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etymology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Definitions_and_etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_"lo-fi"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_"lo-fi""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Evolution of "lo-fi"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_"lo-fi"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bedroom_pop" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bedroom_pop"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Bedroom pop</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bedroom_pop-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Characteristics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1950s–1970s:_Origins_and_influential_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1950s–1970s:_Origins_and_influential_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>1950s–1970s: Origins and influential works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1950s–1970s:_Origins_and_influential_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1970s–1980s:_Indie,_cassette_culture,_and_outsider_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1970s–1980s:_Indie,_cassette_culture,_and_outsider_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>1970s–1980s: Indie, cassette culture, and outsider music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1970s–1980s:_Indie,_cassette_culture,_and_outsider_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1990s:_Changed_definitions_of_"lo-fi"_and_"indie"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1990s:_Changed_definitions_of_"lo-fi"_and_"indie""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>1990s: Changed definitions of "lo-fi" and "indie"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1990s:_Changed_definitions_of_"lo-fi"_and_"indie"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Relation_to_"alternative"_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_to_"alternative"_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Relation to "alternative" music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relation_to_"alternative"_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genre_crystallization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genre_crystallization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Genre crystallization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genre_crystallization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2000s–2010s:_Hypnagogic_pop_and_chillwave" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2000s–2010s:_Hypnagogic_pop_and_chillwave"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>2000s–2010s: Hypnagogic pop and chillwave</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2000s–2010s:_Hypnagogic_pop_and_chillwave-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Lo-fi music</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">37 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%89_%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AE%D9%81%D8%B6%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A9" title="موسيقى منخفضة الأمانة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="موسيقى منخفضة الأمانة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lou-fay" title="Lou-fay – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Lou-fay" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-Fi" title="Lo-Fi – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Lo-Fi" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-Fi" title="Lo-Fi – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Lo-Fi" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-fi" title="Lo-fi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Lo-fi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-fi" title="Lo-fi – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Lo-fi" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Fidelity" title="Low Fidelity – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Low Fidelity" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-fi_muusika" title="Lo-fi muusika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Lo-fi muusika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-fi_(m%C3%BAsica)" title="Lo-fi (música) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lo-fi (música)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaltfidelo" title="Malaltfidelo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Malaltfidelo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88-%D9%81%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="لو-فای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لو-فای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-fi" title="Lo-fi – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Lo-fi" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-fi" title="Lo-fi – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lo-fi" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-Fi" title="Lo-Fi – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="Lo-Fi" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%B8%D5%B8%D6%82_%D6%86%D5%A1%D5%B5" title="Լոու ֆայ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լոու ֆայ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musik_lo-fi" title="Musik lo-fi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Musik lo-fi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bassa_fedelt%C3%A0_(musica)" title="Bassa fedeltà (musica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Bassa fedeltà (musica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%AA_%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%90%D7%95-%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%99" title="מוזיקת לואו-פיי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מוזיקת לואו-פיי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-fi_(%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%83-%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B9)" title="Lo-fi (лоу-фай) – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Lo-fi (лоу-фай)" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-fi_muzika" title="Lo-fi muzika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Lo-fi muzika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzik_lo-fi" title="Muzik lo-fi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Muzik lo-fi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-Fi_music" title="Lo-Fi music – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="Lo-Fi music" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_fidelity" title="Low fidelity – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Low fidelity" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-Fi" title="Lo-Fi – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="Lo-Fi" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-fi" title="Lo-fi – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Lo-fi" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%8B-%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A4" title="ਲੋ-ਫਾਈ ਸੰਗੀਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਲੋ-ਫਾਈ ਸੰਗੀਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-fi" title="Lo-fi – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Lo-fi" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-Fi" title="Lo-Fi – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Lo-Fi" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-Fi" title="Lo-Fi – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Lo-Fi" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-fi_music" title="Lo-fi music – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Lo-fi music" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-fi" title="Lo-fi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Lo-fi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-fi_(musikgenre)" title="Lo-fi (musikgenre) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Lo-fi (musikgenre)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9F" title="ดนตรีโลไฟ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ดนตรีโลไฟ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-Fi" title="Lo-Fi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Lo-Fi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-Fi" title="Lo-Fi – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Lo-Fi" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo-fi" title="Lo-fi – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lo-fi" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BD%8E%E4%BF%9D%E7%9C%9F%E9%9F%B3%E4%B9%90" title="低保真音乐 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="低保真音乐" data-language-autonym="中文" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Music aesthetic</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Lo-fi" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Lo-fi_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Lo-fi (disambiguation)">Lo-fi (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Chill-out_music" title="Chill-out music">Chill-out music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lofi_hip_hop" title="Lofi hip hop">Lofi hip hop</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Slacker_rock" title="Slacker rock">Slacker rock</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Will_this_lo-fi_studio_work%3F.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Will_this_lo-fi_studio_work%3F.jpg/260px-Will_this_lo-fi_studio_work%3F.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Will_this_lo-fi_studio_work%3F.jpg/390px-Will_this_lo-fi_studio_work%3F.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Will_this_lo-fi_studio_work%3F.jpg/520px-Will_this_lo-fi_studio_work%3F.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>A minimal <a href="/wiki/Home_studio" class="mw-redirect" title="Home studio">bedroom studio</a> set-up with 1980s–1990s equipment</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Lo-fi</b> (also typeset as <b>lofi</b> or <b>low-fi</b>; short for <b>low fidelity</b>) is a music or <a href="/wiki/Music_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Music production">production</a> quality in which elements usually regarded as imperfections in the context of a recording or performance are present, sometimes as a deliberate stylistic choice. The standards of <a href="/wiki/Sound_quality" title="Sound quality">sound quality</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">fidelity</a>) and music production have evolved over the decades, meaning that some older examples of lo-fi may not have been originally recognized as such. Lo-fi began to be recognized as a style of <a href="/wiki/Popular_music" title="Popular music">popular music</a> in the 1990s, when it became alternately referred to as <b>DIY music</b> (from "<a href="/wiki/Do_it_yourself" title="Do it yourself">do it yourself</a>").<sup id="cite_ref-Harperthesis_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harperthesis-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some subsets of lo-fi music have become popular for their perceived <a href="/wiki/Nostalgia" title="Nostalgia">nostalgic</a> and/or relaxing qualities, which originate from the imperfections that define the genre. </p><p>Traditionally, lo-fi has been characterized by the inclusion of elements normally viewed as undesirable in professional contexts, such as misplayed notes, environmental interference, or <a href="/wiki/Phonograph" title="Phonograph">phonographic</a> imperfections (degraded <a href="/wiki/Audio_signal" title="Audio signal">audio signals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tape_hiss" title="Tape hiss">tape hiss</a>, and so on). Pioneering, influential, or otherwise significant artists include <a href="/wiki/The_Beach_Boys" title="The Beach Boys">the Beach Boys</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Smiley_Smile" title="Smiley Smile">Smiley Smile</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Wild_Honey_(album)" title="Wild Honey (album)">Wild Honey</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/R._Stevie_Moore" title="R. Stevie Moore">R. Stevie Moore</a> (often called "<a href="/wiki/Honorific_nicknames_in_popular_music" title="Honorific nicknames in popular music">the godfather of home recording</a>"), <a href="/wiki/Paul_McCartney" title="Paul McCartney">Paul McCartney</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/McCartney_(album)" title="McCartney (album)">McCartney</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Todd_Rundgren" title="Todd Rundgren">Todd Rundgren</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ivers" title="Peter Ivers">Peter Ivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jandek" title="Jandek">Jandek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Johnston" title="Daniel Johnston">Daniel Johnston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutral_Milk_Hotel" title="Neutral Milk Hotel">Neutral Milk Hotel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guided_by_Voices" title="Guided by Voices">Guided by Voices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sebadoh" title="Sebadoh">Sebadoh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beck" title="Beck">Beck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pavement_(band)" title="Pavement (band)">Pavement</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Pink" title="Ariel Pink">Ariel Pink</a>. </p><p>Although "lo-fi" has been in the cultural <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a> for approximately as long as "<a href="/wiki/High_fidelity" title="High fidelity">high fidelity</a>", <a href="/wiki/WFMU" title="WFMU">WFMU</a> disc jockey William Berger is usually credited with popularizing the term in 1986. At various points since the 1980s, "lo-fi" has been connected with <a href="/wiki/Cassette_culture" title="Cassette culture">cassette culture</a>, the <a href="/wiki/DIY_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="DIY culture">DIY ethos</a> of punk, <a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_art" title="Naïve art">primitivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Outsider_music" title="Outsider music">outsider music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Authenticity_in_art" title="Authenticity in art">authenticity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slacker" title="Slacker">slacker</a>/<a href="/wiki/Generation_X" title="Generation X">Generation X</a> stereotypes, and cultural <a href="/wiki/Nostalgia" title="Nostalgia">nostalgia</a>. The notion of "bedroom" musicians expanded following the rise of modern <a href="/wiki/Digital_audio_workstation" title="Digital audio workstation">digital audio workstations</a>, leading to the invention of the nearly synonymous term <b>bedroom pop</b>. In the late 2000s, lo-fi aesthetics served as the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Chillwave" title="Chillwave">chillwave</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hypnagogic_pop" title="Hypnagogic pop">hypnagogic pop</a> music genres.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions_and_etymology">Definitions and etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lo-fi_music&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions and etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_"lo-fi""><span id="Evolution_of_.22lo-fi.22"></span>Evolution of "lo-fi"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lo-fi_music&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Evolution of "lo-fi""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>At its most crudely sketched, lo-fi was primitivist and realist in the 1980s, postmodern in the 1990s, and archaicist in the 2000s. </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">—Adam Harper, <i> Lo-Fi Aesthetics in Popular Music Discourse</i> (2014)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper20145_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper20145-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>Lo-fi is the opposite of <a href="/wiki/High_fidelity" title="High fidelity">High fidelity</a>. Music educator <a href="/wiki/R._Murray_Schafer" title="R. Murray Schafer">R. Murray Schafer</a>, in the glossary for his 1977 book <i>The Tuning of the World</i>, defined the term as "unfavourable <a href="/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio" title="Signal-to-noise ratio">signal-to-noise ratio</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper20149_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper20149-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was virtually no appreciation for the imperfections of lo-fi music among critics until the 1980s, during which there was an emergent romanticism for <a href="/wiki/Home_recording" title="Home recording">home-recording</a> and "<a href="/wiki/Do-it-yourself" class="mw-redirect" title="Do-it-yourself">do-it-yourself</a>" (DIY) qualities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper20143–4,_10_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper20143–4,_10-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterward, "DIY" was often used interchangeably with "lo-fi".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201444,_117_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201444,_117-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the 1980s, qualities such as "home-recorded", "technically primitive", and "inexpensive equipment" were commonly associated with the "lo-fi" label, and throughout the 1990s, such ideas became central to how "lo-fi" was popularly understood.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201411_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201411-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, in 2003, the <i>Oxford Dictionary</i> added a second definition for the term—"a genre of rock music characterized by minimal production, giving a raw and unsophisticated sound".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201411_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201411-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The identity of the party or parties who popularized the use of "lo-fi" cannot be determined definitively.<sup id="cite_ref-about_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-about-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is generally suggested that the term was popularized through William Berger's weekly half-hour radio show on the New Jersey–based independent radio station <a href="/wiki/WFMU" title="WFMU">WFMU</a>, titled <i>Low-Fi</i>, which lasted from 1986 to 1987.<sup id="cite_ref-about_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-about-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201410_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201410-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The program's contents consisted entirely of contributions solicited via mail<sup id="cite_ref-Berger_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berger-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and ran during a thirty-minute prime time evening slot every Friday.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201410_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201410-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the fall 1986 issue of the WFMU magazine <i>LCD</i>, the program was described as "home recordings produced on inexpensive equipment. Technical primitivism coupled with brilliance."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201410_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201410-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A third definition was added to the <i>Oxford Dictionary</i> in 2008: "unpolished, amateurish, or technologically unsophisticated, esp. as a deliberate aesthetic choice."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201411_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201411-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2017, <i>About.com</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s Anthony Carew argued that the term "lo-fi" had been commonly misused as a synonym for "warm" or "punchy" when it should be reserved for music that "sounds like it's recorded onto a broken answering-machine".<sup id="cite_ref-about_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-about-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bedroom_pop">Bedroom pop</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lo-fi_music&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Bedroom pop"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The notion of "bedroom musicians" first emerged in the 21st century following the rise of laptop computers in many forms of popular or <a href="/wiki/Avant-garde_music" title="Avant-garde music">avant-garde music</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Atton2004_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atton2004-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, there had been an increasing tendency to group all home-recorded music under the umbrella of "lo-fi".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201447_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201447-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From these developments came "bedroom pop", a loosely-defined music genre<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> referring to artists who record at home, rather than at traditional recording spaces.<sup id="cite_ref-morotta_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-morotta-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Bedroom pop" has also been invoked to describe a distinct aesthetic.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Writing in 2006, Tammy LaGorce of <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> identified "bedroom pop" as "bloglike music that tries to make the world a better place through a perfect homemade song".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 2010s, journalists would indiscriminately apply the term to any music with a "fuzzy" production quality,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Daniel Wray of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i> defined the term in 2020 as a genre of home-recorded music with a "dreamy, introspective and intimate" sound, and one which spans "across indie, pop, <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_R%26B" title="Contemporary R&B">R&B</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emo" title="Emo">emo</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Wray20_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wray20-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jenessa Williams of <i>The Forty-Five</i> called "bedroom pop" almost synonymous with "lo-fi", having been traditionally used as "a flattering way to dress up homespun demos and slacker aesthetics" before being recontextualized in later years as "<a href="/wiki/Midwestern_emo" class="mw-redirect" title="Midwestern emo">midwestern emo</a> without the thrashing; <a href="/wiki/Soundcloud_rap" class="mw-redirect" title="Soundcloud rap">Soundcloud rap</a> without the braggadocio."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many of the associated artists have rejected the label.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lo-fi_music&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Noise_in_music" title="Noise in music">Noise in music</a> and <a href="/wiki/Recording_studio_as_an_instrument" title="Recording studio as an instrument">Recording studio as an instrument</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UoKSWejUJlA">Todd Rundgren's "Sounds of the Studio" from <i>Something/Anything?</i></a>, YouTube video</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Lo-fi aesthetics are idiosyncrasies associated with the recording process. More specifically, those that are generally viewed in the field of <a href="/wiki/Audio_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio engineering">audio engineering</a> as undesirable effects, such as a degraded <a href="/wiki/Audio_signal" title="Audio signal">audio signal</a> or fluctuations in tape speed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201415–16,_21,_29_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201415–16,_21,_29-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The aesthetic may also extend to substandard or disaffected musical performances.<sup id="cite_ref-IIIShattuc2003_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IIIShattuc2003-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recordings deemed unprofessional or "amateurish" are usually with respect to performance (out-of-tune or out-of-time notes) or mixing (audible hiss, <a href="/wiki/Distortion_(music)" title="Distortion (music)">distortion</a>, or room acoustics).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201412_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201412-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Musicologist Adam Harper identifies the difference as "phonographic" and "non-phonographic imperfections". He defines the former as "elements of a recording that are perceived (or imagined to be perceived) as detrimental to it and that originate in the specific operation of the recording medium itself. Today, they are usually the first characteristics people think about when the subject of 'lo-fi' is brought up."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201418_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201418-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recording imperfections may "fall loosely into two categories, distortion and noise", in Harper's view, although he acknowledges that definitions of "distortion" and "noise" vary and sometimes overlap.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201418–19_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201418–19-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most prominent form of distortion in lo-fi aesthetics is <a href="/wiki/Harmonic_distortion" class="mw-redirect" title="Harmonic distortion">harmonic distortion</a>, which can occur when an audio signal is amplified beyond the <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_range" title="Dynamic range">dynamic range</a> of a device. However, this effect is not usually considered to be an imperfection. The same process is used for the electric guitar sounds of <a href="/wiki/Rock_and_roll" title="Rock and roll">rock and roll</a>, and since the advent of <a href="/wiki/Digital_recording" title="Digital recording">digital recording</a>, to give a recording a feeling of "analogue warmth".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201420_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201420-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Distortion that is generated as a byproduct of the recording process ("phonographic distortion") is typically avoided in professional contexts. "Tape saturation" and "saturation distortion" alternately describe the harmonic distortion that occurs when a <a href="/wiki/Tape_head" title="Tape head">tape head</a> approaches its limit of residual <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_tape" title="Magnetic tape">magnetization</a> (a common aspect of tape recorder maintenance that is fixed with <a href="/wiki/Degaussing" title="Degaussing">degaussing</a> tools). Effects include a decrease in high-frequency signals and an increase in noise.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201420,_25_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201420,_25-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally, lo-fi recordings are likely to have little or no frequency information above 10 kilohertz.<sup id="cite_ref-Dittmar2013_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dittmar2013-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Non-phonographic" imperfections may involve noises that are generated by the performance ("coughing, sniffing, page-turning and chair sounds") or the environment ("passing vehicles, household noises, the sounds of neighbours and animals").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201426–27_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201426–27-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Harper acknowledges that the "appreciation of distortion and noise is not limited to lo-fi aesthetics, of course, and lo-fi aesthetics ... does not extend to all appreciations for distortion and noise. The difference lies in the ways in which distortion and noise are <i>understood</i> to be imperfections in lo-fi."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201429_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201429-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also distinguishes between "recording imperfections" and "sonic imperfections [that] occur as a result of imperfect sound-reproduction or - modulation equipment... Hypothetically, at least, lo-fi effects are created during recording and production itself, and perceptibly remain in master recordings that are then identically copied for release."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201416_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201416-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bruce Bartlett, in his 2013 guide <i>Practical Recording Techniques</i>, states that "lo-fi sounds might have a narrow <a href="/wiki/Frequency_response" title="Frequency response">frequency response</a> (a thin, cheap sound), and might include noise such as hiss or record scratches. They could be distorted or wobbly in pitch."<sup id="cite_ref-Bartlett2013_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartlett2013-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He offers the following methods for replicating lo-fi sounds: mixing levels so that they are unbalanced; placing obstructions between a <a href="/wiki/Microphone" title="Microphone">microphone</a> and the sound sources; placing the <a href="/wiki/Microphone" title="Microphone">microphone</a> in an unusual spot, such as in a wastebasket; recording with older, lower-quality instruments or equipment; and highlighting <a href="/wiki/Spill_(audio)" title="Spill (audio)">spill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sound_reflection" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound reflection">sound reflections</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartlett2013_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartlett2013-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lo-fi_music&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1950s–1970s:_Origins_and_influential_works"><span id="1950s.E2.80.931970s:_Origins_and_influential_works"></span>1950s–1970s: Origins and influential works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lo-fi_music&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 1950s–1970s: Origins and influential works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rock_and_roll_revival" title="Rock and roll revival">Rock and roll revival</a></div> <p>DIY music predates <a href="/wiki/Written_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Written history">written history</a>, but "lo-fi" as it was understood after the 1990s can be traced to 1950s rock and roll.<sup id="cite_ref-udDIY_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-udDIY-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/AllMusic" title="AllMusic">AllMusic</a> writes that the genre's recordings were made "cheaply and quickly, often on substandard equipment. In that sense, the earliest rock & roll records, most of the <a href="/wiki/Garage_rock" title="Garage rock">garage rock</a> of the '60s, and much of the <a href="/wiki/Punk_rock" title="Punk rock">punk rock</a> of the late '70s could be tagged as Lo-Fi."<sup id="cite_ref-AllMusicBio_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AllMusicBio-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beach_Boys_1967_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Beach_Boys_1967_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Beach_Boys_1967_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Beach_Boys_1967_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Beach_Boys_1967_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Beach_Boys_1967_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Beach_Boys_1967_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="864" data-file-height="649" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Beach_Boys" title="The Beach Boys">The Beach Boys</a> (pictured in 1967) recorded albums at <a href="/wiki/Beach_Boys_Studio" title="Beach Boys Studio">Brian Wilson's home studio</a> from 1967 to 1972.</figcaption></figure> <p>Released in 1967, <a href="/wiki/The_Beach_Boys" title="The Beach Boys">the Beach Boys</a>' albums <i><a href="/wiki/Smiley_Smile" title="Smiley Smile">Smiley Smile</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Wild_Honey_(album)" title="Wild Honey (album)">Wild Honey</a></i> were lo-fi albums recorded mostly in <a href="/wiki/Brian_Wilson%27s_home_studio" class="mw-redirect" title="Brian Wilson's home studio">Brian Wilson's makeshift home studio</a>; the albums were later referred to as part of Wilson's so-called <a href="/wiki/Bedroom_Tapes" class="mw-redirect" title="Bedroom Tapes">Bedroom Tapes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chidester2014_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chidester2014-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <i>Smiley Smile</i> was initially met with confusion and disappointment, appreciation for the album grew after other artists released albums that reflected a similarly flawed and stripped-down quality, including <a href="/wiki/Bob_Dylan" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Harding" title="John Wesley Harding">John Wesley Harding</a></i> (1967) and <a href="/wiki/The_Beatles" title="The Beatles">the Beatles</a>' <a href="/wiki/The_Beatles_(album)" title="The Beatles (album)">White Album</a> (1968).<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Pitchfork_(website)" title="Pitchfork (website)">Pitchfork</a></i> writer Mark Richardson credited <i>Smiley Smile</i> with inventing "the kind of lo-fi bedroom pop that would later propel <a href="/wiki/Sebadoh" title="Sebadoh">Sebadoh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animal_Collective" title="Animal Collective">Animal Collective</a>, and other characters."<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Editors at <i>Rolling Stone</i> credited <i>Wild Honey</i> with originating "the idea of DIY pop".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early 1970s, there were a few other major recording artists who released music recorded with portable multi-tracking equipment; examples included <a href="/wiki/Paul_McCartney" title="Paul McCartney">Paul McCartney</a> and <a href="/wiki/Todd_Rundgren" title="Todd Rundgren">Todd Rundgren</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Produced shortly after the Beatles' <a href="/wiki/Break-up_of_the_Beatles" title="Break-up of the Beatles">break-up</a>, the home-recorded solo release <i><a href="/wiki/McCartney_(album)" title="McCartney (album)">McCartney</a></i> was among the best-selling albums of 1970, but was critically panned.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2005, after an interviewer suggested that it was possibly "one of the first big lo-fi records of its day", McCartney commented that it was "interesting" that younger fans were "looking back at something like that with some kind of respect", before adding that the album's "sort of ... hippie simplicity ... kind of resonates at this point in time, somehow."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Something/Anything%3F" title="Something/Anything?">Something/Anything?</a></i> (released in February 1972) was recorded almost entirely by Rundgren alone. The album included many of his best-known songs, as well as a spoken-word track ("Intro") in which he teaches the listener about recording flaws for an <a href="/wiki/Egg_hunt" title="Egg hunt">egg hunt</a>-type game he calls "Sounds of the Studio". He used the money gained from the album's success to build a personal recording studio in New York, where he recorded the less successful 1973 follow-up <i><a href="/wiki/A_Wizard,_a_True_Star" title="A Wizard, a True Star">A Wizard, a True Star</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-wizard_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wizard-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Musicologist <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Harrison_(musicologist)" title="Daniel Harrison (musicologist)">Daniel Harrison</a> compared the Beach Boys' late-1960s albums to <i>Wizard</i>, a record "which mimics aspects of Brian's compositional style in its abrupt transitions, mixture of various pop styles, and unusual production effects. The commercial failure of the Beach Boys' experiments was hardly motivation for imitation."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2018, <i>Pitchfork</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s Sam Sodsky noted that the "fingerprints" of <i>Wizard</i> remain "evident on bedroom auteurs to this day".<sup id="cite_ref-wizard_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wizard-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among other notable examples, writers of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wire_(magazine)" title="The Wire (magazine)">The Wire</a></i> credit <a href="/wiki/Skip_Spence" title="Skip Spence">Skip Spence</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Oar_(album)" title="Oar (album)">Oar</a></i> (1969) as "a progenitor of both the loner/stoner and lo-fi movements", adding that the album "would not find a real audience for decades."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Record_Collector" title="Record Collector">Record Collector</a></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s Jamie Atkins wrote in 2018 that many lo-fi acts would be indebted to the reverb-saturated sound of the Beach Boys' 1970 song "<a href="/wiki/All_I_Wanna_Do_(The_Beach_Boys_song)" title="All I Wanna Do (The Beach Boys song)">All I Wanna Do</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Atkins_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atkins-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Pitchfork</i> writer Madison Bloom crowned <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ivers" title="Peter Ivers">Peter Ivers</a>, a 1970s Los Angeles musician, as "the weirdo king of bedroom pop, decades before the genre existed."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2016, <i><a href="/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)" title="Billboard (magazine)">Billboard</a></i> writer Joe Lynch described <a href="/wiki/David_Bowie" title="David Bowie">David Bowie</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Hunky_Dory" title="Hunky Dory">Hunky Dory</a></i> (1971) as "pretty much the blueprint for every lo-fi indie pop album of the last 25 years", citing <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Pink" title="Ariel Pink">Ariel Pink</a> as a descendant.<sup id="cite_ref-Billboard_Genres_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Billboard_Genres-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Active since 1969, <a href="/wiki/Stavely_Makepeace" class="mw-redirect" title="Stavely Makepeace">Stavely Makepeace</a>, and their spinoff group <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Pigeon" title="Lieutenant Pigeon">Lieutenant Pigeon</a>, were described by <a href="/wiki/AllMusic" title="AllMusic">AllMusic</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Richie_Unterberger" title="Richie Unterberger">Richie Unterberger</a> as creating "quirky, slightly lo-fi homemade production married to simple pop songs with heavy echoes of both '50s rock & roll and British <a href="/wiki/Novelty_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Novelty music">novelty music</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Unterberger_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Unterberger-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Michael Heatley of <i><a href="/wiki/Record_Collector" title="Record Collector">Record Collector</a></i> describes <a href="/wiki/Wizzard" title="Wizzard">Wizzard</a>'s debut album <i><a href="/wiki/Wizzard_Brew" title="Wizzard Brew">Wizzard Brew</a></i> (1973) as "lo-fi, retro <a href="/wiki/Rock%27n%27roll" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock'n'roll">rock'n'roll</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1970s–1980s:_Indie,_cassette_culture,_and_outsider_music"><span id="1970s.E2.80.931980s:_Indie.2C_cassette_culture.2C_and_outsider_music"></span>1970s–1980s: Indie, cassette culture, and outsider music</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lo-fi_music&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 1970s–1980s: Indie, cassette culture, and outsider music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cassette_culture" title="Cassette culture">Cassette culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outsider_music" title="Outsider music">Outsider music</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indie_pop" title="Indie pop">Indie pop</a></div> <p>With the emergence of punk rock and <a href="/wiki/New_wave_music" title="New wave music">new wave</a> in the late 1970s, some sectors of popular music began to espouse a DIY ethos that heralded a wave of <a href="/wiki/Independent_label" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent label">independent labels</a>, distribution networks, <a href="/wiki/Fanzine" title="Fanzine">fanzines</a> and recording studios,<sup id="cite_ref-UntCC_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UntCC-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many guitar bands were formed on the then-novel premise that one could record and release their own music instead of having to procure a <a href="/wiki/Record_contract" class="mw-redirect" title="Record contract">record contract</a> from a major label.<sup id="cite_ref-TAF_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TAF-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lo-fi musicians and fans were predominantly white, male and middle-class, and while most of the critical discourse interested in lo-fi was based in New York or London, the musicians themselves were largely from lesser <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area" title="Metropolitan area">metropolitan areas</a> of the US.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201433–34_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201433–34-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:R._Stevie_Moore_(6141708494).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/R._Stevie_Moore_%286141708494%29.jpg/220px-R._Stevie_Moore_%286141708494%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/R._Stevie_Moore_%286141708494%29.jpg/330px-R._Stevie_Moore_%286141708494%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/R._Stevie_Moore_%286141708494%29.jpg/440px-R._Stevie_Moore_%286141708494%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/R._Stevie_Moore" title="R. Stevie Moore">R. Stevie Moore</a> (pictured in 2011) is frequently referred to as the "godfather" of <a href="/wiki/Home_recording" title="Home recording">home recording</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Harper_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harper-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Since 1968, <a href="/wiki/R._Stevie_Moore" title="R. Stevie Moore">R. Stevie Moore</a> had been recording full-length albums on reel-to-reel tape in his parents' basement in <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a>, but it was not until 1976's <i><a href="/wiki/Phonography_(album)" title="Phonography (album)">Phonography</a></i> that any of his recordings were issued on a record label.<sup id="cite_ref-ingramwire_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ingramwire-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The album achieved some notoriety among New York's punk and new wave circles.<sup id="cite_ref-masonrsm_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-masonrsm-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Matthew Ingram of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wire_(magazine)" title="The Wire (magazine)">The Wire</a></i> wrote that "Moore might not have been the first rock musician to go entirely solo, recording every part from drums to guitar ... However, he was the first to explicitly aestheticize the home recording process itself ... making him the great-grandfather of lo-fi."<sup id="cite_ref-ingramwire_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ingramwire-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Asked if he supported the "DIY/lo-fi pioneer label", Moore explained that his approach resulted from "happenstance" rather than a calculated artistic decision, although he agreed that he "should be recognized as a pioneer".<sup id="cite_ref-3AM_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3AM-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When a 2006 <i>New York Times</i> reporter referenced Moore as the progenitor of "bedroom pop", Moore responded that the notion was "hilarious" in light of his "bitter struggle to make a living and get some notoriety, I scoff at it."<sup id="cite_ref-NYT2006_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT2006-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1979, <a href="/wiki/Tascam" class="mw-redirect" title="Tascam">Tascam</a> introduced the <a href="/wiki/Portastudio" title="Portastudio">Portastudio</a>, the first portable multi-track recorder of its kind to incorporate an "all-in-one" approach to <a href="/wiki/Overdub" class="mw-redirect" title="Overdub">overdubbing</a>, mixing, and <a href="/wiki/Ping-pong_recording" title="Ping-pong recording">bouncing</a>. This technology allowed a broad range of musicians from underground circles to build fan bases through the dissemination of their cassette tapes.<sup id="cite_ref-MantieSmith2017_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MantieSmith2017-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Music critic <a href="/wiki/Richie_Unterberger" title="Richie Unterberger">Richie Unterberger</a> cited Moore as "one of the most famous" of the "few artists in cassetteland [that] established a reputation, if even a cult one."<sup id="cite_ref-UntCC_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UntCC-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1979 until the early 1980s, Moore was a staff member on WFMU, hosting a weekly "Bedroom Radio" show.<sup id="cite_ref-ingramwire_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ingramwire-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Berger's "Low-Fi" program followed thereafter and effectively established lo-fi as a distinct movement associated with the spirit of punk.<sup id="cite_ref-about_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-about-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/JW_Farquhar" title="JW Farquhar">JW Farquhar</a>'s home-recorded 1973 album <i>The Formal Female</i>, according to critic Ned Raggett, could also be regarded as a forerunner to "any number of" independent lo-fi artists, including R. Stevie Moore and the underground Texas musician <a href="/wiki/Jandek" title="Jandek">Jandek</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calvin_Johnson-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Calvin_Johnson-2.jpg/220px-Calvin_Johnson-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Calvin_Johnson-2.jpg/330px-Calvin_Johnson-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Calvin_Johnson-2.jpg/440px-Calvin_Johnson-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="519" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Johnson_(musician)" title="Calvin Johnson (musician)">Calvin Johnson</a> (pictured <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2000s</span>), founder of <a href="/wiki/K_Records" title="K Records">K Records</a> and co-founder of <a href="/wiki/Beat_Happening" title="Beat Happening">Beat Happening</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>In 1980, the Welsh trio <a href="/wiki/Young_Marble_Giants" title="Young Marble Giants">Young Marble Giants</a> released their only album, <i><a href="/wiki/Colossal_Youth" title="Colossal Youth">Colossal Youth</a></i>, featuring stark instrumentation, including a primitive drum machine, and a decidedly "bedroom" aura. Davyd Smith of the <i><a href="/wiki/Evening_Standard" title="Evening Standard">Evening Standard</a></i> later wrote, "It's hard to imagine a more lo-fi, unambitious sound."<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout the following decade, the <a href="/wiki/Indie_rock" title="Indie rock">indie rock</a> spheres of the American underground (bands such as <a href="/wiki/College_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="College radio">college radio</a> favorite <a href="/wiki/R.E.M." title="R.E.M.">R.E.M.</a><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), along with some British <a href="/wiki/Post-punk" title="Post-punk">post-punk</a> bands, were the most prominent exports of lo-fi music. According to AllMusic, the stylistic variety of their music often "fluctuated from simple pop and rock songs to free-form song structures to pure noise and arty experimentalism."<sup id="cite_ref-AllMusicBio_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AllMusicBio-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar scenes also developed among DIY cassette-trading <a href="/wiki/Hip-hop_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Hip-hop music">hip-hop</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hardcore_punk" title="Hardcore punk">hardcore punk</a> acts.<sup id="cite_ref-MantieSmith2017_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MantieSmith2017-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the most recognizable bands was <a href="/wiki/Beat_Happening" title="Beat Happening">Beat Happening</a> (1984–1992) from <a href="/wiki/K_Records" title="K Records">K Records</a>, an influential <a href="/wiki/Indie_pop" title="Indie pop">indie pop</a> label. They were rarely known as a "lo-fi" group during their active years, and were only noted for their pioneering role in the movement after the term's definition evolved in the mid 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2014246_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2014246-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Elsewhere, WFMU DJ <a href="/wiki/Irwin_Chusid" title="Irwin Chusid">Irwin Chusid</a> was responsible for inventing and popularizing the "<a href="/wiki/Outsider_music" title="Outsider music">outsider music</a>" category — much of it overlapping with lo-fi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201448_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201448-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adam Harper credits the outsider musicians <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Johnston" title="Daniel Johnston">Daniel Johnston</a> and Jandek with "form[ing] a bridge between 1980s <a href="/wiki/Naive_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Naive art">primitivism</a> and the lo-fi indie rock of the 1990s. ... both musicians introduced the notion that lo-fi was not just acceptable but the special context of some extraordinary and brilliant musicians."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2014180_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2014180-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hailing from New Zealand, the <a href="/wiki/Tall_Dwarfs" title="Tall Dwarfs">Tall Dwarfs</a>' mid-1980s records are credited with anticipating the lo-fi sound.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> AllMusic wrote that Tall Dwarfs' home-recorded releases presaged "the rise of what was ultimately dubbed 'lo-fi' as the sound began to grow in prominence and influence over the course of the decades to follow."<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1990s:_Changed_definitions_of_"lo-fi"_and_"indie""><span id="1990s:_Changed_definitions_of_.22lo-fi.22_and_.22indie.22"></span>1990s: Changed definitions of "lo-fi" and "indie"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lo-fi_music&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1990s: Changed definitions of "lo-fi" and "indie""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relation_to_"alternative"_music"><span id="Relation_to_.22alternative.22_music"></span>Relation to "alternative" music</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lo-fi_music&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Relation to "alternative" music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slacker_rock" title="Slacker rock">Slacker rock</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Pollard_sxsw_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Robert_Pollard_sxsw_2.jpg/170px-Robert_Pollard_sxsw_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Robert_Pollard_sxsw_2.jpg/255px-Robert_Pollard_sxsw_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Robert_Pollard_sxsw_2.jpg/340px-Robert_Pollard_sxsw_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1110" data-file-height="1264" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Pollard" title="Robert Pollard">Robert Pollard</a> of <a href="/wiki/Guided_by_Voices" title="Guided by Voices">Guided by Voices</a> (pictured in 2006)</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 1990s, the media's usage of the word "indie" evolved from music "produced away from the music industry's largest record labels" to a particular style of rock or pop music viewed in the US as the "alternative to '<a href="/wiki/Alternative_rock" title="Alternative rock">alternative</a>'".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201436–39_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201436–39-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the success of <a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(band)" title="Nirvana (band)">Nirvana</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Nevermind" title="Nevermind">Nevermind</a></i> (1991), alternative rock became a cultural talking point, and subsequently, the concept of a lo-fi movement coalesced between 1992 and 1994. Centered on artists such as <a href="/wiki/Guided_by_Voices" title="Guided by Voices">Guided by Voices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sebadoh" title="Sebadoh">Sebadoh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beck" title="Beck">Beck</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pavement_(band)" title="Pavement (band)">Pavement</a>, most of the writing about alternative and lo-fi aligned it with <a href="/wiki/Generation_X" title="Generation X">Generation X</a> and "<a href="/wiki/Slacker" title="Slacker">slacker</a>" stereotypes that originated from <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Coupland" title="Douglas Coupland">Douglas Coupland</a>'s novel <i><a href="/wiki/Generation_X:_Tales_for_an_Accelerated_Culture" title="Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture">Generation X</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Linklater" title="Richard Linklater">Richard Linklater</a>'s film <i><a href="/wiki/Slacker_(film)" title="Slacker (film)">Slacker</a></i> (both released 1991) which led to the genre being called "<a href="/wiki/Slacker_rock" title="Slacker rock">slacker rock</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2014273–274,_294_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2014273–274,_294-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the delineation between <a href="/wiki/Grunge_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Grunge music">grunge</a> and lo-fi came with respect to the music's "<a href="/wiki/Authenticity_in_art" title="Authenticity in art">authenticity</a>". Even though Nirvana frontman <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Cobain" title="Kurt Cobain">Kurt Cobain</a> was well known for being fond of Johnston, K Records, and <a href="/wiki/The_Shaggs" title="The Shaggs">the Shaggs</a>, there was a faction of indie rock that viewed grunge as a <a href="/wiki/Sell-out" class="mw-redirect" title="Sell-out">sell-out</a> genre, believing that the imperfections of lo-fi was what gave the music its authenticity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2014307_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2014307-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In April 1993, the term "lo-fi" gained mainstream currency after it was featured as a headline in <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-IIIShattuc2003_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IIIShattuc2003-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most widely-read article was published by the same paper in August 1994 with the headline "Lo-Fi Rockers Opt for Raw Over Slick". In contrast to a similar story ran in the paper seven years earlier, which never deployed "lo-fi" in the context of an unprofessional recording, writer Matt Deihl conflated "lo-fi" with "DIY" and "a rough sound quality".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201444_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201444-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Alternately called lo-fi, referring to the rough sound quality resulting from such an approach, or D.I.Y., an acronym for "do it yourself", this tradition is distinguished by an aversion to state-of-the-art recording techniques. ... In a world of sterile, digitally recorded Top 40, lo-fi elucidates the raw seams of the artistic process.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201444_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201444-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The main focus in the piece was Beck and Guided by Voices, who had recently become popular acts in the indie rock subculture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2014273_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2014273-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beck, whose 1994 single "<a href="/wiki/Loser_(Beck_song)" title="Loser (Beck song)">Loser</a>" was recorded in a kitchen and reached the <i><a href="/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)" title="Billboard (magazine)">Billboard</a></i> top 10, ultimately became the most recognizable artist associated with the "lo-fi" tag.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2014276,_283_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2014276,_283-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a response to the "lo-fi" label, Guided by Voices bandleader <a href="/wiki/Robert_Pollard" title="Robert Pollard">Robert Pollard</a> denied having any association to its supposed movement. He said that although the band was being "championed as the pioneers of the lo-fi movement," he was not familiar with the term, and explained that "[a] lot of people were picking up [Tascam] machines at the time ... Using a four-track became common enough that they had to find a category for it: DIY, lo-fi, whatever."<sup id="cite_ref-Woodworth2006_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodworth2006-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the time, music critic <a href="/wiki/Simon_Reynolds" title="Simon Reynolds">Simon Reynolds</a> interpreted the seeming-movement as a reaction against grunge music, "and a weak one, since lo-fi is just grunge with even grungier production values."<sup id="cite_ref-IIIShattuc2003_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IIIShattuc2003-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In turn, he said, lo-fi inspired its own reaction in the form of "<a href="/wiki/Post-rock" title="Post-rock">post-rock</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-IIIShattuc2003_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IIIShattuc2003-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A reaction against both grunge and lo-fi, according to AllMusic, was <a href="/wiki/Chamber_pop" title="Chamber pop">chamber pop</a>, which drew heavily from the rich orchestrations of Brian Wilson, <a href="/wiki/Burt_Bacharach" title="Burt Bacharach">Burt Bacharach</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lee_Hazlewood" title="Lee Hazlewood">Lee Hazlewood</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genre_crystallization">Genre crystallization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lo-fi_music&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Genre crystallization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Lo-fi" was applied inconsistently throughout the 1990s. Writing in the book <i>Hop on Pop</i> (2003), Tony Grajeda said that by 1995, <i><a href="/wiki/Rolling_Stone" title="Rolling Stone">Rolling Stone</a></i> magazine "managed to label every other band it featured in the first half [of the year] as somehow lo-fi."<sup id="cite_ref-IIIShattuc2003_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IIIShattuc2003-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One journalist in <i><a href="/wiki/Spin_(magazine)" title="Spin (magazine)">Spin</a></i> credited Sebadoh's <i><a href="/wiki/Sebadoh_III" title="Sebadoh III">Sebadoh III</a></i> (1991) with "inventing" lo-fi, characterizing the genre as "the <a href="/wiki/Soft_rock" title="Soft rock">soft rock</a> of punk".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2014295_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2014295-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IIIShattuc2003_22-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IIIShattuc2003-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, virtually every journalist referenced an increasing media coverage of lo-fi music while failing to acknowledge themselves as contributors to the trend.<sup id="cite_ref-IIIShattuc2003_22-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IIIShattuc2003-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several books were published that helped to "canonize" lo-fi acts, usually by comparing them favorably to older musicians. For example, <i>Rolling Stone's Alt-Rock-a-Rama</i> (1995) contained a chapter titled "The Lo-Fi Top 10", which mentioned <a href="/wiki/Hasil_Adkins" title="Hasil Adkins">Hasil Adkins</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Velvet_Underground" title="The Velvet Underground">the Velvet Underground</a>, <a href="/wiki/Half_Japanese" title="Half Japanese">Half Japanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Billy_Childish" title="Billy Childish">Billy Childish</a>, Beat Happening, <a href="/wiki/Royal_Trux" title="Royal Trux">Royal Trux</a>, Sebadoh, <a href="/wiki/Liz_Phair" title="Liz Phair">Liz Phair</a>, Guided By Voices, Daniel Johnston, Beck and Pavement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper201446_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper201446-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Richie Unterberger's <i>Unknown Legends of Rock 'n' Roll: Psychedelic Unknowns, Mad Geniuses, Punk Pioneers, Lo-Fi Mavericks & More</i> and "the community of like-minded critics and fans surrounding him" were especially pivotal in establishing modern notions of the lo-fi aesthetic. According to Adam Harper: "In short, <i>Unknown Legends</i> bridges the interests of the [1980s] and the [Cassette Culture] Generation and those of [the 2000s], providing an early sketch, a portent – a 'leftfield blueprint', perhaps – of 00s movements like <a href="/wiki/Hauntology" title="Hauntology">hauntology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hypnagogic_pop" title="Hypnagogic pop">hypnagogic pop</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Harper_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harper-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The "lo-fi" tag also extended to acts such as <a href="/wiki/The_Mountain_Goats" title="The Mountain Goats">the Mountain Goats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nothing_Painted_Blue" title="Nothing Painted Blue">Nothing Painted Blue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chris_Knox" title="Chris Knox">Chris Knox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alastair_Galbraith_(musician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alastair Galbraith (musician)">Alastair Galbraith</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lou_Barlow" title="Lou Barlow">Lou Barlow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-about_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-about-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Other significant artists often aligned with 1990s lo-fi", Harper wrote, "such as <a href="/wiki/Ween" title="Ween">Ween</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grifters_(band)" title="Grifters (band)">the Grifters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silver_Jews" title="Silver Jews">Silver Jews</a>, Liz Phair, <a href="/wiki/Smog_(band)" class="mw-redirect" title="Smog (band)">Smog</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superchunk" title="Superchunk">Superchunk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portastatic" title="Portastatic">Portastatic</a> and Royal Trux have been largely omitted owing either to the comparative paucity of their reception or to its lesser relevance to lo-fi aesthetics."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2014276,_283_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2014276,_283-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the late 1990s to 2000s, "lo-fi" was absorbed into regular indie discourse, where it mostly lost its connotations as an indie rock subcategory evoking "the slacker generation", "looseness", or "self-consciousness".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2014316_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2014316-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Pitchfork</i> and <i>The Wire</i> became the leading publications on music, while blogs and smaller websites took on the role previously occupied by <a href="/wiki/Fanzine" title="Fanzine">fanzines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2014318_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2014318-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2000s–2010s:_Hypnagogic_pop_and_chillwave"><span id="2000s.E2.80.932010s:_Hypnagogic_pop_and_chillwave"></span>2000s–2010s: Hypnagogic pop and chillwave</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lo-fi_music&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 2000s–2010s: Hypnagogic pop and chillwave"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hypnagogic_pop" title="Hypnagogic pop">Hypnagogic pop</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chillwave" title="Chillwave">Chillwave</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chill-out_music" title="Chill-out music">Chill-out music</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lofi_hip_hop" title="Lofi hip hop">Lofi hip hop</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ariel_Pink_-_Ariel_Pink%27s_Haunted_Graffiti_(5626694511).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Ariel_Pink_-_Ariel_Pink%27s_Haunted_Graffiti_%285626694511%29.jpg/170px-Ariel_Pink_-_Ariel_Pink%27s_Haunted_Graffiti_%285626694511%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Ariel_Pink_-_Ariel_Pink%27s_Haunted_Graffiti_%285626694511%29.jpg/255px-Ariel_Pink_-_Ariel_Pink%27s_Haunted_Graffiti_%285626694511%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Ariel_Pink_-_Ariel_Pink%27s_Haunted_Graffiti_%285626694511%29.jpg/340px-Ariel_Pink_-_Ariel_Pink%27s_Haunted_Graffiti_%285626694511%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1368" data-file-height="1824" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ariel_Pink" title="Ariel Pink">Ariel Pink</a> performing in 2010</figcaption></figure> <p>The rise of modern <a href="/wiki/Digital_audio_workstation" title="Digital audio workstation">digital audio workstations</a> dissolved a theoretical technological division between professional and non-professional artists.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the prominent lo-fi acts of the 1990s adapted their sound to more professional standards<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2014316_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2014316-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "bedroom" musicians began looking toward vintage equipment as a way to achieve an authentic lo-fi aesthetic,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mirroring a similar trend in the 1990s concerning the revival of 1960s <a href="/wiki/Space_age_pop" title="Space age pop">space age pop</a> and analog synthesizers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2014318_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2014318-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> R. Stevie Moore was increasingly cited by emerging lo-fi acts as a primary influence.<sup id="cite_ref-masonrsm_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-masonrsm-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His most vocal advocate, <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Pink" title="Ariel Pink">Ariel Pink</a>, had read <i>Unknown Legends</i>, and later recorded a cover version of one of the tracks included in a CD that came with the book ("Bright Lit Blue Skies").<sup id="cite_ref-Harper_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harper-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time of his label debut, Pink was viewed as a novelty act, as there were virtually no other contemporary indie artists with a similar retro lo-fi sound.<sup id="cite_ref-about_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-about-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Previous lo-fi artists generally rejected the influence of 1980s pop radio that informed most of Pink's sound.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterward, a type of music dubbed "hypnagogic pop" emerged among lo-fi and post-<a href="/wiki/Noise_music" title="Noise music">noise musicians</a> who engaged with elements of cultural <a href="/wiki/Nostalgia" title="Nostalgia">nostalgia</a>, childhood memory, and outdated recording technology. The label was invented by journalist <a href="/wiki/David_Keenan" title="David Keenan">David Keenan</a> in an August 2009 piece for <i>The Wire</i>, which included Pink among his examples.<sup id="cite_ref-wire_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wire-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pink was frequently referred to as the "godfather" of hypnagogic, chillwave or <a href="/wiki/Glo-fi" class="mw-redirect" title="Glo-fi">glo-fi</a> as new acts that were associated with him (aesthetically, personally, geographically, or professionally) attracted notice from critics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2014334,_338_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2014334,_338-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <i>Pitchfork</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s Marc Hogan, each of those tags described what was essentially <a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_music" title="Psychedelic music">psychedelic music</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pounds2010_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pounds2010-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adam Harper reflected in 2013 that there was a growing tendency among critics such as Simon Reynolds to overstate Pink's influence by failing to acknowledge predecessors such as R. Stevie Moore and <a href="/wiki/The_Cleaners_from_Venus" class="mw-redirect" title="The Cleaners from Venus">the Cleaners from Venus</a>' <a href="/wiki/Martin_Newell_(musician)" title="Martin Newell (musician)">Martin Newell</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Harper_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harper-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 2010s, a form of <a href="/wiki/Downtempo" title="Downtempo">downtempo</a> music tagged as "<a href="/wiki/Lo-fi_hip_hop" class="mw-redirect" title="Lo-fi hip hop">lo-fi hip hop</a>" or "chillhop" became popular among YouTube music streamers. Several of these YouTube channels attracted millions of followers.<sup id="cite_ref-Vice_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vice-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lo-fi_music&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_rap" title="Cloud rap">Cloud rap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolewave" title="Dolewave">Dolewave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lo-fi_musicians" title="List of lo-fi musicians">List of lo-fi musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microgenres" class="mw-redirect" title="Microgenres">Microgenres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_wave" title="Minimal wave">Minimal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_pop" title="Noise pop">Noise pop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_reduction" title="Noise reduction">Noise reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_rock" title="Noise rock">Noise rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skiffle" title="Skiffle">Skiffle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SoundCloud_rap" class="mw-redirect" title="SoundCloud rap">SoundCloud rap</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lo-fi_music&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Harperthesis-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Harperthesis_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output 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"Childhood's End". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wire_(magazine)" title="The Wire (magazine)">The Wire</a></i>. No. 306.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wire&rft.atitle=Childhood%27s+End&rft.issue=306&rft.date=2009-08&rft.aulast=Keenan&rft.aufirst=Dave&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALo-fi+music" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2014334,_338-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2014334,_338_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarper2014">Harper 2014</a>, pp. 334, 338.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pounds2010-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pounds2010_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPounds2010" class="citation news cs1">Pounds, Ross (June 30, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thequietus.com/articles/04528-glo-fi-chillwave-washed-out-memory-tapes">"Why Glo-Fi's Future Is Not Ephemeral"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Quietus" title="The Quietus">The Quietus</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Quietus&rft.atitle=Why+Glo-Fi%27s+Future+Is+Not+Ephemeral&rft.date=2010-06-30&rft.aulast=Pounds&rft.aufirst=Ross&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthequietus.com%2Farticles%2F04528-glo-fi-chillwave-washed-out-memory-tapes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALo-fi+music" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vice-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vice_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinkie2022" class="citation web cs1">Winkie, Luke (July 15, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jambox.io/blog/royalty-free-music-for-youtube">"How 'Lofi Hip Hop Radio to Relax/Study to' Became a YouTube Phenomenon"</a>. <i>Jambox</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 13,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jambox&rft.atitle=How+%27Lofi+Hip+Hop+Radio+to+Relax%2FStudy+to%27+Became+a+YouTube+Phenomenon&rft.date=2022-07-15&rft.aulast=Winkie&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjambox.io%2Fblog%2Froyalty-free-music-for-youtube&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALo-fi+music" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lo-fi_music&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lo-fi" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:lo-fi">lo-fi</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Lofi_music" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Lofi music">Lofi music</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpencer2005" class="citation book cs1">Spencer, Amy (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EiNlAAAAMAAJ"><i>DIY: The Rise of Lo-fi Culture</i></a>. Marion Boyars. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7145-3105-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7145-3105-2"><bdi>978-0-7145-3105-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=DIY%3A+The+Rise+of+Lo-fi+Culture&rft.pub=Marion+Boyars&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7145-3105-2&rft.aulast=Spencer&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEiNlAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALo-fi+music" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steve_Taylor" title="Steve Taylor">Taylor, Steve</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KPOsu8JOHO8C"><i>The A to X of Alternative Music</i></a>. A&C Black. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-8217-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-8217-4"><bdi>978-0-8264-8217-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+A+to+X+of+Alternative+Music&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-8217-4&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKPOsu8JOHO8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALo-fi+music" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnterberger1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richie_Unterberger" title="Richie Unterberger">Unterberger, Richie</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jzabxWx_vCYC"><i>Unknown Legends of Rock 'n' Roll: Psychedelic Unknowns, Mad Geniuses, Punk Pioneers, Lo-Fi Mavericks & More</i></a>. Hal Leonard Corporation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61774-469-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61774-469-3"><bdi>978-1-61774-469-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unknown+Legends+of+Rock+%27n%27+Roll%3A+Psychedelic+Unknowns%2C+Mad+Geniuses%2C+Punk+Pioneers%2C+Lo-Fi+Mavericks+%26+More&rft.pub=Hal+Leonard+Corporation&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-61774-469-3&rft.aulast=Unterberger&rft.aufirst=Richie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjzabxWx_vCYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALo-fi+music" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Music_production" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Music_production" title="Template:Music production"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Music_production" title="Template talk:Music production"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Music_production" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Music production"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Music_production" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Record_producer" title="Record producer">Music production</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">Engineering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_filter" title="Audio filter">Audio filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mastering_(audio)" title="Mastering (audio)">Audio mastering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audio_mixing_(recorded_music)" title="Audio mixing (recorded music)">Audio mixing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_distance" title="Critical distance">Critical distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_loop" title="Effects loop">Effects loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_unit" title="Effects unit">Effects unit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Talk_box" title="Talk box">Talk box</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wah-wah_pedal" title="Wah-wah pedal">Wah-wah pedal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_(acoustics)" title="Diffusion (acoustics)">Diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microphone" title="Microphone">Microphone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdubbing" title="Overdubbing">Overdubbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping-pong_recording" title="Ping-pong recording">Ping-ponging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punch_in/out" title="Punch in/out">Punch in/out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_recording" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound recording">Sound recording</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tape_loop" title="Tape loop">Tape loop</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Audio_signal_processing" title="Audio signal processing">Signal <br /> processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_time_stretching_and_pitch_scaling" title="Audio time stretching and pitch scaling">Pitch shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auto-Tune" title="Auto-Tune">Auto-Tune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorus_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Chorus effect">Chorus effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_range_compression" title="Dynamic range compression">Compression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delay_(audio_effect)" title="Delay (audio effect)">Delay effect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Send_tape_echo_echo_delay" title="Send tape echo echo delay">STEED</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distortion_(music)" title="Distortion (music)">Distortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_tracking" title="Double tracking">Double tracking</a> (<a href="/wiki/Automatic_double_tracking" title="Automatic double tracking">ADT</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ducking" title="Ducking">Ducking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equalization_(audio)" title="Equalization (audio)">Equalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exciter_(effect)" title="Exciter (effect)">Exciter effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flanging" title="Flanging">Flanging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octave_effect" title="Octave effect">Octave effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_gate" title="Noise gate">Noise gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaser_(effect)" title="Phaser (effect)">Phaser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumping_(audio)" title="Pumping (audio)">Pumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverb_effect" title="Reverb effect">Reverb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_echo" title="Reverse echo">Reverse echo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Practices</li><li><br />aesthetics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hip_hop_production" title="Hip hop production">Hip hop production</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lo-fi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overproduction_(music)" title="Overproduction (music)">Overproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recording_studio_as_an_instrument" title="Recording studio as an instrument">Recording studio as an instrument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_(music)" title="Sampling (music)">Sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turntablism" title="Turntablism">Turntablism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_of_Sound" title="Wall of Sound">Wall of Sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenochrony" title="Xenochrony">Xenochrony</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Roles</li><li><br /> professions</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrangement" title="Arrangement">Arranger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">Audio engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backup_band" title="Backup band">Backup band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandleader" title="Bandleader">Bandleader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DJ" class="mw-redirect" title="DJ">DJ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghostwriter#Music" title="Ghostwriter">Ghostwriters in music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horn_section" title="Horn section">Horn section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orchestrator" class="mw-redirect" title="Orchestrator">Orchestrator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Record_producer" title="Record producer">Record producer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhythm_section" title="Rhythm section">Rhythm section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Session_musician" title="Session musician">Session musician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backup_singer" class="mw-redirect" title="Backup singer">Backup singer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_singer" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghost singer">Ghost singer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocal_coach" title="Vocal coach">Vocal coach</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Click_track" title="Click track">Click track</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpolation_(popular_music)" title="Interpolation (popular music)">Interpolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loudness_war" title="Loudness war">Loudness war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(music)" title="Mashup (music)">Mashup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medley_(music)" title="Medley (music)">Medley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_technology_(electric)" title="Music technology (electric)">Music technology (electric)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_technology_(electronic_and_digital)" title="Music technology (electronic and digital)">Music technology (electronic and digital)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remix" title="Remix">Remix</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/45_record.png/16px-45_record.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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