631-4"><bdi>978-0-679-77631-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008274126">2008274126</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/920157277">920157277</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+to+Reality&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st+Vintage+Books&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F920157277&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008274126&rft.isbn=978-0-679-77631-4&rft.aulast=Penrose&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> The 2004 edition of the book is available from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/RoadToRealityRobertPenrose">Internet Archive</a>. Retrieved 20 December 2019.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoos2012" class="citation book cs1">Roos, Matts (2012) [Chapter originally published 2008]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/astronomy-astrophysics.aspx">"Expansion of the Universe – Standard Big Bang Model"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Oddbj%C3%B8rn_Engvold" title="Oddbjørn Engvold">Engvold, Oddbjørn</a>; Stabell, Rolf; Czerny, Bozena; Lattanzio, John (eds.). Astronomy and Astrophysics. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life_Support_Systems" title="Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems">Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems</a>. Vol. II. Ramsey, Isle of Man: <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> in partnership with Eolss Publishers Co. Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0802.2005">0802.2005</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008arXiv0802.2005R">2008arXiv0802.2005R</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84826-823-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84826-823-4"><bdi>978-1-84826-823-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/691095693">691095693</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Expansion+of+the+Universe+%E2%80%93+Standard+Big+Bang+Model&rft.btitle=Astronomy+and+Astrophysics&rft.place=Ramsey%2C+Isle+of+Man&rft.series=Encyclopedia+of+Life+Support+Systems&rft.pub=UNESCO+in+partnership+with+Eolss+Publishers+Co.+Ltd.&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0802.2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F691095693&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008arXiv0802.2005R&rft.isbn=978-1-84826-823-4&rft.aulast=Roos&rft.aufirst=Matts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eolss.net%2Febooklib%2Fbookinfo%2Fastronomy-astrophysics.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyden2003" class="citation book cs1">Ryden, Barbara Sue (2003). Introduction to Cosmology. San Francisco: <a href="/wiki/Addison-Wesley" title="Addison-Wesley">Addison-Wesley</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-8912-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-8912-8"><bdi>978-0-8053-8912-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2002013176">2002013176</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1087978842">1087978842</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Cosmology&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1087978842&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2002013176&rft.isbn=978-0-8053-8912-8&rft.aulast=Ryden&rft.aufirst=Barbara+Sue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilk2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Silk" title="Joseph Silk">Silk, Joseph</a> (2009). Horizons of Cosmology: Exploring Worlds Seen and Unseen. Templeton Science and Religion Series. Conshohocken, PA: <a href="/wiki/Templeton_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Templeton Press">Templeton Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59947-341-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59947-341-3"><bdi>978-1-59947-341-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2009010014">2009010014</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/818734366">818734366</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Horizons+of+Cosmology%3A+Exploring+Worlds+Seen+and+Unseen&rft.place=Conshohocken%2C+PA&rft.series=Templeton+Science+and+Religion+Series&rft.pub=Templeton+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F818734366&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2009010014&rft.isbn=978-1-59947-341-3&rft.aulast=Silk&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Singh" title="Simon Singh">Singh, Simon</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bigbang00simo_0">Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe</a> (1st U.S. ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins#Imprints" title="HarperCollins">Fourth Estate</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004biba.book.....S">2004biba.book.....S</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-716220-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-716220-8"><bdi>978-0-00-716220-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2004056306">2004056306</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/475508230">475508230</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Big+Bang%3A+The+Origin+of+the+Universe&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st+U.S.&rft.pub=Fourth+Estate&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F475508230&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2004056306&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004biba.book.....S&rft.isbn=978-0-00-716220-8&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbigbang00simo_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanabashi,_M.2018" class="citation journal cs1">Tanabashi, M.; et al. (<a href="/wiki/Particle_Data_Group" title="Particle Data Group">Particle Data Group</a>) (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.98.030001">"Review of Particle Physics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_D" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical Review D">Physical Review D</a>. 98 (3): 1–708. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018PhRvD..98c0001T">2018PhRvD..98c0001T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.98.030001">10.1103/PhysRevD.98.030001</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10044%2F1%2F68623">10044/1/68623</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10020536">10020536</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+D&rft.atitle=Review+of+Particle+Physics&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1-708&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10044%2F1%2F68623&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10020536&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.98.030001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018PhRvD..98c0001T&rft.au=Tanabashi%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1103%252FPhysRevD.98.030001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolman1934" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. Tolman">Tolman, Richard C.</a> (1934). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.177229/page/n1">Relativity, Thermodynamics and Cosmology</a>. The International Series of Monographs on Physics. Oxford, UK; London: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarendon Press">Clarendon Press</a>; <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-65383-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-65383-9"><bdi>978-0-486-65383-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/34032023">34032023</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/919976">919976</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Relativity%2C+Thermodynamics+and+Cosmology&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK%3B+London&rft.series=The+International+Series+of+Monographs+on+Physics&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press%3B+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1934&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F919976&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F34032023&rft.isbn=978-0-486-65383-9&rft.aulast=Tolman&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.177229%2Fpage%2Fn1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoolfson2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Woolfson" title="Michael Woolfson">Woolfson, Michael</a> (2013). Time, Space, Stars & Man: The Story of Big Bang (2nd ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/Imperial_College_Press" title="Imperial College Press">Imperial College Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84816-933-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84816-933-3"><bdi>978-1-84816-933-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2013371163">2013371163</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/835115510">835115510</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Time%2C+Space%2C+Stars+%26+Man%3A+The+Story+of+Big+Bang&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Imperial+College+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F835115510&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2013371163&rft.isbn=978-1-84816-933-3&rft.aulast=Woolfson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_L._Wright" title="Edward L. Wright">Wright, Edward L.</a> (2004). "Theoretical Overview of Cosmic Microwave Background Anisotropy". In <a href="/wiki/Wendy_Freedman" title="Wendy Freedman">Freedman, Wendy L.</a> (ed.). Measuring and Modeling the Universe. Carnegie Observatories Astrophysics Series. Vol. 2. Cambridge, UK: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 291. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0305591">astro-ph/0305591</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004mmu..symp..291W">2004mmu..symp..291W</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-75576-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-75576-4"><bdi>978-0-521-75576-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2005277053">2005277053</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/937330165">937330165</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Theoretical+Overview+of+Cosmic+Microwave+Background+Anisotropy&rft.btitle=Measuring+and+Modeling+the+Universe&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.series=Carnegie+Observatories+Astrophysics+Series&rft.pages=291&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004mmu..symp..291W&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F937330165&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2005277053&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0305591&rft.isbn=978-0-521-75576-4&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Edward+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYao,_W.-M.2006" class="citation journal cs1">Yao, W.-M.; et al. (<a href="/wiki/Particle_Data_Group" title="Particle Data Group">Particle Data Group</a>) (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdg.lbl.gov/2006/download/rpp-2006-book.pdf">"Review of Particle Physics"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Physics_G" title="Journal of Physics G">Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics</a>. 33 (1): 1–1232. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JPhG...33....1Y">2006JPhG...33....1Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0954-3899%2F33%2F1%2F001">10.1088/0954-3899/33/1/001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:117958297">117958297</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170212055045/http://pdg.lbl.gov/2006/download/rpp-2006-book.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 12 February 2017. Retrieved 16 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Physics+G%3A+Nuclear+and+Particle+Physics&rft.atitle=Review+of+Particle+Physics&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-1232&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A117958297%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0954-3899%2F33%2F1%2F001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006JPhG...33....1Y&rft.au=Yao%2C+W.-M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdg.lbl.gov%2F2006%2Fdownload%2Frpp-2006-book.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For an annotated list of textbooks and monographs, see <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology#Textbooks" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology § Textbooks</a>.</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlpherHerman1988" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Asher_Alpher" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph Asher Alpher">Alpher, Ralph A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Herman" title="Robert Herman">Herman, Robert</a> (August 1988). "Reflections on Early Work on 'Big Bang' Cosmology". <a href="/wiki/Physics_Today" title="Physics Today">Physics Today</a>. 41 (8): 24–34. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988PhT....41h..24A">1988PhT....41h..24A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.881126">10.1063/1.881126</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=Reflections+on+Early+Work+on+%27Big+Bang%27+Cosmology&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=24-34&rft.date=1988-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.881126&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1988PhT....41h..24A&rft.aulast=Alpher&rft.aufirst=Ralph+A.&rft.au=Herman%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrow1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_D._Barrow" title="John D. Barrow">Barrow, John D.</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originofuniverse00barr">The Origin of the Universe</a>. Science Masters. London: <a href="/wiki/Weidenfeld_%26_Nicolson" title="Weidenfeld & Nicolson">Weidenfeld & Nicolson</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-81497-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-81497-9"><bdi>978-0-297-81497-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/94006343">94006343</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/490957073">490957073</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+of+the+Universe&rft.place=London&rft.series=Science+Masters&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F490957073&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F94006343&rft.isbn=978-0-297-81497-9&rft.aulast=Barrow&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginofuniverse00barr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Davies" title="Paul Davies">Davies, Paul</a> (1992). <a href="/wiki/The_Mind_of_God" title="The Mind of God">The Mind of God: The Scientific Basis for a Rational World</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-71069-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-71069-9"><bdi>978-0-671-71069-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/91028606">91028606</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/59940452">59940452</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mind+of+God%3A+The+Scientific+Basis+for+a+Rational+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F59940452&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F91028606&rft.isbn=978-0-671-71069-9&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLineweaverDavis2005" class="citation magazine cs1">Lineweaver, Charles H.; <a href="/wiki/Tamara_Davis" title="Tamara Davis">Davis, Tamara M.</a> (March 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mso.anu.edu.au/~charley/papers/LineweaverDavisSciAm.pdf">"Misconceptions about the Big Bang"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>. Vol. 292, no. 3. pp. 36–45. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191009072713/https://www.mso.anu.edu.au/~charley/papers/LineweaverDavisSciAm.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2019. Retrieved 23 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Misconceptions+about+the+Big+Bang&rft.volume=292&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=36-45&rft.date=2005-03&rft.aulast=Lineweaver&rft.aufirst=Charles+H.&rft.au=Davis%2C+Tamara+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mso.anu.edu.au%2F~charley%2Fpapers%2FLineweaverDavisSciAm.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatherBoslough1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_C._Mather" title="John C. Mather">Mather, John C.</a>; Boslough, John (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/veryfirstlight00john">The Very First Light: The True Inside Story of the Scientific Journey Back to the Dawn of the Universe</a> (1st ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-01575-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-01575-7"><bdi>978-0-465-01575-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/96010781">96010781</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/34357391">34357391</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Very+First+Light%3A+The+True+Inside+Story+of+the+Scientific+Journey+Back+to+the+Dawn+of+the+Universe&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F34357391&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F96010781&rft.isbn=978-0-465-01575-7&rft.aulast=Mather&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.au=Boslough%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fveryfirstlight00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiordanZajc2006" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Riordan_(physicist)" title="Michael Riordan (physicist)">Riordan, Michael</a>; <a href="/wiki/William_Allen_Zajc" title="William Allen Zajc">Zajc, William A.</a> (May 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rhig.physics.yale.edu/Summer2014/sc%20am%20-%20zjac%20and%20riordan.pdf">"The First Few Microseconds"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>. Vol. 294, no. 5. pp. 34–41. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006SciAm.294e..34R">2006SciAm.294e..34R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0506-34a">10.1038/scientificamerican0506-34a</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141130184142/http://rhig.physics.yale.edu/M_article_11_2005.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 30 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+First+Few+Microseconds&rft.volume=294&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=34-41&rft.date=2006-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0506-34a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006SciAm.294e..34R&rft.aulast=Riordan&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Zajc%2C+William+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frhig.physics.yale.edu%2FSummer2014%2Fsc%2520am%2520-%2520zjac%2520and%2520riordan.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Singh" title="Simon Singh">Singh, Simon</a> (2005) [First U.S. edition published 2004]. <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_(Singh_book)" title="Big Bang (Singh book)">Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe</a> (Harper Perennial; illustrated ed.). New York, New York: <a href="/wiki/Harper_Perennial" title="Harper Perennial">Harper Perennial</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0007162215" title="Special:BookSources/978-0007162215"><bdi>978-0007162215</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Big+Bang%3A+The+Origin+of+the+Universe&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.edition=Harper+Perennial%3B+illustrated&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0007162215&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg, Steven</a> (1993) [Originally published 1977]. <a href="/wiki/The_First_Three_Minutes" title="The First Three Minutes">The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe</a> (Updated ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02437-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02437-7"><bdi>978-0-465-02437-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/93232406">93232406</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/488469247">488469247</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Three+Minutes%3A+A+Modern+View+of+the+Origin+of+the+Universe&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Updated&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F488469247&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F93232406&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02437-7&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABig+Bang" class="Z3988"> 1st edition is available from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TheFirstThreeMinutesAModernViewOfTheOriginOfTheUniverseS.Weinberg">Internet Archive</a>. Retrieved 23 December 2019.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.5em;font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-header{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-listen-to{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-files{text-align:center;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-icon{float:left;margin-left:5px;margin-top:10px}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-disclaimer{margin-left:60px;margin-top:10px;font-size:95%;line-height:1.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-footer{margin-top:10px;text-align:center}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{width:20em;float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="spoken-wikipedia noprint haudio"><div class="spoken-wikipedia-header">Listen to this article (56 minutes)</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-files"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" style="width:200px;" data-durationhint="3341" data-mwtitle="En-BigBang.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/En-BigBang.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/78/En-BigBang.ogg/En-BigBang.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-icon"><noscript><img alt="Spoken Wikipedia icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/45px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="34" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 45px;height: 34px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/45px-Sound-icon.svg.png" data-alt="Spoken Wikipedia icon" data-width="45" data-height="34" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/68px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/90px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-disclaimer"><a href="/wiki/File:En-BigBang.ogg" title="File:En-BigBang.ogg">This audio file</a> was created from a revision of this article dated 12 November 2011 (2011-11-12), and does not reflect subsequent edits.</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-footer">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Media help">Audio help</a> · <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Spoken_articles" title="Wikipedia:Spoken articles">More spoken articles</a>)</div></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onceuponauniverse.com/about/in-the-beginning/">Once Upon a Universe</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200622230141/https://onceuponauniverse.com/about/in-the-beginning/">Archived</a> 22 June 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Technology_Facilities_Council" title="Science and Technology Facilities Council">STFC</a> funded project explaining the history of the universe in easy-to-understand language</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/bb_theory.html">"Big Bang Cosmology"</a> – <a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">NASA/WMAP</a> Science Team</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-powered-the-big-bang/">"The Big Bang"</a> – <a href="/wiki/Science_Mission_Directorate" title="Science Mission Directorate">NASA Science</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science20.com/hammock_physicist/big_bang_big_bewilderment">"Big Bang, Big Bewilderment"</a> – Big bang model with animated graphics by Johannes Koelman</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nautil.us/the-trouble-with-the-big-bang-238547/">"The Trouble With "The Big Bang""</a> – A rash of recent articles illustrates a longstanding confusion over the famous term. by Sabine Hossenfelde</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 17px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" data-alt="icon" data-width="17" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/26px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/34px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 19px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png" data-alt="icon" data-width="19" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/38px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Mathematics" title="Portal:Mathematics">Mathematics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/16px-He1523a.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="207"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 16px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/16px-He1523a.jpg" data-alt="icon" data-width="16" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/25px-He1523a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/33px-He1523a.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Stars" title="Portal:Stars">Stars</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/19px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 19px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/19px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="19" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/29px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/38px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight" title="Portal:Spaceflight">Spaceflight</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/21px-Earth-moon.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 17px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/21px-Earth-moon.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="21" data-height="17" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/32px-Earth-moon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/42px-Earth-moon.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:Outer_space" title="Portal:Outer space">Outer space</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/15px-Solar_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="15" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="5600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 15px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/15px-Solar_system.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="15" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/23px-Solar_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/30px-Solar_system.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:Solar_System" title="Portal:Solar System">Solar System</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 19px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" data-alt="icon" data-width="19" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/38px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/19px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 19px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/19px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="19" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/29px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/38px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Big Bang at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 14px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="14" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Big_Bang" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Big Bang">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 16px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="16" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Big_Bang" class="extiw" title="q:Big Bang">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 17px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="21" data-height="17" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/42px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Big_bang" class="extiw" title="v:Big bang">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Big_Bang&oldid=1256958881">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Big_Bang&oldid=1256958881</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Big_Bang&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 12 November 2024, at 12:38 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oerknal" title="Oerknal – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Oerknal" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urknall" title="Urknall – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Urknall" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%A2%E1%8C%8D_%E1%89%A3%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D" title="ቢግ ባንግ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ቢግ ባንግ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97" title="बिग बैंग – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="बिग बैंग" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%81%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%8A%D9%85" title="الانفجار العظيم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الانفجار العظيم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="মহানাদ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মহানাদ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa_del_Big_Bang" title="Teoría del Big Bang – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Teoría del Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6y%C3%BCk_partlay%C4%B1%C5%9F" title="Böyük partlayış – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Böyük partlayış" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A4%DB%8C%D9%88%DA%A9_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C%D8%B4" title="بؤیوک پارتلاییش – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بؤیوک پارتلاییش" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="মহাবিস্ফোরণ তত্ত্ব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মহাবিস্ফোরণ তত্ত্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/To%C4%81-phek-le%CC%8Dk" title="Toā-phek-le̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Toā-phek-le̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%98%D1%83%D1%80_%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83" title="Ҙур шартлау – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҙур шартлау" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%85" title="Вялікі выбух – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вялікі выбух" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%85" title="Вялікі выбух – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Вялікі выбух" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97" title="बिग बैंग – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="बिग बैंग" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B2" title="Теория на Големия взрив – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Теория на Големия взрив" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uaknoi" title="Uaknoi – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Uaknoi" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%87%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%9F%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8D" title="འཇིག་རྟེན་འབར་གས་ཆེན་པོ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="འཇིག་རྟེན་འབར་གས་ཆེན་པོ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veliki_prasak" title="Veliki prasak – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Veliki prasak" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%85%D1%8D_%D1%82%D1%8D%D2%BB%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B3%D1%8D" title="Ехэ тэһэрэлгэ – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Ехэ тэһэрэлгэ" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big-bang" title="Big-bang – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Big-bang" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%8B%D1%81%C4%83%D0%BA_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BF%C4%95%D0%BD%D3%B3" title="Пысăк сирпĕнӳ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Пысăк сирпĕнӳ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velk%C3%BD_t%C5%99esk" title="Velký třesk – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Velký třesk" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damcaniaeth_y_Glec_Fawr" title="Damcaniaeth y Glec Fawr – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Damcaniaeth y Glec Fawr" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%DD%A3_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DD%A3" title="لبيݣ بانݣ – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لبيݣ بانݣ" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81lgob%C3%A1vkkeheapmi" title="Álgobávkkeheapmi – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Álgobávkkeheapmi" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urknall" title="Urknall – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Urknall" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suur_Pauk" title="Suur Pauk – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Suur Pauk" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CE%B3%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B7_%CE%88%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B7%CE%BE%CE%B7" title="Μεγάλη Έκρηξη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεγάλη Έκρηξη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praeksplodo" title="Praeksplodo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Praeksplodo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa_del_Big_Bang" title="Teoría del Big Bang – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Teoría del Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF" title="مه‌بانگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مه‌بانگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahaa_dhamaka" title="Mahaa dhamaka – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Mahaa dhamaka" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oerknal" title="Oerknal – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Oerknal" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Ollphl%C3%A9asc" title="An Ollphléasc – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Ollphléasc" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brag_M%C3%B2r" title="Brag Mòr – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Brag Mòr" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%81%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="پیلا انفجار – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="پیلا انفجار" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AC%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%97_%E0%AA%AC%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%97" title="બિગ બેંગ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="બિગ બેંગ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%ED%8F%AD%EB%B0%9C" title="대폭발 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="대폭발" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%AE_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մեծ պայթյուն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մեծ պայթյուն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4" title="महाविस्फोट सिद्धान्त – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="महाविस्फोट सिद्धान्त" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veliki_prasak" title="Veliki prasak – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Veliki prasak" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prima_Explozo" title="Prima Explozo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Prima Explozo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nnukwu_Mgbawa" title="Nnukwu Mgbawa – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Nnukwu Mgbawa" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%97_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82" title="বিগ ব্যাং – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="বিগ ব্যাং" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target">বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ledakan_Dahsyat" title="Ledakan Dahsyat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ledakan Dahsyat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miklihvellur" title="Miklihvellur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Miklihvellur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A5_%D7%94%D7%92%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9C" title="המפץ הגדול – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המפץ הגדול" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%9F" title="ಮಹಾಸ್ಫೋಟ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮಹಾಸ್ಫೋಟ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%83_%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D1%83" title="Уллу атылыу – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Уллу атылыу" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%98_%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%A5%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="დიდი აფეთქება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დიდი აფეთქება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BE%D0%B9%D2%9B%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D1%81" title="Жойқын жарылыс – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жойқын жарылыс" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bom_Bras" title="Bom Bras – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Bom Bras" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mlipuko_mkuu" title="Mlipuko mkuu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mlipuko mkuu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teq%C3%AEna_Mezin" title="Teqîna Mezin – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Teqîna Mezin" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D2%A3_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%83" title="Чоң жарылуу – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Чоң жарылуу" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Stlaf" title="Gran Stlaf – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Gran Stlaf" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9A%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%81%E0%BB%81%E0%BA%9A%E0%BA%87" title="ບິກແບງ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ບິກແບງ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanis_diruptio" title="Immanis diruptio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Immanis diruptio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lielais_spr%C4%81dziens" title="Lielais sprādziens – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Lielais sprādziens" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urknall" title="Urknall – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Urknall" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D3%80%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%B8_%D1%85%D1%8A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%8C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BD" title="ЧӀехи хъиткьинун – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="ЧӀехи хъиткьинун" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didysis_sprogimas" title="Didysis sprogimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Didysis sprogimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oerknal" title="Oerknal – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Oerknal" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buma_grande" title="Buma grande – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Buma grande" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%90srobban%C3%A1s" title="Ősrobbanás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ősrobbanás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Големата експлозија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Големата експлозија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="മഹാവിസ്ഫോടനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മഹാവിസ്ഫോടനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F" title="महास्फोट – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="महास्फोट" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98_%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90" title="კაბეტი გოფათქუა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="კაბეტი გოფათქუა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%81%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%8A%D9%85" title="الانفجار العظيم – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الانفجار العظيم" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%DA%AF_%D8%A8%D9%86%DA%AF" title="بیگ بنگ – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="بیگ بنگ" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letupan_Besar" title="Letupan Besar – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Letupan Besar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%85_%D0%A2%D1%8D%D1%81%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Их Тэсрэлт – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Их Тэсрэлт" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%9F%E1%80%AC%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%BC%E1%80%9D%E1%80%A0%E1%80%AC_%E1%80%95%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AB%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B2%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF%E1%80%80%E1%80%BC%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8" title="မဟာစကြဝဠာ ပေါက်ကွဲမှုကြီး – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မဟာစကြဝဠာ ပေါက်ကွဲမှုကြီး" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oerknal" title="Oerknal – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oerknal" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4" title="महाविस्फोट सिद्धान्त – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="महाविस्फोट सिद्धान्त" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97" title="बिग ब्याङ्ग – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="बिग ब्याङ्ग" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%93%E3%83%83%E3%82%B0%E3%83%90%E3%83%B3" title="ビッグバン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ビッグバン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BA%D1%85%D0%B0_%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%BA%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Йоккха эккхар – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Йоккха эккхар" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uurknal" title="Uurknal – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Uurknal" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Pataflias" title="Grand Pataflias – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Grand Pataflias" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%B9%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AB%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%9F_%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%A6%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A7%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A4" title="ମହାବିସ୍ଫୋଟ ସିଦ୍ଧାନ୍ତ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ମହାବିସ୍ଫୋଟ ସିଦ୍ଧାନ୍ତ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhohinsa_Muummee" title="Dhohinsa Muummee – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Dhohinsa Muummee" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katta_portlash" title="Katta portlash – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Katta portlash" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82_%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE" title="ਮਹਾਂ ਧਮਾਕਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਹਾਂ ਧਮਾਕਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%AF_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="بگ بینگ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بگ بینگ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%90%DA%AB_%D8%A8%DB%90%D9%86%DA%AB" title="بېګ بېنګ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بېګ بېنګ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_%C3%ABs-ci%C3%B2p" title="Grand ës-ciòp – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Grand ës-ciòp" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oorknall" title="Oorknall – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Oorknall" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wielki_Wybuch" title="Wielki Wybuch – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wielki Wybuch" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Alken_jar%C4%B1l%C4%B1w" title="Úlken jarılıw – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Úlken jarılıw" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatun_t%27uqyay" title="Hatun t'uqyay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Hatun t'uqyay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%85" title="Великый выбух – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Великый выбух" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D0%B7%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Большой взрыв – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Большой взрыв" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D2%AF%D0%B4%D2%AF_%D1%8D%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Сүдү эстии – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Сүдү эстии" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D" title="बिग्-ब्याङ्ग् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="बिग्-ब्याङ्ग्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uurknal" title="Uurknal – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Uurknal" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%B8" title="මහා පිපිරුම – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මහා පිපිරුම" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%AF_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86%DA%AF" title="بگ بينگ – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="بگ بينگ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ve%C4%BEk%C3%BD_tresk" title="Veľký tresk – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Veľký tresk" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prapok" title="Prapok – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Prapok" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%95%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95_%DA%AF%DB%95%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%95%DA%A9%DB%95" title="تەقینەوە گەورەکە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تەقینەوە گەورەکە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Велики прасак – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Велики прасак" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veliki_prasak" title="Veliki prasak – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Veliki prasak" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkur%C3%A4j%C3%A4hdys" title="Alkuräjähdys – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Alkuräjähdys" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_bang" title="Big bang – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Big bang" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="பெரு வெடிப்புக் கோட்பாடு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பெரு வெடிப்புக் கோட்பாடு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D1%83%D1%80_%D0%A8%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83" title="Зур Шартлау – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Зур Шартлау" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AC%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D" title="బిగ్ బ్యాంగ్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="బిగ్ బ్యాంగ్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%87" title="บิกแบง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="บิกแบง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D2%B3%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Меҳбонг – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Меҳбонг" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8A" title="ಮಹಾಸ್ಫೋಟೊ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಮಹಾಸ್ಫೋಟೊ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Patlama" title="Büyük Patlama – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Büyük Patlama" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uly_partlama" title="Uly partlama – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Uly partlama" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%85" title="Великий вибух – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Великий вибух" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%AF_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="بگ بینگ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بگ بینگ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sur%27_poukahtuz" title="Sur' poukahtuz – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Sur' poukahtuz" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%E1%BB%A5_N%E1%BB%95_L%E1%BB%9Bn" title="Vụ Nổ Lớn – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vụ Nổ Lớn" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maru_Mats" title="Maru Mats – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Maru Mats" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E9%9C%B9%E9%9D%82" title="大霹靂 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="大霹靂" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Big Bang" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E7%88%86%E7%82%B8" title="大爆炸 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="大爆炸" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%92_%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%92" title="ביג בענג – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ביג בענג" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E5%A4%A7%E7%88%86%E7%82%B8" title="宇宙大爆炸 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="宇宙大爆炸" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%97d%C4%93sis_spruog%C4%97ms" title="Dėdēsis spruogėms – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Dėdēsis spruogėms" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E7%88%86%E7%82%B8" title="大爆炸 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="大爆炸" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapultak_Gogo" title="Mapultak Gogo – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Mapultak Gogo" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 12 November 2024, at 12:38 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-terms-use"><a href="https://foundation.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use">Terms of Use</a></li> <li id="footer-places-desktop-toggle"><a id="mw-mf-display-toggle" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Big_Bang&mobileaction=toggle_view_desktop" data-event-name="switch_to_desktop">Desktop</a></li> </ul> </div> </footer> </div> </div> <div class="mw-notification-area" data-mw="interface"></div>  <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-kmnzc","wgBackendResponseTime":354,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.037","walltime":"3.546","ppvisitednodes":{"value":17954,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":548809,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":7789,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":47,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":750324,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3031.205 1 -total"," 38.56% 1168.716 2 Template:Reflist"," 18.81% 570.137 79 Template:Cite_journal"," 10.44% 316.319 53 Template:Cite_book"," 6.45% 195.585 1 Template:Subject_bar"," 6.40% 193.946 6 Template:Sfn"," 6.10% 184.932 12 Template:Annotated_link"," 5.17% 156.609 31 Template:Cite_web"," 4.46% 135.174 1 Template:Cosmology"," 3.28% 99.443 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.959","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":24902430,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdamsLaughlin1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlam2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAliDas2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlpherBetheGamow1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlpherHerman1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlpherHerman1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAppolloni2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAvgoustidisLuzziMartinsMonteiro2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarrow1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeckers2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBelenkiy2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBelušević2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBennettLarsonWeiland2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBertschinger1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBertschinger2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBillings2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlock2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlockPuerariStocktonFerreira2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoggessMatherWeissBennett1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBojowald2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBridge2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBullock2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBunnHogg2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCahn2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaldwellKamionkowskiWeinberg2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarrollKaplinghat2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarrolln.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChow2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristianson1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClavin2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClavinJenkinsVillard2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCraig\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCraig1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCroswell1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDasRajat_K.2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavisLineweaver2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDi_ValentinoMenaPanVisinelli2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiemandZempMooreStadel2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDodelson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrees1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEarmanMosterín1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEddington1931\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmam2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnqvistSirkka1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarrell2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerris1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFilippenkoPasachoff2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrame2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrancis2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedman1922\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedmann1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFumagalliO\u0026#039;MearaProchaska2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaitherCavazos-Gaither2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGannon2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhosh2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbonsShellardRankin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGladdersYeeMajumdarBarrientos2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodman1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuth1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuth1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrison2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartleHawking1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawking1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawking1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawkingEllis1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawkingEllis1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawkingIsrael2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawkingPenrose1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawleyHolcomb2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeGaoCai2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoyle1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHubble1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuchra2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHøg2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIshak2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIvanchikPotekhinVarshalovich1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJarosikBennettDunkleyGold2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaler2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeel2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolbTurner1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKragh1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKragh2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKragh2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrauss2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuhn2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLanglois2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLashin2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemaître1927\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemaître1931\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFLincolnWasser2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinde1986\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLineweaverDavis2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLivio2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManly2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartínez-Delgado2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatherBoslough1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathew2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMattson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMelchiorriAdede_Bernardis2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillerCaldwellDevlin1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilne1935\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitton2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoskowitz2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoskowitz2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMusser2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMörtsell2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNASA/WMAP_Science_Team2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNASA/WMAP_Science_Team2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNavabiRiazi2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNemiroffPatla2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Callaghan2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlive2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOverbye2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOverbye2014\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFOverbye2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPartridge1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeacock1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeacock2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeeblesRatra2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPenrose1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPenrose2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPenziasWilson1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerley2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerlmutterAlderingGoldhaberKnop1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlanck_Collaboration2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReissFilippenkoChallisClocchiatti1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiordanZajc2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoos2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRughZinkernagel2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyden2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSadoulet\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSakharov1967\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFScheweStein2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShellard2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShellard2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilk2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlipher1913\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlipher1915\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpergelBeanDoré2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpergelVerdePeirisKomatsu2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSrianandNoterdaemeLedouxPetitjean2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStarobinsky2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteigman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteinhardt2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephens2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTanabashi,_M.2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTolman1934\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuryshev2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnruhSemenoff1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWall,_Mike2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWall2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeenink2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeinberg1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeinbergKamionkowski2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoolfson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYao,_W.-M.2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZwicky1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFd\u0026#039;Inverno1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_BernardisAdeBock2000\"] = 1,\n [\"Hubble\u0026#039;s_law_expansion\"] = 1,\n [\"Problems\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 2,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 12,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Bibcode\"] = 2,\n [\"Big Bang timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Big History\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite arXiv\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 53,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 79,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 8,\n [\"Cite serial\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 31,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"Cosmology\"] = 1,\n [\"Cosmology topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Doi\"] = 1,\n [\"External Timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"For\"] = 1,\n [\"Google translation\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 40,\n [\"Main\"] = 17,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 2,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 5,\n [\"Rp\"] = 5,\n [\"See also\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 6,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Spaced ndash\"] = 1,\n [\"Spoken Wikipedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Subject bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Val\"] = 4,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","480","22.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","260","12.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","160","7.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","140","6.5"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","140","6.5"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","120","5.6"],["type","80","3.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","80","3.7"],["date","60","2.8"],["concat","60","2.8"],["[others]","560","26.2"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-mczds","timestamp":"20241122140343","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Big Bang","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_Bang","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q323","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q323","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-07T00:28:23Z","dateModified":"2024-11-12T12:38:24Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/6f\/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg","headline":"hypothetical begin of the Universe through expansion out of an infinitely small and infinitely dense state"}</script><script>(window.NORLQ=window.NORLQ||[]).push(function(){var ns,i,p,img;ns=document.getElementsByTagName('noscript');for(i=0;i<ns.length;i++){p=ns[i].nextSibling;if(p&&p.className&&p.className.indexOf('lazy-image-placeholder')>-1){img=document.createElement('img');img.setAttribute('src',p.getAttribute('data-src'));img.setAttribute('width',p.getAttribute('data-width'));img.setAttribute('height',p.getAttribute('data-height'));img.setAttribute('alt',p.getAttribute('data-alt'));p.parentNode.replaceChild(img,p);}}});</script> </body> </html>