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class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Classification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Old_Egyptian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Egyptian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Old Egyptian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Egyptian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Egyptian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Egyptian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Middle Egyptian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Egyptian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Egyptien_de_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egyptien_de_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Egyptien de tradition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egyptien_de_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Egyptian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Egyptian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Late Egyptian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Egyptian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demotic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demotic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Demotic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demotic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coptic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coptic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Coptic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coptic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Dialects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Phonology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Old_Egyptian_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Egyptian_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Old Egyptian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Egyptian_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Egyptian_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Egyptian_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Middle Egyptian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Egyptian_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Egyptian_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Egyptian_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Late Egyptian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Egyptian_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demotic_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demotic_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Demotic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demotic_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phonology_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.1 Phonology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonology_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coptic_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coptic_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Coptic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coptic_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonotactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonotactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Phonotactics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonotactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Stress </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egyptological_pronunciation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egyptological_pronunciation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9 Egyptological pronunciation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egyptological_pronunciation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Writing systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Morphology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Morphology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Nouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Pronouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Verbs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Adjectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prepositions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prepositions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Prepositions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prepositions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Adverbs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Syntax </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Literature </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Literature subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overviews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overviews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Overviews </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overviews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Grammars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dictionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dictionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3 Dictionaries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dictionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Online_dictionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Online_dictionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.4 Online dictionaries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Online_dictionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Egyptian language</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 98 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-98" aria-hidden="true" > 98 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipties" title="Egipties – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Egipties" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8C%8D%E1%89%A5%E1%8C%BD%E1%8A%9B" title="ግብጽኛ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ግብጽኛ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%82%D3%99%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%B7%D1%88%D3%99%D0%B0" title="Египеттәи абызшәа – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Египеттәи абызшәа" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اللغة المصرية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة المصرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luengas_echipcias" title="Luengas echipcias – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Luengas echipcias" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lling%C3%BCes_exipcianes" title="Llingües exipcianes – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingües exipcianes" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8A%D1%83%D0%BB_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D3%80" title="Египеталъул мацӀ – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Египеталъул мацӀ" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misir_dili" title="Misir dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Misir dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="মিশরীয় ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মিশরীয় ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ai-ki%CC%8Dp-g%C3%AD" title="Ai-ki̍p-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ai-ki̍p-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Егіпецкая мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Егіпецкая мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Эгіпецкая мова – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Эгіпецкая мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Египетски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Египетски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipteg" title="Egipteg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Egipteg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lleng%C3%BCes_eg%C3%ADpcies" title="Llengües egípcies – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llengües egípcies" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt%C5%A1tina" title="Egyptština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Egyptština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eiffteg" title="Eiffteg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Eiffteg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptisk_(sprog)" title="Egyptisk (sprog) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Egyptisk (sprog)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84gyptische_Sprache" title="Ägyptische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ägyptische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptojska_r%C4%9Bc" title="Egyptojska rěc – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Egyptojska rěc" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egiptuse_keel" title="Egiptuse keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Egiptuse keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%B3%CF%85%CF%80%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Αρχαία αιγυπτιακή γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αρχαία αιγυπτιακή γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Египетэнь кель – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Египетэнь кель" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguas_egipcias" title="Lenguas egipcias – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguas egipcias" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipta_lingvo" title="Egipta lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Egipta lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egiptoera" title="Egiptoera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Egiptoera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="زبان مصری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان مصری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_bhasa" title="Egyptian bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Egyptian bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89gyptien_ancien" title="Égyptien ancien – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Égyptien ancien" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptysk" title="Egyptysk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Egyptysk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_%C3%89igiptis" title="An Éigiptis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Éigiptis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_exipcia" title="Lingua exipcia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua exipcia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EC%A7%91%ED%8A%B8%EC%96%B4" title="이집트어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이집트어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harshen_Misira" title="Harshen Misira – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Harshen Misira" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BA%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6" title="Եգիպտերեն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Եգիպտերեն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="मिस्री भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मिस्री भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptow%C5%A1%C4%87ina" title="Egyptowšćina – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Egyptowšćina" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipatski_jezik" title="Egipatski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Egipatski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Mesir" title="Bahasa Mesir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Mesir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornegypska" title="Fornegypska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fornegypska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_egizia" title="Lingua egizia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua egizia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="מצרית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מצרית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Mesir" title="Basa Mesir – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa Mesir" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%88%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%86" title="ಈಜಿಪ್ಟಿಯನ್ ಭಾಷೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಈಜಿಪ್ಟಿಯನ್ ಭಾಷೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ეგვიპტური ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ეგვიპტური ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%80_%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Мысыр тілі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мысыр тілі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimisri" title="Kimisri – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kimisri" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Египет кыв – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Египет кыв" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansyen_Ejip" title="Ansyen Ejip – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Ansyen Ejip" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Египет тили – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Египет тили" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Aegyptia" title="Lingua Aegyptia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Aegyptia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%92%C4%A3iptie%C5%A1u_valoda" title="Ēģiptiešu valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ēģiptiešu valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senov%C4%97s_egiptie%C4%8Di%C5%B3_kalba" title="Senovės egiptiečių kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Senovės egiptiečių kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_egi%C3%A7ia" title="Lengua egiçia – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Lengua egiçia" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptisch" title="Egyptisch – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Egyptisch" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egiptian_(lingua)" title="Egiptian (lingua) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Egiptian (lingua)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyiptomi_nyelv" title="Egyiptomi nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Egyiptomi nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Египетски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Египетски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_egiptiana_taloha" title="Fiteny egiptiana taloha – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny egiptiana taloha" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%88%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7" title="ഈജിപ്ഷ്യൻ ഭാഷ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഈജിപ്ഷ്യൻ ഭാഷ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87" title="لغه مصريه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لغه مصريه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Mesir" title="Bahasa Mesir – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Mesir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%82i-g%C4%ADk-ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Ăi-gĭk-ngṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ăi-gĭk-ngṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptisch" title="Egyptisch – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Egyptisch" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="मिस्री भाषा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="मिस्री भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%82%B8%E3%83%97%E3%83%88%E8%AA%9E" title="エジプト語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エジプト語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptisk_(spr%C3%A5k)" title="Egyptisk (språk) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Egyptisk (språk)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptisk" title="Egyptisk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Egyptisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipcian" title="Egipcian – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Egipcian" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misr_tili" title="Misr tili – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Misr tili" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipcio" title="Egipcio – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Egipcio" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A_%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="مصري ژبه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مصري ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_egipski" title="Język egipski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język egipski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_eg%C3%ADpcia" title="Língua egípcia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua egípcia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_egiptean%C4%83" title="Limba egipteană – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba egipteană" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Египетский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Египетский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_egjiptiane" title="Gjuha egjiptiane – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha 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href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Египатски језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Египатски језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipatski_jezik" title="Egipatski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Egipatski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptin_kieli" title="Egyptin kieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Egyptin kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" 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.hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the languages spoken in ancient Egypt. For the language spoken in modern Egypt, see <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Egyptian grammar" redirects here. For the book by Alan Gardiner, see <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Grammar_(book)" title="Egyptian Grammar (book)">Egyptian Grammar (book)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Egyptian</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D21.png?9bfb9" height="11" title="D21 [r]" alt="r" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_Z1.png?4dc06" height="16" title="Z1" alt="Z1" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N35.png?fcc27" height="5" title="N35 [n]" alt="n" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_I6.png?19fec" height="17" title="I6 [km]" alt="km" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G17.png?3741e" height="38" title="G17 [m]" alt="m" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_X1.png?f2a8c" height="11" title="X1 [t]" alt="t" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_O49.png?dd778" height="18" title="O49" alt="O49" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> r n km.t<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErmanGrapow1926–1961-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[note 1]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:G._Ebers_(ed.),_Papyros_Ebers,_1875_Wellcome_L0016592.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/G._Ebers_%28ed.%29%2C_Papyros_Ebers%2C_1875_Wellcome_L0016592.jpg/200px-G._Ebers_%28ed.%29%2C_Papyros_Ebers%2C_1875_Wellcome_L0016592.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/G._Ebers_%28ed.%29%2C_Papyros_Ebers%2C_1875_Wellcome_L0016592.jpg/300px-G._Ebers_%28ed.%29%2C_Papyros_Ebers%2C_1875_Wellcome_L0016592.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/G._Ebers_%28ed.%29%2C_Papyros_Ebers%2C_1875_Wellcome_L0016592.jpg/400px-G._Ebers_%28ed.%29%2C_Papyros_Ebers%2C_1875_Wellcome_L0016592.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3774" data-file-height="4631" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Ebers_Papyrus" title="Ebers Papyrus">Ebers Papyrus</a> detailing treatment of <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> (written in <a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">hieratic</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Originally, throughout <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> (especially during the times of the <a href="/wiki/Nubian_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Nubian kingdoms">Nubian kingdoms</a>)<a href="#cite_note-ancientsudan-3">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egyptians</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Late fourth millennium BC – 19th century AD<a href="#cite_note-extinct-4">[note 2]</a> (with the extinction of <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a>); still used as the <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" title="Coptic Orthodox Church">Coptic Orthodox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Catholic_Church" title="Coptic Catholic Church">Coptic Catholic Churches</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> Egyptian</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Dialects</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li>?Upper<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20002-5">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno19958-6">[4]</a> <abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li> <li>?Lower<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20002-5">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno19958-6">[4]</a> <abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_language#Dialects" title="Coptic language">Coptic dialects</a> <abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cursive_hieroglyphs" title="Cursive hieroglyphs">cursive hieroglyphs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">Coptic</a> (later, occasionally, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a> in government translations and <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin script</a> in scholars' transliterations and several hieroglyphic dictionaries<a href="#cite_note-7">[5]</a>)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=127">egy</a></code> (also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=95">cop</a> for <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/egy" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:egy">egy</a></code> (also <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/cop" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:cop">cop</a> for <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/egyp1246">egyp1246</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=11-AAA-a">11-AAA-a</a></code></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/CopticLetters.svg/40px-CopticLetters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/CopticLetters.svg/60px-CopticLetters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/CopticLetters.svg/80px-CopticLetters.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="475" data-file-height="394" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> text. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support#Coptic" title="Help:Multilingual support">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of Coptic letters.</div></div> </div> The Egyptian language, or Ancient Egyptian (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/r_n_kmt" class="extiw" title="wikt:r n kmt">r n kmt</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErmanGrapow1926–1961-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[note 3]</a> 'speech of Egypt'), is an <a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">extinct branch</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic languages</a> that was spoken in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>. It is known today from a large <a href="/wiki/Text_corpus" title="Text corpus">corpus</a> of surviving texts, which were made accessible to the modern world following the <a href="/wiki/Decipherment_of_ancient_Egyptian_scripts" title="Decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts">decipherment of the ancient Egyptian scripts</a> in the early 19th century. Egyptian is one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_first_written_accounts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of languages by first written accounts">earliest known written languages</a>, first recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphic script</a> in the late <a href="/wiki/4th_millennium_BC" title="4th millennium BC">4th millennium BC</a>. It is also the longest-attested human language, with a written record spanning over 4,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-9">[6]</a> Its <a href="/wiki/Classical_language" title="Classical language">classical</a> form, known as "<a href="/wiki/Middle_Egyptian" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Egyptian">Middle Egyptian</a>," served as the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom of Egypt</a> and remained the literary language of Egypt until the <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Roman period</a>. By the time of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, the spoken language had evolved into <a href="/wiki/Demotic_Egyptian_language" title="Demotic Egyptian language">Demotic</a>, and by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman era</a>, diversified into various <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic dialects</a>. These were eventually supplanted by <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim conquest of Egypt</a>, although Bohairic Coptic remains in use as the <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" title="Coptic Orthodox Church">Coptic Church</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-extinct-4">[note 2]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> The Egyptian language branch belongs to the <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic language family</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno19951-11">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin2013-12">[9]</a> Among the <a href="/wiki/Typology_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Typology (linguistics)">typological</a> features of Egyptian that are typically Afroasiatic are its <a href="/wiki/Fusional_language" title="Fusional language">fusional</a> morphology, <a href="/wiki/Nonconcatenative_morphology" title="Nonconcatenative morphology">nonconcatenative morphology</a>, a series of <a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic consonants</a>, a three-vowel system /a i u/, a nominal feminine suffix *-at, a nominal prefix m-, an adjectival suffix -ī and characteristic personal verbal affixes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno19951-11">[8]</a> Of the other Afroasiatic branches, linguists have variously suggested that the Egyptian language shares its greatest affinities with <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[10]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin2013-12">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno19955-14">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[12]</a> languages, particularly <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199551-16">[13]</a> (which is spoken in Egypt today) and <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin2013-12">[9]</a> However, other scholars have argued that the Egyptian language shared closer linguistic ties with northeastern African regions.<a href="#cite_note-17">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[16]</a> There are two theories that seek to establish the cognate sets between Egyptian and Afroasiatic, the traditional theory and the <a href="/wiki/Neuere_Komparatistik" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuere Komparatistik">neuere Komparatistik</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Semiticist" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiticist">Semiticist</a> Otto Rössler.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETakács201113-14-20">[17]</a> According to the neuere Komparatistik, in Egyptian, the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language" title="Proto-Afroasiatic language">Proto-Afroasiatic</a> voiced consonants */d z ð/ developed into <a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">pharyngeal</a> ⟨ꜥ⟩ /ʕ/: Egyptian ꜥr.t 'portal', Semitic dalt 'door'. The traditional theory instead disputes the values given to those consonants by the neuere Komparatistik, instead connecting ⟨ꜥ⟩ with Semitic /ʕ/ and /ɣ/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETakács20118-21">[18]</a> Both schools agree that Afroasiatic */l/ merged with Egyptian ⟨n⟩, ⟨r⟩, ⟨ꜣ⟩, and ⟨j⟩ in the dialect on which the written language was based, but it was preserved in other Egyptian varieties. They also agree that original */k g ḳ/ palatalise to ⟨ṯ j ḏ⟩ in some environments and are preserved as ⟨k g q⟩ in others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199531-22">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETakács20118-9-23">[20]</a> The Egyptian language has many biradical and perhaps monoradical roots, in contrast to the Semitic preference for triradical roots. Egyptian is probably more conservative, and Semitic likely underwent later regularizations converting roots into the triradical pattern.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199552-24">[21]</a> Although Egyptian is the oldest Afroasiatic language documented in written form, its <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> repertoire is very different from that of the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Afroasiatic">Afroasiatic</a> languages in general, and <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a> in particular. There are multiple possibilities: perhaps Egyptian had already undergone radical changes from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Afroasiatic">Proto-Afroasiatic</a> before it was recorded; or the Afroasiatic family has so far been studied with an excessively Semitocentric approach; or, as G. W. Tsereteli suggests, Afroasiatic is a <a href="/wiki/Sprachbund" title="Sprachbund">sprachbund</a>, rather than a true <a href="/wiki/Genetic_relationship_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic relationship (linguistics)">genetic</a> language family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199551-16">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> The Egyptian language can be grouped thus:<a href="#cite_note-Bard-25">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[23]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li>Egyptian <ul><li>Earlier Egyptian, Older Egyptian, or Classical Egyptian <ul><li>Old Egyptian <ul><li>Early Egyptian, Early Old Egyptian, Archaic Old Egyptian, Pre-Old Egyptian, or archaic Egyptian</li> <li>standard Old Egyptian</li></ul></li> <li>Middle Egyptian</li></ul></li> <li>Later Egyptian <ul><li>Late Egyptian</li> <li>Demotic Egyptian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div> The Egyptian language is conventionally grouped into six major <a href="/wiki/Chronological" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronological">chronological</a> divisions:<a href="#cite_note-27">[24]</a> <ul><li>Archaic Egyptian (before <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2600 BC), the <a href="/wiki/Reconstructed_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstructed language">reconstructed language</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic Period</a>,</li> <li>Old Egyptian (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2600 – c. 2000 BC), the language of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a>,</li> <li>Middle Egyptian (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2000 – c. 1350 BC), the language of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> to early <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a> and continuing on as a <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary language</a> into the 4th century AD,</li> <li>Late Egyptian (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1350 – c. 700 BC), <a href="/wiki/Amarna_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Amarna period">Amarna period</a> to <a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt">Third Intermediate Period</a>,</li> <li>Demotic Egyptian (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 700 BC – c. 400 AD), the vernacular of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> (after <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 AD), the vernacular at the time of <a href="/wiki/Copts#History" title="Copts">Christianisation</a>, and the liturgical language of <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian Christianity">Egyptian Christianity</a>.</li></ul> Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian were all written using both the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">hieratic</a> scripts. <a href="/wiki/Demotic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Demotic script">Demotic</a> is the name of the script derived from the hieratic beginning in the 7th century BC. The <a href="/wiki/Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">Coptic alphabet</a> was derived from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>, with adaptations for Egyptian phonology. It was first developed in the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic period">Ptolemaic period</a>, and gradually replaced the Demotic script in about the 4th to 5th centuries of the Christian era. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Egyptian_lects.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Egyptian_lects.svg/900px-Egyptian_lects.svg.png" decoding="async" width="900" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Egyptian_lects.svg/1350px-Egyptian_lects.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Egyptian_lects.svg/1800px-Egyptian_lects.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2447" data-file-height="502" /></a><figcaption>Diagram showing the use of the various <a href="/wiki/Lect" class="mw-redirect" title="Lect">lects</a> of Egyptian by time period and linguistic <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">register</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_Egyptian">Old Egyptian</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Old Egyptian">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peribsen2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Peribsen2.JPG/220px-Peribsen2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Peribsen2.JPG/330px-Peribsen2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Peribsen2.JPG/440px-Peribsen2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1018" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Seal impression from the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Seth-Peribsen" title="Seth-Peribsen">Seth-Peribsen</a>, containing the oldest known complete sentence in Egyptian</figcaption></figure> The term "Archaic Egyptian" is sometimes reserved for the earliest use of hieroglyphs, from the late fourth through the early third millennia BC. At the earliest stage, around 3300 BC,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMattessich2002-28">[25]</a> hieroglyphs were not a fully developed <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing system</a>, being at a transitional stage of <a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">proto-writing</a>; over the time leading up to the 27th century BC, grammatical features such as <a href="/wiki/Nisba_(suffix)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisba (suffix)">nisba</a> formation can be seen to occur.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMattessich2002-28">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20132f.-29">[26]</a> Old Egyptian is dated from the oldest known complete sentence, including a <a href="/wiki/Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">finite verb</a>, which has been found. Discovered in the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Seth-Peribsen" title="Seth-Peribsen">Seth-Peribsen</a> (dated <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2690 BC), the seal impression reads: <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <dl><dd><table cellpadding="5"> <tbody><tr> <td><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D46.png?1dee4" height="9" title="D46 [d]" alt="d" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_I10.png?9f0b0" height="30" title="I10 [D]" alt="D" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N35.png?fcc27" height="5" title="N35 [n]" alt="n" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_I9.png?fe540" height="12" title="I9 [f]" alt="f" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> <td><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N19.png?108ee" height="22" title="N19" alt="N19" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N35.png?fcc27" height="5" title="N35 [n]" alt="n" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> <td><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G38.png?e0ffb" height="30" title="G38" alt="G38" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_I9.png?fe540" height="9" title="I9 [f]" alt="f" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> <td><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_M23.png?e2674" height="31" title="M23" alt="M23" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_L2.png?ff0ae" height="31" title="L2" alt="L2" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_X1.png?f2a8c" height="8" title="X1 [t]" alt="t" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_X1.png?f2a8c" height="8" title="X1 [t]" alt="t" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> <td><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_O1.png?39788" height="16" title="O1" alt="O1" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_F34.png?6be6f" height="17" title="F34" alt="F34" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_S29.png?58979" height="35" title="S29 [s]" alt="s" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N35.png?fcc27" height="4" title="N35 [n]" alt="n" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dm%E1%B8%8Fj#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:dmḏj">d(m)ḏ.n</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/.f#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:.f">.f</a></td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/t%EA%9C%A3wj#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:tꜣwj">tꜣ-wj</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/n#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:n">n</a></td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/z%EA%9C%A3#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:zꜣ">zꜣ</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/.f#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:.f">.f</a></td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nswt-bjtj#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nswt-bjtj">nsw.t-bj.t(j)</a></td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pr#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:pr">pr</a>-<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jb#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:jb">jb</a>.sn(j) </td></tr> <tr> <td>unite.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRF</abbr>.he<a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a></td> <td>land.two for</td> <td>son.his</td> <td><a href="/wiki/He_of_the_Sedge_and_Bee" class="mw-redirect" title="He of the Sedge and Bee">sedge-bee</a></td> <td>house-<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_conception_of_the_soul#Ib_(heart)" title="Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul">heart</a>.their </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="6">"He has united <a href="/wiki/Upper_and_Lower_Egypt" title="Upper and Lower Egypt">the Two Lands</a> for his son, <a href="/wiki/Nsw-bjt" class="mw-redirect" title="Nsw-bjt">Dual King</a> <a href="/wiki/Seth-Peribsen" title="Seth-Peribsen">Peribsen</a>."<a href="#cite_note-c-31">[28]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> Extensive texts appear from about 2600 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20132f.-29">[26]</a> An early example is the <a href="/wiki/Diary_of_Merer" title="Diary of Merer">Diary of Merer</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_Texts" title="Pyramid Texts">Pyramid Texts</a> are the largest body of literature written in this phase of the language. One of its distinguishing characteristics is the tripling of <a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">ideograms</a>, phonograms, and <a href="/wiki/Determinative" title="Determinative">determinatives</a> to indicate the plural. Overall, it does not differ significantly from Middle Egyptian, the classical stage of the language, though it is based on a different dialect. In the period of the 3rd dynasty (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2650 – c. 2575 BC), many of the principles of hieroglyphic writing were regularized. From that time on, until the script was supplanted by an early version of Coptic (about the third and fourth centuries), the system remained virtually unchanged. Even the number of signs used remained constant at about 700 for more than 2,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-32">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Egyptian">Middle Egyptian</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Middle Egyptian">edit</a>]</div> Middle Egyptian was spoken for about 700 years, beginning around 2000 BC, during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">Second Intermediate Period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno19955-14">[11]</a> As the classical variant of Egyptian, Middle Egyptian is the best-documented variety of the language, and has attracted the most attention by far from <a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a>. While most Middle Egyptian is seen written on monuments by hieroglyphs, it was also written using a <a href="/wiki/Cursive_hieroglyphs" title="Cursive hieroglyphs">cursive variant</a>, and the related <a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">hieratic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[30]</a> Middle Egyptian first became available to modern scholarship with the <a href="/wiki/Decipherment_of_Egyptian_hieroglyphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs">decipherment of hieroglyphs</a> in the early 19th century. The first grammar of Middle Egyptian was published by <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Erman" title="Adolf Erman">Adolf Erman</a> in 1894, surpassed in 1927 by <a href="/wiki/Alan_Gardiner" title="Alan Gardiner">Alan Gardiner</a>'s work. Middle Egyptian has been well-understood since then, although certain points of the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian verb">verbal</a> inflection remained open to revision until the mid-20th century, notably due to the contributions of <a href="/wiki/Hans_Jakob_Polotsky" title="Hans Jakob Polotsky">Hans Jakob Polotsky</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a> The Middle Egyptian stage is taken to have ended around the 14th century BC, giving rise to Late Egyptian. This transition was taking place in the later period of the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> (known as the <a href="/wiki/Amarna_Period" title="Amarna Period">Amarna Period</a>).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Egyptien_de_tradition">Egyptien de tradition</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Egyptien de tradition">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Egyptien_de_tradition" title="Egyptien de tradition">Egyptien de tradition</a></div> Original Old Egyptian and Middle Egyptian texts were still used after the 14th century BCE. And an emulation of predominately Middle Egyptian, but also with characteristics of Old Egyptian, Late Egyptian and Demotic, called "Égyptien de tradition" or "Neo-Middle Egyptian" by scholars, was used as a literary language for new texts since the later <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a> in official and religious <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphic</a> and hieratic texts in preference to Late Egyptian or Demotic. Égyptien de tradition as a religious language survived until the Christianisation of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a> in the 4th century. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Egyptian">Late Egyptian</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Late Egyptian">edit</a>]</div> Late Egyptian was spoken for about 650 years, beginning around 1350 BC, during the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a>. Late Egyptian succeeded but did not fully supplant <a href="/wiki/Middle_Egyptian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Egyptian language">Middle Egyptian</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary language</a>, and was also the language of the New Kingdom administration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno19957-36">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[34]</a> Texts written wholly in Late Egyptian date to the <a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt">Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt</a> and later. Late Egyptian is represented by a large body of religious and secular <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_literature" title="Ancient Egyptian literature">literature</a>, comprising such examples as the <a href="/wiki/Story_of_Wenamun" title="Story of Wenamun">Story of Wenamun</a>, the love poems of the Chester–Beatty I papyrus, and the <a href="/wiki/Instruction_of_Any" title="Instruction of Any">Instruction of Any</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sebayt" title="Sebayt">Instructions</a> became a popular literary genre of the New Kingdom, which took the form of advice on proper behavior. Late Egyptian was also the language of New Kingdom administration.<a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a> Late Egyptian is not completely distinct from Middle Egyptian, as many "classicisms" appear in historical and literary documents of this phase.<a href="#cite_note-40">[37]</a> However, the difference between Middle and Late Egyptian is greater than the difference between Middle and Old Egyptian. Originally a <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_language" title="Synthetic language">synthetic language</a>, Egyptian by the Late Egyptian phase had become an <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a> The relationship between Middle Egyptian and Late Egyptian has been described as being similar to that between Latin and Italian.<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a> <ul><li>Written Late Egyptian was seemingly a better representative than Middle Egyptian of the spoken language in the New Kingdom and beyond: weak consonants ꜣ, w, j, as well as the feminine ending .t were increasingly dropped, apparently because they stopped being pronounced.</li> <li>The demonstrative pronouns pꜣ (masc.), tꜣ (fem.), and nꜣ (pl.) were used as definite articles.</li> <li>The old form sḏm.n.f (he heard) of the verb was replaced by sḏm-f which had both prospective (he shall hear) and perfective (he heard) aspects. The past tense was also formed using the auxiliary verb jr (make), as in jr.f saḥa.f (he has accused him).</li> <li>Adjectives as attributes of nouns are often replaced by nouns.</li></ul> The Late Egyptian stage is taken to have ended around the 8th century BC, giving rise to Demotic. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demotic">Demotic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Demotic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Demotic_Egyptian_language" title="Demotic Egyptian language">Demotic Egyptian language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Funerary_stele_Thousei_Louvre_E27220.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Funerary_stele_Thousei_Louvre_E27220.jpg/220px-Funerary_stele_Thousei_Louvre_E27220.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Funerary_stele_Thousei_Louvre_E27220.jpg/330px-Funerary_stele_Thousei_Louvre_E27220.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Funerary_stele_Thousei_Louvre_E27220.jpg/440px-Funerary_stele_Thousei_Louvre_E27220.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3572" data-file-height="2679" /></a><figcaption>10th century stela with Coptic inscription, in the <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a></figcaption></figure> Demotic is a later development of the Egyptian language written in the <a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic script</a>, following Late Egyptian and preceding <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a>, the latter of which it shares much with. In the earlier stages of Demotic, such as those texts written in the early Demotic script, it probably represented the spoken idiom of the time. However, as its use became increasingly confined to literary and religious purposes, the written language diverged more and more from the spoken form, leading to significant <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a> between the late Demotic texts and the spoken language of the time, similar to the use of classical Middle Egyptian during the Ptolemaic Period. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coptic">Coptic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Coptic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic language</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> is the name given to the late Egyptian vernacular when it was written in a Greek-based alphabet, the Coptic alphabet; it flourished from the time of <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity (c. 31/33–324)</a>, but Egyptian phrases written in the Greek alphabet first appeared during the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3rd century BC,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20203-43">[40]</a> with the first known Coptic text, still pagan (<a href="/wiki/Old_Coptic" title="Old Coptic">Old Coptic</a>), from the 1st century AD. Coptic survived into the medieval period, but by the 16th century was dwindling rapidly due to the persecution of Coptic Christians under the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluks</a>. It probably survived in the Egyptian countryside as a spoken language for several centuries after that. Coptic survives as the liturgical language of the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" title="Coptic Orthodox Church">Coptic Orthodox Church</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Catholic_Church" title="Coptic Catholic Church">Coptic Catholic Church</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects">Dialects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Dialects">edit</a>]</div> Some evidence of dialectal variation is Egyptian is found as early as the <a href="/wiki/3rd_millennium_BC" title="3rd millennium BC">3rd millennium BC</a>, but because the heiroglyphic scripts inherent conservatism<a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a> and that most hieroglyphic Egyptian texts are written in a literary <a href="/wiki/Prestige_(sociolinguistics)" title="Prestige (sociolinguistics)">prestige register</a> rather than the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">speech variety</a> of their author. As a result, dialectical differences are not apparent in written Egyptian until the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">Coptic alphabet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20002-5">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno19958-6">[4]</a> Nevertheless, it is clear that these differences existed before the Coptic period. In one <a href="/wiki/Papyrus_Anastasi_I" title="Papyrus Anastasi I">Late Egyptian letter</a> (dated <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200 BC), a scribe jokes that his colleague's writing is incoherent like "the speech of a <a href="/wiki/Bohairic" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohairic">Delta</a> man with a man of <a href="/wiki/Akhmimic" class="mw-redirect" title="Akhmimic">Elephantine</a>."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20002-5">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno19958-6">[4]</a> Recently, some evidence of internal dialects has been found in pairs of similar words in Egyptian that, based on similarities with later dialects of Coptic, may be derived from northern and southern dialects of Egyptian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESatzinger200810-45">[42]</a> Written Coptic has five major dialects, which differ mainly in graphic conventions, most notably the southern Saidic dialect, the main classical dialect, and the northern <a href="/wiki/Bohairic_Coptic" title="Bohairic Coptic">Bohairic dialect</a>, currently used in Coptic Church services.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20002-5">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno19958-6">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Transliteration_of_Ancient_Egyptian" title="Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian">Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian</a></div> While the consonantal phonology of the Egyptian language may be reconstructed, the exact <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetics</a> is unknown, and there are varying opinions on how to classify the individual phonemes. In addition, because Egyptian is recorded over a full 2,000 years, the Archaic and Late stages being separated by the amount of time that separates <a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> from <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Modern Italian</a>, significant phonetic changes must have occurred during that lengthy time frame.<a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a> Phonologically, Egyptian contrasted labial, alveolar, palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal consonants. Egyptian also contrasted voiceless and emphatic consonants, as with other Afroasiatic languages, but exactly how the emphatic consonants were realised is unknown. Early research had assumed that the opposition in stops was one of voicing, but it is now thought to be either one of <a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">tenuis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic consonants</a>, as in many Semitic languages, or one of <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">ejective consonants</a>, as in many <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[note 4]</a> Since vowels were not written until Coptic, reconstructions of the Egyptian vowel system are much more uncertain and rely mainly on evidence from Coptic and records of Egyptian words, especially proper nouns, in other languages/writing systems.<a href="#cite_note-48">[44]</a> The actual pronunciations reconstructed by such means are used only by a few specialists in the language. For all other purposes, the Egyptological pronunciation is used, but it often bears little resemblance to what is known of how Egyptian was pronounced. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_Egyptian_2">Old Egyptian</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Old Egyptian">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Consonants">Consonants</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>]</div> The following consonants are reconstructed for Archaic (before 2600 BC) and Old Egyptian (2686–2181 BC), with IPA equivalents in square brackets if they differ from the usual transcription scheme: <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Early Egyptian consonants<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199533-49">[45]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Postalveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">Pharyngeal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>ṯ [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>] </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a><a href="#cite_note-unvoiced_ejectives-50">[a]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a><a href="#cite_note-unvoiced_ejectives-50">[a]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>ḏ<a href="#cite_note-unvoiced_ejectives-50">[a]</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_plosive" title="Voiced palatal plosive">ɟ</a>] </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a><a href="#cite_note-unvoiced_ejectives-50">[a]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <th> <a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a> </td> <td>š [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>] </td> <td>ẖ [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a>] </td> <td> </td> <td>ḫ [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">χ</a>] </td> <td>ḥ [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a>] </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a><a href="#cite_note-unvoiced_ejectives-50">[a]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ꜥ (ʿ) [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a>] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ꜣ (ȝ) [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_trill" title="Voiced uvular trill">ʀ</a>] </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-unvoiced_ejectives-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-unvoiced_ejectives_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-unvoiced_ejectives_50-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-unvoiced_ejectives_50-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-unvoiced_ejectives_50-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-unvoiced_ejectives_50-4">e</a> Possibly unvoiced <a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">ejectives</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/ has no independent representation in the hieroglyphic orthography, and it is frequently written as if it were /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ or /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199533-49">[45]</a> That is probably because the standard for written Egyptian is based on a dialect in which /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/ had merged with other sonorants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199531-22">[19]</a> Also, the rare cases of /<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>/ occurring are not represented. The phoneme /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ is written as ⟨j⟩ in the initial position (⟨jt⟩ = */ˈjaːtVj/ 'father') and immediately after a stressed vowel (⟨bjn⟩ = */ˈbaːjin/ 'bad') and as ⟨jj⟩ word-medially immediately before a stressed vowel (⟨ḫꜥjjk⟩ = */χaʕˈjak/ 'you will appear') and are unmarked word-finally (⟨jt⟩ = /ˈjaːtVj/ 'father').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199533-49">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Egyptian_2">Middle Egyptian</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Middle Egyptian">edit</a>]</div> In Middle Egyptian (2055–1650 BC), a number of consonantal shifts take place. By the beginning of the Middle Kingdom period, /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>/ and /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ had merged, and the graphemes ⟨s⟩ and ⟨z⟩ are used interchangeably.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199534-51">[46]</a> In addition, /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ had become /<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>/ word-initially in an unstressed syllable (⟨jwn⟩ /jaˈwin/ > */ʔaˈwin/ "colour") and after a stressed vowel (⟨ḥjpw⟩ */ˈħujpVw/ > /ˈħeʔp(Vw)/ '[the god] Apis').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199535-52">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Egyptian_2">Late Egyptian</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Late Egyptian">edit</a>]</div> In Late Egyptian (1069–700 BC), the phonemes d ḏ g gradually merge with their counterparts t ṯ k (⟨dbn⟩ */ˈdiːban/ > Akkadian transcription ti-ba-an 'dbn-weight'). Also, ṯ ḏ often become /t d/, but they are retained in many <a href="/wiki/Lexeme" title="Lexeme">lexemes</a>; ꜣ becomes /<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>/; and /t r j w/ become /<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>/ at the end of a stressed syllable and eventually null word-finally: ⟨pḏ.t⟩ */ˈpiːɟat/ > Akkadian transcription -pi-ta 'bow'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199538-53">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demotic_2">Demotic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Demotic">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phonology_2">Phonology</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> The most important source of information about Demotic phonology is Coptic. The consonant inventory of Demotic can be <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">reconstructed</a> on the basis of evidence from the Coptic dialects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid09LQDwAAQBAJpgPA26_26]-54">[49]</a> Demotic orthography is relatively <a href="/wiki/Orthographic_depth" title="Orthographic depth">opaque</a>. The Demotic "alphabetical" signs are mostly inherited from the hieroglyphic script, and due to historical <a href="/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">sound changes</a> they do not always map neatly onto Demotic <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>. However, the Demotic script does feature certain orthographic innovations, such as the use of the sign h̭ for /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a>/,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid09LQDwAAQBAJpgPA28_28]-55">[50]</a> which allow it to represent sounds that were not present in earlier forms of Egyptian. The Demotic consonants can be divided into two primary classes: <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">obstruents</a> (<a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">stops</a>, <a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">affricates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricatives</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorants</a> (<a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">approximants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">semivowels</a>).<a href="#cite_note-56">[51]</a> <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voice</a> is not a contrastive feature; all obstruents are voiceless and all sonorants are voiced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid09LQDwAAQBAJpgPA76_76]-57">[52]</a> Stops may be either <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">tenuis</a> (unaspirated),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid09LQDwAAQBAJpgPA74_74–75]-58">[53]</a> although there is evidence that aspirates merged with their tenuis counterparts in certain environments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeust199985After_the_New_Kingdom,_confusion_between_both_series_of_stops_becomes_very_frequent_in_Egyptian_writing._A_phonetic_merger_of_some_kind_is_certainly_the_cause_of_this_phenomenon._59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeust199985After_the_New_Kingdom,_confusion_between_both_series_of_stops_becomes_very_frequent_in_Egyptian_writing._A_phonetic_merger_of_some_kind_is_certainly_the_cause_of_this_phenomenon.-59">[54]</a> The following table presents the consonants of Demotic Egyptian. The reconstructed value of a phoneme is given in <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> transcription, followed by a transliteration of the corresponding Demotic "alphabetical" sign(s) in angle brackets ⟨ ⟩. <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Demotic Egyptian consonants </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Postalv.</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">Pharyng.</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/ </td> <td colspan="2">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">Obstruent</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirate</a> </th> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a>/ ⟨p⟩ </td> <td colspan="2">/<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʰ</a>/ ⟨t ṯ⟩ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">t͡ʃʰ</a>/ ⟨ṯ⟩ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">cʰ</a>/ ⟨k⟩ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a>/ ⟨k⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">tenuis</a> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="2">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ ⟨d ḏ t ṯ ṱ⟩ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ ⟨ḏ ṯ⟩ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ ⟨g k q⟩ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ ⟨q k g⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricative</a> </th> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ ⟨f⟩ </td> <td colspan="2">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ ⟨s⟩ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ ⟨š⟩ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a>/ ⟨h̭ ḫ⟩ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ ⟨ẖ ḫ⟩ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a>/ ⟨ḥ⟩ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ ⟨h⟩ </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>/ ⟨b⟩ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/ ⟨r⟩ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/ ⟨l r⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ ⟨y ı͗⟩ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/ ⟨w⟩ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a>/ ⟨ꜥ⟩<a href="#cite_note-61">[a]</a> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> /ʕ/ was lost near the end of the Ptolemaic period.&#x27E8;ꜥ&#x27E9;_suddenly_begins_to_be_employed_in_a_very_inconsistent_manner._It_is_often_omitted_or_added_without_etymological_justification._I_take_this_as_an_indication_that_the_phoneme_/ʕ/_was_lost_from_the_spoken_language._60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeust1999102In_Roman_Demotic_<span_class="nowrap">&#x27E8;ꜥ&#x27E9;_suddenly_begins_to_be_employed_in_a_very_inconsistent_manner._It_is_often_omitted_or_added_without_etymological_justification._I_take_this_as_an_indication_that_the_phoneme_/ʕ/_was_lost_from_the_spoken_language.-60">[55]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Demotic–Coptic sound correspondences </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Demotic spelling </th> <th rowspan="2">Demotic phoneme </th> <th colspan="9">Coptic reflexes </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Old_Coptic" title="Old Coptic">Old Coptic</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[a]</a> </th> <th><abbr title="Bohairic">B</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Fayyumic">F</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Mesokemic">M</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Sahidic">S</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Dialect P (P.Bodmer VI)">P</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Lycopolitan">L</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Dialect I (Ascension of Isaiah)">I</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Akhmimic">A</abbr> </th></tr> <tr> <td>m </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/ </td> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1107333977">.mw-parser-output .script-coptic{font-family:"Sophia Nubian","Noto Sans Coptic","FreeSerif","Quivira","Segoe UI Historic","Segoe UI Symbol","New Athena Unicode","MPH 2B Damase","Arial Coptic","Analecta","Antinoou"}</style>ⲙ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲙ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲙ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲙ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲙ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲙ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲙ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲙ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲙ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>n </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲛ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲻ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲳ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲛ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲛ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲛ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲛ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲛ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲻ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲳ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲛ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲛ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲛ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>p </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʰ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲫ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʰ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>t, ṯ </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʰ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲑ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʰ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ṯ </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʰ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳗ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳙ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϭ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʰ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>k </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʰ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϭ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϭ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʰ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϭ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϭ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϭ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϭ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϭ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϭ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>k </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʰ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲹ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲭ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʰ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲹ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>p </td> <td>*[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>]<a href="#cite_note-63">[b]</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>d, ḏ, t, ṯ, ṱ </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ḏ </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳗ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳙ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>g, k, q </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳛ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϭ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϭ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϭ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϭ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϭ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϭ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϭ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>q, k, g </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲹ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲹ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>f </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>s </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲥ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>š </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳅ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳇ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>h̭, ḫ </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳓ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳋ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a>~<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳋ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳃ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a>~<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳉ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ẖ, ḫ </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϧ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳉ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳉ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ḥ </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳕ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳍ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a>~<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>h </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳏ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>b </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲃ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲃ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲃ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲃ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲃ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲃ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲃ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲃ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲃ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>r </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲗ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲣ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>l, r </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲗ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲗ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲗ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲗ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲗ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲗ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲗ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲗ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲗ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>y, ı͗ </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲉ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲓ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲉ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲓ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲉ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲓ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲉ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲓ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲉ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲓ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲉ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲓ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲉ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲓ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲉ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲓ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲉ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲓ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>w </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲟ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲟ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲟ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲟ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲟ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲟ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲟ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲟ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/ </td> <td>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲟ)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ꜥ </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a>/ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲵ, ∅ /<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>~<a href="/wiki/Zero_(linguistics)" title="Zero (linguistics)">∅</a>/ </td> <td>∅ </td> <td>∅ </td> <td>∅ </td> <td>∅ </td> <td>∅ </td> <td>∅ </td> <td>∅ </td> <td>∅ </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> The term Old Coptic refers to any Coptic texts produced before the standardization of the Coptic alphabet and the emergence of the major literary dialects. These texts exhibit a variety of orthographic and dialectal features and notably make use of several letters of Demotic origin which are not found in the standard Coptic script. The minor dialects P and I are sometimes grouped under the Old Coptic umbrella, however, strictly speaking Dialect I is written with a modified version of the Sahidic alphabet which it shares with Akhmimic, rather than a genuine Old Coptic system. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> [p] is an <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophone</a> of /pʰ/ in Demotic. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coptic_2">Coptic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Coptic">edit</a>]</div> More changes occur in the 1st millennium BC and the first centuries AD, leading to Coptic (1st or 3rd – c. 19th centuries AD). In Sahidic ẖ ḫ ḥ had merged into <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣ š (most often from ḫ) and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ (most often ẖ ḥ). Bohairic and Akhmimic are more conservative and have a velar fricative /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϧ in Bohairic, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳉ in Akhmimic).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199541-64">[56]</a> Pharyngeal *ꜥ had merged into glottal /<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>/ after it had affected the quality of the surrounding vowels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199546-65">[57]</a> /<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>/ is not indicated orthographically unless it follows a stressed vowel; then, it is marked by doubling the vowel letter (except in Bohairic): Akhmimic <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⳉⲟⲟⲡ /xoʔp/, Sahidic and Lycopolitan <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣⲟⲟⲡ šoʔp, Bohairic <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣⲟⲡ šoʔp 'to be' < ḫpr.w */ˈχapraw/ 'has become'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199541-64">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[note 5]</a> The phoneme <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲃ /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>/ was probably pronounced as a fricative [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>], becoming <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ after a stressed vowel in syllables that had been closed in earlier Egyptian (compare <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲛⲟⲩⲃ < */ˈnaːbaw/ 'gold' and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧⲁⲡ < */dib/ 'horn').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199541-64">[56]</a> The phonemes /d g z/ occur only in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> loanwords, with rare exceptions triggered by a nearby /n/: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲁⲛⲍⲏⲃⲉ/ⲁⲛⲥⲏⲃⲉ < ꜥ.t n.t sbꜣ.w 'school'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199541-64">[56]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1092331828"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/CopticLetters.svg/40px-CopticLetters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/CopticLetters.svg/60px-CopticLetters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/CopticLetters.svg/80px-CopticLetters.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="475" data-file-height="394" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> text. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support#Coptic" title="Help:Multilingual support">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of Coptic letters.</div></div> </div> Earlier *d ḏ g q are preserved as ejective t' c' k' k' before vowels in Coptic. Although the same graphemes are used for the pulmonic stops (⟨<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ ϫ ⲕ⟩), the existence of the former may be inferred because the stops ⟨<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ ⲧ ϫ ⲕ⟩ /p t c k/ are allophonically aspirated [pʰ tʰ cʰ kʰ] before stressed vowels and <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorant</a> consonants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199542-67">[58]</a> In Bohairic, the allophones are written with the special graphemes ⟨<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲫ ⲑ ϭ ⲭ⟩, but other dialects did not mark aspiration: Sahidic <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡⲣⲏ, Bohairic <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲫⲣⲏ 'the sun'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199542-67">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[note 6]</a> Thus, Bohairic does not mark aspiration for reflexes of older *d ḏ g q: Sahidic and Bohairic <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧⲁⲡ */dib/ 'horn'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199542-67">[58]</a> Also, the definite article <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ is unaspirated when the next word begins with a glottal stop: Bohairic <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ + ⲱⲡ > ⲡⲱⲡ 'the account'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199543-69">[59]</a> The consonant system of Coptic is as follows: <table class="wikitable Unicode" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Coptic consonants<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199540–42-70">[60]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲙ <a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲛ <a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a> </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲡ (ⲫ) <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a>) </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ (ⲑ) <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʰ</a>) </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ (ϭ) <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">cʰ</a>) </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ (ⲭ) <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a>) </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-71">[a]</a> <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Ejective" class="mw-redirect" title="Ejective">ejective</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲧ <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar ejective stop">tʼ</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϫ <a href="/wiki/Palatal_ejective_stop" title="Palatal ejective stop">cʼ</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲕ <a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_stop" title="Velar ejective stop">kʼ</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲇ <a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲅ <a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <th> <a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a> </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϥ <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲥ <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϣ <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">(ϧ, ⳉ) (<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>) </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ϩ <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲃ <a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲍ <a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">(ⲟ)ⲩ <a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲗ <a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">(ⲉ)ⲓ <a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1107333977">ⲣ <a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Various orthographic representations; see above. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>]</div> Here is the vowel system reconstructed for earlier Egyptian: <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Earlier Egyptian vowel system<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199535-52">[47]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td align="center">i iː </td> <td align="center">u uː </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td style="text-align:center;" colspan="2">a aː </td></tr></tbody></table> Vowels are always short in unstressed syllables (⟨tpj⟩ = */taˈpij/ 'first') and long in open stressed syllables (⟨rmṯ⟩ = */ˈraːmac/ 'man'), but they can be either short or long in closed stressed syllables (⟨jnn⟩ = */jaˈnan/ 'we', ⟨mn⟩ = */maːn/ 'to stay').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199536-72">[61]</a> In the Late <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a>, after <a href="/wiki/Ramses_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramses II">Ramses II</a>, around 1200 BC, */ˈaː/ changes to */ˈoː/ (like the <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_shift" title="Canaanite shift">Canaanite shift</a>), ⟨ḥrw⟩ '(the god) Horus' */ħaːra/ > */ħoːrə/ (Akkadian transcription: -ḫuru).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199538-53">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2013-73">[62]</a> */uː/, therefore, changes to */eː/: ⟨šnj⟩ 'tree' */ʃuːn(?)j/ > */ʃeːnə/ (Akkadian transcription: -sini).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199538-53">[48]</a> In the Early New Kingdom, short stressed */ˈi/ changes to */ˈe/: ⟨mnj⟩ "<a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a>" */maˈnij/ > */maˈneʔ/ (Akkadian transcription: ma-né-e).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199538-53">[48]</a> Later, probably 1000–800 BC, a short stressed */ˈu/ changes to */ˈe/: ⟨ḏꜥn.t⟩ "<a href="/wiki/Tanis" title="Tanis">Tanis</a>" */ˈɟuʕnat/ was borrowed into Hebrew as *ṣuʕn but would become transcribed as ⟨ṣe-e'-nu/ṣa-a'-nu⟩ during the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199539-74">[63]</a> Unstressed vowels, especially after a stress, become */ə/: ⟨nfr⟩ 'good' */ˈnaːfir/ > */ˈnaːfə/ (Akkadian transcription -na-a-pa).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199539-74">[63]</a> */iː/ changes to */eː/ next to /ʕ/ and /j/: ⟨wꜥw⟩ 'soldier' */wiːʕiw/ > */weːʕə/ (earlier Akkadian transcription: ú-i-ú, later: ú-e-eḫ).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199539-74">[63]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Egyptian vowel system <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1000 BC<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199539-74">[63]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td>iː </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td>e eː </td> <td>ə </td> <td>oː </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td colspan="3">a </td></tr></tbody></table> In Sahidic and Bohairic Coptic, Late Egyptian stressed */ˈa/ becomes */ˈo/ and */ˈe/ becomes /ˈa/, but are unchanged in the other dialects: <ul><li>⟨sn⟩ */san/ 'brother' <dl><dd>Sahidic and Bohairic ⟨son⟩</dd> <dd>Akhmimic, Lycopolitan and Fayyumic ⟨san⟩</dd></dl></li> <li>⟨rn⟩ 'name' */rin/ > */ren/ <dl><dd>Sahidic and Bohairic ⟨ran⟩</dd> <dd>Akhmimic, Lycopolitan and Fayyumic ⟨ren⟩<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199546-65">[57]</a></dd></dl></li></ul> However, in the presence of guttural fricatives, Sahidic and Bohairic preserve */ˈa/, and Fayyumic renders it as ⟨e⟩: <ul><li>⟨ḏbꜥ⟩ 'ten thousand' */ˈbaʕ/ <dl><dd>Sahidic, Akhmimic and Lycopolitan ⟨tba⟩</dd> <dd>Bohairic ⟨tʰba⟩</dd> <dd>Fayyumic ⟨tbe⟩</dd></dl></li></ul> In Akhmimic and Lycopolitan, */ˈa/ becomes /ˈo/ before etymological /ʕ, ʔ/: <ul><li>⟨jtrw⟩ 'river' */ˈjatraw/ > */jaʔr(ə)/ <dl><dd>Sahidic ⟨eioor(e)⟩</dd> <dd>Bohairic ⟨ior⟩</dd> <dd>Akhmimic ⟨ioore, iôôre⟩</dd> <dd>Fayyumic ⟨iaal, iaar⟩</dd></dl></li></ul> Similarly, the diphthongs */ˈaj/, */ˈaw/, which normally have reflexes /ˈoj/, /ˈow/ in Sahidic and are preserved in other dialects, are in Bohairic ⟨ôi⟩ (in non-final position) and ⟨ôou⟩ respectively: <ul><li>"to me, to them" <dl><dd>Sahidic ⟨eroi, eroou⟩</dd> <dd>Akhmimic and Lycopolitan ⟨arai, arau⟩</dd> <dd>Fayyumic ⟨elai, elau⟩</dd> <dd>Bohairic ⟨eroi, erôou⟩</dd></dl></li></ul> Sahidic and Bohairic preserve */ˈe/ before /ʔ/ (etymological or from lenited /t r j/ or tonic-syllable coda /w/),: Sahidic and Bohairic ⟨ne⟩ /neʔ/ 'to you (fem.)' < */ˈnet/ < */ˈnic/. */e/ may also have different reflexes before <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorants</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">sibilants</a> and in diphthongs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199547-75">[64]</a> Old */aː/ surfaces as /uː/ after nasals and occasionally other consonants: ⟨nṯr⟩ 'god' */ˈnaːcar/ > /ˈnuːte/ ⟨noute⟩<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199547–48-76">[65]</a> /uː/ has acquired phonemic status, as is evidenced by minimal pairs like 'to approach' ⟨hôn⟩ /hoːn/ < */ˈçaːnan/ ẖnn vs. 'inside' ⟨houn⟩ /huːn/ < */ˈçaːnaw/ ẖnw.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199548-77">[66]</a> An etymological */uː/ > */eː/ often surfaces as /iː/ next to /r/ and after etymological pharyngeals: ⟨hir⟩ < */χuːr/ 'street' (Semitic loan).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199548-77">[66]</a> Most Coptic dialects have two phonemic vowels in unstressed position. Unstressed vowels generally became /ə/, written as ⟨e⟩ or null (⟨i⟩ in Bohairic and Fayyumic word-finally), but pretonic unstressed /a/ occurs as a reflex of earlier unstressed */e/ near an etymological pharyngeal, velar or sonorant ('to become many' ⟨ašai⟩ < ꜥšꜣ */ʕiˈʃiʀ/) or an unstressed */a/. Pretonic [i] is underlyingly /əj/: Sahidic 'ibis' ⟨hibôi⟩ < h(j)bj.w */hijˈbaːj?w/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199548-77">[66]</a> Thus, the following is the Sahidic vowel system c. AD 400: <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Sahidic vowel system <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 400 AD<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199546-65">[57]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">Stressed </th> <th>Unstressed </th></tr> <tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td>iː </td> <td>uː </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td>e eː </td> <td>o oː </td> <td>ə </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td colspan="3">a </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonotactics">Phonotactics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Phonotactics">edit</a>]</div> Earlier Egyptian has the syllable structure CV(ː)(C) in which V is long in open stressed syllables and short elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199536-72">[61]</a> In addition, CVːC or CVCC can occur in word-final, stressed position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199536-72">[61]</a> However, CVːC occurs only in the infinitive of biconsonantal verbal roots, CVCC only in some plurals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199536-72">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199539-74">[63]</a> In later Egyptian, stressed CVːC, CVCC, and CV become much more common because of the loss of final dentals and glides.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199539-74">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stress">Stress</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Stress">edit</a>]</div> Earlier Egyptian stresses one of the last two syllables. According to some scholars, that is a development from a stage in Proto-Egyptian in which the third-last syllable could be stressed, which was lost as open posttonic syllables lost their vowels: */ˈχupiraw/ > */ˈχupraw/ 'transformation'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199537-78">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Egyptological_pronunciation">Egyptological pronunciation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Egyptological pronunciation">edit</a>]</div> As a convention, Egyptologists make use of an "Egyptological pronunciation" in English: the consonants are given fixed values, and vowels are inserted according to essentially arbitrary rules. Two of these consonants known as alef and ayin are generally pronounced as the vowel /ɑː/. Yodh is pronounced /iː/, w /uː/. Between other consonants, /ɛ/ is then inserted. Thus, for example, the Egyptian name <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_(Egyptian_name)" title="Ramesses (Egyptian name)">Ramesses</a> is most accurately transliterated as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/r%EA%9C%A5-ms-sw#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:rꜥ-ms-sw">rꜥ-ms-sw</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Ra" title="Ra">Ra</a> is the one who bore him") and pronounced as /rɑmɛssu/. In <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(linguistics)" title="Transcription (linguistics)">transcription</a>, ⟨a⟩, ⟨i⟩, and ⟨u⟩ all represent consonants. For example, the name <a href="/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a> (1341–1323 BC) was written in Egyptian as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/twt-%EA%9C%A5n%E1%B8%AB-jmn#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:twt-ꜥnḫ-jmn">twt-ꜥnḫ-jmn</a> ("living image of <a href="/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Amun</a>"). Experts have assigned generic sounds to these values as a matter of convenience, which is an artificial pronunciation and should not be mistaken for how Egyptian was ever pronounced at any time. So although twt-ꜥnḫ-ı͗mn is pronounced <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/tuːtənˈkɑːmən/</a> in modern Egyptological pronunciation, in his lifetime, it was likely to be pronounced something like *<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[təˈwaːtəʔ ˈʕaːnəχ ʔaˈmaːnəʔ]</a>,<a href="#cite_note-79">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVycichl198310,_224,_250-83">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVycichl1990215-84">[73]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">excessive citations</a>] transliterable as təwā́təʾ-ʿā́nəkh-ʾamā́nəʾ. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing_systems">Writing systems</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Writing systems">edit</a>]</div> Most surviving texts in the Egyptian language are written on stone in <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a>. The native name for Egyptian hieroglyphic writing is zẖꜣ n mdw-nṯr ("writing of the gods' words").<a href="#cite_note-85">[74]</a> In antiquity, most texts were written on the quite perishable medium of <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> though a few have survived that were written in hieratic and (later) demotic.<a href="#cite_note-86">[75]</a> There was also a form of <a href="/wiki/Cursive_hieroglyphs" title="Cursive hieroglyphs">cursive hieroglyphs</a>, used for religious documents on papyrus, such as the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Dead" title="Book of the Dead">Book of the Dead</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt">Twentieth Dynasty</a>; it was simpler to write than the hieroglyphs in stone inscriptions, but it was not as cursive as hieratic and lacked the wide use of <a href="/wiki/Typographic_ligature#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Typographic ligature">ligatures</a>. Additionally, there was a variety of stone-cut hieratic, known as "lapidary hieratic".<a href="#cite_note-87">[76]</a> In the language's final stage of development, the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">Coptic alphabet</a> replaced the older writing system. Hieroglyphs are employed in two ways in Egyptian texts: as <a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">ideograms</a> to represent the idea depicted by the pictures and, more commonly, as <a href="/wiki/Phonogram_(linguistics)" title="Phonogram (linguistics)">phonograms</a> to represent their <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetic</a> value. As the phonetic realization of Egyptian cannot be known with certainty, Egyptologists use a system of <a href="/wiki/Transliteration_of_Ancient_Egyptian" title="Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian">transliteration</a> to denote each sound that could be represented by a uniliteral hieroglyph.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen200013-88">[77]</a> Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar noted that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols derived from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African", reflecting the local wildlife of North Africa, the Levant and southern Mediterranean. In "regards to writing, we have seen that a purely Nilotic, hence [North] African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality" that the geographical location of Egypt is, of course, in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-89">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Morphology">edit</a>]</div> Egyptian is fairly typical for an Afroasiatic language in that most of its vocabulary is built around a root of three consonants, though there are sometimes only two consonants in the root: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/r%EA%9C%A5#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:rꜥ">rꜥ(w)</a> (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[riːʕa]</a>, "sun"—the [ʕ] is thought to have been something like a voiced pharyngeal fricative). Larger roots are also common and can have up to five consonants: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/s%E1%B8%ABd%E1%B8%ABd#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:sḫdḫd">sḫdḫd</a> ("be upside-down"). Vowels and other consonants are added to the root to derive different meanings, as Arabic, Hebrew, and other Afroasiatic languages still do. However, because vowels and sometimes glides are not written in any Egyptian script except Coptic, it can be difficult to reconstruct the actual forms of words. Thus, orthographic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stp#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:stp">stp</a> ("to choose"), for example, can represent the <a href="/wiki/Stative" class="mw-redirect" title="Stative">stative</a> (whose endings can be left unexpressed), the <a href="/wiki/Imperfective" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperfective">imperfective</a> forms or even a <a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">verbal noun</a> ("a choosing"). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Nouns">edit</a>]</div> Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">nouns</a> can be masculine or feminine (the latter is indicated, as with other Afroasiatic languages, by adding a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-t#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:-t">-t</a>) and singular or plural (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-w#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:-w">-w</a> / <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-wt#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:-wt">-wt</a>), or dual (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-wj#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:-wj">-wj</a> / <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-tj#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:-tj">-tj</a>). <a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">Articles</a>, both definite and indefinite, do not occur until Late Egyptian but are used widely thereafter. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Pronouns">edit</a>]</div> Egyptian has three different types of <a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">personal pronouns</a>: suffix, <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">enclitic</a> (called "dependent" by Egyptologists) and independent pronouns. There are also a number of verbal endings added to the <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> to form the stative and are regarded by some linguists<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199565-90">[79]</a> as a "fourth" set of personal pronouns. They bear close resemblance to their Semitic counterparts. The three main sets of personal pronouns are as follows: <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Personal pronouns </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3"> </th> <th>Suffix </th> <th>Dependent </th> <th>Independent </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">1st person </th> <th colspan="2">singular </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/.j#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:.j">.j</a> or .ı͗ </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/wj#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:wj">wj</a> or wı͗ </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jnk#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:jnk">jnk</a> or ı͗nk </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">plural </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/.n#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:.n">.n</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/n#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:n">n</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jnn#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:jnn">jnn</a> or ı͗nn </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">2nd person </th> <th rowspan="2">singular </th> <th>masc. </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/.k#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:.k">.k</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%B9%AFw#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ṯw">ṯw</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ntk#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ntk">ntk</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>fem. </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/.%E1%B9%AF#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:.ṯ">.ṯ</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%B9%AFn#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ṯn">ṯn</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nt%E1%B9%AF#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ntṯ">ntṯ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">plural </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/.%E1%B9%AFn#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:.ṯn">.ṯn</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%B9%AFn#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ṯn">ṯn</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nt%E1%B9%AFn#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ntṯn">ntṯn</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">3rd person </th> <th rowspan="2">singular </th> <th>masc. </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/.f#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:.f">.f</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sw#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:sw">sw</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ntf#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ntf">ntf</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>fem. </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/.s#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:.s">.s</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sj#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:sj">sj</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nts#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nts">nts</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">plural </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/.sn#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:.sn">.sn</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sn#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:sn">sn</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ntsn#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ntsn">ntsn</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> Demonstrative pronouns have separate masculine and feminine singular forms and common plural forms for both genders: <table class="wikitable Unicode"> <caption>Demonstrative pronouns </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Singular </th> <th rowspan="2">Plural </th> <th rowspan="2">Meaning </th></tr> <tr> <th>Masc. </th> <th>Fem. </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pn#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:pn">pn</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tn#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:tn">tn</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nn#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nn">nn</a> </td> <td>this, that, these, those </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pf#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:pf">pf</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tf#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:tf">tf</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nf#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nf">nf</a> </td> <td>that, those </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pw#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:pw">pw</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tw#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:tw">tw</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nw#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nw">nw</a> </td> <td>this, that, these, those (archaic) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/p%EA%9C%A3#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:pꜣ">pꜣ</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/t%EA%9C%A3#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:tꜣ">tꜣ</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/n%EA%9C%A3#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nꜣ">nꜣ</a> </td> <td>this, that, these, those (colloquial [earlier] & Late Egyptian) </td></tr></tbody></table> Finally, interrogative pronouns bear a close resemblance to their Semitic and <a href="/wiki/Berber_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber language">Berber</a> counterparts: <table class="wikitable Unicode"> <caption>Interrogative pronouns </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Pronoun </th> <th>Meaning </th> <th>Dependency </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mj#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:mj">mj</a> or mı͗ </td> <td>who / what </td> <td>Dependent </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ptr#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ptr">ptr</a> </td> <td>who / what </td> <td>Independent </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/j%E1%B8%AB#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:jḫ">jḫ</a> </td> <td>what </td> <td>Dependent </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/j%C5%A1st#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:jšst">jšst</a> or ı͗šst </td> <td>what </td> <td>Independent </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zy#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:zy">zy</a> </td> <td>which </td> <td>Independent & Dependent </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Verbs">edit</a>]</div> Egyptian verbs have finite and non-finite forms. Finite verbs convey <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a>/<a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical voice">voice</a>. Each is indicated by a set of <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affixal</a> morphemes attached to the verb: For example, the basic conjugation is <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/s%E1%B8%8Fm#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:sḏm">sḏm</a> ("to hear") is sḏm.f ("he hears"). Non-finite verbs occur without a subject and are the infinitive, the <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">participles</a> and the negative infinitive, which <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Grammar:_Being_an_Introduction_to_the_Study_of_Hieroglyphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs">Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs</a> calls "negatival complement". There are two main tenses/aspects in Egyptian: <a href="/wiki/Past_tense" title="Past tense">past</a> and temporally-unmarked <a href="/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" title="Imperfective aspect">imperfective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aorist" title="Aorist">aorist</a> forms. The latter are determined from their <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic</a> context. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adjectives">Adjectives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Adjectives">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">Adjectives</a> agree in <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">gender</a> and number with the nouns they modify: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1088965794">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .columns-start .column{float:left;min-width:20em}.mw-parser-output .columns-2 .column{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .columns-3 .column{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .columns-4 .column{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .columns-5 .column{width:20%}}</style><div class="columns-start columns-2"><div class="column"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/z#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:z">z</a>man</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nfr#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nfr">nfr</a>good.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr></div><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/z#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:z">z</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nfr#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nfr">nfr</a>man good.MASC"[the] good man"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1088965794"></div><div class="column"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zt#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:zt">zt</a>woman</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nfrt#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nfrt">nfrt</a>good.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr></div><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zt#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:zt">zt</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nfrt#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nfrt">nfrt</a>woman good.FEM"[the] good woman"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </div><div style="clear: both"></div></div> Attributive adjectives in phrases are after the nouns they modify: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/n%E1%B9%AFr#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nṯr">nṯr</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%EA%9C%A5%EA%9C%A3#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ꜥꜣ">ꜥꜣ</a> ("[the] great god"). However, when they are used independently as a <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predicate</a> in an <a href="/wiki/Adjectival_phrase" class="mw-redirect" title="Adjectival phrase">adjectival phrase</a>, as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%EA%9C%A5%EA%9C%A3#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ꜥꜣ">ꜥꜣ</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/n%E1%B9%AFr#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nṯr">nṯr</a> ("[the] god [is] great", <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> "great [is the] god"), adjectives precede the nouns they modify. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prepositions">Prepositions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Prepositions">edit</a>]</div> Egyptian makes use of <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">prepositions</a>. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/m#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:m">m</a> </td> <td>"in, as, with, from" </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/n#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:n">n</a> </td> <td>"to, for" </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/r#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:r">r</a> </td> <td>"to, at" </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jn#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:jn">jn</a> or ı͗n </td> <td>"by" </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%B8%A5n%EA%9C%A5#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ḥnꜥ">ḥnꜥ</a> </td> <td>"with" </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mj#Etymology_3#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:mj">mj</a> or mı͗ </td> <td>"like" </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%B8%A5r#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ḥr">ḥr</a> </td> <td>"on, upon" </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%B8%A5%EA%9C%A3#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ḥꜣ">ḥꜣ</a> </td> <td>"behind, around" </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BA%96r#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ẖr">ẖr</a> </td> <td>"under" </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tp#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:tp">tp</a> </td> <td>"atop" </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%B8%8Fr#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ḏr">ḏr</a> </td> <td>"since" </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adverbs">Adverbs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Adverbs">edit</a>]</div> Adverbs, in Egyptian, are at the end of a sentence: For example: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zj#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:zj">zı͗.n</a>went</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/n%E1%B9%AFr#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nṯr">nṯr</a>god</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jm#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:jm">ı͗m</a>there</div><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zj#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:zj">zı͗.n</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/n%E1%B9%AFr#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nṯr">nṯr</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jm#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:jm">ı͗m</a>went god there"[the] god went there"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> Here are some common Egyptian adverbs: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jm#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:jm">jm</a> or ı͗m </td> <td>"there" </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%EA%9C%A5%EA%9C%A3#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ꜥꜣ">ꜥꜣ</a> </td> <td>"here" </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%B9%AFnj#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ṯnj">ṯnj</a> or ṯnı͗ </td> <td>"where" </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zy_nw#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:zy nw">zy-nw</a> </td> <td>"when" (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> "which moment") </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mj_j%E1%B8%AB#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:mj jḫ">mj-jḫ</a> or mı͗-ı͗ḫ </td> <td>"how" (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> "like-what") </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/r_mj#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:r mj">r-mj</a> or r-mı͗ </td> <td>"why" (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> "for what") </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%B8%ABnt#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ḫnt">ḫnt</a> </td> <td>"before" </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Syntax">edit</a>]</div> Old Egyptian, Classical Egyptian, and Middle Egyptian have <a href="/wiki/Verb-subject-object" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb-subject-object">verb-subject-object</a> as the basic <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a>. For example, the equivalent of "he opens the door" would be <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/wn#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:wn">wn</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/s#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:s">s</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%EA%9C%A5%EA%9C%A3#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ꜥꜣ">ꜥꜣ</a> ("opens he [the] door"). The so-called <a href="/wiki/Status_constructus" class="mw-redirect" title="Status constructus">construct state</a> combines two or more nouns to express the <a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a>, as in <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber languages</a>. However, that changed in the later stages of the language, including Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic. The early stages of Egyptian have no articles, but the later forms use <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/p%EA%9C%A3#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:pꜣ">pꜣ</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/t%EA%9C%A3#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:tꜣ">tꜣ</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/n%EA%9C%A3#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nꜣ">nꜣ</a>. As with other Afroasiatic languages, Egyptian uses two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. It also uses three grammatical numbers: singular, dual and plural. However, later Egyptian has a tendency to lose the dual as a productive form. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language#Influence_on_other_languages" title="Coptic language">Coptic language § Influence on other languages</a></div> The Egyptian language survived through the Middle Ages and into the early modern period in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic language</a>. Coptic survived past the 16th century only as an isolated vernacular and as a <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" title="Coptic Orthodox Church">Coptic Orthodox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Catholic_Church" title="Coptic Catholic Church">Coptic Catholic Churches</a>. Coptic also had an enduring effect on <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a>, which replaced Coptic as the main daily language in Egypt; the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic#Coptic_substratum" title="Egyptian Arabic">Coptic substratum</a> in Egyptian Arabic appears in certain aspects of syntax and to a lesser degree in vocabulary and phonology. In antiquity, Egyptian exerted some influence on <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Greek">Classical Greek</a>, so that a number of Egyptian loanwords into Greek survive into modern usage. Examples include: <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ebony#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:ebony">ebony</a> (Egyptian <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hbnj#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:hbnj">hbnj</a>, via Greek and then Latin)</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ivory#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:ivory">ivory</a> (Egyptian <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%EA%9C%A3bw#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ꜣbw">ꜣbw</a>, via Latin)</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/natron#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:natron">natron</a> (Egyptian <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/n%E1%B9%AFrj#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nṯrj">nṯrj</a>, via Greek)</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lily#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:lily">lily</a> (Egyptian <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%B8%A5rrt#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ḥrrt">ḥrrt</a>, Coptic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%A9%E2%B2%97%E2%B2%8F%E2%B2%A3%E2%B2%93#Coptic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ϩⲗⲏⲣⲓ">hlēri</a>, via Greek)</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ibis#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:ibis">ibis</a> (Egyptian <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hbj#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:hbj">hbj</a>, via Greek)</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/oasis#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:oasis">oasis</a> (Egyptian <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/w%E1%B8%A5%EA%9C%A3t#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:wḥꜣt">wḥꜣt</a>, via Greek)</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/barge#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:barge">barge</a> (Egyptian <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/b%EA%9C%A3jr#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:bꜣjr">bꜣjr</a>, via Greek))</li> <li>possibly <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cat#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:cat">cat</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[note 7]</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pharaoh#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:pharaoh">pharaoh</a> (Egyptian <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pr_%EA%9C%A5%EA%9C%A3#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:pr ꜥꜣ">pr ꜥꜣ</a>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> "great house", via Hebrew and Greek)</li></ul> The Hebrew Bible also contains some words, terms, and names that are thought by scholars to be Egyptian in origin. An example of this is <a href="/wiki/Zaphnath-Paaneah" title="Zaphnath-Paaneah">Zaphnath-Paaneah</a>, the Egyptian name given to <a href="/wiki/Joseph_(Genesis)" title="Joseph (Genesis)">Joseph</a>. The etymological root of <a href="/wiki/Name_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Name of Egypt">"Egypt"</a> is the same as <a href="/wiki/Copts" title="Copts">Copts</a>, ultimately from the Late Egyptian name of <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a>, Hikuptah, a continuation of Middle Egyptian <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%B8%A5wt-k%EA%9C%A3-pt%E1%B8%A5#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ḥwt-kꜣ-ptḥ">ḥwt-kꜣ-ptḥ</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> "temple of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_conception_of_the_soul" title="Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul">ka (soul)</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ptah" title="Ptah">Ptah</a>").<a href="#cite_note-92">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thesaurus_Linguae_Aegyptiae" title="Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae">Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_literature" title="Ancient Egyptian literature">Ancient Egyptian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_numerals" title="Egyptian numerals">Egyptian numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transliteration_of_Ancient_Egyptian" title="Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian">Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Whence the designation Kemic for Egypto-Coptic with km.t */kū́m˘t/ "black land, Egypt", as opposed to ṭšr.t "red land, desert". Proposed by <a href="#CITEREFSchenkel1990">Schenkel (1990</a>:1). Note that the name <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/r_n_kmt" class="extiw" title="wikt:r n kmt">r n km.t</a> is only attested in versions of the <a href="/wiki/Story_of_Sinuhe" title="Story of Sinuhe">Story of Sinuhe</a> and appears to have been a literary invention. </li> <li id="cite_note-extinct-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-extinct_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-extinct_4-1">b</a> The language may have survived in isolated pockets in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a> as late as the 19th century, according to <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFQuibell1901" class="citation journal cs1">Quibell, James Edward (1901). "When did Coptic become extinct?". Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. 39: 87.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+%C3%A4gyptische+Sprache+und+Altertumskunde&rft.atitle=When+did+Coptic+become+extinct%3F&rft.volume=39&rft.pages=87&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Quibell&rft.aufirst=James+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"> In the village of Pi-Solsel (Az-Zayniyyah, El Zenya or Al Zeniya north of <a href="/wiki/Luxor" title="Luxor">Luxor</a>), <a href="/wiki/Passive_speaker_(language)" title="Passive speaker (language)">passive speakers</a> were recorded as late as the 1930s, and traces of traditional vernacular Coptic reported to exist in other places such as <a href="/wiki/Abydos,_Egypt" title="Abydos, Egypt">Abydos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dendera" title="Dendera">Dendera</a>, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVycichl1936" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Vycichl, Werner (1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://copticsounds.files.wordpress.com/2010/02/pi-solsel-ein-dorf-mit-koptischer-uberlieferung1.pdf">"Pi-Solsel, ein Dorf mit koptischer Überlieferung"</a> [Pi-Solsel, a village with Coptic tradition] (PDF). Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo (MDAIK) (in German). 6: 169–175.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mitteilungen+des+Deutschen+Arch%C3%A4ologischen+Instituts%2C+Abteilung+Kairo+%28MDAIK%29&rft.atitle=Pi-Solsel%2C+ein+Dorf+mit+koptischer+%C3%9Cberlieferung&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E169-%3C%2Fspan%3E175&rft.date=1936&rft.aulast=Vycichl&rft.aufirst=Werner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcopticsounds.files.wordpress.com%2F2010%2F02%2Fpi-solsel-ein-dorf-mit-koptischer-uberlieferung1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> The name r n km.t is only attested in versions of the <a href="/wiki/Story_of_Sinuhe" title="Story of Sinuhe">Story of Sinuhe</a> and appears to have been a literary invention. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> See <a href="#CITEREFPeust1999">Peust (1999)</a>, for a review of the history of thinking on the subject; his reconstructions of words are nonstandard. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> There is evidence of Bohairic having a phonemic glottal stop: <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno (1995</a>:44). </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> In other dialects, the graphemes are used only for clusters of a stop followed by /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ and were not used for aspirates: see <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno (1995</a>:248). </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Possibly the precursor of Coptic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%A3%E2%B2%81%E2%B2%A9#Coptic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ϣⲁⲩ">šau</a> ("tomcat") suffixed with feminine <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-t#Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wikt:-t">-t</a>, but some authorities dispute this, e.g. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuehnergard2007" class="citation book cs1">Huehnergard, John (2007). "Qiṭṭa: Arabic Cats". Classical Arabic Humanities in Their Own Terms. pp. 407–418. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2Fej.9789004165731.i-612.89">10.1163/ej.9789004165731.i-612.89</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16573-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16573-1"><bdi>978-90-04-16573-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Qi%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa%3A+Arabic+Cats&rft.btitle=Classical+Arabic+Humanities+in+Their+Own+Terms&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E407-%3C%2Fspan%3E418&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2Fej.9789004165731.i-612.89&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16573-1&rft.aulast=Huehnergard&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988">. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErmanGrapow1926–1961-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErmanGrapow1926–1961_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErmanGrapow1926–1961_1-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFErmanGrapow1926–1961">Erman & Grapow 1926–1961</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-ancientsudan-3"><a href="#cite_ref-ancientsudan_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090105185615/https://ancientsudan.org/writing_03_old_nubian_%26_arabic.htm">"Ancient Sudan~ Nubia: Writing: The Basic Languages of Christian Nubia: Greek, Coptic, Old Nubian, and Arabic"</a>. ancientsudan.org. Archived from the original on 5 January 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ancientsudan.org&rft.atitle=Ancient+Sudan~+Nubia%3A+Writing%3A+The+Basic+Languages+of+Christian+Nubia%3A+Greek%2C+Coptic%2C+Old+Nubian%2C+and+Arabic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ancientsudan.org%2Fwriting_03_old_nubian_%26_arabic.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20002-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen20002_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen20002_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen20002_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen20002_5-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen20002_5-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen 2000</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno19958-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno19958_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno19958_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno19958_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno19958_6-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno19958_6-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBudge1920" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Budge, E. A. Wallis (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.um.es/cepoat/egipcio/wp-content/uploads/egyptianhierogly.pdf">Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary</a> (PDF). London: Harrison and sons. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171212031453/http://www.um.es/cepoat/egipcio/wp-content/uploads/egyptianhierogly.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 12 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egyptian+Hieroglyphic+Dictionary&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Harrison+and+sons&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Budge&rft.aufirst=E.+A.+Wallis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.um.es%2Fcepoat%2Fegipcio%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fegyptianhierogly.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrossmanRichter2015" class="citation book cs1">Grossman, Eitan; Richter, Tonio Sebastian (2015). "The Egyptian-Coptic language: its setting in space, time and culture". Egyptian-Coptic Linguistics in Typological Perspective. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110346510.69">10.1515/9783110346510.69</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110346510" title="Special:BookSources/9783110346510"><bdi>9783110346510</bdi></a>. <q>The Egyptian-Coptic language is attested in a vast corpus of written texts that almost uninterruptedly document its lifetime over more than 4,000 years, from the invention of the hieroglyphic writing system in the late 4th millennium BCE, up to the 14th century CE. Egyptian is thus likely to be the longest-attested human language known.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Egyptian-Coptic+language%3A+its+setting+in+space%2C+time+and+culture&rft.btitle=Egyptian-Coptic+Linguistics+in+Typological+Perspective&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110346510.69&rft.isbn=9783110346510&rft.aulast=Grossman&rft.aufirst=Eitan&rft.au=Richter%2C+Tonio+Sebastian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLayton2007" class="citation book cs1">Layton, Benjamin (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y83UUpkdOMMC">Coptic in 20 Lessons: Introduction to Sahidic Coptic with Exercises & Vocabularies</a>. Peeters Publishers. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789042918108" title="Special:BookSources/9789042918108"><bdi>9789042918108</bdi></a>. <q>The liturgy of the present day Coptic Orthodox Church in Egypt is written in a mixture of Arabic, Greek, and Bohairic Coptic, the ancient dialect of the Delta and the great monasteries of the Wadi Natrun. Coptic is no longer a living language.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coptic+in+20+Lessons%3A+Introduction+to+Sahidic+Coptic+with+Exercises+%26+Vocabularies&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9789042918108&rft.aulast=Layton&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY83UUpkdOMMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno19951-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno19951_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno19951_11-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin2013-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubin2013_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubin2013_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubin2013_12-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFRubin2013">Rubin 2013</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrajzyngierShay2012" class="citation book cs1">Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (31 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uIeEPQAACAAJ">The Afroasiatic Languages</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521865333" title="Special:BookSources/9780521865333"><bdi>9780521865333</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Afroasiatic+Languages&rft.pages=102&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012-05-31&rft.isbn=9780521865333&rft.aulast=Frajzyngier&rft.aufirst=Zygmunt&rft.au=Shay%2C+Erin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuIeEPQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno19955-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno19955_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno19955_14-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllan2013" class="citation book cs1">Allan, Keith (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BzfRFmlN2ZAC&pg=PA264">The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics</a>. OUP Oxford. p. 264. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199585847" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199585847"><bdi>978-0199585847</bdi></a>. Retrieved 7 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+History+of+Linguistics&rft.pages=264&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0199585847&rft.aulast=Allan&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBzfRFmlN2ZAC%26pg%3DPA264&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199551-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199551_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199551_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhret1996" class="citation book cs1">Ehret, Christopher (1996). Egypt in Africa. Indianapolis, Ind.: Indianapolis Museum of Art. pp. 25–27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-936260-64-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-936260-64-5"><bdi>0-936260-64-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt+in+Africa&rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+Ind.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.pub=Indianapolis+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-936260-64-5&rft.aulast=Ehret&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorkot2005" class="citation book cs1">Morkot, Robert (2005). The Egyptians: an introduction. 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Interview with Bill Manley: 17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiqvvs&rft.atitle=Champollion%2C+Hieroglyphs%2C+and+Coptic+Magical+Papyri&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=17&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Eiland&rft.aufirst=Murray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F89126750&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199533-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199533_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199533_49-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199533_49-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199534-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199534_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199535-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199535_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199535_52-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199538-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199538_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199538_53-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199538_53-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199538_53-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid09LQDwAAQBAJpgPA26_26]-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid09LQDwAAQBAJpgPA26_26]_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen2020">Allen 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=09LQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26">26</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid09LQDwAAQBAJpgPA28_28]-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid09LQDwAAQBAJpgPA28_28]_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen2020">Allen 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=09LQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28">28</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDepuydt1993" class="citation journal cs1">Depuydt, Leo (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://copticsounds.files.wordpress.com/2010/03/on-coptic-sounds.pdf">"On Coptic Sounds"</a> (PDF). 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Gregorian Biblical Press: 338–375.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Orientalia&rft.atitle=On+Coptic+Sounds&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E338-%3C%2Fspan%3E375&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Depuydt&rft.aufirst=Leo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcopticsounds.files.wordpress.com%2F2010%2F03%2Fon-coptic-sounds.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid09LQDwAAQBAJpgPA76_76]-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid09LQDwAAQBAJpgPA76_76]_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen2020">Allen 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=09LQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76">76</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid09LQDwAAQBAJpgPA74_74–75]-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid09LQDwAAQBAJpgPA74_74–75]_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen2020">Allen 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=09LQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74">74–75</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeust199985After_the_New_Kingdom,_confusion_between_both_series_of_stops_becomes_very_frequent_in_Egyptian_writing._A_phonetic_merger_of_some_kind_is_certainly_the_cause_of_this_phenomenon.-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeust199985After_the_New_Kingdom,_confusion_between_both_series_of_stops_becomes_very_frequent_in_Egyptian_writing._A_phonetic_merger_of_some_kind_is_certainly_the_cause_of_this_phenomenon._59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPeust1999">Peust 1999</a>, p. 85, After the New Kingdom, confusion between both series of stops becomes very frequent in Egyptian writing. A phonetic merger of some kind is certainly the cause of this phenomenon.. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeust1999102In_Roman_Demotic_<span_class="nowrap">&#x27E8;ꜥ&#x27E9;_suddenly_begins_to_be_employed_in_a_very_inconsistent_manner._It_is_often_omitted_or_added_without_etymological_justification._I_take_this_as_an_indication_that_the_phoneme_/ʕ/_was_lost_from_the_spoken_language.-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeust1999102In_Roman_Demotic_<span_class="nowrap">&#x27E8;ꜥ&#x27E9;_suddenly_begins_to_be_employed_in_a_very_inconsistent_manner._It_is_often_omitted_or_added_without_etymological_justification._I_take_this_as_an_indication_that_the_phoneme_/ʕ/_was_lost_from_the_spoken_language._60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPeust1999">Peust 1999</a>, p. 102, In Roman Demotic ⟨ꜥ⟩ suddenly begins to be employed in a very inconsistent manner. It is often omitted or added without etymological justification. I take this as an indication that the phoneme /ʕ/ was lost from the spoken language.. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199541-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199541_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199541_64-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199541_64-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199541_64-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199546-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199546_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199546_65-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199546_65-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199542-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199542_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199542_67-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199542_67-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199543-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199543_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199540–42-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199540–42_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, pp. 40–42. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199536-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199536_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199536_72-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199536_72-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199536_72-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2013-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen2013_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen2013">Allen 2013</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199539-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199539_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199539_74-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199539_74-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199539_74-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199539_74-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199539_74-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199547-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199547_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199547–48-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199547–48_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, pp. 47–48. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199548-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199548_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199548_77-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199548_77-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199537-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199537_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFecht1960" class="citation book cs1">Fecht, Gerhard (1960). 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Deutsches archäologisches Institut, Abteilung Kairo.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Nominalbildung+des+%C3%84gyptischen&rft.pub=Deutsches+arch%C3%A4ologisches+Institut%2C+Abteilung+Kairo&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Osing&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchenkel1983" class="citation book cs1">Schenkel, W. (1983). Zur Rekonstruktion deverbalen Nominalbildung des Ägyptischen. Wiesbaden: Harrasowitz. pp. 212, 214, 247.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zur+Rekonstruktion+deverbalen+Nominalbildung+des+%C3%84gyptischen&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=212%2C+214%2C+247&rft.pub=Harrasowitz&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Schenkel&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVycichl198310,_224,_250-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVycichl198310,_224,_250_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVycichl1983">Vycichl 1983</a>, pp. 10, 224, 250. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVycichl1990215-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVycichl1990215_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVycichl1990">Vycichl 1990</a>, p. 215. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchiffman2003" class="citation book cs1">Schiffman, Lawrence H. 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BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004128859" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004128859"><bdi>978-9004128859</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Semitic+Papyrology+in+Context%3A+A+Climate+of+Creativity%3A+Papers+from+a+New+York+University+Conference+Marking+the+Retirement+of+Baruch+A.+Levine&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2003-01-01&rft.isbn=978-9004128859&rft.aulast=Schiffman&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4eZvdVOvaU4C%26q%3D%2522writing%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bgods%2527%2Bwords%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isac.uchicago.edu/research/publications/oip/edwin-smith-surgical-papyrus-volume-1-hieroglyphic-transliteration">"The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, Volume 1: Hieroglyphic Transliteration, Translation, and Commentary | Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures"</a>. isac.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 18 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=isac.uchicago.edu&rft.atitle=The+Edwin+Smith+Surgical+Papyrus%2C+Volume+1%3A+Hieroglyphic+Transliteration%2C+Translation%2C+and+Commentary+%7C+Institute+for+the+Study+of+Ancient+Cultures&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fisac.uchicago.edu%2Fresearch%2Fpublications%2Foip%2Fedwin-smith-surgical-papyrus-volume-1-hieroglyphic-transliteration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShawBloxam2020" class="citation book cs1">Shaw, Ian; Bloxam, Elizabeth (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6okIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1119">The Oxford Handbook of Egyptology</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 1119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192596987" title="Special:BookSources/9780192596987"><bdi>9780192596987</bdi></a>. Retrieved 14 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Egyptology&rft.pages=1119&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780192596987&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.au=Bloxam%2C+Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6okIEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen200013-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen200013_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen 2000</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184265">Ancient Civilizations of Africa</a>. Vol. 2 (Abridged ed.). London: J. Currey. 1990. pp. 11–12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0852550928" title="Special:BookSources/0852550928"><bdi>0852550928</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Civilizations+of+Africa&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11-%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.edition=Abridged&rft.pub=J.+Currey&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0852550928&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000184265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199565-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199565_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno 1995</a>, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoffmeier2007" class="citation journal cs1">Hoffmeier, James K (1 October 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.galaxie.com/article/13430">"Rameses of the Exodus narratives is the 13th B.C. 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Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65312-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65312-1"><bdi>978-0-521-65312-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+Egyptian%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Language+and+Culture+of+Hieroglyphs&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-65312-1&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=James+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Peter_Allen" title="James Peter Allen">Allen, James P.</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gd6aAAAAQBAJ">The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-66467-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-66467-8"><bdi>978-1-107-66467-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Egyptian+Language%3A+An+Historical+Study&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-107-66467-8&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=James+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGd6aAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristidēsArapopoulouChritē2007" class="citation book cs1">Christidēs, Anastasios-Phoivos; Arapopoulou, Maria; Chritē, Maria (2007). A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83307-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83307-3"><bdi>978-0-521-83307-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Greek%3A+From+the+Beginnings+to+Late+Antiquity&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83307-3&rft.aulast=Christid%C4%93s&rft.aufirst=Anastasios-Phoivos&rft.au=Arapopoulou%2C+Maria&rft.au=Chrit%C4%93%2C+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaspelmath2001" class="citation book cs1">Haspelmath, Martin (2001). Language Typology and Language Universals: An International Handbook. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-017154-6" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-017154-6"><bdi>3-11-017154-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Typology+and+Language+Universals%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=3-11-017154-6&rft.aulast=Haspelmath&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBard1999" class="citation book cs1">Bard, Kathryn A. (1999). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-18589-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-18589-0"><bdi>0-415-18589-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Archaeology+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-415-18589-0&rft.aulast=Bard&rft.aufirst=Kathryn+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCallender1975" class="citation book cs1">Callender, John B. (1975). Middle Egyptian. Undena Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89003-006-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89003-006-6"><bdi>978-0-89003-006-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+Egyptian&rft.pub=Undena+Publications&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-89003-006-6&rft.aulast=Callender&rft.aufirst=John+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoprieno1995" class="citation book cs1">Loprieno, Antonio (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientegyptianl0000lopr">Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44384-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44384-5"><bdi>978-0-521-44384-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian%3A+A+Linguistic+Introduction&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-44384-5&rft.aulast=Loprieno&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientegyptianl0000lopr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyers1997" class="citation book cs1">Meyers, Eric M. (1997). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Archaeology+in+the+Near+East&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Meyers&rft.aufirst=Eric+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSatzinger2008" class="citation news cs1">Satzinger, Helmut (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://homepage.univie.ac.at/helmut.satzinger/Texte/VoicedStops.pdf">"What happened to the voiced consonants of Egyptian?"</a> (PDF). Vol. 2. Acts of the X International Congress of Egyptologists. pp. 1537–1546. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140815014539/http://homepage.univie.ac.at/helmut.satzinger/Texte/VoicedStops.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 15 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=What+happened+to+the+voiced+consonants+of+Egyptian%3F&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1537-%3C%2Fspan%3E1546&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Satzinger&rft.aufirst=Helmut&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhomepage.univie.ac.at%2Fhelmut.satzinger%2FTexte%2FVoicedStops.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchenkel1990" class="citation book cs1">Schenkel, Wolfgang (1990). Einführung in die altägyptische Sprachwissenschaft. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Einf%C3%BChrung+in+die+alt%C3%A4gyptische+Sprachwissenschaft&rft.place=Darmstadt&rft.pub=Wissenschaftliche+Buchgesellschaft&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Schenkel&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchenkel2012" class="citation book cs1">Schenkel, Wolfgang (2012). Tübinger Einführung in die klassisch-ägyptische Sprache und Schrift, 7th rev. ed. Tübingen: Pagina.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=T%C3%BCbinger+Einf%C3%BChrung+in+die+klassisch-%C3%A4gyptische+Sprache+und+Schrift%2C+7th+rev.+ed.&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen&rft.pub=Pagina&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Schenkel&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVycichl1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Werner_Vycichl" title="Werner Vycichl">Vycichl, Werner</a> (1983). Dictionnaire Étymologique de la Langue Copte. Leuven. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782-7247-0096-1" title="Special:BookSources/9782-7247-0096-1"><bdi>9782-7247-0096-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionnaire+%C3%89tymologique+de+la+Langue+Copte&rft.place=Leuven&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9782-7247-0096-1&rft.aulast=Vycichl&rft.aufirst=Werner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVycichl1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Werner_Vycichl" title="Werner Vycichl">Vycichl, Werner</a> (1990). La Vocalisation de la Langue Égyptienne. Cairo: IFAO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782-7247-0096-1" title="Special:BookSources/9782-7247-0096-1"><bdi>9782-7247-0096-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Vocalisation+de+la+Langue+%C3%89gyptienne&rft.place=Cairo&rft.pub=IFAO&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9782-7247-0096-1&rft.aulast=Vycichl&rft.aufirst=Werner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTakács2011" class="citation book cs1">Takács, Gábor (2011). "Semitic-Egyptian Relations". In Weninger, Stefan (ed.). The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. de Gruyter Mouton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Semitic-Egyptian+Relations&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.pub=de+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Tak%C3%A1cs&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A1bor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Peter_Allen" title="James Peter Allen">Allen, James P.</a> (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=09LQDwAAQBAJ">Ancient Egyptian Phonology</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108751827">10.1017/9781108751827</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-48555-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-48555-5"><bdi>978-1-108-48555-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216256704">216256704</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Phonology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A216256704%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108751827&rft.isbn=978-1-108-48555-5&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=James+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D09LQDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubin2013" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aaron_D._Rubin" title="Aaron D. Rubin">Rubin, Aaron D.</a> (2013). "Egyptian and Hebrew". In <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Khan" title="Geoffrey Khan">Khan, Geoffrey</a>; Bolozky, Shmuel; Fassberg, Steven; <a href="/wiki/Gary_A._Rendsburg" title="Gary A. Rendsburg">Rendsburg, Gary A.</a>; Rubin, Aaron D.; Schwarzwald, Ora R.; Zewi, Tamar (eds.). Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Linguistics. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2212-4241_ehll_EHLL_COM_00000721">10.1163/2212-4241_ehll_EHLL_COM_00000721</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17642-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17642-3"><bdi>978-90-04-17642-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Egyptian+and+Hebrew&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Hebrew+Language+and+Linguistics&rft.place=Leiden+and+Boston&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F2212-4241_ehll_EHLL_COM_00000721&rft.isbn=978-90-04-17642-3&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Aaron+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMattessich2002" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Mattessich" title="Richard Mattessich">Mattessich, Richard</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191231124651/http://clio.lib.olemiss.edu/cdm/ref/collection/aah/id/19526">"The oldest writings, and inventory tags of Egypt"</a>. Accounting Historians Journal. 29 (1): 195–208. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2308%2F0148-4184.29.1.195">10.2308/0148-4184.29.1.195</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40698264">40698264</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:160704269">160704269</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clio.lib.olemiss.edu/cdm/ref/collection/aah/id/19526">the original</a> on 31 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Accounting+Historians+Journal&rft.atitle=The+oldest+writings%2C+and+inventory+tags+of+Egypt&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E195-%3C%2Fspan%3E208&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A160704269%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40698264%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2308%2F0148-4184.29.1.195&rft.aulast=Mattessich&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclio.lib.olemiss.edu%2Fcdm%2Fref%2Fcollection%2Faah%2Fid%2F19526&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overviews">Overviews</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Overviews">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Allen, James P., The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study, Cambridge University Press, 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03246-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03246-0">978-1-107-03246-0</a> (hardback), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-66467-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-66467-8">978-1-107-66467-8</a> (paperback).</li> <li>Loprieno, Antonio, Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction, Cambridge University Press, 1995. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-44384-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-44384-9">0-521-44384-9</a> (hardback), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-44849-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-44849-2">0-521-44849-2</a> (paperback).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeust1999" class="citation book cs1">Peust, Carsten (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/peust1999">Egyptian Phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language</a>. Peust & Gutschmidt. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11588%2Fdiglit.1167">10.11588/diglit.1167</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-933043-02-6" title="Special:BookSources/3-933043-02-6"><bdi>3-933043-02-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egyptian+Phonology%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Phonology+of+a+Dead+Language&rft.pub=Peust+%26+Gutschmidt&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11588%2Fdiglit.1167&rft.isbn=3-933043-02-6&rft.aulast=Peust&rft.aufirst=Carsten&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de%2Fdiglit%2Fpeust1999&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Vergote, Jozef, "Problèmes de la «Nominalbildung» en égyptien", Chronique d'Égypte 51 (1976), pp. 261–285.</li> <li>Vycichl, Werner, La Vocalisation de la Langue Égyptienne, IFAO, Cairo, 1990. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782-7247-0096-1" title="Special:BookSources/9782-7247-0096-1">9782-7247-0096-1</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammars">Grammars</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Grammars">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Peter_Allen" title="James Peter Allen">Allen, James P.</a>, Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs, first edition, Cambridge University Press, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-65312-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-65312-6">0-521-65312-6</a> (hardback) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-77483-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-77483-7">0-521-77483-7</a> (paperback).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joris_Borghouts" title="Joris Borghouts">Borghouts, Joris F.</a>, Egyptian: An Introduction to the Writing and Language of the Middle Kingdom, two vols., Peeters, 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-042-92294-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-042-92294-5">978-9-042-92294-5</a> (paperback).</li> <li>J. Cerny, S. Israelit-Groll, C. Eyre, A Late Egyptian Grammar, 4th, updated edition – Biblical Institute; Rome, 1984</li> <li>Collier, Mark, and Manley, Bill, How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Step-by-Step Guide to Teach Yourself, British Museum Press (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7141-1910-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7141-1910-5">0-7141-1910-5</a>) and University of California Press (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-21597-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-21597-4">0-520-21597-4</a>), both 1998.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Gardiner" title="Alan Gardiner">Gardiner, Sir Alan H.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Grammar:_Being_an_Introduction_to_the_Study_of_Hieroglyphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs">Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs</a>, Griffith Institute, Oxford, 3rd ed. 1957. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-900416-35-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-900416-35-1">0-900416-35-1</a>.</li> <li>Hoch, James E., Middle Egyptian Grammar, Benben Publications, Mississauga, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-920168-12-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-920168-12-4">0-920168-12-4</a>.</li> <li>Selden, Daniel L., Hieroglyphic Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Literature of the Middle Kingdom, University of California Press, 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-27546-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-27546-1">978-0-520-27546-1</a> (hardback).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dictionaries">Dictionaries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Dictionaries">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErmanGrapow1926–1961" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Erman" title="Adolf Erman">Erman, Adolf</a>; <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Grapow" title="Hermann Grapow">Grapow, Hermann</a> (1926–1961). <a href="/wiki/W%C3%B6rterbuch_der_%C3%A4gyptischen_Sprache" title="Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache">Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache</a> [Dictionary of the Egyptian Language] (in German). Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-05-002264-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-05-002264-2"><bdi>978-3-05-002264-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=W%C3%B6rterbuch+der+%C3%A4gyptischen+Sprache&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Akademie-Verlag&rft.date=1926%2F1961&rft.isbn=978-3-05-002264-2&rft.aulast=Erman&rft.aufirst=Adolf&rft.au=Grapow%2C+Hermann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgyptian+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_O._Faulkner" title="Raymond O. Faulkner">Faulkner, Raymond O.</a>, A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, Griffith Institute, Oxford, 1962. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-900416-32-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-900416-32-7">0-900416-32-7</a> (hardback).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_H._Lesko" title="Leonard H. Lesko">Lesko, Leonard H.</a>, A Dictionary of Late Egyptian, 2nd ed., 2 vols., B. C. Scribe Publications, <a href="/wiki/Providence,_Rhode_Island" title="Providence, Rhode Island">Providence</a>, 2002 et 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-930548-14-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-930548-14-0">0-930548-14-0</a> (vol.1), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-930548-15-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-930548-15-9">0-930548-15-9</a> (vol. 2).</li> <li>Shennum, David, English-Egyptian Index of Faulkner's Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, Undena Publications, 1977. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89003-054-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-89003-054-5">0-89003-054-5</a>.</li> <li>Bonnamy, Yvonne and Sadek, Ashraf-Alexandre, Dictionnaire des hiéroglyphes: Hiéroglyphes-Français, Actes Sud, Arles, 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7427-8922-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7427-8922-1">978-2-7427-8922-1</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Vycichl" title="Werner Vycichl">Vycichl, Werner</a>, Dictionnaire Étymologique de la Langue Copte, Peeters, Leuven, 1984. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-8017-0197-1" title="Special:BookSources/2-8017-0197-1">2-8017-0197-1</a>.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=De_Vartavan,_Christian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="De Vartavan, Christian (page does not exist)">de Vartavan, Christian</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_de_Vartavan" class="extiw" title="fr:Christian de Vartavan">fr</a>], Vocalised Dictionary of Ancient Egyptian (Open Access), Projectis Publishing, London, 2022. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-913984-16-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-913984-16-8">978-1-913984-16-8</a>. [Free PDF download: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.academia.edu/101048552/Vocalised_Dictionary_of_Ancient_Egyptian_Open_Access_">https://www.academia.edu/101048552/Vocalised_Dictionary_of_Ancient_Egyptian_Open_Access_</a>]</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Online_dictionaries">Online dictionaries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Online dictionaries">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/er/beinlich/beinlich.html">The Beinlich Wordlist</a>, an online searchable dictionary of ancient Egyptian words (translations are in German).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aaew.bbaw.de/tla">Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae</a>, an online service available from October 2004 which is associated with various German Egyptological projects, including the monumental Altägyptisches Wörterbuch <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201214101445/https://aaew.bbaw.de/">Archived</a> 14 December 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> of the Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (<a href="/wiki/Berlin-Brandenburg_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities" title="Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities">Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities</a>, Berlin, Germany).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rhbarnhart.net/VYGUS_Dictionary_2018.pdf">Mark Vygus Dictionary 2018</a>, a searchable dictionary of ancient Egyptian words, arranged by glyph.</li></ul> Important Note: The old grammars and dictionaries of <a href="/wiki/E._A._Wallis_Budge" title="E. A. Wallis Budge">E. A. Wallis Budge</a> have long been considered obsolete by Egyptologists, even though these books are still available for purchase. More book information is available at Glyphs and Grammars. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:English_terms_derived_from_Egyptian" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:English terms derived from Egyptian">Category:English terms derived from Egyptian</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egyptian" class="extiw" title="oldwikisource:Category:Ancient Egyptian"> Egyptian language repository</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>, the free library</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aaew.bbaw.de/tla/">Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae: Dictionary of the Egyptian language</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://homepage.univie.ac.at/helmut.satzinger/Texte/EgnSem01.pdf">The Egyptian connection: Egyptian and the Semitic languages</a> by Helmut Satzinger</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikis.hu-berlin.de/interlinear_glossing/Ancient_Egyptian:Glossing_of_common_Earlier_Egyptian_forms">Ancient Egyptian in the wiki Glossing Ancient Languages</a> (recommendations for the <a href="/wiki/Interlinear_gloss" title="Interlinear gloss">Interlinear Morphemic Glossing</a> of Ancient Egyptian texts)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Template:Ancient Egypt topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Egypt topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Egypt topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Egypt_topics809" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#decd87"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Egypt_artifacts" title="Glossary of ancient Egypt artifacts">Glossary of artifacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ancient_Egypt%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of ancient Egypt–related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Egypt/Main_topics" title="Portal:Ancient Egypt/Main topics">Main topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding-left:81px"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_agriculture" title="Ancient Egyptian agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Revival_architecture" title="Egyptian Revival architecture">Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_obelisks" title="List of Egyptian obelisks">Obelisks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pylon_(architecture)" title="Pylon (architecture)">Pylon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portraiture_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Portraiture in ancient Egypt">Portraiture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_chronology" title="Egyptian chronology">Chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Urban planning in ancient Egypt">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_towns_and_cities" title="List of ancient Egyptian towns and cities">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Clothing in ancient Egypt">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy" title="Ancient Egyptian race controversy">Ancient Egyptian race controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_Egypt" title="Population history of Egypt">Population history of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Prehistoric Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_cuisine" title="Ancient Egyptian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Dance in ancient Egypt">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Dynasties of ancient Egypt">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_practices" title="Ancient Egyptian funerary practices">Funerary practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Category:Geography of ancient Egypt">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Royal_Wife" title="Great Royal Wife">Great Royal Wives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_royal_consorts" title="List of ancient Egyptian royal consorts">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_hieroglyphs" title="Cursive hieroglyphs">Cursive hieroglyphs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">History</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_literature" title="Ancient Egyptian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_mathematics" title="Ancient Egyptian mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_medicine" title="Ancient Egyptian medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Military of ancient Egypt">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Egypt" title="Music of Egypt">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mythology" title="Egyptian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptians" title="List of ancient Egyptians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaohs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_titulary" title="Ancient Egyptian royal titulary">Titulary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_pottery" title="Ancient Egyptian pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_scribes" title="List of ancient Egyptian scribes">Scribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_sites" title="List of ancient Egyptian sites">Sites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_capitals_of_Egypt" title="List of historical capitals of Egypt">Capitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nome_(Egypt)" title="Nome (Egypt)">District</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" title="Egypt–Mesopotamia relations">Egypt–Mesopotamia relations</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/100px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/150px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/200px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4372" data-file-height="2906" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding-left:81px"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptologists" title="List of Egyptologists">Egyptologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_of_Egyptian_antiquities" title="List of museums of Egyptian antiquities">Museums</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#decd87"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/16px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/24px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/32px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Egypt" title="Portal:Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egypt" title="Category:Ancient Egypt">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egypt" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ancient Egypt">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Outline of ancient Egypt">Outline</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Ancient_Egypt" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Ancient Egypt">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Egypt158" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Egypt" title="Template:Languages of Egypt"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Egypt" title="Template talk:Languages of Egypt"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Egypt" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Egypt"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Egypt158" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Egypt" title="Languages of Egypt">Languages of Egypt</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/32px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/48px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/64px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Egypt" title="Portal:Egypt">Egypt portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spoken Arabic dialects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judeo-Egyptian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27idi_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa'idi Arabic">Upper Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Egyptian_Bedawi_Arabic" title="Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic">Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Nubian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Nubian language">Old Nubian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meroitic_language" title="Meroitic language">Meroitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blemmyan_language" title="Blemmyan language">Blemmyan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minority languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beja_language" title="Beja language">Beja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domari_language" title="Domari language">Domari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenzi_language" title="Kenzi language">Kenzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobiin_language" title="Nobiin language">Nobiin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siwi_language" title="Siwi language">Siwi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foreign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immigrant minority languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td 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[\"CITEREFLayton2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipiński2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoprieno1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMattessich2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMc_Call1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyers1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorkot2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOsing1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeust1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolotsky1944\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolotsky1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuibell1901\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubin2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSatzinger2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchenkel1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchenkel1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchenkel2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchiffman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShawBloxam2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTakács2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVergote1973–1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVycichl1936\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVycichl1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVycichl1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWerning2008\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 3,\n [\"'\"] = 1,\n [\"Abbr\"] = 8,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Egypt topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Angbr\"] = 87,\n [\"Angbr IPA\"] = 6,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Center\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 12,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 36,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 8,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 5,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Column\"] = 1,\n [\"Columns-end\"] = 1,\n [\"Columns-start\"] = 1,\n [\"Contains special characters\"] = 2,\n [\"Coptic\"] = 294,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Egyptian Language\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 9,\n [\"Excessive citations inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Extinct\"] = 3,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"Gcl\"] = 1,\n [\"Gloss\"] = 1,\n [\"Google books URL\"] = 10,\n [\"Harvcoltxt\"] = 5,\n [\"IPA\"] = 126,\n [\"IPA link\"] = 303,\n [\"IPAblink\"] = 9,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAslink\"] = 43,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 20,\n [\"ISO 639-2\"] = 1,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox language\"] = 1,\n [\"Interlinear\"] = 3,\n [\"Lang\"] = 4,\n [\"Languages of Egypt\"] = 1,\n [\"Lit\"] = 6,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"NoteFoot\"] = 1,\n [\"NoteTag\"] = 8,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 4,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 83,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Transl\"] = 73,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 2,\n [\"Tree list\"] = 1,\n [\"Tree list/end\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"WikisourceWiki\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikt-lang\"] = 117,\n [\"Wiktionary\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","280","18.7"],["?","180","12.0"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","140","9.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","140","9.3"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","120","8.0"],["type","80","5.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","60","4.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","60","4.0"],["\u003Cmw.title.lua:50\u003E","40","2.7"],["pairs","40","2.7"],["[others]","360","24.0"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-d8647bfd6-5wlbx","timestamp":"20250222035832","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Egyptian language","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Egyptian_language","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q50868","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q50868","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-03-31T13:55:49Z","dateModified":"2025-02-22T03:58:15Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/3d\/G._Ebers_%28ed.%29%2C_Papyros_Ebers%2C_1875_Wellcome_L0016592.jpg","headline":"extinct language spoken in ancient Egypt"}</script> </body> </html>