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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Prehistory_of_Brittany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistory_of_Brittany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Prehistory of Brittany</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prehistory_of_Brittany-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prehistory of Brittany subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prehistory_of_Brittany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stone_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stone_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Stone Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stone_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paleolithic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleolithic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Paleolithic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleolithic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesolithic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesolithic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Mesolithic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesolithic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neolithic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neolithic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Neolithic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neolithic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protohistory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protohistory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Protohistory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protohistory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Iron_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Iron Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Roman rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Middle Ages subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Early Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arrival_of_the_Bretons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arrival_of_the_Bretons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Arrival of the Bretons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arrival_of_the_Bretons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_petty_kingdoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_petty_kingdoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>The petty kingdoms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_petty_kingdoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resistance_to_outside_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resistance_to_outside_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Resistance to outside rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resistance_to_outside_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>High Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Modern era</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern era subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Early modern period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolutionary_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolutionary_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Revolutionary period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolutionary_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Revolutionary_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Revolutionary_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Post-Revolutionary period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Revolutionary_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surveys_and_reference_books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveys_and_reference_books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Surveys and reference books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surveys_and_reference_books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prehistory_and_protohistory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistory_and_protohistory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Prehistory and protohistory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistory_and_protohistory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_ages_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_ages_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Middle ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_ages_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brittany_as_a_French_province" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brittany_as_a_French_province"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Brittany as a French province</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brittany_as_a_French_province-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolutionary_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolutionary_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Revolutionary history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolutionary_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">18 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretagne#Geskiedenis" title="Bretagne – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Bretagne" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istor_Breizh" title="Istor Breizh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Istor Breizh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_la_Bretanya" title="Història de la Bretanya – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de la Bretanya" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanes_Llydaw" title="Hanes Llydaw – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hanes Llydaw" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretagnes_historie" title="Bretagnes historie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Bretagnes historie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretagne#Geschichte" title="Bretagne – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bretagne" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breta%C3%B1a#Historia" title="Bretaña – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Bretaña" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_Bretonio" title="Historio de Bretonio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio de Bretonio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretainiako_historia" title="Bretainiako historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bretainiako historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_Bretagne" title="Histoire de la Bretagne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de la Bretagne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_da_Breta%C3%B1a" title="Historia da Bretaña – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia da Bretaña" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_della_Bretagna" title="Storia della Bretagna – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia della Bretagna" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_Bretagne" title="Geschiedenis van Bretagne – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van Bretagne" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%96%E3%83%AB%E3%82%BF%E3%83%BC%E3%83%8B%E3%83%A5%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="ブルターニュの歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ブルターニュの歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretagnes_historie" title="Bretagnes historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Bretagnes historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_Bretanha" title="História da Bretanha – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da Bretanha" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96" title="Історія Бретані – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія Бретані" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%83%E5%88%97%E5%A1%94%E5%B0%BC%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="布列塔尼历史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="布列塔尼历史" data-language-autonym="中文" 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id="mw-indicator-coordinates" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span id="coordinates"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=History_of_Brittany&params=48_00_N_3_00_W_region:FR_type:adm1st_source:kolossus-cawiki"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">48°00′N</span> <span class="longitude">3°00′W</span></span></span><span 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class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_Brittany" title="Special:EditPage/History of Brittany">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22History+of+Brittany%22">"History of Brittany"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22History+of+Brittany%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22History+of+Brittany%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22History+of+Brittany%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22History+of+Brittany%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22History+of+Brittany%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the cultural region in the north-west of France. For the current French administrative region, see <a href="/wiki/Brittany_(administrative_region)" title="Brittany (administrative region)">Brittany (administrative region)</a>. For the given name, see <a href="/wiki/Brittany_(name)" title="Brittany (name)">Brittany (name)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Brittany_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Brittany (disambiguation)">Brittany (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p><span class="geo-inline-hidden noexcerpt"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=History_of_Brittany&params=48_00_N_3_00_W_region:FR_type:adm1st_source:kolossus-cawiki"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">48°00′N</span> <span class="longitude">3°00′W</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">48.000°N 3.000°W</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">48.000; -3.000</span></span></span></a></span></span> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Historical province in France</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043192559">.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement{width:23em;border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement td,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedrow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedrow .infobox-label{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .maptable{border:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .infobox-below{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .infobox-subheader{background-color:#cddeff;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-native{font-weight:normal;padding-top:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-other-name{font-size:78%}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-official{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-caption{padding:0.3em 0 0 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-caption-link{padding:0.2em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-nickname{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-fn{font-weight:normal;display:inline}</style><table class="infobox ib-settlement vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above"><div class="fn org">Brittany</div> <div class="nickname ib-settlement-native"><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Bretagne</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>)</span><br /><span title="Breton-language text"><i lang="br">Breizh</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a>)</span><br /><span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">Bertaèyn</i></span> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Gallo_language" title="Gallo language">Gallo</a>)</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><div class="category"><a href="/wiki/Historical_region" title="Historical region">Historical province</a></div></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Satellite_picture_of_Brittany_-_NASA,_2002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Satellite_picture_of_Brittany_-_NASA%2C_2002.jpg/250px-Satellite_picture_of_Brittany_-_NASA%2C_2002.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Satellite_picture_of_Brittany_-_NASA%2C_2002.jpg/375px-Satellite_picture_of_Brittany_-_NASA%2C_2002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Satellite_picture_of_Brittany_-_NASA%2C_2002.jpg/500px-Satellite_picture_of_Brittany_-_NASA%2C_2002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1386" data-file-height="1049" /></a></span></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data maptable"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1028600610">.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-cols{text-align:center;display:table;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-cols-row{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-cols-cell{display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-cols-cellt{display:table-cell;vertical-align:top}</style> <div class="ib-settlement-cols"> <div class="ib-settlement-cols-row"><div class="ib-settlement-cols-cell"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Brittany.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Brittany"><img alt="Flag of Brittany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Brittany.svg/100px-Flag_of_Brittany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Brittany.svg/150px-Flag_of_Brittany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Brittany.svg/200px-Flag_of_Brittany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></a></span><div class="ib-settlement-caption-link">Flag</div></div><div class="ib-settlement-cols-cell"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Breizh.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of Brittany"><img alt="Coat of arms of Brittany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Coat_of_Arms_of_Breizh.png/75px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Breizh.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Coat_of_Arms_of_Breizh.png/113px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Breizh.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Coat_of_Arms_of_Breizh.png/150px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Breizh.png 2x" data-file-width="497" data-file-height="606" /></a></span><div class="ib-settlement-caption-link">Coat of arms</div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Motto(s): <div class="ib-settlement-nickname nickname">None (<i><a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a></i>)<br /><small><i>Historical:</i></small> <i>Kentoc'h mervel eget bezañ saotret</i><br /><small><i>Rather death than dishonour</i></small> (<a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a>)</div></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Anthem: None (<i><a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a></i>)<br />"<i><a href="/wiki/Bro_Gozh_ma_Zado%C3%B9" title="Bro Gozh ma Zadoù">Bro Gozh ma Zadoù</a></i>" <br /><small><i>Old Land of Our Fathers</i></small> (<a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Localisation_Duch%C3%A9_de_Bretagne.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Location of Brittany"><img alt="Location of Brittany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Localisation_Duch%C3%A9_de_Bretagne.svg/250px-Localisation_Duch%C3%A9_de_Bretagne.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Localisation_Duch%C3%A9_de_Bretagne.svg/375px-Localisation_Duch%C3%A9_de_Bretagne.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Localisation_Duch%C3%A9_de_Bretagne.svg/500px-Localisation_Duch%C3%A9_de_Bretagne.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Country</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Largest settlements</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>List</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Nantes" title="Nantes">Nantes</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Rennes" title="Rennes">Rennes</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Brest,_France" title="Brest, France">Brest</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Saint-Nazaire" title="Saint-Nazaire">Saint-Nazaire</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Quimper,_Finist%C3%A8re" class="mw-redirect" title="Quimper, Finistère">Quimper</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Lorient" title="Lorient">Lorient</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Vannes" title="Vannes">Vannes</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Saint-Malo" title="Saint-Malo">Saint-Malo</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Saint-Brieuc" title="Saint-Brieuc">Saint-Brieuc</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Douarnenez" title="Douarnenez">Douarnenez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area<div class="ib-settlement-fn"></div></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="white-space:nowrap;"> • Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">34,023 km<sup>2</sup> (13,136 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population<div class="ib-settlement-fn"><span class="nowrap"> </span>(2021)</div></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="white-space:nowrap;"> • Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">4,829,968</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bretons" title="Bretons">Bretons</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Time_zone" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/UTC%2B1" class="mw-redirect" title="UTC+1">UTC+1</a> (CET)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="nowrap"> • Summer (<a href="/wiki/Daylight_saving_time" title="Daylight saving time">DST</a>)</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/UTC%2B2" class="mw-redirect" title="UTC+2">UTC+2</a> (CEST)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166" title="ISO 3166">ISO 3166 code</a></th><td class="infobox-data nickname">FR-E</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bretagne.com">bretagne<wbr />.com</a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>history of Brittany</b> may refer to the entire history of the <a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorican peninsula</a> or only to the creation and development of a specifically <a href="/wiki/Britons_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Britons (historical)">Brythonic</a> culture and state in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> and the subsequent history of that state. </p><p>Pre-Brythonic Armorica includes the ancient <a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">megalith</a> cultures in the area and the Celtic tribal territories that existed before Roman rule. After the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, large scale migration from the British Isles led to the foundation of British colonies linked initially to homelands in <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a>, and Wales. The various independent petty Breton states later developed into a Kingdom and then a <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brittany" title="Duchy of Brittany">Duchy of Brittany</a>, before it was unified with <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> to become a <a href="/wiki/Province" title="Province">province</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> Brittany was abolished as an administrative unit, but continued to retain its distinctive cultural identity. Its administrative existence was reconstituted, in reduced size, as the <a href="/wiki/Brittany_(administrative_region)" title="Brittany (administrative region)">Region of Brittany</a> in the mid-20th century. </p><p>The history of Brittany begins with settlement beginning in prehistoric times. The <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolithic era">neolithic era</a>, which began around 5000 BCE, is characterised in the region by the development of an important <a href="/wiki/Megalithic_art" title="Megalithic art">megalithic art</a> found in sites such as the cairn of Barnenez, the cairn of Gavrinis, the table of the Merchants of Locmariaquer or the alignments of Carnac. In the course of its protohistory which began around the middle of the third century BCE, a subsoil rich in <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> allowed the development of an industry in <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a> objects, which led to commercial routes for export to other regions of Europe. It was inhabited by Gallic peoples including the <a href="/wiki/Veneti_(Gaul)" title="Veneti (Gaul)">Veneti</a> and the Namnetes in the first centuries BCE before these territories were conquered by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> in 57 BCE, and progressively Romanized. </p><p>As part of <a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorica</a> since the Gallo-Roman period, Brittany developed an important maritime trade network near the ports of <a href="/wiki/Nantes" title="Nantes">Nantes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vannes" title="Vannes">Vannes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alet" title="Alet">Alet</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Salting_(food)" title="Salting (food)">salting</a> factories along its coasts. When Rome encountered crises in the third and fifth centuries, the first wave of island Bretons were asked by the imperial power to help secure their territory, beginning with a migratory movement that was carried out until the sixth century, and saw the beginnings of many kingdoms in the peninsula. </p><p>In order to prevent Breton incursion, the neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> kingdom created a Breton borderland incorporating the counties of Rennes and Nantes. From the sixth to ninth centuries however, the <a href="/wiki/Merovingians" class="mw-redirect" title="Merovingians">Merovingian dynasty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Carolingians" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingians">Carolingian dynasty</a> tried to integrate the region into the Frankish kingdom, with limited and ephemeral success. </p><p>The union of the country as Brittany occurred in 851 under King Erispoë, son of Nominoë, but was disrupted by disputes over succession and Norsemen incursions. Since 939, Brittany was re-established as a Sovereign Duchy with somewhat definite borders, administered by Dukes of Breton houses from 939 to 1166, before falling into the sphere of influence of the <a href="/wiki/Plantagenets" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantagenets">Plantagenets</a> and then the <a href="/wiki/Capets" class="mw-redirect" title="Capets">Capets</a>. The <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Breton_Succession" title="War of the Breton Succession">War of the Breton Succession</a> lasted from 1341 to 1364 against the backdrop of the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>. An autonomous power emerged in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, maintaining a policy of independence from France. The union of Brittany to France occurred in 1532. </p><p>The Breton province then maintained relative autonomy and benefited from its own institutions. After a period of strong economic and demographic growth in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, due to a period of newfound peace, Brittany experienced a troubled period from the end of the seventeenth century to the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> of 1789. Brittany was dissolved in 1789 and divided among the departments of <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B4tes-du-Nord" class="mw-redirect" title="Côtes-du-Nord">Côtes-du-Nord</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finist%C3%A8re" title="Finistère">Finistère</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ille-et-Vilaine" title="Ille-et-Vilaine">Ille-et-Vilaine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loire-Atlantique" title="Loire-Atlantique">Loire-Inférieure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morbihan" title="Morbihan">Morbihan</a>. </p><p>After a <a href="/wiki/Long_nineteenth_century" title="Long nineteenth century">long nineteenth century</a> marked by a modernization of agriculture and by huge increases in population, an emigration to the rest of France began. Although a traditionally conservative region, Brittany saw the rise of workers' movements in cities such as <a href="/wiki/Brest,_France" title="Brest, France">Brest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lorient" title="Lorient">Lorient</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saint-Nazaire" title="Saint-Nazaire">Saint-Nazaire</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> was an important turning point for Bretons, who discovered new ways of life, which some would seek to integrate little by little. The question of the proper place for the Breton language and regional traditions became the central element of a political movement which began to emerge in the same era. A long process of modernization took place from the 1920s through the 1970s, in concert with a movement of cultural reaffirmation. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory_of_Brittany">Prehistory of Brittany</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistory of Brittany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the history of Brittany before the first written records, see <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Brittany" title="Prehistory of Brittany">Prehistory of Brittany</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stone_Age">Stone Age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Stone Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Paleolithic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Paleolithic period of Brittany ranges from 700 000 to 10 000 years BC. Traces of the oldest industries were found in the middle valley of the <a href="/wiki/Vilaine" title="Vilaine">Vilaine</a> river, identified as pebbles arranged in a quarry in <a href="/wiki/Saint-Malo-de-Phily" title="Saint-Malo-de-Phily">Saint-Malo-de-Phily</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard20129_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard20129-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest traces of habitat are located in Saint-Colomban, in <a href="/wiki/Carnac" title="Carnac">Carnac</a>, and take the form of settlements built in natural shelters (cliffs created by the erosion along the coasts). In addition to pebbles, bifaces are found there, and the site dates to 300,000 BC. J.-C. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Acheulian_bifacial&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acheulian bifacial (page does not exist)">Acheulian bifacials</a> from this period are found along the sea coast, as <a href="/wiki/Treguennec" class="mw-redirect" title="Treguennec">Treguennec</a>, <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B4pital-Camfrout" title="Hôpital-Camfrout">Hôpital-Camfrout</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pl%C3%A9neuf-Val-Andr%C3%A9" title="Pléneuf-Val-André">Pléneuf</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201211_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201211-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest traces of fire use (in the region but also of occidental Europe) are found on the site of Menez Dregan with a date making them up to 400 000 years BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201213_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201213-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The few human groups are then made of <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECornette2008a34_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECornette2008a34-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the Middle-<a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a> period, remain two outstanding sites in the region, in <a href="/wiki/Mont-Dol" title="Mont-Dol">Mont-Dol</a> where scrapers were found in a site dated to 70,000 BC., as well as at Goaréva on the island of <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele-de-Br%C3%A9hat" title="Île-de-Bréhat">Bréhat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201211_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201211-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Upper Paleolithic is characterized by refined tools like blades and lamellae found on the site of Beg-ar-C'Hastel in <a href="/wiki/Kerlouan" title="Kerlouan">Kerlouan</a>, or at Plasenn-al-Lomm on the island of Bréhat. No painted cave is identified in the area, probably because of rising sea levels during the next period. But the nearest cave of this type is known in <a href="/wiki/Saulges" title="Saulges">Saulges</a>. The end of the Palaeolithic period in the region is around 10,000 BC. J.-C.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201212_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201212-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mesolithic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Mesolithic period covers in the region a period from 10,000 BC. to 5000 BC., corresponding to the end of the last Ice Age and the resulting rise in water level. Steppe vegetation is replaced by a vegetation of birch and pine, and hazel, oak and elms; large mammals give way to animals of smaller size as deer or wild boar. For a time, hunting and gathering continue, as well as fishing and foraging. By the time of the Neolithic, however, animal domestication and cereal production replace hunting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201212_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201212-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The population is mainly coastal and larger on the south coast. The skeletons found from this period attest to an average size of 1.59 meters for men and 1.52 m for women.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECornette2008a35_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECornette2008a35-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Human technology continues to progress with a reduction in size of stone tools to form microliths.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201212_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201212-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Human societies are more structured, with a degree of specialization of activities in a given community (as indicated by studies of the <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A9viec" title="Téviec">Téviec</a> burial site)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECornette2008a35_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECornette2008a35-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the beginning of an artistic expression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECornette2008a36_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECornette2008a36-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traces of deaths caused by tools like arrows are also visible on some skeletons, attesting to sometimes violent conflicts between different communities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201215_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201215-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neolithic">Neolithic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Neolithic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Neolithic period (stretching from 5000 BC to 2000 BC.) saw the arrival of an agriculture based on <a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a>: land is reclaimed from the forest after having fired and is then used for breeding before sprinkling grass.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201224_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201224-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This evolution was made possible by the development of methods of extracting stones and their shaping. In a quarry in <a href="/wiki/Plussulien" title="Plussulien">Plussulien</a>, about 5000 dolerite axes were extracted per year, representing 40% of the axes of the Breton peninsula. The dissemination of these tools stretched to Paris basin, and 10 copies of these axes were found to Belgium and southern England. The region also imported yellow blond flint blades from <a href="/wiki/Touraine" title="Touraine">Touraine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201225_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201225-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This period is also notable for the development of megalithic monuments, helped by a significant economic growth. Two of the most ancient sites, the mound of <a href="/wiki/Barnenez" title="Barnenez">Barnenez</a> and the Petit-Mont, whose buildings date back to 5000 BC., evidenced by their similarities to a unity of culture in the peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201215_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201215-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of construction will eventually evolve and provide more regional variants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201219_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201219-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these burial sites were found engravings similar to those observed in Irish sites like <a href="/wiki/Newgrange" title="Newgrange">Newgrange</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201221_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201221-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Besides these barrows are also present <a href="/wiki/Menhir" title="Menhir">menhirs</a>, the highest known being in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Leon_region&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leon region (page does not exist)">Leon region</a> where the largest, that of Kerloas, rises to 9.50 m. The largest ever erected is located in South Brittany in <a href="/wiki/Locmariaquer" title="Locmariaquer">Locmariaquer</a>: the Locmariaquer megaliths amounting to 18.5 m. Engravings can also be found there and their functions are multiple: Indicator of burials, astronomical and topographic features, or reflecting a water worship. The last menhirs were raised around 1800-1500 BC. They can be combined in single or multiple rows, or in semicircles or circles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201223_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201223-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protohistory">Protohistory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Protohistory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iron_Age">Iron Age</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Iron Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the history of Brittany before the first written records, see <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Brittany" title="Prehistory of Brittany">Prehistory of Brittany</a>.</div> <p>A variety of tribes are mentioned in Roman sources, like the <a href="/wiki/Veneti_(Gaul)" title="Veneti (Gaul)">Veneti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armoricani" class="mw-redirect" title="Armoricani">Armoricani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osismii" title="Osismii">Osismii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Namnetes" title="Namnetes">Namnetes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coriosolites" title="Coriosolites">Coriosolites</a>. <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poseidonius" class="mw-redirect" title="Poseidonius">Poseidonius</a> describe the Armoricani as belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a>. </p><p>Armorican gold coins have been widely exported and are even found in the <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Saltern" title="Saltern">Salterns</a> are widespread in Northern Armorica, for example at Trégor, Ebihens and Enez Vihan near Pleumeur-Bodou (Côtes-d'Armor) and the island of Yoc'h near Landuvez (Finistère) of late <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène</a> date. </p><p>An estimated 40–55 kg of salt per oven were produced at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ebihens&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ebihens (page does not exist)">Ebihens</a>. Each oven was about 2 m long. The site dates to the end of the early <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène</a> or the middle La Tène period. Numerous <a href="/wiki/Briquetage" title="Briquetage">briquetage</a> remains have been found. At Tregor, <i>boudins de Calage</i> (hand-bricks) were the typical form of briquetage, between 2.5 and 15 cm long and with a diameter of 4–7 cm. At the salterns at Landrellec and Enez Vihan at Pleumeur-Bodou the remains of rectangular ovens have been excavated that are 2.5–3 m long and about 1 m wide, constructed of stones and clay. On the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Morbihan" title="Gulf of Morbihan">Gulf of Morbihan</a> about 50 salterns have been found so far, mainly dating to the final La Téne period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roman_rule">Roman rule</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Roman rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorica</a></div> <p>In 56 BC the area was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Romans</a> under <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>. The main resistance came from the <a href="/wiki/Veneti_(Gaul)" title="Veneti (Gaul)">Veneti</a>. After their defeat their leaders were killed and the tribe sold as slaves. The Romans called the district <i><a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorica</a></i> (a <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latinisation</a> of a Celtic word meaning "coastal region"), part of the <i><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Lugdunensis" title="Gallia Lugdunensis">Gallia Lugdunensis</a></i> province. The modern <i><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9partement" class="mw-redirect" title="Département">département</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B4tes-d%27Armor" title="Côtes-d'Armor">Côtes-d'Armor</a> has taken up the ancient name. After the reforms of Diocletian, it was part of the <i><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Gaul" title="Diocese of Gaul">diocesis Galliarum</a></i>. </p><p>The uprising of the <a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a> in the 3rd century led to unrest and depopulation, numerous villages were destroyed. Thick layers of black earth in the towns point to urban depopulation as well. The rule of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I_(emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I (emperor)">Constantine</a> (307–350) led to a certain renaissance. Numerous coins were minted. At the <i><a href="/wiki/Saxon_Shore#In_Gaul" title="Saxon Shore">tractus Armoricanus</a></i>, new forts were built, for example at <a href="/wiki/Brest,_France" title="Brest, France">Brest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avranches" title="Avranches">Avranches</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Le_Yaudet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Le Yaudet (page does not exist)">Le Yaudet</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatum" title="Notitia Dignitatum">Notitia Dignitatum</a> (circa 400 AD) mentions a number of local units manning the <i>Tractus armoricanus et nervicanus</i>, for example <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritanian</a> troops in the territory of the Veneti and Osismii. Frankish <a href="/wiki/Laeti" title="Laeti">laeti</a> were present in <a href="/wiki/Rennes" title="Rennes">Rennes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianisation</a> is commonly dated to the late fourth century, but material evidence is rare. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Middle_Ages">Early Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Early Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arrival_of_the_Bretons">Arrival of the Bretons</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Arrival of the Bretons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Britonia6hcentury.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Britonia6hcentury.png/170px-Britonia6hcentury.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Britonia6hcentury.png/255px-Britonia6hcentury.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Britonia6hcentury.png/340px-Britonia6hcentury.png 2x" data-file-width="1670" data-file-height="2928" /></a><figcaption>Map of British settlements in the 6th century.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 380s, a large number of Britons in the Roman army may have been stationed in Armorica. The 9th century <a href="/wiki/Historia_Brittonum" title="Historia Brittonum">Historia Brittonum</a> states that the emperor <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a>, who withdrew Roman forces from Britania, settled the troops there. Other British and Welsh authors (<a href="/wiki/Nennius" title="Nennius">Nennius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a>) mention a second wave of South-Western <a href="/wiki/Britons_(historic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Britons (historic)">Britons</a> from <a href="/wiki/Dumnonia" title="Dumnonia">Dumnonia</a>, settling in Armorica in the following century to escape the invading <a href="/wiki/Saxon_invasions_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Saxon invasions of Britain">Anglo-Saxons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irish_invasions_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish invasions of Wales">Irish</a>. Modern archaeology supports a two-wave migration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleuriot1980[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleuriot1980[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These Britons gave the region its current name and contributed the <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton language</a>, <i>Brezhoneg</i>, a sister language to <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a>. (Brittany used to be known in English as <i>Little Britain</i> to distinguish it from Great Britain.) </p><p><a href="/wiki/Conan_Meriadoc" title="Conan Meriadoc">Conan Meriadoc</a>, the mythic founder of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Rohan" title="House of Rohan">house of Rohan</a>, is mentioned by medieval Welsh sources as having led the settlement of Brittany by mercenaries serving Maximus. The Welsh text <i>The <a href="/wiki/Dream_of_Maxen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dream of Maxen">Dream of Maxen</a></i>, which contains semi-factual information about the usurpation of Maximus, states that they married native women after cutting out their tongues to preserve the purity of their language.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be interpreted as a legend formulated in order to explain the Welsh (Brythonic) name for Brittany, <i>Llydaw</i>, as originating from <i>lled-taw</i> or "half-silent". In fact, the term "Llydaw" or "Ledav" in early Breton probably derives from the Celtic name <a href="/wiki/Litavis" title="Litavis">Litavis</a>. </p><p>There are numerous records of missionaries migrating from Britania during the second wave, especially the <a href="/wiki/Seven_founder-saints_of_Brittany" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven founder-saints of Brittany">seven founder-saints of Brittany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Saint Gildas</a>. Many Breton towns are named for <a href="/wiki/List_of_Breton_saints" title="List of Breton saints">these early saints</a>. The <a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_saints" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Irish saints">Irish saint</a> <a href="/wiki/Colombanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Colombanus">Colombanus</a> also evangelised Brittany, commemorated at Saint-Columban in <a href="/wiki/Carnac" title="Carnac">Carnac</a>. </p><p>The earliest text known in the <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton language</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botanical</a> treatise, dates from 590 (for comparison, the earliest text in French dates from 843).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the early Breton language medieval manuscripts were lost during the Viking invasions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_petty_kingdoms">The petty kingdoms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The petty kingdoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Early Middle Ages, Brittany was divided into three kingdoms – <a href="/wiki/Domnonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Domnonia">Domnonia</a> (Devnent), <a href="/wiki/Cornouaille" title="Cornouaille">Cornouaille</a> (Kernev), and <a href="/wiki/Bro_Waroc%27h" class="mw-redirect" title="Bro Waroc'h">Bro Waroc'h</a> (Broërec) – which eventually were incorporated into the larger Breton state. The first two kingdoms derive their names from the homelands of the migrating Britons (<a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>). Bro Waroc'h ("land of <a href="/wiki/Waroch_I" title="Waroch I">Waroch</a>") derives from the name of one of the first known Breton rulers, who dominated the region of <a href="/wiki/Vannes" title="Vannes">Vannes</a> (Gwened). The rulers of Domnonia such as <a href="/wiki/Conomor" title="Conomor">Conomor</a> sought to expand their territory (including holdings in British Devon and Cornwall), claiming overlordship over all Bretons, though there was constant tension between local lords. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resistance_to_outside_rule">Resistance to outside rule</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Resistance to outside rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Brittany" title="Kingdom of Brittany">Kingdom of Brittany</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Partage_de_l%27Empire_carolingien_au_Trait%C3%A9_de_Verdun_en_843.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Partage_de_l%27Empire_carolingien_au_Trait%C3%A9_de_Verdun_en_843.JPG/220px-Partage_de_l%27Empire_carolingien_au_Trait%C3%A9_de_Verdun_en_843.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Partage_de_l%27Empire_carolingien_au_Trait%C3%A9_de_Verdun_en_843.JPG/330px-Partage_de_l%27Empire_carolingien_au_Trait%C3%A9_de_Verdun_en_843.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Partage_de_l%27Empire_carolingien_au_Trait%C3%A9_de_Verdun_en_843.JPG/440px-Partage_de_l%27Empire_carolingien_au_Trait%C3%A9_de_Verdun_en_843.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3597" data-file-height="3308" /></a><figcaption>Partition of the Carolingian Empire in 843</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 9th century the Bretons resisted incorporation into the Frankish <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a>. The first unified <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brittany" title="Duchy of Brittany">Duchy of Brittany</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Nominoe" title="Nominoe">Nominoe</a>. The Bretons made friendly overtures to the Danish <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> to help contain <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> expansionist ideas. </p><p>When the Carolingian empire was divided in 843, Nominoe took advantage of the confusion to consolidate his territory. In alliance with <a href="/wiki/Lambert_II_of_Nantes" title="Lambert II of Nantes">Lambert II of Nantes</a> and the Viking warlord <a href="/wiki/Hastein" title="Hastein">Hastein</a>, Nominoe's son <a href="/wiki/Erispoe" title="Erispoe">Erispoe</a> defeated the Franks at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Messac" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Messac">Battle of Messac</a>. In 845 the Breton army under Nominoe defeated the forces of <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Bald" title="Charles the Bald">Charles the Bald</a>, King of West Francia (France), at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ballon" title="Battle of Ballon">Battle of Ballon</a>, in the eastern part of Brittany near <a href="/wiki/Redon" class="mw-redirect" title="Redon">Redon</a> and the Frankish border. Nominoe gained control over the major towns of <a href="/wiki/Rennes" title="Rennes">Rennes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nantes" title="Nantes">Nantes</a>, which had previously formed part of the Frankish border zone known as the "<a href="/wiki/Breton_March" class="mw-redirect" title="Breton March">Breton March</a>". </p><p>Control over Rennes, Nantes and the <a href="/wiki/Pays_de_Retz" title="Pays de Retz">Pays de Retz</a> was secured when the Frankish army was defeated once again in 851 at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jengland" title="Battle of Jengland">Battle of Jengland</a> by the Bretons under <a href="/wiki/Erispoe" title="Erispoe">Erispoe</a>; consequently <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Bald" title="Charles the Bald">Charles the Bald</a> recognised the independence of Brittany and determined the borders that defined the historic duchy and later province. Under Erispoe's successor <a href="/wiki/Salomon,_King_of_Brittany" title="Salomon, King of Brittany">Salomon</a>, Hastein's Vikings and the Bretons united as one in 866 to defeat a Frankish army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brissarthe" title="Battle of Brissarthe">Battle of Brissarthe</a>, near modern-day <a href="/wiki/Le_Mans" title="Le Mans">Le Mans</a>. Two Frankish leaders, <a href="/wiki/Robert_the_Strong" title="Robert the Strong">Robert the Strong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ranulf_I_of_Aquitaine" title="Ranulf I of Aquitaine">Ranulf</a>, were killed by the Vikings. The Franks were forced to confirm Brittany's independence from the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish kingdoms</a> and expand Salomon's territory. The Vikings tactically helped their Breton allies by making devastating pillaging raids on the Frankish kingdoms. This unfortunately became a double edged sword over the next few decades as the Vikings turned on the Bretons and pillaged Brittany, eventually occupying it. This situation was only overturned with the return of exiled Bretons and an alliance with the Franks. From this point Brittany became a duchy with various levels of fealty to West Francia and eventually France. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High_Middle_Ages">High Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: High Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brittany" title="Duchy of Brittany">Duchy of Brittany</a></div> <p>Bretons took part in the <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_1173%E2%80%931174" title="Revolt of 1173–1174">Revolt of 1173–1174</a>, siding with the rebels against <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II of England</a>. Henry's son <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_II,_Duke_of_Brittany" title="Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany">Geoffroy II</a>, then heir apparent to the Duchy of Brittany, resisted his father's attempts to annex Brittany to the possessions of the English Crown. Geoffroy's son <a href="/wiki/Arthur_I,_Duke_of_Brittany" title="Arthur I, Duke of Brittany">Arthur</a> did likewise during his reign (1186–1203) until his death, perhaps by assassination under <a href="/wiki/John_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="John of England">King John</a>'s orders. </p><p>In 1185, Geoffroy II signed "Count Geoffrey's Assise" which forbade the subdivision of fiefs, thereby reinforcing the Breton feudal system. </p><p>After the presumed death of Duke Arthur I, with Arthur's full elder sister <a href="/wiki/Eleanor,_Fair_Maid_of_Brittany" title="Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany">Eleanor</a> captive under John of England, the Bretons supported Arthur's half younger sister <a href="/wiki/Alix,_Duchess_of_Brittany" title="Alix, Duchess of Brittany">Alix</a> instead. King <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip August</a> of France married Alix to the Capetian prince <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Mauclerc" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Mauclerc">Peter Mauclerc of Dreux</a>, establishing Peter as regent of Alix. </p><p>In 1213, with the aim of strengthening his power in Brittany, Philip August introduced Peter as administrator of the duchy and tutor of his son, duke <a href="/wiki/John_I,_Duke_of_Brittany" title="John I, Duke of Brittany">Jehan of Brittany</a>. It was Peter Mauclerc who introduced the use of ermines in the Breton coat of arms and came to espouse the cause of his fief's independence with respect to France. While John attempted to regain Brittany in the name of Eleanor, he was defeated in 1214 and finally recognized Alix and Peter. Eleanor ended up in English prison without issue, with her claim never raised ever since. </p><p>The 14th and 15th centuries saw the recognition of the distinction between a <a href="/wiki/Gallo_language" title="Gallo language">Gallo</a>-speaking <i>Britannia gallicana</i> (now called <a href="/wiki/Upper_Brittany" title="Upper Brittany">Upper Brittany</a>) and a <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a>-speaking <i>Britannia britonizans</i> (now <a href="/wiki/Lower_Brittany" title="Lower Brittany">Lower Brittany</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Breton_War_of_Succession" class="mw-redirect" title="Breton War of Succession">Breton War of Succession</a> was fought in 1341–1364. The parties were the half-brother of the last duke, <a href="/wiki/John_of_Montfort" title="John of Montfort">John of Montfort</a> (supported by the English), and his niece, <a href="/wiki/Joanna_of_Dreux" class="mw-redirect" title="Joanna of Dreux">Joanna of Penthièvre</a>, who was married to <a href="/wiki/Charles,_Duke_of_Brittany" title="Charles, Duke of Brittany">Charles of Blois</a>, nephew of the king of France. This protracted conflict, a component of the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>, has passed into legend (see for example <a href="/wiki/Combat_of_the_Thirty" title="Combat of the Thirty">Combat of the Thirty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_de_Guesclin" class="mw-redirect" title="Bertrand de Guesclin">Bertrand de Guesclin</a>). Its outcome was decided at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Auray" title="Battle of Auray">Battle of Auray</a> in 1364, where the House of Montfort was victorious over the French party. After the first Treaty of Guérande, Joanna of Penthièvre abdicated her claims to the dukedom in favour of <a href="/wiki/John_IV,_Duke_of_Brittany" title="John IV, Duke of Brittany">John the Conqueror</a>. A modified form of <a href="/wiki/Salic_law" title="Salic law">Salic law</a> was introduced in Brittany as a result. </p><p>In the midst of the conflict, in 1352, the <i>États de Bretagne</i> or Estates of Brittany were established. They would develop into the Duchy's <a href="/wiki/Parlement" title="Parlement">parlement</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francis_II_of_Brittany_tomb_Nantes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/10/Francis_II_of_Brittany_tomb_Nantes.jpg/220px-Francis_II_of_Brittany_tomb_Nantes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/10/Francis_II_of_Brittany_tomb_Nantes.jpg/330px-Francis_II_of_Brittany_tomb_Nantes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/10/Francis_II_of_Brittany_tomb_Nantes.jpg/440px-Francis_II_of_Brittany_tomb_Nantes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="693" data-file-height="589" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Francis_II,_Duke_of_Brittany" title="Tomb of Francis II, Duke of Brittany">The tomb of Francis II in Nantes</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Deserted by his nobles, Duke <a href="/wiki/John_V,_Duke_of_Brittany" title="John V, Duke of Brittany">John IV</a> left for exile in England in 1373. The higher nobility of that time, like the house of Coetmen-Penthièvre, or the house of <a href="/wiki/Roug%C3%A9" title="Rougé">Rougé</a>, descendants of the former kings of Brittany, strongly supported the Penthièvre side and was nearly extinguished in the repeated fights between Montfort and Penthièvre's troops. The king of France, <a href="/wiki/Charles_V_of_France" title="Charles V of France">Charles V</a>, named as lieutenant-general of Brittany his brother, the <a href="/wiki/Louis_I_of_Naples" title="Louis I of Naples">duke of Anjou</a> (also a son-in-law of Joanna de Penthièvre). In 1378, the king of France sought to annex Brittany, which provoked the Bretons to recall John IV from exile. The second Treaty of <a href="/wiki/Gu%C3%A9rande" title="Guérande">Guérande</a> (1381) established Brittany's neutrality in the Anglo-French conflict, although John continued to swear homage to <a href="/wiki/Charles_VI_of_France" title="Charles VI of France">Charles VI</a>. </p><p>In 1420, duke <a href="/wiki/John_VI,_Duke_of_Brittany" class="mw-redirect" title="John VI, Duke of Brittany">John V</a> was kidnapped by the count of Penthièvre, grandson of Joanna of Penthièvre. John's wife, duchess Joanna de France besieged the rebels and set free her husband, who confiscated the Penthièvre's goods. </p><p>In 1464 the <a href="/wiki/Catholicon_(trilingual_dictionary)" title="Catholicon (trilingual dictionary)">Catholicon</a>, a Breton-Latin-French dictionary by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jehan_Lagadeuc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jehan Lagadeuc (page does not exist)">Jehan Lagadeuc</a>, was published. This book was the world's first trilingual dictionary, the first Breton dictionary and also the first French dictionary. </p><p>The army of the Kingdom of France, with the help of 5,000 <a href="/wiki/Mercenaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercenaries">mercenaries</a> from Switzerland and Italy, defeated the <a href="/wiki/Breton_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Breton people">Breton</a> army in 1488, and the last <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Brittany" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Brittany">Duke of independent Brittany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francis_II,_Duke_of_Brittany" title="Francis II, Duke of Brittany">Francis II</a>, was forced to submit to a treaty giving the King of France the right to determine the marriage of the Duke's daughter, a 12-year-old girl, the heir to the Duchy. The <a href="/wiki/Anna,_Duchess_of_Brittany" class="mw-redirect" title="Anna, Duchess of Brittany">Duchess Anne</a> was the last independent ruler of the duchy as she was ultimately obliged to marry <a href="/wiki/Louis_XII_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XII of France">Louis XII of France</a>. The duchy passed on her death to her daughter <a href="/wiki/Claude_of_France" title="Claude of France">Claude</a>, but Claude's husband <a href="/wiki/Francis_I_of_France" title="Francis I of France">Francis I of France</a> incorporated the duchy into the Kingdom of France in 1532 through the <i><a href="/wiki/Union_between_Brittany_and_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Union between Brittany and France">Edict of Union between Brittany and France</a></i>, which was registered with the Estates of Brittany. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Modern era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern_period">Early modern period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Early modern period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After 1532, Brittany retained a certain fiscal and regulatory autonomy, which was defended by the <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_Brittany" title="Estates of Brittany">Estates of Brittany</a> despite the rising tide of royal absolutism. Brittany remained on the whole strongly Catholic during the period of the <a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a> and the <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">Wars of Religion</a>, although Protestantism made some headway in Nantes and a few other areas. From 1590 to 1598, during the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_League_(French)" title="Catholic League (French)">War of the Catholic League</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Emmanuel,_Duke_of_Merc%C5%93ur" title="Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercœur">Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercœur</a> (<a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Brittany" title="Governor of Brittany">governor of Brittany</a> and husband of the countess of Penthièvre) sought to have himself proclaimed Duke of Brittany and allied with <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a>. The latter, on the other hand, considered establishing his daughter <a href="/wiki/Infanta_Isabella_Clara_Eugenia_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain">Isabella</a> at the head of a reconstituted Brittany. <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry IV</a>, however, brought Mercœur to an honourable surrender. </p><p>During the era of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Colbert" title="Jean-Baptiste Colbert">Colbert</a>, Brittany benefited from France's naval expansion. Major ports were built or renovated at <a href="/wiki/Saint-Malo" title="Saint-Malo">Saint-Malo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brest,_France" title="Brest, France">Brest</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lorient" title="Lorient">Lorient</a>, and Bretons came to constitute a leading component of the French navy. Bretons played an important role in the colonization of <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> and the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a> (<i>see</i> <a href="/wiki/French_colonisation_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="French colonisation of the Americas">French colonisation of the Americas</a>). </p><p>In 1675, insurgents in the <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Cornouaille" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of Cornouaille">diocese of Cornouaille</a> and elsewhere rose up in the Revolt of the <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_papier_timbr%C3%A9" title="Revolt of the papier timbré">Bonnets Rouges</a>. The rebels, in contact with Holland, were expecting assistance that never came. <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9bastian_Ar_Balp" class="mw-redirect" title="Sébastian Ar Balp">Sébastian Ar Balp</a>, the leader of the rebellion, was assassinated by the Marquis de Montgaillard whom Ar Balp was holding prisoner. The rebellion was repressed by the <a href="/wiki/Charles_d%27Albert_d%27Ailly" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles d'Albert d'Ailly">duc de Chaulnes</a>, and hundreds of Bretons were hanged or broken on <a href="/wiki/Breaking_wheel" title="Breaking wheel">the wheel</a>. <a href="/wiki/Madame_de_S%C3%A9vign%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Madame de Sévigné">Madame de Sévigné</a> claimed that French soldiers garrisoned in Rennes had roasted a Breton infant on a spit. A whole street in Rennes, suspected of seditiousness, was demolished leaving the inhabitants homeless.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_of_Pontcallec" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy of Pontcallec">conspiracy of Pontcallec</a> of 1720, members of the <a href="/wiki/Petty_nobility" title="Petty nobility">petty nobility</a> in contact with Spain led a tax revolt against the <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9gence" title="Régence">Régence</a>. The marquis de Pontcallec and three others were tried and executed in Nantes for the uprising. </p><p>During the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Nantes" title="Nantes">Nantes</a> rose to become one of the most important commercial centres of France. The backbone of Nantes's prosperity was the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>. </p><p>On 4 August 1789, the <a href="/wiki/National_Constituent_Assembly_(France)" title="National Constituent Assembly (France)">National Constituent Assembly</a> in Paris unanimously proclaimed the abolition of feudal privileges. These included the privileges of the provinces such as Brittany. Brittany thus lost the juridical existence, autonomy, Parlement, and administrative, fiscal and legal peculiarities guaranteed since the Edict of Union of 1532. Although the <a href="/wiki/Jacobin_Club" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobin Club">Breton Club</a> (better known as the <i>Jacobins</i>) in Paris had initiated the move to abolish feudal distinctions, the decision proved increasingly unpopular in Brittany, where the loss of local autonomy and the increasingly anti-clerical character of the Revolution were resented. Many Bretons took part in the <a href="/wiki/Chouannerie" title="Chouannerie">Chouannerie</a>, the royalist insurgency assisted by <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a> and allied with the <a href="/wiki/Revolt_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolt in the Vendée">revolt in the Vendée</a>. Brittany thus became a hotbed of resistance to the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>. </p><p>The territory of Brittany was divided in 1789 into five <i><a href="/wiki/Departments_of_France" title="Departments of France">départements</a></i>, partially on the basis of earlier divisions called <i>présidiaux</i> which in turn had issued from medieval <i><a href="/wiki/Bailiwick" title="Bailiwick">bailliages</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revolutionary_period">Revolutionary period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Revolutionary period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many Bretons, especially members of the merchant class, remained sympathetic to the monarchy during the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>. In 1791, <a href="/wiki/Bretons" title="Bretons">Bretons</a> began to plan a re-establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Estates_General_(France)" title="Estates General (France)">Estates General</a> of the province, and a return to the <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">estates of the realm</a> system. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Armand_Tuffin,_marquis_de_la_Rou%C3%ABrie" title="Charles Armand Tuffin, marquis de la Rouërie">Charles Armand Tuffin, marquis de la Rouërie</a> was a significant figure in this plot but ultimately ended up in hiding after a secret agent divulged his participation to <a href="/wiki/Georges_Danton" title="Georges Danton">Georges Danton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKropotkin1927[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKropotkin1927[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the obstacle posed by one of the plot's major architects going into hiding, the insurrection continued on, aided by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a>, as the British desired continued access to the ports on Brittany's coast. Brittany was especially open to British landings since the <a href="/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a> presence in the region was weakened by September 1793 due to previous mutinies and the restructuring of the navy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPopkin201578_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopkin201578-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brittany, with its weak infrastructure, was poorly connected to the rest of France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer1941206_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1941206-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Normally, cities in Brittany were used for their naval importance, but they eventually became industrialized because of the Republic, which prepared them for war. The <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Public_Safety" title="Committee of Public Safety">Committee of Public Safety</a> was preparing to attack Britain as Britain had significant influence in the towns of <a href="/wiki/Saint-Malo" title="Saint-Malo">Saint-Malo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brest,_France" title="Brest, France">Brest</a>, and some revolutionaries feared that these towns would place themselves under British control as <a href="/wiki/Toulon" title="Toulon">Toulon</a> had done.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKropotkin1927[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKropotkin1927[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer1941209_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1941209-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In light of these mounting foreign threats, the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Public_Safety" title="Committee of Public Safety">Committee of Public Safety</a> sent Republican troops known as ‘<a href="/wiki/Repr%C3%A9sentant_en_mission" title="Représentant en mission">Representatives on a Mission</a>’ to local regions—such as Brittany—to ensure the preservation of national unity within France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier19201_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier19201-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The function of these Representatives, by order of the National Convention, was to replace the local government leaders. In doing so, the Representatives were meant to quell anti-revolutionary sentiment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier19201_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier19201-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The order of the <a href="/wiki/National_Convention_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="National Convention of France">National Convention</a> on 14 August 1793 declared that these Representatives "take every measure of interior and exterior defense which they may consider necessary" contributed to the nation-wide violence experienced during the Terror.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier19207_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier19207-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Carrier" title="Jean-Baptiste Carrier">Jean-Baptiste Carrier</a>, one prominent Representative on a Mission, who had been sent to Brittany, dutifully reported to the Committee of Public Safety that he would "arrest those declared guilty of the counter-revolutionary disorders committed by this company".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier192018_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier192018-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Prieur" title="Pierre Louis Prieur">Pierre Louis Prieur</a>, another such Representative on a Mission, was involved in extinguishing the uprisings in the coastal towns of Brittany such as <a href="/wiki/Lorient" title="Lorient">Lorient</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vannes" title="Vannes">Vannes</a>. </p><p>The peasants in Brittany were royalist and opposed the new government. <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Prieur" title="Pierre Louis Prieur">Pierre Louis Prieur</a> sought to implement the authority of the convention by arresting suspected counter-revolutionaries, removing the local authorities of Brittany, and making speeches. In <a href="/wiki/Vannes" title="Vannes">Vannes</a>, there was an unfavorable attitude towards the Revolution with only 200 of the city's population of 12,000 accepting the new constitution. Prieur declared Brittany's countryside overcome by fanaticism in order to justify terror as the new order. Prieur then infiltrated cities with troops and conducted house searches to locate and silence rebellious aristocrats and peasants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer1941210_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1941210-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While arrests were the first defense of the newly established government against counter-revolutionaries, fear quickly mounted concerning the power of this group. Quickly, leaders such as Carrier had moved from ordering arrests to ordering executions of anyone found guilty of treason against the state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier192018_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier192018-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Revolutionary_period">Post-Revolutionary period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Post-Revolutionary period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Costume_traditionnel_bretagne_couple_grand.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Costume_traditionnel_bretagne_couple_grand.jpg/170px-Costume_traditionnel_bretagne_couple_grand.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Costume_traditionnel_bretagne_couple_grand.jpg/255px-Costume_traditionnel_bretagne_couple_grand.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Costume_traditionnel_bretagne_couple_grand.jpg/340px-Costume_traditionnel_bretagne_couple_grand.jpg 2x" data-file-width="378" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>A Breton couple (Léna and <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Botrel" title="Théodore Botrel">Théodore Botrel</a>) wearing traditional Breton costumes at the beginning of the 20th century</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 19th-century Brittany acquired a reputation for timeless autarky, as Romantics developed an image of the province as a bastion of peasant traditionalism, religious festivals, and wild landscapes. At the same time, Breton life became increasingly integrated with that of the rest of France, particularly under the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a>. </p><p>However, the image of Brittany as anti-republican led French politicians to doubt the reliability of Breton soldiers during the military actions that followed the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second French Empire</a>, as resulted from the disastrous French defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sedan" title="Battle of Sedan">Battle of Sedan</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a>. Fearing Breton separatist sentiments, the soldiers were interned in a military camp, <a href="/wiki/Camp_Conlie" title="Camp Conlie">Camp Conlie</a>, outside <a href="/wiki/Le_Mans" title="Le Mans">Le Mans</a>. Because of bad conditions, worsened by mud and rain, several hundreds died from disease. The camp has been described as a "concentration camp" and became a significant atrocity story within <a href="/wiki/Breton_nationalism" title="Breton nationalism">Breton nationalism</a>. In 1871 the camp was closed and the French military decided to incorporate the remaining 19,000 Breton soldiers into the 2nd <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Loire" class="mw-redirect" title="Army of the Loire">Army of the Loire</a>. They participated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Le_Mans" title="Battle of Le Mans">Battle of Le Mans</a>, but poorly equipped, they were crushed by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussians</a> and also blamed for the defeat by the French commanders. </p><p>Brittany has had its own regionalist and separatist movements which have experienced varying success at elections and other political contests. Modern Breton nationalism developed at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century. The main body of these movements situated themselves within the Catholic traditionalist current. After 1944, Breton nationalism was widely discredited thanks to the collaboration of a number of prominent nationalists (such as <a href="/wiki/Roparz_Hemon" title="Roparz Hemon">Roparz Hemon</a>) with the <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazis</a>, who occupied Brittany along with most of the rest of the French state during the Second World War. On the other hand, other Breton nationalists took part in the Resistance. Brittany played a particularly important role in the Resistance thanks to its proximity to Great Britain, the relatively rugged landscape, and the presence of important naval installations. However, during the Second World War the Allies bombed Brittany along with the rest of Northern France with such ferocity that many towns such as Lorient nearly ceased to exist. The act involved the killing of many thousands of French citizens. In the case of Lorient, the town was not freed until the end of the war and the submarine pens were not destroyed unlike the civilian areas which had been wiped out. </p><p>When France was divided into administrative regions by the <a href="/wiki/Vichy_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Vichy government">Vichy government</a>, the official <a href="/wiki/Brittany_(administrative_region)" title="Brittany (administrative region)">Brittany Region</a> included only four of the five <a href="/wiki/Departments_of_France" title="Departments of France">departments</a> traditionally understood to comprise the Breton territory. This removal of <a href="/wiki/Loire-Atlantique" title="Loire-Atlantique">Loire-Atlantique</a>, which contains <a href="/wiki/Nantes" title="Nantes">Nantes</a> (one of the two traditional Breton capitals) from the Breton region has been a matter of much controversy. </p><p>An experimental nuclear power station was constructed at <a href="/wiki/Brennilis" title="Brennilis">Brennilis</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Monts_d%27Arr%C3%A9e" title="Monts d'Arrée">Monts d'Arrée</a> during the 1960s. This was in operation for about ten years, and since 1988 it has been in the process of being dismantled. This is the first time that a nuclear power station has been dismantled in France. </p><p>Since the 1960s in particular Breton nationalism has developed a strong leftist character, alongside the Catholic traditionalist strain. Certain groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Breton_Liberation_Front" title="Breton Liberation Front">FLB</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Arm%C3%A9e_Revolutionnaire_Bretonne" class="mw-redirect" title="Armée Revolutionnaire Bretonne">ARB</a>, marginal even within nationalist circles, made headlines through sabotage against highly symbolic targets. </p><p>In March 1972, workers at the Joint Français, a factory in <a href="/wiki/Saint-Brieuc" title="Saint-Brieuc">Saint-Brieuc</a>, went on strike to obtain a wage increase. The strike lasted eight weeks. </p><p>Since the 1940s, use of the <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton language</a> has declined precipitously. In most Breton-speaking communities, it has become uncommon for children born since 1945 to acquire much of the language as <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> becomes universalized. On the other hand, Breton has enjoyed increasing support among intellectuals and professionals since the 1970s, and the relatively small, urban-based <a href="/wiki/Diwan_(school)" title="Diwan (school)">Diwan</a> movement has sought to stem the loss of young Breton speakers through bilingual immersion schools. Breton music has also become more widely known through the work of musicians such as <a href="/wiki/Alan_Stivell" title="Alan Stivell">Alan Stivell</a>. </p><p>On 16 March 1978, the supertanker <i><a href="/wiki/Amoco_Cadiz" title="Amoco Cadiz">Amoco Cadiz</a></i> ran aground a few hundred metres from the shores of the small port of <a href="/wiki/Portsall" class="mw-redirect" title="Portsall">Portsall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ploudalm%C3%A9zeau" title="Ploudalmézeau">Ploudalmézeau</a>. The result was the fifth-largest <a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">oil spill</a> in world history which severely affected the north and northwest coasts of Brittany. </p><p>In February and March 1980, the population of <a href="/wiki/Plogoff" title="Plogoff">Plogoff</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Commune_(subnational_entity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Commune (subnational entity)">commune</a> containing the <a href="/wiki/Pointe_du_Raz" title="Pointe du Raz">Pointe du Raz</a>, demonstrated to prevent the construction of a nuclear power generator in their commune, despite the paratroopers and helicopters sent by the government. They received a wide support from the media. The power station project was abandoned after the presidential elections of 1981, which brought <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mitterrand" title="François Mitterrand">François Mitterrand</a> to power. </p><p>In 2014, the <a href="/wiki/Bonnets_Rouges" title="Bonnets Rouges">Bonnets Rouges</a> destroyed hundreds of highway speed cameras, tax portals, and tax bureau offices in their successful direct action campaign to have the "ecotaxe" abolished. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surveys_and_reference_books">Surveys and reference books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Surveys and reference books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCornette2008a" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cornette, Joël (2008a). <i>Histoire de la Bretagne et des Bretons : Des âges obscurs au règne de Louis XIV (tome 1)</i> (in French). <a href="/wiki/Le_Seuil" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Seuil">Le Seuil</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2757809952" title="Special:BookSources/978-2757809952"><bdi>978-2757809952</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+la+Bretagne+et+des+Bretons+%3A+Des+%C3%A2ges+obscurs+au+r%C3%A8gne+de+Louis+XIV+%28tome+1%29&rft.pub=Le+Seuil&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-2757809952&rft.aulast=Cornette&rft.aufirst=Jo%C3%ABl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Brittany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornette2008b" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cornette, Joël (2008b). <i>Histoire de la Bretagne et des Bretons : Des Lumières au XXIe (tome 2)</i> (in French). <a href="/wiki/Le_Seuil" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Seuil">Le Seuil</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2757809969" title="Special:BookSources/978-2757809969"><bdi>978-2757809969</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+la+Bretagne+et+des+Bretons+%3A+Des+Lumi%C3%A8res+au+XXIe+%28tome+2%29&rft.pub=Le+Seuil&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-2757809969&rft.aulast=Cornette&rft.aufirst=Jo%C3%ABl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Brittany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonnierCassard2012" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Monnier, Jean-Jacques; Cassard, Jean-Christophe (2012). <i>Toute l'Histoire de Bretagne : Des origines à nos jours</i> (in French). <a href="/wiki/Morlaix" title="Morlaix">Morlaix</a>: Skol Vreizh. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-915623-79-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-915623-79-6"><bdi>978-2-915623-79-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toute+l%27Histoire+de+Bretagne+%3A+Des+origines+%C3%A0+nos+jours&rft.place=Morlaix&rft.pub=Skol+Vreizh&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-2-915623-79-6&rft.aulast=Monnier&rft.aufirst=Jean-Jacques&rft.au=Cassard%2C+Jean-Christophe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Brittany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroix1996" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Croix, Alain (1996). <i>Bretagne, images et histoire</i> (in French). <a href="/wiki/Rennes" title="Rennes">Rennes</a>: <a href="/wiki/Presses_Universitaires_de_Rennes" title="Presses Universitaires de Rennes">Presses Universitaires de Rennes</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-909275-74-4" title="Special:BookSources/2-909275-74-4"><bdi>2-909275-74-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bretagne%2C+images+et+histoire&rft.place=Rennes&rft.pub=Presses+Universitaires+de+Rennes&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=2-909275-74-4&rft.aulast=Croix&rft.aufirst=Alain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Brittany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCassardCroixLe_QuéauVeillard2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cassard, Jean-Christophe; Croix, Alain; Le Quéau, Jean-René; Veillard, Jean-Yves (2008). <i>Dictionnaire d'histoire de Bretagne</i> (in French). Skol Vreizh. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2915623451" title="Special:BookSources/978-2915623451"><bdi>978-2915623451</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionnaire+d%27histoire+de+Bretagne&rft.pub=Skol+Vreizh&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-2915623451&rft.aulast=Cassard&rft.aufirst=Jean-Christophe&rft.au=Croix%2C+Alain&rft.au=Le+Qu%C3%A9au%2C+Jean-Ren%C3%A9&rft.au=Veillard%2C+Jean-Yves&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Brittany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelumeau2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Delumeau, Jean (2000). <i>Histoire de la Bretagne</i> (in French). Privat. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2708917048" title="Special:BookSources/2708917048"><bdi>2708917048</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+la+Bretagne&rft.pub=Privat&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=2708917048&rft.aulast=Delumeau&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Brittany" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistory_and_protohistory">Prehistory and protohistory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Prehistory and protohistory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleuriot1980" class="citation book cs1">Fleuriot, Léon (1980). <i>Les origines de la Bretagne</i>. Éd. Payot. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-228-12710-8" title="Special:BookSources/2-228-12710-8"><bdi>2-228-12710-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+origines+de+la+Bretagne&rft.pub=%C3%89d.+Payot&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=2-228-12710-8&rft.aulast=Fleuriot&rft.aufirst=L%C3%A9on&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Brittany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTonnerre1994" class="citation book cs1">Tonnerre, Noël-Yves (1994). <i>Naissance de la Bretagne</i>. Presse de l' Université d' Angers. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1170517706">1170517706</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naissance+de+la+Bretagne&rft.pub=Presse+de+l%27+Universit%C3%A9+d%27+Angers&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1170517706&rft.aulast=Tonnerre&rft.aufirst=No%C3%ABl-Yves&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Brittany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDillonChadwick1967" class="citation book cs1">Dillon, Myles; Chadwick, Nora (1967). <i>The Celtic Realms</i>. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celtic+Realms&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Dillon&rft.aufirst=Myles&rft.au=Chadwick%2C+Nora&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Brittany" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_ages_2">Middle ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Middle ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>E.G.Bowen <i>Saints seaways and settlements</i> University of Wales Press, 1977. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-900768-30-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-900768-30-4">0-900768-30-4</a>.</li> <li>Christian Y.M. Kerboul <i>Les royaumes brittoniques au Très Haut Moyen Age</i> Editions du Pontig-Coop Breizh, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-84346-030-1" title="Special:BookSources/2-84346-030-1">2-84346-030-1</a>.</li> <li>Jean Kerhervé, <i>L'État Breton aux 14e et 15e siècles</i>, 2 vol., Maloine, 1987. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-224-01703-0" title="Special:BookSources/2-224-01703-0">2-224-01703-0</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-224-01704-9" title="Special:BookSources/2-224-01704-9">2-224-01704-9</a>.</li> <li>Myles Dillon, Nora Chadwick, Christian-J. Guyonvarc'h <i>Les royaumes celtiques</i> Librairie Arthème Fayard, 1974. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-213-00077-8" title="Special:BookSources/2-213-00077-8">2-213-00077-8</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brittany_as_a_French_province">Brittany as a French province</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Brittany as a French province"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Michel de Mauny, 1532-1790 Les dessous de l' Union de la Bretagne à la France, Editions France-Empire, Rennes, 1986.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Planiol" title="Marcel Planiol">Marcel Planiol</a>, <i>Histoire des Institutions de la Bretagne</i> (Droit Public et Droit Privé), Ouvrage couronné par l' Institut, publié avec le concours du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 3 vol., Editions du cercle de Brocéliande, Rennes 1953–1955.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revolutionary_history">Revolutionary history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Revolutionary history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrierCarrier1920" class="citation book cs1">Carrier, Jean-Baptiste; Carrier, E. H. (1920). <i>Correspondence of Jean-Baptiste Carrier (people's Representative to the Convention) during His Mission in Brittany, 1793–1794</i>. London; New York: John Lane.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Correspondence+of+Jean-Baptiste+Carrier+%28people%27s+Representative+to+the+Convention%29+during+His+Mission+in+Brittany%2C+1793%E2%80%931794&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.pub=John+Lane&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Carrier&rft.aufirst=Jean-Baptiste&rft.au=Carrier%2C+E.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Brittany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>William Doyle. <i>The Oxford History of the French Revolution</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKropotkin1927" class="citation book cs1">Kropotkin, Petr (1927). <i>The Great French Revolution</i>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Nora_Dryhurst" class="mw-redirect" title="Nora Dryhurst">N.F. Dryhurst</a>. New York: Vanguard Printings.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+French+Revolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Vanguard+Printings&rft.date=1927&rft.aulast=Kropotkin&rft.aufirst=Petr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Brittany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer1941" class="citation book cs1">Palmer, Robert Roswell (1941). <i>Twelve Who Ruled: The Committee of Public Safety during the Terror</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Twelve+Who+Ruled%3A+The+Committee+of+Public+Safety+during+the+Terror&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1941&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=Robert+Roswell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Brittany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopkin2015" class="citation book cs1">Popkin, Jeremy D. (2015). <i>A Short History of the French Revolution</i> (6th ed.). London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315508924" title="Special:BookSources/9781315508924"><bdi>9781315508924</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.place=London&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781315508924&rft.aulast=Popkin&rft.aufirst=Jeremy+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Brittany" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Armand Du Chatellier. <i>Histoire De La Révolution En Bretagne</i>. Berrien: Morvan, 1977.</li> <li>G. Lenotre. <i>Tragic Episodes of the French Revolution in Brittany: with Unpublished Documents</i>. D. Nutt, 1912.</li> <li>Donald Sutherland. <i>The Chouans: the Social Origins of Popular Counter-Revolution in Upper Brittany</i>, 1770–1796. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_literature" title="Breton literature">Breton literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Breton_historians" title="List of Breton historians">List of Breton historians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Brittany" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking Brittany">Viking Brittany</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 24em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard20129-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard20129_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMonnierCassard2012">Monnier & Cassard 2012</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201211-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201211_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201211_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMonnierCassard2012">Monnier & Cassard 2012</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201213-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201213_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMonnierCassard2012">Monnier & Cassard 2012</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECornette2008a34-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECornette2008a34_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCornette2008a">Cornette 2008a</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201212-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201212_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201212_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201212_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMonnierCassard2012">Monnier & Cassard 2012</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECornette2008a35-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECornette2008a35_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECornette2008a35_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCornette2008a">Cornette 2008a</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECornette2008a36-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECornette2008a36_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCornette2008a">Cornette 2008a</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201215-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201215_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201215_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMonnierCassard2012">Monnier & Cassard 2012</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201224-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201224_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMonnierCassard2012">Monnier & Cassard 2012</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201225-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201225_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMonnierCassard2012">Monnier & Cassard 2012</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201219-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201219_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMonnierCassard2012">Monnier & Cassard 2012</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201221-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201221_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMonnierCassard2012">Monnier & Cassard 2012</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201223-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonnierCassard201223_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMonnierCassard2012">Monnier & Cassard 2012</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleuriot1980[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleuriot1980[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFleuriot1980">Fleuriot 1980</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090524065335/http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/etext04/mbng10.htm"><i>The Mabinogion</i></a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Lady_Charlotte_Guest" title="Lady Charlotte Guest">Lady Charlotte Guest</a>. Project Gutenberg. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/etext04/mbng10.htm">the original</a> on 24 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mabinogion&rft.pub=Project+Gutenberg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finfomotions.com%2Fetexts%2Fgutenberg%2Fdirs%2Fetext04%2Fmbng10.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Brittany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Source:<a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden University</a>, the Netherlands.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (November 2021)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_T._Koch2006" class="citation book cs1">John T. Koch, ed. (2006). <i>Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia</i>. Volumes 1-5. p. 244.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Culture%3A+a+historical+encyclopedia&rft.series=Volumes+1-5&rft.pages=244&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Brittany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArthur_de_La_Borderie1884" class="citation book cs1">Arthur de La Borderie (1884). <i>La Révolte du Papier Timbré advenu en Bretagne en 1675</i>. <a href="/wiki/Saint-Brieuc" title="Saint-Brieuc">Saint-Brieuc</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+R%C3%A9volte+du+Papier+Timbr%C3%A9+advenu+en+Bretagne+en+1675&rft.place=Saint-Brieuc&rft.date=1884&rft.au=Arthur+de+La+Borderie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Brittany" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKropotkin1927[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKropotkin1927[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKropotkin1927[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKropotkin1927">Kropotkin 1927</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopkin201578-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPopkin201578_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPopkin2015">Popkin 2015</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1941206-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer1941206_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPalmer1941">Palmer 1941</a>, p. 206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1941209-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer1941209_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPalmer1941">Palmer 1941</a>, p. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier19201-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier19201_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier19201_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarrierCarrier1920">Carrier & Carrier 1920</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier19207-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier19207_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarrierCarrier1920">Carrier & Carrier 1920</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier192018-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier192018_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarrierCarrier192018_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarrierCarrier1920">Carrier & Carrier 1920</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1941210-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer1941210_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPalmer1941">Palmer 1941</a>, p. 210.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brittany&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051124092356/http://www.histoire-bretagne.com/">Skol uhel ar vro – High Institute of Brittany - Ti Istor Breizh – The house for the History of Brittany</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chez.com/buan1/history_of_brittany.htm">Istor Breizh e saozneg - History of Brittany in English</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080905113239/http://www.geobreizh.com/">Douaroniezh Breizh – Geography of Brittany</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.breizh.net/identity/">Personelezh Breizh e saozneg - Breton identity in English</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chd.univ-rennes1.fr/fr/documents-de-reference/iconographies/Sceaux/">Seals of Brittany from Dom Morice's Mémoires pour servir de preuves à l'histoire ecclésiastique et civile de Bretagne (1742-1744)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bibliotheque.idbe-bzh.org/index.php?l=en">Breton and European Digital Library</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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