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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Processes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Processes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Processes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gas_welding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gas_welding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Gas welding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gas_welding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arc_welding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arc_welding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Arc welding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arc_welding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arc_welding_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arc_welding_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Arc welding processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arc_welding_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arc_welding_power_supplies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arc_welding_power_supplies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Arc welding power supplies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arc_welding_power_supplies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resistance_welding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resistance_welding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Resistance welding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resistance_welding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_beam_welding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_beam_welding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Energy beam welding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_beam_welding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solid-state_welding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solid-state_welding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Solid-state welding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solid-state_welding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geometry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geometry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Geometry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geometry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Quality</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Quality-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Quality subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Quality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Heat-affected_zone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heat-affected_zone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Heat-affected zone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heat-affected_zone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lifetime_extension_with_after_treatment_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lifetime_extension_with_after_treatment_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Lifetime extension with after treatment methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lifetime_extension_with_after_treatment_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metallurgy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metallurgy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Metallurgy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metallurgy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unusual_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unusual_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Unusual conditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unusual_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Safety issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safety_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Costs_and_trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Costs_and_trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Costs and trends</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Costs_and_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glass_and_plastic_welding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glass_and_plastic_welding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Glass and plastic welding</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Glass_and_plastic_welding-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Glass and plastic welding subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Glass_and_plastic_welding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Glass_welding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glass_welding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Glass welding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glass_welding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plastic_welding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plastic_welding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Plastic welding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plastic_welding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Solvent_welding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solvent_welding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.1</span> <span>Solvent welding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solvent_welding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Welding</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 71 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-71" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">71 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%85" title="لحام – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لحام" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soldadura" title="Soldadura – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Soldadura" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soldadura" title="Soldadura – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Soldadura" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qaynaq_(texnika)" title="Qaynaq (texnika) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qaynaq (texnika)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87" title="ঢালাই – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ঢালাই" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pha_ti%C4%81n-ku" title="Pha tiān-ku – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Pha tiān-ku" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Зварка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Зварка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Заваряване – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Заваряване" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwoa%C3%9Fn" title="Schwoaßn – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Schwoaßn" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zavarivanje" title="Zavarivanje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Zavarivanje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soldadura" title="Soldadura – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Soldadura" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%C4%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2" title="Шăратав – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Шăратав" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sva%C5%99ov%C3%A1n%C3%AD" title="Svařování – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Svařování" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asio" title="Asio – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Asio" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svejsning" title="Svejsning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Svejsning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwei%C3%9Fen" title="Schweißen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Schweißen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keevitamine" title="Keevitamine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keevitamine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soldadura" title="Soldadura – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Soldadura" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veldado" title="Veldado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Veldado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soldadura" title="Soldadura – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Soldadura" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B4%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="جوشکاری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جوشکاری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soudage" title="Soudage – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Soudage" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soldadura" title="Soldadura – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Soldadura" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%A9%EC%A0%91" title="용접 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="용접" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D5%BC%D5%A1%D5%AF%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Եռակցում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Եռակցում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97" title="वेल्डिंग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वेल्डिंग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zavarivanje" title="Zavarivanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Zavarivanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las" title="Las – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Las" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saldatura" title="Saldatura – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Saldatura" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%9A" title="ריתוך – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ריתוך" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%96%D1%81%D1%96%D1%80%D1%83_(%D0%B4%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%83)" title="Пісіру (дәнекерлеу) – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Пісіру (дәнекерлеу)" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82%D2%AF%D2%AF" title="Ширетүү – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Ширетүү" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metin%C4%81%C5%A1ana" title="Metināšana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Metināšana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegeszt%C3%A9s_(f%C3%A9mek)" title="Hegesztés (fémek) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hegesztés (fémek)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Заварување – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Заварување" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D" title="വെൽഡിങ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വെൽഡിങ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97" title="वेल्डिंग – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वेल्डिंग" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimpalan" title="Kimpalan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kimpalan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%9F%E1%80%B1" title="ဂဟေ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂဟေ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lassen" title="Lassen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Lassen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99" title="वेल्डिङ – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="वेल्डिङ" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%BA%B6%E6%8E%A5" title="溶接 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="溶接" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swaisi" title="Swaisi – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Swaisi" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sveising" title="Sveising – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sveising" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sveising" title="Sveising – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sveising" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payvandlash" title="Payvandlash – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Payvandlash" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97" title="ਵੈਲਡਿੰਗ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵੈਲਡਿੰਗ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solda" title="Solda – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Solda" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudare" title="Sudare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sudare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Сварка – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сварка" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saldimi" title="Saldimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Saldimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welding" title="Welding – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Welding" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zv%C3%A1ranie" title="Zváranie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Zváranie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varjenje" title="Varjenje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Varjenje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%95%D8%AD%DB%8C%D9%85%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="لەحیمکاری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="لەحیمکاری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Заваривање – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Заваривање" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zavarivanje" title="Zavarivanje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Zavarivanje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elas" title="Elas – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Elas" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitsaus" title="Hitsaus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hitsaus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svetsning" title="Svetsning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Svetsning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paghihinang" title="Paghihinang – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Paghihinang" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="பற்றவைத்தல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பற்றவைத்தல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D" title="వెల్డింగ్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="వెల్డింగ్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1" title="การเชื่อม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การเชื่อม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaynak_(imalat)" title="Kaynak (imalat) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kaynak (imalat)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Зварювання – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Зварювання" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A0n_(c%C3%B4ng_ngh%E1%BB%87)" title="Hàn (công nghệ) – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hàn (công nghệ)" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%84%8A%E6%8E%A5" title="焊接 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="焊接" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%9F" title="שווייסן – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="שווייסן" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%8A%B2%E6%8E%A5" title="銲接 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="銲接" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%84%8A%E6%8E%A5" title="焊接 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="焊接" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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For the play, see <a href="/wiki/Welded_(play)" class="mw-redirect" title="Welded (play)"><i>Welded</i> (play)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:G502_Overhead.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/G502_Overhead.jpg/220px-G502_Overhead.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/G502_Overhead.jpg/330px-G502_Overhead.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/G502_Overhead.jpg/440px-G502_Overhead.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4480" data-file-height="6720" /></a><figcaption>Overhead stick welding</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Welding</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Fabrication_(metal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabrication (metal)">fabrication</a> process that joins materials, usually <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a> or <a href="/wiki/Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">thermoplastics</a>, primarily by using high temperature to <a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">melt</a> the parts together and allow them to cool, causing <a href="/wiki/Fusion_welding" title="Fusion welding">fusion</a>. Common alternative methods include <a href="/wiki/Solvent_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Solvent welding">solvent welding</a> (of thermoplastics) using chemicals to melt materials being bonded without heat, and <a href="#Solid-state_welding">solid-state welding</a> processes which bond without melting, such as pressure, <a href="/wiki/Cold_welding" title="Cold welding">cold welding</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_bonding" title="Diffusion bonding">diffusion bonding</a>. </p><p>Metal welding is distinct from lower temperature bonding techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Brazing" title="Brazing">brazing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soldering" title="Soldering">soldering</a>, which do not melt the base metal (parent metal) and instead require flowing a <a href="/wiki/Filler_metal" title="Filler metal">filler metal</a> to solidify their bonds. </p><p>In addition to melting the base metal in welding, a filler material is typically added to the joint to form a pool of molten material (the <a href="/wiki/Weld_pool" title="Weld pool">weld pool</a>) that cools to form a joint that can be stronger than the base material. Welding also requires a form of shield to protect the filler metals or melted metals from being contaminated or <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidized</a>. </p><p>Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame (chemical), an <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc" title="Electric arc">electric arc</a> (electrical), a <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Electron_beam_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron beam welding">electron beam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friction_welding" title="Friction welding">friction</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasound</a>. While often an industrial process, welding may be performed in many different environments, including in open air, <a href="/wiki/Underwater_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater welding">under water</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>. Welding is a hazardous undertaking and precautions are required to avoid <a href="/wiki/Burn" title="Burn">burns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_shock" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric shock">electric shock</a>, vision damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes, and exposure to <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation#Human_health-related_effects_of_UV_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet radiation">intense ultraviolet radiation</a>. </p><p>Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was <a href="/wiki/Forge_welding" title="Forge welding">forge welding</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Blacksmith" title="Blacksmith">blacksmiths</a> had used for millennia to join iron and steel by heating and hammering. <a href="/wiki/Arc_welding" title="Arc welding">Arc welding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxy-fuel_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxy-fuel welding">oxy-fuel welding</a> were among the first processes to develop late in the century, and <a href="/wiki/Electric_resistance_welding" title="Electric resistance welding">electric resistance welding</a> followed soon after. Welding technology advanced quickly during the early 20th century, as world wars drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining methods. Following the wars, several modern welding techniques were developed, including manual methods like <a href="/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding" title="Shielded metal arc welding">shielded metal arc welding</a>, now one of the most popular welding methods, as well as semi-automatic and automatic processes such as <a href="/wiki/Gas_metal_arc_welding" title="Gas metal arc welding">gas metal arc welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Submerged_arc_welding" title="Submerged arc welding">submerged arc welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flux-cored_arc_welding" title="Flux-cored arc welding">flux-cored arc welding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electroslag_welding" title="Electroslag welding">electroslag welding</a>. Developments continued with the invention of <a href="/wiki/Laser_beam_welding" title="Laser beam welding">laser beam welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electron_beam_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron beam welding">electron beam welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_pulse_welding" title="Magnetic pulse welding">magnetic pulse welding</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Friction_stir_welding" title="Friction stir welding">friction stir welding</a> in the latter half of the century. Today, as the science continues to advance, <a href="/wiki/Robot_welding" title="Robot welding">robot welding</a> is commonplace in industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new welding methods and gain greater understanding of weld quality.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>weld</i> is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> verb <i>well</i> (<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wæll</i></span>; plural/present tense: <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wælle</i></span>) or <i>welling</i> (<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wællen</i></span>), meaning 'to heat' (to the maximum temperature possible); 'to bring to a boil'. The modern word was probably derived from the past-tense <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">participle</a> <i>welled</i> (<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wællende</i></span>), with the addition of <i>d</i> for this purpose being common in the Germanic languages of the <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>. It was first recorded in English in 1590. A fourteenth century translation of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Bible">Christian Bible</a> into English by <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a> translates Isaiah 2:4 as "<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">...thei shul bete togidere their swerdes into shares...</i></span>" (they shall beat together their swords into plowshares). In the 1590 version this was changed to "<i>...thei shullen welle togidere her swerdes in-to scharris...</i>" (they shall weld together their swords into plowshares), suggesting this particular use of the word probably became popular in English sometime between these periods.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Old English word for welding iron was <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">samod</i></span> ('to bring together') or <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">samodwellung</i></span> ('to bring together hot').<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word is related to the <a href="/wiki/Old_Swedish" title="Old Swedish">Old Swedish</a> word <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">valla</i></span>, meaning 'to boil', which could refer to joining metals, as in <span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv">valla järn</i></span> (literally "to boil iron"). <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> was a large exporter of iron during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, so the word may have entered English from the Swedish iron trade, or may have been imported with the thousands of <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a> settlements that arrived in England before and during the <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a>, as more than half of the most common English words in everyday use are Scandinavian in origin.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:QtubIronPillar.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/QtubIronPillar.JPG/220px-QtubIronPillar.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/QtubIronPillar.JPG/330px-QtubIronPillar.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/QtubIronPillar.JPG/440px-QtubIronPillar.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1347" /></a><figcaption>The iron pillar of Delhi, India</figcaption></figure> <p>The history of joining metals goes back several millennia. The earliest examples of this come from the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Ages</a> in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. The ancient Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> states in <i><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">The Histories</a></i> of the 5th century BC that <a href="/wiki/Glaucus_of_Chios" title="Glaucus of Chios">Glaucus of Chios</a> "was the man who single-handedly invented iron welding".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forge welding was used in the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Iron_pillar_of_Delhi" title="Iron pillar of Delhi">Iron pillar of Delhi</a>, erected in <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>, India about 310 AD and weighing 5.4 <a href="/wiki/Metric_tons" class="mw-redirect" title="Metric tons">metric tons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> brought advances in <a href="/wiki/Forge_welding" title="Forge welding">forge welding</a>, in which blacksmiths pounded heated metal repeatedly until bonding occurred. In 1540, <a href="/wiki/Vannoccio_Biringuccio" title="Vannoccio Biringuccio">Vannoccio Biringuccio</a> published <i><a href="/wiki/De_la_pirotechnia" title="De la pirotechnia">De la pirotechnia</a></i>, which includes descriptions of the forging operation.<sup id="cite_ref-LE111_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LE111-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> craftsmen were skilled in the process, and the industry continued to grow during the following centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-LE111_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LE111-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1800, <a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Sir Humphry Davy</a> discovered the short-pulse electrical arc and presented his results in 1801.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ayrton_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ayrton-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-anders_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anders-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1802, Russian scientist <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Vladimirovich_Petrov" title="Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov">Vasily Petrov</a> created the continuous electric arc,<sup id="cite_ref-anders_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anders-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and subsequently published "News of Galvanic-Voltaic Experiments" in 1803, in which he described experiments carried out in 1802. Of great importance in this work was the description of a stable arc discharge and the indication of its possible use for many applications, one being melting metals.<sup id="cite_ref-biog1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-biog1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1808, Davy, who was unaware of Petrov's work, rediscovered the continuous electric arc.<sup id="cite_ref-Ayrton_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ayrton-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-anders_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anders-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1881–82 inventors <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Benardos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolai Benardos">Nikolai Benardos</a> (Russian) and <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Olszewski" title="Stanisław Olszewski">Stanisław Olszewski</a> (Polish)<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> created the first electric arc welding method known as <a href="/wiki/Carbon_arc_welding" title="Carbon arc welding">carbon arc welding</a> using carbon electrodes. The advances in arc welding continued with the invention of metal electrodes in the late 1800s by a Russian, <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Slavyanov" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolai Slavyanov">Nikolai Slavyanov</a> (1888), and an American, <a href="/wiki/C._L._Coffin" class="mw-redirect" title="C. L. Coffin">C. L. Coffin</a> (1890). Around 1900, A. P. Strohmenger released a coated metal electrode in <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a>, which gave a more stable arc. In 1905, Russian scientist Vladimir Mitkevich proposed using a three-phase electric arc for welding. <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">Alternating current</a> welding was invented by C. J. Holslag in 1919, but did not become popular for another decade.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Resistance_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistance welding">Resistance welding</a> was also developed during the final decades of the 19th century, with the first patents going to <a href="/wiki/Elihu_Thomson" title="Elihu Thomson">Elihu Thomson</a> in 1885, who produced further advances over the next 15 years. <a href="/wiki/Thermite_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermite welding">Thermite welding</a> was invented in 1893, and around that time another process, <a href="/wiki/Oxyfuel_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxyfuel welding">oxyfuel welding</a>, became well established. <a href="/wiki/Acetylene" title="Acetylene">Acetylene</a> was discovered in 1836 by <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Davy" title="Edmund Davy">Edmund Davy</a>, but its use was not practical in welding until about 1900, when a suitable <a href="/wiki/Gas_welding#Torch" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas welding">torch</a> was developed.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At first, oxyfuel welding was one of the more popular welding methods due to its portability and relatively low cost. As the 20th century progressed, however, it fell out of favor for industrial applications. It was largely replaced with arc welding, as advances in metal coverings (known as <a href="/wiki/Flux_(metallurgy)" title="Flux (metallurgy)">flux</a>) were made.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman26_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman26-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flux covering the electrode primarily shields the base material from impurities, but also stabilizes the arc and can add alloying components to the weld metal.<sup id="cite_ref-ESAB_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ESAB-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maurzyce_2009_(0).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Maurzyce_2009_%280%29.jpg/220px-Maurzyce_2009_%280%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Maurzyce_2009_%280%29.jpg/330px-Maurzyce_2009_%280%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Maurzyce_2009_%280%29.jpg/440px-Maurzyce_2009_%280%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Bridge of Maurzyce</figcaption></figure> <p>World War I caused a major surge in the use of welding, with the various military powers attempting to determine which of the several new welding processes would be best. The British primarily used arc welding, even constructing a ship, the "Fullagar" with an entirely welded hull.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 142">: 142 </span></sup> Arc welding was first applied to aircraft during the war as well, as some German airplane fuselages were constructed using the process.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also noteworthy is the first welded road bridge in the world, the <a href="/wiki/Maurzyce_Bridge" title="Maurzyce Bridge">Maurzyce Bridge</a> in Poland (1928).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Acetylene_welding_on_cylinder_water_jacket.,_1918_-_NARA_-_530779.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Acetylene_welding_on_cylinder_water_jacket.%2C_1918_-_NARA_-_530779.jpg/170px-Acetylene_welding_on_cylinder_water_jacket.%2C_1918_-_NARA_-_530779.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Acetylene_welding_on_cylinder_water_jacket.%2C_1918_-_NARA_-_530779.jpg/255px-Acetylene_welding_on_cylinder_water_jacket.%2C_1918_-_NARA_-_530779.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Acetylene_welding_on_cylinder_water_jacket.%2C_1918_-_NARA_-_530779.jpg/340px-Acetylene_welding_on_cylinder_water_jacket.%2C_1918_-_NARA_-_530779.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2040" data-file-height="2908" /></a><figcaption>Acetylene welding on cylinder water jacket, US Army 1918</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 1920s, significant advances were made in welding technology, including the introduction of automatic welding in 1920, in which electrode wire was fed continuously. <a href="/wiki/Shielding_gas" title="Shielding gas">Shielding gas</a> became a subject receiving much attention, as scientists attempted to protect welds from the effects of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Porosity and brittleness were the primary problems, and the solutions that developed included the use of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">argon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> as welding atmospheres.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the following decade, further advances allowed for the welding of reactive metals like <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>. This in conjunction with developments in automatic welding, alternating current, and fluxes fed a major expansion of arc welding during the 1930s and then during World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1930, the first all-welded merchant vessel, <a href="/wiki/M/S_Carolinian" class="mw-redirect" title="M/S Carolinian">M/S <i>Carolinian</i></a>, was launched. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portable_welder_Sydney_Water_Photograph_Collection_A-00069901.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Portable_welder_Sydney_Water_Photograph_Collection_A-00069901.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Portable_welder_Sydney_Water_Photograph_Collection_A-00069901.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Portable_welder_Sydney_Water_Photograph_Collection_A-00069901.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Portable_welder_Sydney_Water_Photograph_Collection_A-00069901.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Portable_welder_Sydney_Water_Photograph_Collection_A-00069901.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Portable_welder_Sydney_Water_Photograph_Collection_A-00069901.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4040" data-file-height="5500" /></a><figcaption>Portable welder being used for Sydney stormwater infrastructure</figcaption></figure> <p>During the middle of the century, many new welding methods were invented. In 1930, Kyle Taylor was responsible for the release of <a href="/wiki/Stud_welding" title="Stud welding">stud welding</a>, which soon became popular in shipbuilding and construction. Submerged arc welding was invented the same year and continues to be popular today. In 1932 a Russian, <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Khrenov" title="Konstantin Khrenov">Konstantin Khrenov</a> eventually implemented the first underwater electric arc welding. <a href="/wiki/Gas_tungsten_arc_welding" title="Gas tungsten arc welding">Gas tungsten arc welding</a>, after decades of development, was finally perfected in 1941, and gas metal arc welding followed in 1948, allowing for fast welding of non-<a href="/wiki/Ferrous" title="Ferrous">ferrous</a> materials but requiring expensive shielding gases. Shielded metal arc welding was developed during the 1950s, using a flux-coated consumable electrode, and it quickly became the most popular metal arc welding process. In 1957, the flux-cored arc welding process debuted, in which the self-shielded wire electrode could be used with automatic equipment, resulting in greatly increased welding speeds, and that same year, <a href="/wiki/Plasma_arc_welding" title="Plasma arc welding">plasma arc welding</a> was invented by Robert Gage. Electroslag welding was introduced in 1958, and it was followed by its cousin, <a href="/wiki/Electrogas_welding" title="Electrogas welding">electrogas welding</a>, in 1961.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1953, the Soviet scientist N. F. Kazakov proposed the <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion welding">diffusion bonding</a> method.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other recent developments in welding include the 1958 breakthrough of electron beam welding, making deep and narrow welding possible through the concentrated heat source. Following the invention of the laser in 1960, laser beam welding debuted several decades later, and has proved to be especially useful in high-speed, automated welding. <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_pulse_welding" title="Magnetic pulse welding">Magnetic pulse welding</a> (MPW) has been industrially used since 1967. <a href="/wiki/Friction_stir_welding" title="Friction stir welding">Friction stir welding</a> was invented in 1991 by Wayne Thomas at <a href="/wiki/The_Welding_Institute" title="The Welding Institute">The Welding Institute</a> (TWI, UK) and found high-quality applications all over the world.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of these four new processes continue to be quite expensive due to the high cost of the necessary equipment, and this has limited their applications.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Processes">Processes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gas_welding">Gas welding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Gas welding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oxy-fuel_welding_and_cutting" title="Oxy-fuel welding and cutting">Oxy-fuel welding and cutting</a></div> <p>The most common gas welding process is oxyfuel welding,<sup id="cite_ref-Weman26_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman26-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also known as oxyacetylene welding. It is one of the oldest and most versatile welding processes, but in recent years it has become less popular in industrial applications. It is still widely used for welding pipes and tubes, as well as repair work.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman26_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman26-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The equipment is relatively inexpensive and simple, generally employing the combustion of acetylene in <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> to produce a welding flame temperature of about 3100 °C (5600 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Weman26_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman26-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The flame, since it is less concentrated than an electric arc, causes slower weld cooling, which can lead to greater residual stresses and weld distortion, though it eases the welding of high alloy steels. A similar process, generally called oxyfuel cutting, is used to cut metals.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman26_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman26-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arc_welding">Arc welding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Arc welding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Arc_welding" title="Arc welding">Arc welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding" title="Shielded metal arc welding">Shielded metal arc welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gas_tungsten_arc_welding" title="Gas tungsten arc welding">Gas tungsten arc welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gas_metal_arc_welding" title="Gas metal arc welding">Gas metal arc welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flux-cored_arc_welding" title="Flux-cored arc welding">Flux-cored arc welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Submerged_arc_welding" title="Submerged arc welding">Submerged arc welding</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electroslag_welding" title="Electroslag welding">Electroslag welding</a></div> <p>These processes use a <a href="/wiki/Welding_power_supply" title="Welding power supply">welding power supply</a> to create and maintain an electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point. They can use either <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a> (DC) or <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a> (AC), and consumable or non-consumable <a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrodes</a>. The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi-<a href="/wiki/Inert_gas" title="Inert gas">inert gas</a>, known as a shielding gas, and filler material is sometimes used as well.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arc_welding_processes">Arc welding processes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Arc welding processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the most common types of arc welding is <a href="/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding" title="Shielded metal arc welding">shielded metal arc welding</a> (SMAW);<sup id="cite_ref-Weman63_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman63-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMAW) or stick welding. Electric current is used to strike an arc between the base material and consumable electrode rod, which is made of filler material (typical steel) and is covered with a flux that protects the weld area from <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">oxidation</a> and contamination by producing <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sub>2</sub>) gas during the welding process. The electrode core itself acts as filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman63_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman63-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Navy_090114-N-9704L-004_Hull_Technician_Fireman_John_Hansen_lays_beads_for_welding_qualifications.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/US_Navy_090114-N-9704L-004_Hull_Technician_Fireman_John_Hansen_lays_beads_for_welding_qualifications.jpg/220px-US_Navy_090114-N-9704L-004_Hull_Technician_Fireman_John_Hansen_lays_beads_for_welding_qualifications.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/US_Navy_090114-N-9704L-004_Hull_Technician_Fireman_John_Hansen_lays_beads_for_welding_qualifications.jpg/330px-US_Navy_090114-N-9704L-004_Hull_Technician_Fireman_John_Hansen_lays_beads_for_welding_qualifications.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/US_Navy_090114-N-9704L-004_Hull_Technician_Fireman_John_Hansen_lays_beads_for_welding_qualifications.jpg/440px-US_Navy_090114-N-9704L-004_Hull_Technician_Fireman_John_Hansen_lays_beads_for_welding_qualifications.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Shielded metal arc welding</figcaption></figure> <p>The process is versatile and can be performed with relatively inexpensive equipment, making it well suited to shop jobs and field work.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman63_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman63-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cary103_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cary103-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An operator can become reasonably proficient with a modest amount of training and can achieve mastery with experience. Weld times are rather slow, since the consumable electrodes must be frequently replaced and because slag, the residue from the flux, must be chipped away after welding.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman63_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman63-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding ferrous materials, though special electrodes have made possible the welding of <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a>, stainless steel, aluminum, and other metals.<sup id="cite_ref-Cary103_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cary103-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SMAW_area_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/SMAW_area_diagram.svg/220px-SMAW_area_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/SMAW_area_diagram.svg/330px-SMAW_area_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/SMAW_area_diagram.svg/440px-SMAW_area_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="816" data-file-height="568" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of arc and weld area, in shielded metal arc welding: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1256394559">.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key>ol{margin-left:1.3em;margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key>ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media(min-width:300px){.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key,.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-wide{column-count:2}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-narrow{column-count:1}}@media(min-width:450px){.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-wide{column-count:3}}</style><div class="image-key"><ol><li>Coating Flow</li><li>Rod</li><li>Shield Gas</li><li>Fusion</li><li>Base metal</li><li>Weld metal</li><li>Solidified Slag</li></ol></div></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Gas_metal_arc_welding" title="Gas metal arc welding">Gas metal arc welding</a> (GMAW), also known as metal inert gas or MIG welding, is a semi-automatic or automatic process that uses a continuous wire feed as an electrode and an inert or semi-inert gas mixture to protect the weld from contamination. Since the electrode is continuous, welding speeds are greater for GMAW than for SMAW.<sup id="cite_ref-LE5.43_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LE5.43-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A related process, <a href="/wiki/Flux-cored_arc_welding" title="Flux-cored arc welding">flux-cored arc welding</a> (FCAW), uses similar equipment but uses wire consisting of a steel electrode surrounding a powder fill material. This cored wire is more expensive than the standard solid wire and can generate fumes and/or slag, but it permits even higher welding speed and greater metal penetration.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gas_tungsten_arc_welding" title="Gas tungsten arc welding">Gas tungsten arc welding</a> (GTAW), or tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is a manual welding process that uses a non-consumable <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a> electrode, an inert or semi-inert gas mixture, and a separate filler material.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman31_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman31-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Especially useful for welding thin materials, this method is characterized by a stable arc and high-quality welds, but it requires significant operator skill and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman31_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman31-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>GTAW can be used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most often applied to <a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">stainless steel</a> and light metals. It is often used when quality welds are extremely important, such as in <a href="/wiki/Bicycle" title="Bicycle">bicycle</a>, aircraft and naval applications.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman31_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman31-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A related process, plasma arc welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to make the arc. The arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse control more critical and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized process. Because of its stable current, the method can be used on a wider range of material thicknesses than can the GTAW process and it is much faster. It can be applied to all of the same materials as GTAW except magnesium, and automated welding of stainless steel is one important application of the process. A variation of the process is <a href="/wiki/Plasma_cutting" title="Plasma cutting">plasma cutting</a>, an efficient steel cutting process.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Submerged_arc_welding" title="Submerged arc welding">Submerged arc welding</a> (SAW) is a high-productivity welding method in which the arc is struck beneath a covering layer of flux. This increases arc quality since contaminants in the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generally comes off by itself, and combined with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high. Working conditions are much improved over other arc welding processes, since the flux hides the arc and almost no smoke is produced. The process is commonly used in industry, especially for large products and in the manufacture of welded pressure vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other arc welding processes include <a href="/wiki/Atomic_hydrogen_welding" title="Atomic hydrogen welding">atomic hydrogen welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electroslag_welding" title="Electroslag welding">electroslag welding</a> (ESW), <a href="/wiki/Electrogas_welding" title="Electrogas welding">electrogas welding</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stud_arc_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Stud arc welding">stud arc welding</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ESW is a highly productive, single-pass welding process for thicker materials between 1 inch (25 mm) and 12 inches (300 mm) in a vertical or close to vertical position. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arc_welding_power_supplies">Arc welding power supplies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Arc welding power supplies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To supply the electrical power necessary for arc welding processes, a variety of different power supplies can be used. The most common welding power supplies are constant <a href="/wiki/Electrical_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical current">current</a> power supplies and constant <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a> power supplies. In arc welding, the length of the arc is directly related to the voltage, and the amount of heat input is related to the current. Constant current power supplies are most often used for manual welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding, because they maintain a relatively constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important because in manual welding, it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the arc length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies hold the voltage constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most often used for automated welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux-cored arc welding, and submerged arc welding. In these processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation in the distance between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large change in current. For example, if the wire and the base material get too close, the current will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip of the wire to melt, returning it to its original separation distance.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The type of current used plays an important role in arc welding. Consumable electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding generally use direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or negatively. In welding, the positively charged <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a> will have a greater heat concentration, and as a result, changing the polarity of the electrode affects weld properties. If the electrode is positively charged, the base metal will be hotter, increasing weld penetration and welding speed. Alternatively, a negatively charged electrode results in more shallow welds.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-consumable electrode processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either type of direct current, as well as alternating current. However, with direct current, because the electrode only creates the arc and does not provide filler material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged electrode makes deeper welds.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium-penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited after every zero crossings, has been addressed with the invention of special power units that produce a <a href="/wiki/Square_wave" title="Square wave">square wave</a> pattern instead of the normal <a href="/wiki/Sine_wave" title="Sine wave">sine wave</a>, making rapid zero crossings possible and minimizing the effects of the problem.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resistance_welding">Resistance welding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Resistance welding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Resistance_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistance welding">Resistance welding</a></div> <p>Resistance welding involves the generation of heat by passing current through the resistance caused by the contact between two or more metal surfaces. Small pools of molten metal are formed at the weld area as high current (1,000–100,000 <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">A</a>) is passed through the metal.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman8084_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman8084-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, resistance welding methods are efficient and cause little pollution, but their applications are somewhat limited and the equipment cost can be high.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman8084_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman8084-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spot_welder.miller.triddle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Spot_welder.miller.triddle.jpg/220px-Spot_welder.miller.triddle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Spot_welder.miller.triddle.jpg/330px-Spot_welder.miller.triddle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Spot_welder.miller.triddle.jpg/440px-Spot_welder.miller.triddle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2103" data-file-height="1289" /></a><figcaption>Spot welder</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Spot_welding" title="Spot welding">Spot welding</a> is a popular resistance welding method used to join overlapping metal sheets of up to 3 mm thick.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman8084_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman8084-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two electrodes are simultaneously used to clamp the metal sheets together and to pass current through the sheets. The advantages of the method include <a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">efficient energy use</a>, limited workpiece deformation, high production rates, easy automation, and no required filler materials. Weld strength is significantly lower than with other welding methods, making the process suitable for only certain applications. It is used extensively in the automotive industry—ordinary cars can have several thousand spot welds made by <a href="/wiki/Industrial_robot" title="Industrial robot">industrial robots</a>. A specialized process called <a href="/wiki/Shot_welding" title="Shot welding">shot welding</a>, can be used to spot weld stainless steel.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman8084_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman8084-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like spot welding, <a href="/wiki/Seam_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Seam welding">seam welding</a> relies on two electrodes to apply pressure and current to join metal sheets. However, instead of pointed electrodes, wheel-shaped electrodes roll along and often feed the workpiece, making it possible to make long continuous welds. In the past, this process was used in the manufacture of beverage cans, but now its uses are more limited.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman8084_43-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman8084-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other resistance welding methods include <a href="/wiki/Butt_welding" title="Butt welding">butt welding</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Flash_welding" title="Flash welding">flash welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Projection_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Projection welding">projection welding</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Upset_welding" title="Upset welding">upset welding</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman8084_43-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman8084-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_beam_welding">Energy beam welding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Energy beam welding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Energy beam welding methods, namely <a href="/wiki/Laser_beam_welding" title="Laser beam welding">laser beam welding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electron_beam_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron beam welding">electron beam welding</a>, are relatively new processes that have become quite popular in high production applications. The two processes are quite similar, differing most notably in their source of power. Laser beam welding employs a highly focused laser beam, while electron beam welding is done in a vacuum and uses an electron beam. Both have a very high energy density, making deep weld penetration possible and minimizing the size of the weld area. Both processes are extremely fast, and are easily automated, making them highly productive. The primary disadvantages are their very high equipment costs (though these are decreasing) and a susceptibility to thermal cracking. Developments in this area include <a href="/wiki/Laser-hybrid_welding" title="Laser-hybrid welding">laser-hybrid welding</a>, which uses principles from both laser beam welding and arc welding for even better weld properties, <a href="/wiki/Cladding_(metalworking)" title="Cladding (metalworking)">laser cladding</a>, and <a href="/wiki/X-ray_welding" title="X-ray welding">x-ray welding</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solid-state_welding">Solid-state welding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Solid-state welding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solid-state_welding_processes_-_AWS_A3.0_2001.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Solid-state_welding_processes_-_AWS_A3.0_2001.svg/300px-Solid-state_welding_processes_-_AWS_A3.0_2001.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="354" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Solid-state_welding_processes_-_AWS_A3.0_2001.svg/450px-Solid-state_welding_processes_-_AWS_A3.0_2001.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Solid-state_welding_processes_-_AWS_A3.0_2001.svg/600px-Solid-state_welding_processes_-_AWS_A3.0_2001.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="506" data-file-height="597" /></a><figcaption>Solid-state welding processes <a href="/wiki/Classification_chart" title="Classification chart">classification chart</a><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Like <a href="/wiki/Forge_welding" title="Forge welding">forge welding</a> (the earliest welding process discovered), some modern welding methods do not involve the melting of the materials being joined. One of the most popular, <a href="/wiki/Ultrasonic_welding" title="Ultrasonic welding">ultrasonic welding</a>, is used to connect thin sheets or wires made of metal or thermoplastic by vibrating them at high frequency and under high pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman8990_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman8990-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The equipment and methods involved are similar to that of resistance welding, but instead of electric current, vibration provides energy input. When welding metals, the vibrations are introduced horizontally, and the materials are not melted; with plastics, which should have similar melting temperatures, vertically. Ultrasonic welding is commonly used for making electrical connections out of aluminum or copper, and it is also a very common polymer welding process.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman8990_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman8990-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another common process, <a href="/wiki/Explosion_welding" title="Explosion welding">explosion welding</a>, involves the joining of materials by pushing them together under extremely high pressure. The energy from the impact plasticizes the materials, forming a weld, even though only a limited amount of heat is generated. The process is commonly used for welding dissimilar materials, including bonding aluminum to carbon steel in ship hulls and stainless steel or titanium to carbon steel in petrochemical pressure vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman8990_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman8990-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other solid-state welding processes include <a href="/wiki/Friction_welding" title="Friction welding">friction welding</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Friction_stir_welding" title="Friction stir welding">friction stir welding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friction_stir_spot_welding" title="Friction stir spot welding">friction stir spot welding</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-NZ_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NZ-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_pulse_welding" title="Magnetic pulse welding">magnetic pulse welding</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-EMPT_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EMPT-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> co-extrusion welding, <a href="/wiki/Cold_welding" title="Cold welding">cold welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_bonding" title="Diffusion bonding">diffusion bonding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exothermic_welding" title="Exothermic welding">exothermic welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/High_frequency_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="High frequency welding">high frequency welding</a>, hot pressure welding, <a href="/wiki/Induction_welding" title="Induction welding">induction welding</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roll_bonding" title="Roll bonding">roll bonding</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman8990_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman8990-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geometry">Geometry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Geometry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Welding_joint" title="Welding joint">Welding joint</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Common_joint_types.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Common_joint_types.svg/220px-Common_joint_types.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Common_joint_types.svg/330px-Common_joint_types.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Common_joint_types.svg/440px-Common_joint_types.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Common welding joint types:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1256394559"><div class="image-key"><ol><li>Square butt joint</li><li>V butt joint</li><li>Lap joint</li><li>T-joint</li></ol></div></figcaption></figure> <p>Welds can be geometrically prepared in many different ways. The five basic types of weld joints are the butt joint, lap joint, corner joint, edge joint, and T-joint (a variant of this last is the <a href="/wiki/Cruciform_joint" class="mw-redirect" title="Cruciform joint">cruciform joint</a>). Other variations exist as well—for example, double-V preparation joints are characterized by the two pieces of material each tapering to a single center point at one-half their height. Single-U and double-U preparation joints are also fairly common—instead of having straight edges like the single-V and double-V preparation joints, they are curved, forming the shape of a U. Lap joints are also commonly more than two pieces thick—depending on the process used and the thickness of the material, many pieces can be welded together in a lap joint geometry.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many welding processes require the use of a particular joint design; for example, resistance spot welding, laser beam welding, and electron beam welding are most frequently performed on lap joints. Other welding methods, like shielded metal arc welding, are extremely versatile and can weld virtually any type of joint. Some processes can also be used to make multipass welds, in which one weld is allowed to cool, and then another weld is performed on top of it. This allows for the welding of thick sections arranged in a single-V preparation joint, for example.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Welded_butt_joint_x-section.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Welded_butt_joint_x-section.svg/220px-Welded_butt_joint_x-section.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Welded_butt_joint_x-section.svg/330px-Welded_butt_joint_x-section.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Welded_butt_joint_x-section.svg/440px-Welded_butt_joint_x-section.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>The cross-section of a welded butt joint, with the darkest gray representing the weld or fusion zone, the medium gray the heat-affected zone, and the lightest gray the base material.</figcaption></figure> <p>After welding, a number of distinct regions can be identified in the weld area. The weld itself is called the fusion zone—more specifically, it is where the filler metal was laid during the welding process. The properties of the fusion zone depend primarily on the filler metal used, and its compatibility with the base materials. It is surrounded by the <a href="/wiki/Heat-affected_zone" title="Heat-affected zone">heat-affected zone</a>, the area that had its microstructure and properties altered by the weld. These properties depend on the base material's behavior when subjected to heat. The metal in this area is often weaker than both the base material and the fusion zone, and is also where residual stresses are found.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quality">Quality</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Quality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Weld_quality_assurance" title="Weld quality assurance">Weld quality assurance</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pipe_root_weld_with_HAZ.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Pipe_root_weld_with_HAZ.jpg/220px-Pipe_root_weld_with_HAZ.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="367" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Pipe_root_weld_with_HAZ.jpg/330px-Pipe_root_weld_with_HAZ.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Pipe_root_weld_with_HAZ.jpg/440px-Pipe_root_weld_with_HAZ.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1380" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>The blue area results from oxidation at a corresponding temperature of 600 °F (316 °C). This is an accurate way to identify temperature, but does not represent the HAZ width. The HAZ is the narrow area that immediately surrounds the welded base metal.</figcaption></figure> <p>Many distinct factors influence the strength of welds and the material around them, including the welding method, the amount and concentration of energy input, the <a href="/wiki/Weldability" title="Weldability">weldability</a> of the base material, filler material, and flux material, the design of the joint, and the interactions between all these factors.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman6062_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman6062-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, the factor of welding position influences weld quality, that welding codes & specifications may require testing—both welding procedures and welders—using specified welding positions: 1G (flat), 2G (horizontal), 3G (vertical), 4G (overhead), 5G (horizontal fixed pipe), or 6G (inclined fixed pipe). </p><p>To test the quality of a weld, either <a href="/wiki/Destructive_testing" title="Destructive testing">destructive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nondestructive_testing" title="Nondestructive testing">nondestructive testing</a> methods are commonly used to verify that welds are free of defects, have acceptable levels of residual stresses and distortion, and have acceptable heat-affected zone (HAZ) properties. Types of <a href="/wiki/Welding_defect" title="Welding defect">welding defects</a> include cracks, distortion, gas inclusions (porosity), non-metallic inclusions, lack of fusion, incomplete penetration, lamellar tearing, and undercutting. </p><p>The metalworking industry has instituted <a href="/wiki/List_of_welding_codes" title="List of welding codes">codes and specifications</a> to guide <a href="/wiki/Welders" class="mw-redirect" title="Welders">welders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weld_inspectors" class="mw-redirect" title="Weld inspectors">weld inspectors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Engineers">engineers</a>, managers, and property owners in proper welding technique, design of welds, how to judge the quality of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding_procedure_specification&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Welding procedure specification (page does not exist)">welding procedure specification</a>, how to judge the skill of the person performing the weld, and how to ensure the quality of a welding job.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman6062_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman6062-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Methods such as <a href="/wiki/Visual_inspection" title="Visual inspection">visual inspection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">radiography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultrasonic_testing" title="Ultrasonic testing">ultrasonic testing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phased-array_ultrasonics" class="mw-redirect" title="Phased-array ultrasonics">phased-array ultrasonics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dye_penetrant_inspection" title="Dye penetrant inspection">dye penetrant inspection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_particle_inspection" title="Magnetic particle inspection">magnetic particle inspection</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Industrial_computed_tomography" title="Industrial computed tomography">industrial computed tomography</a> can help with detection and analysis of certain defects. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heat-affected_zone">Heat-affected zone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Heat-affected zone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is a ring surrounding the weld in which the temperature of the welding process, combined with the stresses of uneven heating and cooling, alters the <a href="/wiki/Heat-treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat-treatment">heat-treatment</a> properties of the alloy. The effects of welding on the material surrounding the weld can be detrimental—depending on the materials used and the heat input of the welding process used, the HAZ can be of varying size and strength. The <a href="/wiki/Thermal_diffusivity" title="Thermal diffusivity">thermal diffusivity</a> of the base material plays a large role—if the diffusivity is high, the material cooling rate is high and the HAZ is relatively small. Conversely, a low diffusivity leads to slower cooling and a larger HAZ. The amount of heat injected by the welding process plays an important role as well, as processes like oxyacetylene welding have an unconcentrated heat input and increase the size of the HAZ. Processes like laser beam welding give a highly concentrated, limited amount of heat, resulting in a small HAZ. Arc welding falls between these two extremes, with the individual processes varying somewhat in heat input.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To calculate the heat input for arc welding procedures, the following formula can be used: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q=\left({\frac {V\times I\times 60}{S\times 1000}}\right)\times {\mathit {Efficiency}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Q</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>V</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mi>I</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mn>60</mn> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mn>1000</mn> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">E</mi> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">f</mi> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">f</mi> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">i</mi> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">c</mi> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">i</mi> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">e</mi> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">n</mi> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">c</mi> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">y</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q=\left({\frac {V\times I\times 60}{S\times 1000}}\right)\times {\mathit {Efficiency}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/99581fc9527f6649c8fdf19776494bcd9ee06366" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; margin-right: -0.084ex; width:33.161ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Q=\left({\frac {V\times I\times 60}{S\times 1000}}\right)\times {\mathit {Efficiency}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>Q</i> = heat input (<a href="/wiki/Kilojoule" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilojoule">kJ</a>/mm), <i>V</i> = voltage (<a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">V</a>), <i>I</i> = current (A), and <i>S</i> = welding speed (mm/min). The efficiency is dependent on the welding process used, with shielded metal arc welding having a value of 0.75, gas metal arc welding and submerged arc welding, 0.9, and gas tungsten arc welding, 0.8.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Methods of alleviating the stresses and brittleness created in the HAZ include <a href="/wiki/Heat_treating#Stress_relieving" title="Heat treating">stress relieving</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)#Welded_steel" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">tempering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One major defect concerning the HAZ would be cracking at the toes , due to the rapid expansion (heating) and contraction (cooling) the material may not have the ability to withstand the stress and could cause cracking, one method the control these stress would be to control the heating and cooling rate, such as pre-heating and post- heating <sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lifetime_extension_with_after_treatment_methods">Lifetime extension with after treatment methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Lifetime extension with after treatment methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Example_HiFIT-treated_assembly.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Example_HiFIT-treated_assembly.jpg/220px-Example_HiFIT-treated_assembly.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Example_HiFIT-treated_assembly.jpg/330px-Example_HiFIT-treated_assembly.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Example_HiFIT-treated_assembly.jpg/440px-Example_HiFIT-treated_assembly.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Example: High Frequency Impact Treatment for lifetime extension</figcaption></figure> <p>The durability and life of dynamically loaded, welded steel structures is determined in many cases by the welds, in particular the weld transitions. Through selective treatment of the transitions by <a href="/wiki/Grinding_(abrasive_cutting)" title="Grinding (abrasive cutting)">grinding (abrasive cutting)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shot_peening" title="Shot peening">shot peening</a>, <a href="/wiki/High-frequency_impact_treatment" title="High-frequency impact treatment">High-frequency impact treatment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultrasonic_impact_treatment" title="Ultrasonic impact treatment">Ultrasonic impact treatment</a>, etc. the durability of many designs increases significantly. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Metallurgy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most solids used are engineering materials consisting of crystalline solids in which the atoms or ions are arranged in a repetitive geometric pattern which is known as a <a href="/wiki/Lattice_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Lattice structure">lattice structure</a>. The only exception is material that is made from glass which is a combination of a supercooled liquid and polymers which are aggregates of large organic molecules.<sup id="cite_ref-Lancaster_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lancaster-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crystalline solids cohesion is obtained by a metallic or chemical bond that is formed between the constituent atoms. Chemical bonds can be grouped into two types consisting of <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic bond">ionic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Covalent" class="mw-redirect" title="Covalent">covalent</a>. To form an ionic bond, either a <a href="/wiki/Valence_(chemistry)" title="Valence (chemistry)">valence</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">bonding</a> electron separates from one atom and becomes attached to another atom to form oppositely charged <a href="/wiki/Ions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ions">ions</a>. The bonding in the static position is when the ions occupy an equilibrium position where the resulting force between them is zero. When the ions are exerted in <a href="/wiki/Tension_(physics)" title="Tension (physics)">tension</a> force, the inter-ionic spacing increases creating an electrostatic attractive force, while a repulsing force under <a href="/wiki/Compressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Compressive">compressive</a> force between the atomic nuclei is dominant.<sup id="cite_ref-Lancaster_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lancaster-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Covalent bonding takes place when one of the constituent atoms loses one or more electrons, with the other atom gaining the electrons, resulting in an electron cloud that is shared by the molecule as a whole. In both ionic and covalent bonding the location of the ions and electrons are constrained relative to each other, thereby resulting in the bond being characteristically <a href="/wiki/Brittle" class="mw-redirect" title="Brittle">brittle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lancaster_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lancaster-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Metallic_bonding" title="Metallic bonding">Metallic bonding</a> can be classified as a type of covalent bonding for which the constituent atoms are of the same type and do not combine with one another to form a chemical bond. Atoms will lose an electron(s) forming an array of positive ions. These electrons are shared by the lattice which makes the electron cluster mobile, as the electrons are free to move as well as the ions. For this, it gives metals their relatively high thermal and electrical conductivity as well as being characteristically <a href="/wiki/Ductile" class="mw-redirect" title="Ductile">ductile</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lancaster_59-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lancaster-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three of the most commonly used crystal lattice structures in metals are the <a href="/wiki/Body-centred_cubic" class="mw-redirect" title="Body-centred cubic">body-centred cubic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Face-centred_cubic" class="mw-redirect" title="Face-centred cubic">face-centred cubic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Close-packing_of_equal_spheres" title="Close-packing of equal spheres">close-packed hexagonal</a>. Ferritic <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> has a body-centred cubic structure and <a href="/wiki/Austenitic_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Austenitic steel">austenitic steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-ferrous_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-ferrous metals">non-ferrous metals</a> like <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a> have the face-centred cubic structure.<sup id="cite_ref-Lancaster_59-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lancaster-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ductility is an important factor in ensuring the integrity of structures by enabling them to sustain local stress concentrations without fracture. In addition, structures are required to be of an acceptable strength, which is related to a material's <a href="/wiki/Yield_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Yield strength">yield strength</a>. In general, as the yield strength of a material increases, there is a corresponding reduction in <a href="/wiki/Fracture_toughness" title="Fracture toughness">fracture toughness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lancaster_59-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lancaster-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A reduction in fracture toughness may also be attributed to the embrittlement effect of impurities, or for body-centred cubic metals, from a reduction in temperature. Metals and in particular steels have a transitional temperature range where above this range the metal has acceptable notch-ductility while below this range the material becomes brittle. Within the range, the materials behavior is unpredictable. The reduction in fracture toughness is accompanied by a change in the fracture appearance. When above the transition, the fracture is primarily due to micro-void coalescence, which results in the fracture appearing <a href="/wiki/Fiber" title="Fiber">fibrous</a>. When the temperatures falls the fracture will show signs of cleavage facets. These two appearances are visible by the naked eye. Brittle fracture in steel plates may appear as chevron markings under the <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a>. These arrow-like ridges on the crack surface point towards the origin of the fracture.<sup id="cite_ref-Lancaster_59-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lancaster-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fracture toughness is measured using a notched and pre-cracked rectangular specimen, of which the dimensions are specified in standards, for example ASTM E23. There are other means of estimating or measuring fracture toughness by the following: The Charpy impact test per ASTM A370; The crack-tip opening displacement (CTOD) test per BS 7448–1; The J integral test per ASTM E1820; The Pellini drop-weight test per ASTM E208.<sup id="cite_ref-Lancaster_59-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lancaster-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unusual_conditions">Unusual conditions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Unusual conditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Working_Diver_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Working_Diver_01.jpg/220px-Working_Diver_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Working_Diver_01.jpg/330px-Working_Diver_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Working_Diver_01.jpg/440px-Working_Diver_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1960" data-file-height="3008" /></a><figcaption>Underwater welding</figcaption></figure> <p>While many welding applications are done in controlled environments such as factories and repair shops, some welding processes are commonly used in a wide variety of conditions, such as open air, underwater, and <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuums</a> (such as space). In open-air applications, such as construction and outdoors repair, shielded metal arc welding is the most common process. Processes that employ inert gases to protect the weld cannot be readily used in such situations, because unpredictable atmospheric movements can result in a faulty weld. Shielded metal arc welding is also often used in underwater welding in the construction and repair of ships, offshore platforms, and pipelines, but others, such as flux cored arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding, are also common. Welding in space is also possible—it was first attempted in 1969 by <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian</a> cosmonauts during the <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_6" title="Soyuz 6">Soyuz 6</a> mission, when they performed experiments to test shielded metal arc welding, plasma arc welding, and electron beam welding in a depressurized environment. Further testing of these methods was done in the following decades, and today researchers continue to develop methods for using other welding processes in space, such as laser beam welding, resistance welding, and friction welding. Advances in these areas may be useful for future endeavours similar to the construction of the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>, which could rely on welding for joining in space the parts that were manufactured on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Safety_issues">Safety issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Safety issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: welding fume extractor/extraction and health risks from welding. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Welding_booth_with_local_exhaust_system.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Welding_booth_with_local_exhaust_system.jpg/220px-Welding_booth_with_local_exhaust_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="367" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Welding_booth_with_local_exhaust_system.jpg/330px-Welding_booth_with_local_exhaust_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Welding_booth_with_local_exhaust_system.jpg/440px-Welding_booth_with_local_exhaust_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="677" data-file-height="1128" /></a><figcaption>A stick welding booth equipped with local exhaust system (LEV) that removes the toxic fumes, gases, vapours and dusts before they can mix with the room air. Besides toxic emissions, the booth also helps protect bystanders from UV light. With a well-ventilated booth, personal protective equipment is still needed for the welder.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AlfredPalmerwelder1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/AlfredPalmerwelder1.jpg/220px-AlfredPalmerwelder1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/AlfredPalmerwelder1.jpg/330px-AlfredPalmerwelder1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/AlfredPalmerwelder1.jpg/440px-AlfredPalmerwelder1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1519" /></a><figcaption>Arc welding with a welding helmet, gloves, and other protective clothing (1942)</figcaption></figure> <p>Welding can be dangerous and unhealthy if the proper precautions are not taken. However, using new technology and proper protection greatly reduces risks of injury and death associated with welding.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since many common welding procedures involve an open electric arc or flame, the risk of burns and fire is significant; this is why it is classified as a <a href="/wiki/Hot_work" title="Hot work">hot work</a> process. To prevent injury, <a href="/wiki/Welder" title="Welder">welders</a> wear <a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">personal protective equipment</a> in the form of heavy <a href="/wiki/Leather" title="Leather">leather</a> <a href="/wiki/Glove" title="Glove">gloves</a> and protective long-sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme heat and flames. Synthetic clothing such as polyester should not be worn since it may burn, causing injury.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called <a href="/wiki/Arc_eye" class="mw-redirect" title="Arc eye">arc eye</a> or flash burns in which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the <a href="/wiki/Cornea" title="Cornea">cornea</a> and can burn the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retinas</a> of the eyes. <a href="/wiki/Goggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Goggle">Goggles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Welding_helmet" title="Welding helmet">welding helmets</a> with dark UV-filtering face plates are worn to prevent this exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the 2000s, some helmets have included a face plate which instantly darkens upon exposure to the intense UV light. To protect bystanders, the welding area is often surrounded with translucent welding curtains. These curtains, made of a <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">polyvinyl chloride</a> plastic film, shield people outside the welding area from the UV light of the electric arc, but cannot replace the <a href="/wiki/Filter_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Filter (optics)">filter</a> glass used in helmets.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the type of material, welding varieties, and other factors, welding can produce over 100 dB(A) of noise.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Long term or continuous exposure to higher <a href="/wiki/Decibel" title="Decibel">decibels</a> can lead to <a href="/wiki/Noise-induced_hearing_loss" title="Noise-induced hearing loss">noise-induced hearing loss</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chamber_for_Welding_Fumes_(8743403735).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Chamber_for_Welding_Fumes_%288743403735%29.jpg/220px-Chamber_for_Welding_Fumes_%288743403735%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Chamber_for_Welding_Fumes_%288743403735%29.jpg/330px-Chamber_for_Welding_Fumes_%288743403735%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Chamber_for_Welding_Fumes_%288743403735%29.jpg/440px-Chamber_for_Welding_Fumes_%288743403735%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>A chamber designed to contain welding fumes for analysis</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Welding_Helmet_Effects_on_Breathing_Zone_Exposures.webm/220px--Welding_Helmet_Effects_on_Breathing_Zone_Exposures.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="164" data-mwtitle="Welding_Helmet_Effects_on_Breathing_Zone_Exposures.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Welding_Helmet_Effects_on_Breathing_Zone_Exposures.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/04/Welding_Helmet_Effects_on_Breathing_Zone_Exposures.webm/Welding_Helmet_Effects_on_Breathing_Zone_Exposures.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/04/Welding_Helmet_Effects_on_Breathing_Zone_Exposures.webm/Welding_Helmet_Effects_on_Breathing_Zone_Exposures.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/04/Welding_Helmet_Effects_on_Breathing_Zone_Exposures.webm/Welding_Helmet_Effects_on_Breathing_Zone_Exposures.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Welding_Helmet_Effects_on_Breathing_Zone_Exposures.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/04/Welding_Helmet_Effects_on_Breathing_Zone_Exposures.webm/Welding_Helmet_Effects_on_Breathing_Zone_Exposures.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/04/Welding_Helmet_Effects_on_Breathing_Zone_Exposures.webm/Welding_Helmet_Effects_on_Breathing_Zone_Exposures.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/04/Welding_Helmet_Effects_on_Breathing_Zone_Exposures.webm/Welding_Helmet_Effects_on_Breathing_Zone_Exposures.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>A video describing research on welding helmets and their ability to limit fume exposure</figcaption></figure> <p>Welders are often exposed to dangerous gases and <a href="/wiki/Particulate_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate matter">particulate matter</a>. Processes like flux-cored arc welding and shielded metal arc welding produce <a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">smoke</a> containing particles of various types of <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxides</a>. The size of the <a href="/wiki/Particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Particles">particles</a> in question tends to influence the <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a> of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater danger. This is because smaller particles have the ability to cross the <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</a>. Fumes and gases, such as carbon dioxide, <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a>, and fumes containing <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metals">heavy metals</a>, can be dangerous to welders lacking proper ventilation and training.<sup id="cite_ref-Cary5262_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cary5262-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exposure to <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a> welding fumes, for example, even at low levels (<0.2 mg/m<sup>3</sup>), may lead to neurological problems or to damage to the lungs, liver, kidneys, or central nervous system.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nano particles can become trapped in the alveolar macrophages of the lungs and induce pulmonary fibrosis.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of compressed gases and flames in many, welding processes poses an explosion and fire risk. Some common precautions include limiting the amount of oxygen in the air, and keeping combustible materials away from the workplace.<sup id="cite_ref-Cary5262_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cary5262-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Costs_and_trends">Costs and trends</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Costs and trends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As an industrial process, the cost of welding plays a crucial role in manufacturing decisions. Many different variables affect the total cost, including equipment cost, labor cost, material cost, and <a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">energy</a> cost.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman18489_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman18489-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the process, equipment cost can vary, from inexpensive for methods like <a href="/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding" title="Shielded metal arc welding">shielded metal arc welding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxyfuel_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxyfuel welding">oxyfuel welding</a>, to extremely expensive for methods like laser beam welding and electron beam welding. Because of their high cost, they are only used in high production operations. Similarly, because automation and robots increase equipment costs, they are only implemented when high production is necessary. Labor cost depends on the deposition rate (the rate of welding), the hourly wage, and the total operation time, including time spent fitting, welding, and handling the part. The cost of materials includes the cost of the base and filler material, and the cost of shielding gases. Finally, energy cost depends on arc time and welding power demand.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman18489_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman18489-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For manual welding methods, labor costs generally make up the vast majority of the total cost. As a result, many cost-saving measures are focused on minimizing operation time. To do this, welding procedures with high deposition rates can be selected, and weld parameters can be fine-tuned to increase welding speed. Mechanization and automation are often implemented to reduce labor costs, but this frequently increases the cost of equipment and creates additional setup time. Material costs tend to increase when special properties are necessary, and energy costs normally do not amount to more than several percent of the total welding cost.<sup id="cite_ref-Weman18489_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weman18489-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In recent years, in order to minimize labor costs in high production manufacturing, industrial welding has become increasingly more automated, most notably with the use of robots in resistance spot welding (especially in the automotive industry) and in arc welding. In robot welding, mechanized devices both hold the material and perform the weld<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and at first, spot welding was its most common application, but robotic arc welding increases in popularity as technology advances. Other key areas of research and development include the welding of dissimilar materials (such as steel and aluminum, for example) and new welding processes, such as friction stir, magnetic pulse, conductive heat seam, and laser-hybrid welding. Furthermore, progress is desired in making more specialized methods like laser beam welding practical for more applications, such as in the aerospace and automotive industries. Researchers also hope to better understand the often unpredictable properties of welds, especially microstructure, <a href="/wiki/Residual_stress" title="Residual stress">residual stresses</a>, and a weld's tendency to crack or deform.<sup id="cite_ref-ASM_International_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASM_International-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The trend of accelerating the speed at which welds are performed in the <a href="/wiki/Steel_erector" class="mw-redirect" title="Steel erector">steel erection</a> industry comes at a risk to the integrity of the connection. Without proper fusion to the base materials provided by sufficient arc time on the weld, a project inspector cannot ensure the effective diameter of the puddle weld therefore he or she cannot guarantee the published load capacities unless they witness the actual installation.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This method of puddle welding is common in the United States and Canada for attaching steel sheets to <a href="/wiki/Bar_joist" class="mw-redirect" title="Bar joist">bar joist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Structural_steel" title="Structural steel">structural steel</a> members. Regional agencies are responsible for ensuring the proper installation of puddle welding on steel construction sites. Currently there is no standard or weld procedure which can ensure the published holding capacity of any unwitnessed connection, but this is under review by the <a href="/wiki/American_Welding_Society" title="American Welding Society">American Welding Society</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Glass_and_plastic_welding">Glass and plastic welding</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Glass and plastic welding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glass_welding_two_tubes_together.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Glass_welding_two_tubes_together.JPG/220px-Glass_welding_two_tubes_together.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Glass_welding_two_tubes_together.JPG/330px-Glass_welding_two_tubes_together.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Glass_welding_two_tubes_together.JPG/440px-Glass_welding_two_tubes_together.JPG 2x" data-file-width="973" data-file-height="812" /></a><figcaption>The welding together of two tubes made from lead glass</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cast_glass_bowl_showing_the_weld_seam.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Cast_glass_bowl_showing_the_weld_seam.JPG/220px-Cast_glass_bowl_showing_the_weld_seam.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Cast_glass_bowl_showing_the_weld_seam.JPG/330px-Cast_glass_bowl_showing_the_weld_seam.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Cast_glass_bowl_showing_the_weld_seam.JPG/440px-Cast_glass_bowl_showing_the_weld_seam.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2456" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption>A bowl made from cast-glass. The two halves are joined together by the weld seam, running down the middle.</figcaption></figure> <p>Glasses and certain types of plastics are commonly welded materials. Unlike metals, which have a specific <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a>, glasses and plastics have a melting range, called the <a href="/wiki/Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">glass transition</a>. When heating the solid material past the glass-transition temperature (T<sub>g</sub>) into this range, it will generally become softer and more pliable. When it crosses through the range, above the glass-melting temperature (T<sub>m</sub>), it will become a very thick, sluggish, viscous liquid, slowly decreasing in viscosity as temperature increases. Typically, this <a href="/wiki/Viscous_liquid" title="Viscous liquid">viscous liquid</a> will have very little <a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">surface tension</a> compared to metals, becoming a sticky, <a href="/wiki/Taffy_(candy)" title="Taffy (candy)">taffy</a> to <a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">honey</a>-like consistency, so welding can usually take place by simply pressing two melted surfaces together. The two liquids will generally mix and join at first contact. Upon cooling through the glass transition, the welded piece will solidify as one solid piece of <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_solid" title="Amorphous solid">amorphous material</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glass_welding">Glass welding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Glass welding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Glassblowing" title="Glassblowing">Glassblowing</a></div> <p>Glass welding is a common practice during glassblowing. It is used very often in the construction of lighting, <a href="/wiki/Neon_sign" title="Neon sign">neon signs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flashtube" title="Flashtube">flashtubes</a>, scientific equipment, and the manufacture of dishes and other glassware. It is also used during <a href="/wiki/Glass_casting" title="Glass casting">glass casting</a> for joining the halves of glass molds, making items such as bottles and jars. Welding glass is accomplished by heating the glass through the glass transition, turning it into a thick, formable, liquid mass. Heating is usually done with a gas or oxy-gas torch, or a furnace, because the temperatures for melting glass are often quite high. This temperature may vary, depending on the type of glass. For example, <a href="/wiki/Lead_glass" title="Lead glass">lead glass</a> becomes a weldable liquid at around 1,600 °F (870 °C), and can be welded with a simple propane torch. On the other hand, quartz glass (<a href="/wiki/Fused_silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Fused silica">fused silica</a>) must be heated to over 3,000 °F (1,650 °C), but quickly loses its viscosity and formability if overheated, so an <a href="/wiki/Oxyhydrogen" title="Oxyhydrogen">oxyhydrogen</a> torch must be used. Sometimes a tube may be attached to the glass, allowing it to be blown into various shapes, such as bulbs, bottles, or tubes. When two pieces of liquid glass are pressed together, they will usually weld very readily. Welding a handle onto a pitcher can usually be done with relative ease. However, when welding a tube to another tube, a combination of blowing and suction, and pressing and pulling is used to ensure a good seal, to shape the glass, and to keep the surface tension from closing the tube in on itself. Sometimes a filler rod may be used, but usually not. </p><p>Because glass is very brittle in its solid state, it is often prone to cracking upon heating and cooling, especially if the heating and cooling are uneven. This is because the brittleness of glass does not allow for uneven <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">thermal expansion</a>. Glass that has been welded will usually need to be cooled very slowly and evenly through the glass transition, in a process called <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(glass)" title="Annealing (glass)">annealing</a>, to relieve any internal stresses created by a <a href="/wiki/Temperature_gradient" title="Temperature gradient">temperature gradient</a>. </p><p>There are many types of glass, and it is most common to weld using the same types. Different glasses often have different rates of thermal expansion, which can cause them to crack upon cooling when they contract differently. For instance, quartz has very low thermal expansion, while <a href="/wiki/Soda-lime_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Soda-lime glass">soda-lime glass</a> has very high thermal expansion. When welding different glasses to each other, it is usually important to closely match their coefficients of thermal expansion, to ensure that cracking does not occur. Also, some glasses will simply not mix with others, so welding between certain types may not be possible. </p><p>Glass can also be welded to metals and ceramics, although with metals the process is usually more adhesion to the surface of the metal rather than a commingling of the two materials. However, certain glasses will typically bond only to certain metals. For example, lead glass bonds readily to <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> or <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a>, but not to aluminum. <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">Tungsten</a> electrodes are often used in lighting but will not bond to quartz glass, so the tungsten is often wetted with molten <a href="/wiki/Borosilicate_glass" title="Borosilicate glass">borosilicate glass</a>, which bonds to both tungsten and quartz. However, care must be taken to ensure that all materials have similar coefficients of thermal expansion to prevent cracking both when the object cools and when it is heated again. Special <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a> are often used for this purpose, ensuring that the coefficients of expansion match, and sometimes thin, metallic coatings may be applied to a metal to create a good bond with the glass.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="searched for pretty much every key word in this paragraph in an attempt to track down a page number, and the closest thing found was a bit about the coefficient of expansion of liquid when forming a thermometer. maybe this citation is intended to support a different paragraph? (July 2023)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plastic_welding">Plastic welding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Plastic welding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plastic_welding" title="Plastic welding">Plastic welding</a></div> <p>Plastics are generally divided into two categories, which are "thermosets" and "thermoplastics." A <a href="/wiki/Thermoset" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoset">thermoset</a> is a plastic in which a chemical reaction sets the molecular bonds after first forming the plastic, and then the bonds cannot be broken again without degrading the plastic. Thermosets cannot be melted, therefore, once a thermoset has set it is impossible to weld it. Examples of thermosets include <a href="/wiki/Epoxy" title="Epoxy">epoxies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicone" title="Silicone">silicone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vulcanized_rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulcanized rubber">vulcanized rubber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyester" title="Polyester">polyester</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polyurethane" title="Polyurethane">polyurethane</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">Thermoplastics</a>, by contrast, form long molecular chains, which are often coiled or intertwined, forming an amorphous structure without any long-range, crystalline order. Some thermoplastics may be fully amorphous, while others have a partially crystalline/partially amorphous structure. Both amorphous and semicrystalline thermoplastics have a glass transition, above which welding can occur, but semicrystallines also have a specific melting point which is above the glass transition. Above this melting point, the viscous liquid will become a free-flowing liquid (see <a href="/wiki/Rheological_weldability" title="Rheological weldability">rheological weldability</a> for <a href="/wiki/Thermoplastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoplastics">thermoplastics</a>). Examples of thermoplastics include <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">polypropylene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">polystyrene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyvinylchloride" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyvinylchloride">polyvinylchloride</a> (PVC), and fluoroplastics like <a href="/wiki/Teflon" class="mw-redirect" title="Teflon">Teflon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spectralon" title="Spectralon">Spectralon</a>. </p><p>Welding thermoplastic with heat is very similar to welding glass. The plastic first must be cleaned and then heated through the glass transition, turning the weld-interface into a thick, viscous liquid. Two heated interfaces can then be pressed together, allowing the molecules to mix through intermolecular diffusion, joining them as one. Then the plastic is cooled through the glass transition, allowing the weld to solidify. A filler rod may often be used for certain types of joints. The main differences between welding glass and plastic are the types of heating methods, the much lower melting temperatures, and the fact that plastics will burn if overheated. Many different methods have been devised for heating plastic to a weldable temperature without burning it. Ovens or electric heating tools can be used to melt the plastic. Ultrasonic, laser, or friction heating are other methods. Resistive metals may be implanted in the plastic, which respond to induction heating. Some plastics will begin to burn at temperatures lower than their glass transition, so welding can be performed by blowing a heated, inert gas onto the plastic, melting it while, at the same time, shielding it from oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Solvent_welding">Solvent welding</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Solvent welding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solvent_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Solvent welding">Solvent welding</a></div> <p>Many thermoplastics can also be welded using chemical <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvents</a>. When placed in contact with the plastic, the solvent will begin to soften it, bringing the surface into a thick, liquid solution. When two melted surfaces are pressed together, the molecules in the solution mix, joining them as one. Because the solvent can permeate the plastic, the solvent evaporates out through the surface of the plastic, causing the weld to drop out of solution and solidify. A common use for solvent welding is for joining PVC (<a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">polyvinyl chloride</a>) or ABS (<a href="/wiki/Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrene" title="Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene">acrylonitrile butadiene styrene</a>) pipes during <a href="/wiki/Plumbing" title="Plumbing">plumbing</a>, or for welding <a href="/wiki/Styrene" title="Styrene">styrene</a> and polystyrene plastics in the construction of <a href="/wiki/Physical_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical model">models</a>. Solvent welding is especially effective on plastics like PVC which burn at or below their glass transition, but may be ineffective on plastics like Teflon or polyethylene that are resistant to <a href="/wiki/Chemical_decomposition" title="Chemical decomposition">chemical decomposition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_joining" title="Aluminium joining">Aluminium joining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fastener" title="Fastener">Fasteners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_welding_codes" title="List of welding codes">List of welding codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_welding_processes" title="List of welding processes">List of welding processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding_Procedure_Specification" title="Welding Procedure Specification">Welding Procedure Specification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welder_certification" title="Welder certification">Welder certification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welded_sculpture" title="Welded sculpture">Welded sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding_table" title="Welding table">Welding table</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFC._BrownK._Brown2011" class="citation book cs1">C. 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American Technical society. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forgingmanualpr00jerngoog/page/n38">26</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forging&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=American+Technical+society&rft.date=1919&rft.au=John+Jernberg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fforgingmanualpr00jerngoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelding" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weman, pp. 95–101</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">AWS A3.0:2001, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions Including Terms for Adhesive Bonding, Brazing, Soldering, Thermal Cutting, and Thermal Spraying, American Welding Society (2001), p. 117. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87171-624-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-87171-624-0">0-87171-624-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weman8990-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weman8990_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weman8990_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weman8990_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weman8990_47-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Weman, pp. 89–90</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NZ-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NZ_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Stephan Kallee (August 2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.twi-global.com/technical-knowledge/published-papers/nz-fabricators-begin-to-use-friction-stir-welding-to-produce-aluminium-components-and-panels-august-2006">"NZ Fabricators begin to use Friction Stir Welding to produce aluminium components and panels"</a>. <i>New Zealand Engineering News</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EMPT-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EMPT_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephan Kallee et al. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-08-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nidcd.nih.gov&rft.atitle=Do+you+know+how+loud+is+too+loud%3F+%7C+NIDCD&rft.date=2020-09-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nidcd.nih.gov%2Fnews%2F2020%2Fdo-you-know-how-loud-too-loud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelding" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cary5262-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cary5262_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cary5262_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaryHelzer2005">Cary & Helzer 2005</a>, pp. 52–62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Institute_of_Occupational_Safety_and_Health2022" class="citation web cs1">National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (2022-05-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/welding/default.html">"Welding and Manganese"</a>. <i>Center for Disease Control</i>. US Department of Health and Human Services<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-02-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Center+for+Disease+Control&rft.atitle=Welding+and+Manganese&rft.date=2022-05-04&rft.au=National+Institute+of+Occupational+Safety+and+Health&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fniosh%2Ftopics%2Fwelding%2Fdefault.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelding" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_D_ByrneJohn_A_Baugh2008" class="citation journal cs1">James D Byrne; John A Baugh (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2322933">"The significance of nano particles in particle-induced pulmonary fibrosis"</a>. <i>McGill Journal of Medicine</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 43–50. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2322933">2322933</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18523535">18523535</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=McGill+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+significance+of+nano+particles+in+particle-induced+pulmonary+fibrosis&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=43-50&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2322933%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18523535&rft.au=James+D+Byrne&rft.au=John+A+Baugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2322933&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelding" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weman18489-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weman18489_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weman18489_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weman18489_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Weman, pp. 184–89</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lincoln Electric, p. 4.5-1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ASM_International-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ASM_International_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFASM_International2003" class="citation book cs1">ASM International (2003). <i>Trends in Welding Research</i>. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. pp. 995–1005. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87170-780-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-87170-780-2"><bdi>0-87170-780-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trends+in+Welding+Research&rft.place=Materials+Park%2C+Ohio&rft.pages=995-1005&rft.pub=ASM+International&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-87170-780-2&rft.au=ASM+International&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelding" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Gregory L. Snow and W. Samuel Easterling (October 2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.us.hilti.com/fstore/holus/LinkFiles/19th_Int_SCCFSS_1.pdf">Strength of Arc Spot Welds Made in Single and Multiple Steel Sheets</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140611210950/http://www.us.hilti.com/fstore/holus/LinkFiles/19th_Int_SCCFSS_1.pdf">Archived</a> 2014-06-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> , Proceedings of the 19th International Specialty Conference on Cold-Formed Steel Structures, Missouri University of Science and Technology.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Freek Bos, Christian Louter, Fred Veer (2008) <i>Challenging Glass: Conference on Architectural and Structural Applications</i>. JOS Press. p. 194. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58603-866-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-58603-866-4">1-58603-866-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolas1921" class="citation book cs1">Bolas, Bernard D. (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/handbookoflabora02bolarich"><i>A handbook of Laboratory Glass-Blowing</i></a>. London: G. Routledge & Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+handbook+of+Laboratory+Glass-Blowing&rft.place=London&rft.pub=G.+Routledge+%26+Sons&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Bolas&rft.aufirst=Bernard+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhandbookoflabora02bolarich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelding" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Plastics and Composites: Welding Handbook</i> By David A. Grewell, A. Benatar, Joon Bu Park – Hanser Gardener 2003</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Handbook of Plastics Joining: A Practical Guide</i> By Plastics Design Library – PDL 1997 Page 137, 146</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaryHelzer2005" class="citation book cs1">Cary, Howard B; Helzer, Scott C. (2005). <i>Modern Welding Technology</i>. Upper Saddle River, <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a>: Pearson Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-113029-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-113029-3"><bdi>0-13-113029-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Welding+Technology&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-13-113029-3&rft.aulast=Cary&rft.aufirst=Howard+B&rft.au=Helzer%2C+Scott+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelding" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalpakjianSchmid2001" class="citation book cs1">Kalpakjian, Serope; Schmid, Steven R. (2001). <i>Manufacturing Engineering and Technology</i>. Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-36131-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-36131-0"><bdi>0-201-36131-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manufacturing+Engineering+and+Technology&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-201-36131-0&rft.aulast=Kalpakjian&rft.aufirst=Serope&rft.au=Schmid%2C+Steven+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelding" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLincoln_Electric1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Electric" title="Lincoln Electric">Lincoln Electric</a> (1994). <i>The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cleveland" title="Cleveland">Cleveland</a>: Lincoln Electric. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/99949-25-82-2" title="Special:BookSources/99949-25-82-2"><bdi>99949-25-82-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Procedure+Handbook+of+Arc+Welding&rft.place=Cleveland&rft.pub=Lincoln+Electric&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=99949-25-82-2&rft.au=Lincoln+Electric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelding" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeman2003" class="citation book cs1">Weman, Klas (2003). <i>Welding processes handbook</i>. New York, NY: CRC Press LLC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8493-1773-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8493-1773-8"><bdi>0-8493-1773-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Welding+processes+handbook&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=CRC+Press+LLC&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-8493-1773-8&rft.aulast=Weman&rft.aufirst=Klas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelding" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welding&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://solutionsajk.com/master-the-art-of-pipe-joint-welding-a-step-by-step-guide/">Pipes Joint Welding</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230623172502/https://solutionsajk.com/master-the-art-of-pipe-joint-welding-a-step-by-step-guide/">Archived</a> 2023-06-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.isnt.org.in/what-is-a-welding-process.html">Welding Process</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/safety_haz/welding/ventilation.html">Welding Ventilation</a> at CCOHS</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output 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navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_hydrogen_welding" title="Atomic hydrogen welding">Atomic hydrogen (Athydo/AHW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrogas_welding" title="Electrogas welding">Electrogas (EGW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_welding" title="Flash welding">Flash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flux-cored_arc_welding" title="Flux-cored arc welding">Flux-cored (FCAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_metal_arc_welding" title="Gas metal arc welding">Gas metal (Microwire/MIG/GMAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_tungsten_arc_welding" title="Gas tungsten arc welding">Gas tungsten (Heliarc/TIG/GTAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_arc_welding" title="Plasma arc welding">Plasma (PAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding" title="Shielded metal arc welding">Shielded metal (Stick/MMA/SMAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submerged_arc_welding" title="Submerged arc welding">Submerged (SAW)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_welding_processes" title="List of welding processes">Other processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_resistance_welding" title="Electric resistance welding">Electric resistance (ERW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron-beam_welding" title="Electron-beam welding">Electron-beam (EBW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroslag_welding" title="Electroslag welding">Electroslag (ESW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exothermic_welding" title="Exothermic welding">Exothermic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forge_welding" title="Forge welding">Forge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction_welding" title="Friction welding">Friction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction_stir_welding" title="Friction stir welding">Friction stir (FSW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction_stud_welding" title="Friction stud welding">Friction stud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_beam_welding" title="Laser beam welding">Laser beam (LBW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser-hybrid_welding" title="Laser-hybrid welding">Laser-hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_pulse_welding" title="Magnetic pulse welding">Magnetic pulse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxy-fuel_welding_and_cutting" title="Oxy-fuel welding and cutting">Oxyacetylene (OAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spot_welding" title="Spot welding">Spot (RSW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultrasonic_welding" title="Ultrasonic welding">Ultrasonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upset_welding" title="Upset welding">Upset</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">Electrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filler_metal" title="Filler metal">Filler metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding_helmet" title="Welding helmet">Helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding_power_supply" title="Welding power supply">Power supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_welding" title="Robot welding">Robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shielding_gas" title="Shielding gas">Shielding gas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heat-affected_zone" title="Heat-affected zone">Heat-affected zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photokeratitis" title="Photokeratitis">Photokeratitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residual_stress" title="Residual stress">Residual stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weldability" title="Weldability">Weldability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casting" title="Casting">Casting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_fabrication" title="Metal fabrication">Fabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forming_processes" title="Forming processes">Forming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewellery" title="Jewellery">Jewellery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machining" title="Machining">Machining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalsmith" title="Metalsmith">Smithing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_metalworking" title="Outline of metalworking">Tools and terminology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Welding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Machine_and_metalworking_tools" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Machine_and_metalworking_tools" title="Template:Machine and metalworking tools"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Machine_and_metalworking_tools" title="Template talk:Machine and metalworking tools"><abbr title="Discuss this 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href="/wiki/Planer_(metalworking)" title="Planer (metalworking)">Planer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_cutting" title="Plasma cutting">Plasma cutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotary_transfer_machine" title="Rotary transfer machine">Rotary transfer machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaper" title="Shaper">Shaper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tap_and_die" title="Tap and die">Tap and die</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thread_restorer" title="Thread restorer">Thread restorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_bit" title="Tool bit">Tool bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turret_lathe" title="Turret lathe">Turret lathe</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Welder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Template:Types_of_tools" title="Template:Types of tools">Types of tools</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Cleaning_tools" title="Template:Cleaning tools">Cleaning</a></dd> <dd><a 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