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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_names_with_special_characters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Personal names with special characters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_names_with_special_characters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Features_of_German_spelling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Features_of_German_spelling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Features of German spelling </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Features_of_German_spelling-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Features of German spelling subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Features_of_German_spelling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Capitalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Capitalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Capitalization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Capitalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compound_words" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compound_words"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Compound words </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compound_words-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hyphen_in_compound_words" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hyphen_in_compound_words"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Hyphen in compound words </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hyphen_in_compound_words-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowel_length" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowel_length"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Vowel length </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowel_length-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Double_or_triple_consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Double_or_triple_consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Double or triple consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Double_or_triple_consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Typical_letters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typical_letters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Typical letters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Typical_letters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_words" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_words"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Foreign words </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_words-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grapheme-to-phoneme_correspondences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grapheme-to-phoneme_correspondences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Grapheme-to-phoneme correspondences 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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unstressed_short_vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unstressed_short_vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 Unstressed short vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unstressed_short_vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long_vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long_vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.3 Long vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long_vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diphthongs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diphthongs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.4 Diphthongs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diphthongs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shortened_long_vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shortened_long_vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.5 Shortened long vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shortened_long_vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unusual_spellings_in_proper_names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unusual_spellings_in_proper_names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.6 Unusual spellings in proper names </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unusual_spellings_in_proper_names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Punctuation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Punctuation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Punctuation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Punctuation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_German_orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_German_orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 History of German orthography </div> </a> <button 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class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 19th century and early 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century_and_early_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German_spelling_reform_of_1996" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_spelling_reform_of_1996"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 German spelling reform of 1996 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_spelling_reform_of_1996-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/German_grammar" title="German grammar">German grammar</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_nouns" title="German nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_verbs" title="German verbs">Verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_articles" title="German articles">Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_adjectives" title="German adjectives">Adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_pronouns" title="German pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_adverbial_phrases" title="German adverbial phrases">Adverbial phrases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_conjugation" title="German conjugation">Conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_sentence_structure" title="German sentence structure">Sentence structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_modal_particles" title="German modal particles">Modal particles</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:German_grammar" title="Template:German grammar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:German_grammar" title="Template talk:German grammar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:German_grammar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:German grammar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> German orthography is the <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a> the <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German language</a>, which is largely <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_orthography" title="Phonemic orthography">phonemic</a>. However, it shows many instances of spellings that are historic or analogous to other spellings rather than phonemic. The pronunciation of almost every word can be derived from its spelling once the spelling rules are known, but the opposite is not generally the case. Today, <a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard High German</a> orthography is regulated by the <a href="/wiki/Rat_f%C3%BCr_deutsche_Rechtschreibung" class="mw-redirect" title="Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung">Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung</a> (Council for German Orthography), composed of representatives from most <a href="/wiki/German_Sprachraum" class="mw-redirect" title="German Sprachraum">German-speaking countries</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alphabet">Alphabet</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Alphabet">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/German_Alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="German Alphabet">German Alphabet</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:German_alphabet-2.ogg" title="File:German alphabet-2.ogg">German alphabet</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="28" data-mwtitle="German_alphabet-2.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/German_alphabet-2.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/92/German_alphabet-2.ogg/German_alphabet-2.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AGerman_alphabet-2.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">(Listen to a German speaker recite the alphabet in German)</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oesterreichische_Schulschrift_1995,_2_-_Schraegschrift.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Oesterreichische_Schulschrift_1995%2C_2_-_Schraegschrift.jpg/250px-Oesterreichische_Schulschrift_1995%2C_2_-_Schraegschrift.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Oesterreichische_Schulschrift_1995%2C_2_-_Schraegschrift.jpg/375px-Oesterreichische_Schulschrift_1995%2C_2_-_Schraegschrift.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Oesterreichische_Schulschrift_1995%2C_2_-_Schraegschrift.jpg/500px-Oesterreichische_Schulschrift_1995%2C_2_-_Schraegschrift.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1402" data-file-height="1525" /></a><figcaption>Austria's standardized <a href="/wiki/Cursive" title="Cursive">cursive</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vereinfachte_Ausgangsschrift.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Vereinfachte_Ausgangsschrift.png/250px-Vereinfachte_Ausgangsschrift.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Vereinfachte_Ausgangsschrift.png/375px-Vereinfachte_Ausgangsschrift.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Vereinfachte_Ausgangsschrift.png/500px-Vereinfachte_Ausgangsschrift.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="654" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vereinfachte_Ausgangsschrift" title="Vereinfachte Ausgangsschrift">Vereinfachte Ausgangsschrift</a></figcaption></figure> The modern German <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a> consists of the twenty-six <a href="/wiki/Letter_(alphabet)" title="Letter (alphabet)">letters</a> of the <a href="/wiki/ISO_basic_Latin_alphabet" title="ISO basic Latin alphabet">ISO basic Latin alphabet</a> plus four special letters. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basic_alphabet">Basic alphabet</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Basic alphabet">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Letter </th> <th>Name<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> </th> <th>Name (<a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>) </th> <th>Spelling Alphabet </th></tr> <tr> <td>A </td> <td>a </td> <td>A </td> <td>/aː/ </td> <td>Anton </td></tr> <tr> <td>B </td> <td>b </td> <td>Be </td> <td>/beː/ </td> <td>Berta </td></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>c </td> <td>Ce </td> <td>/t͡seː/ </td> <td>Cäsar </td></tr> <tr> <td>D </td> <td>d </td> <td>De </td> <td>/deː/ </td> <td>Dora </td></tr> <tr> <td>E </td> <td>e </td> <td>E </td> <td>/eː/ </td> <td>Emil </td></tr> <tr> <td>F </td> <td>f </td> <td>Ef </td> <td>/ɛf/ </td> <td>Friedrich </td></tr> <tr> <td>G </td> <td>g </td> <td>Ge </td> <td>/ɡeː/ </td> <td>Gustav </td></tr> <tr> <td>H </td> <td>h </td> <td>Ha </td> <td>/haː/ </td> <td>Heinrich </td></tr> <tr> <td>I </td> <td>i </td> <td>I </td> <td>/iː/ </td> <td>Ida </td></tr> <tr> <td>J </td> <td>j </td> <td>Jott,<a href="#cite_note-d-2">[a]</a> Je<a href="#cite_note-a-3">[b]</a> </td> <td>/jɔt/<a href="#cite_note-d-2">[a]</a> /jeː/<a href="#cite_note-a-3">[b]</a> </td> <td>Julius </td></tr> <tr> <td>K </td> <td>k </td> <td>Ka </td> <td>/kaː/ </td> <td>Kaufmann,<a href="#cite_note-d-2">[a]</a> Konrad<a href="#cite_note-a-3">[b]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>L </td> <td>l </td> <td>El </td> <td>/ɛl/ </td> <td>Ludwig </td></tr> <tr> <td>M </td> <td>m </td> <td>Em </td> <td>/ɛm/ </td> <td>Martha </td></tr> <tr> <td>N </td> <td>n </td> <td>En </td> <td>/ɛn/ </td> <td>Nordpol </td></tr> <tr> <td>O </td> <td>o </td> <td>O </td> <td>/oː/ </td> <td>Otto </td></tr> <tr> <td>P </td> <td>p </td> <td>Pe </td> <td>/peː/ </td> <td>Paula </td></tr> <tr> <td>Q </td> <td>q </td> <td>Qu,<a href="#cite_note-d-2">[a]</a> Que<a href="#cite_note-a-3">[b]</a> </td> <td>/kuː/<a href="#cite_note-d-2">[a]</a> /kveː/<a href="#cite_note-a-3">[b]</a> </td> <td>Quelle </td></tr> <tr> <td>R </td> <td>r </td> <td>Er </td> <td>/ɛʁ/ </td> <td>Richard </td></tr> <tr> <td>S </td> <td>s </td> <td>Es </td> <td>/ɛs/ </td> <td>Samuel,<a href="#cite_note-d-2">[a]</a> Siegfried<a href="#cite_note-a-3">[b]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>T </td> <td>t </td> <td>Te </td> <td>/teː/ </td> <td>Theodor </td></tr> <tr> <td>U </td> <td>u </td> <td>U </td> <td>/uː/ </td> <td>Ulrich </td></tr> <tr> <td>V </td> <td>v </td> <td>Vau </td> <td>/faʊ̯/ </td> <td>Viktor </td></tr> <tr> <td>W </td> <td>w </td> <td>We </td> <td>/veː/ </td> <td>Wilhelm </td></tr> <tr> <td>X </td> <td>x </td> <td>Ix </td> <td>/ɪks/ </td> <td>Xanthippe,<a href="#cite_note-d-2">[a]</a> Xavier<a href="#cite_note-a-3">[b]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Y </td> <td>y </td> <td>Ypsilon </td> <td>/ˈʏpsilɔn/<a href="#cite_note-d-2">[a]</a> /ʏˈpsiːlɔn/<a href="#cite_note-a-3">[b]</a> </td> <td>Ypsilon </td></tr> <tr> <td>Z </td> <td>z </td> <td>Zett </td> <td>/t͡sɛt/ </td> <td>Zacharias,<a href="#cite_note-d-2">[a]</a> Zürich<a href="#cite_note-a-3">[b]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-d-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-d_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-d_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-d_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-d_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-d_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-d_2-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-d_2-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-d_2-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-d_2-8">i</a> In Germany </li> <li id="cite_note-a-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-a_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-a_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-a_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-a_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-a_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-a_3-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-a_3-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-a_3-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-a_3-8">i</a> In Austria </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Special_letters">Special letters</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Special letters">edit</a>]</div> German has four special letters; three are <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a> <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">accented</a> with an <a href="/wiki/Umlaut_(diacritic)" title="Umlaut (diacritic)">umlaut sign</a> (⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%84" title="Ä">ä</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%96" title="Ö">ö</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%9C" title="Ü">ü</a>⟩) and one is derived from a <a href="/wiki/Typographic_ligature" class="mw-redirect" title="Typographic ligature">ligature</a> of ⟨ſ⟩ (<a href="/wiki/Long_s" title="Long s">long s</a>) and ⟨z⟩ (⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%9F" title="ß">ß</a>⟩; called Eszett "ess-zed/zee" or scharfes S "sharp s"). They have their own names separate from the letters they are based on. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:German_extra_letters.ogg" title="File:German extra letters.ogg">German extra letters</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="6" data-mwtitle="German_extra_letters.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/German_extra_letters.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e8/German_extra_letters.ogg/German_extra_letters.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AGerman_extra_letters.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">(Listen to a German speaker naming these letters)</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Letter </th> <th>Name </th> <th>Name (<a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>) </th> <th>Spelling Alphabet </th></tr> <tr> <td>Ä </td> <td>ä </td> <td>Ä </td> <td>/ɛː/ </td> <td>Ärger </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ö </td> <td>ö </td> <td>Ö </td> <td>/øː/ </td> <td>Ökonom,<a href="#cite_note-j-4">[a]</a> Österreich<a href="#cite_note-k-5">[b]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ü </td> <td>ü </td> <td>Ü </td> <td>/yː/ </td> <td>Übermut,<a href="#cite_note-j-4">[a]</a> Übel<a href="#cite_note-k-5">[b]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ẞ </td> <td>ß </td> <td>Eszett, scharfes S </td> <td>/ɛsˈt͡sɛt/ /ˈʃaʁfəs ɛs/ </td> <td>Eszett,<a href="#cite_note-j-4">[a]</a> scharfes S<a href="#cite_note-k-5">[b]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-j-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-j_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-j_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-j_4-2">c</a> In Germany </li> <li id="cite_note-k-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-k_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-k_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-k_5-2">c</a> In Austria </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_%E1%BA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital ẞ">Capital ẞ</a> was declared an official letter of the German alphabet on 29 June 2017.<a href="#cite_note-6">[2]</a> Previously represented as ⟨SS/SZ⟩.</li> <li>Historically, <a href="/wiki/Long_s" title="Long s">long s (ſ)</a> was used as well, as in English and many other European languages.<a href="#cite_note-7">[3]</a></li></ul> While the Council for German Orthography considers ⟨ä, ö, ü, ß⟩ distinct letters,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERat_für_deutsche_Rechtschreibung201815-8">[4]</a> disagreement on how to categorize and count them has led to a dispute over the exact number of letters the German alphabet has, the number ranging between 26 (considering special letters as variants of ⟨a, o, u, s⟩) and 30 (counting all special letters separately).<a href="#cite_note-9">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_of_special_letters">Use of special letters</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Use of special letters">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Umlaut_diacritic_usage">Umlaut diacritic usage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Umlaut diacritic usage">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Umlaut_(diacritic)" title="Umlaut (diacritic)">Umlaut (diacritic)</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">accented</a> letters ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%84" title="Ä">ä</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%96" title="Ö">ö</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%9C" title="Ü">ü</a>⟩ are used to indicate the presence of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">umlauts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fronting_(phonology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fronting (phonology)">fronting</a> of back vowels). Before the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a>, frontalization was indicated by placing an ⟨e⟩ after the back vowel to be modified, but German printers developed the space-saving typographical convention of replacing the full ⟨e⟩ with a small version placed above the vowel to be modified. In German <a href="/wiki/Kurrent" title="Kurrent">Kurrent</a> writing, the superscripted ⟨e⟩ was simplified to two vertical dashes (as the Kurrent ⟨e⟩ consists largely of two short vertical strokes), which have further been reduced to dots in both handwriting and German typesetting. Although the two dots of umlaut look like those in the <a href="/wiki/Diaeresis_(diacritic)" title="Diaeresis (diacritic)">diaeresis</a> (trema), the two have different origins and functions. When it is not possible to use the umlauts (for example, when using a restricted character set) the characters ⟨Ä, Ö, Ü, ä, ö, ü⟩ should be transcribed as ⟨Ae, Oe, Ue, ae, oe, ue⟩ respectively, following the earlier postvocalic-⟨e⟩ convention; simply using the base vowel (e.g. ⟨u⟩ instead of ⟨ü⟩) would be wrong and misleading. However, such transcription should be avoided if possible, especially with names. Names often exist in different variants, such as Müller and Mueller, and with such transcriptions in use one could not work out the correct spelling of the name. Automatic back-transcribing is wrong not only for names. Consider, for example, das neue Buch ("the new book"). This should never be changed to das neü Buch, as the second ⟨e⟩ is completely separate from the ⟨u⟩ and does not even belong in the same syllable; neue (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈnɔʏ.ə]</a>) is neu (the root for "new") followed by ⟨e⟩, an inflection. The word ⟨neü⟩ does not exist in German. Furthermore, in northern and western Germany, there are family names and place names in which ⟨e⟩ lengthens the preceding vowel (by acting as a <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehnungszeichen#Dehnungs-e_nach_anderen_Vokalen" class="extiw" title="de:Dehnungszeichen">Dehnungs-e</a>), as in the former Dutch orthography, such as <a href="/wiki/Straelen" title="Straelen">Straelen</a>, which is pronounced with a long ⟨a⟩, not an ⟨ä⟩. Similar cases are <a href="/wiki/Coesfeld" title="Coesfeld">Coesfeld</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bernkastel-Kues" title="Bernkastel-Kues">Bernkastel-Kues</a>. In proper names and ethnonyms, there may also appear a rare ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%8B" title="Ë">ë</a>⟩ and ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%8F" title="Ï">ï</a>⟩, which are not letters with an umlaut, but a <a href="/wiki/Diaeresis_(diacritic)" title="Diaeresis (diacritic)">diaeresis</a>, used as in French and English to distinguish what could be a <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraph</a>, for example, ⟨ai⟩ in <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Karaïmen</a>, ⟨eu⟩ in <a href="/wiki/Aleuts" title="Aleuts">Alëuten</a>, ⟨ie⟩ in <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Pi%C3%ABch" title="Ferdinand Piëch">Piëch</a>, ⟨oe⟩ in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Clemens_von_Lo%C3%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clemens von Loë (page does not exist)">von Loë</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Ho%C3%ABcker" title="Bernhard Hoëcker">Hoëcker</a> (although Hoëcker added the diaeresis himself), and ⟨ue⟩ in <a href="/wiki/Niue" title="Niue">Niuë</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[6]</a> Occasionally, a diaeresis may be used in some well-known names, i.e.: <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italiën</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[7]</a> (usually written as Italien). <a href="/wiki/Swiss_keyboards" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss keyboards">Swiss keyboards</a> and typewriters do not allow easy input of uppercase letters with umlauts (nor ⟨ß⟩) because their positions are taken by the most frequent French diacritics. Uppercase umlauts were dropped because they are less common than lowercase ones (especially in Switzerland). Geographical names in particular are supposed to be written with ⟨a, o, u⟩ plus ⟨e⟩, except <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Österreich</a>. The omission can cause some inconvenience, since the first letter of every <a href="/wiki/German_noun" class="mw-redirect" title="German noun">noun</a> is capitalized in German. Unlike in <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_alphabet" title="Hungarian alphabet">Hungarian</a>, the exact shape of the umlaut diacritics – especially when handwritten – is not important, because they are the only ones in the language (not counting the <a href="/wiki/Tittle" title="Tittle">tittle</a> on ⟨i⟩ and ⟨j⟩). They will be understood whether they look like dots (⟨¨⟩), <a href="/wiki/Double_acute" class="mw-redirect" title="Double acute">acute accents</a> (⟨ ˝ ⟩) or <a href="/wiki/Vertical_bar" title="Vertical bar">vertical bars</a> (⟨‖⟩). A horizontal bar (<a href="/wiki/Macron_(diacritic)" title="Macron (diacritic)">macron</a>, ⟨¯⟩), a <a href="/wiki/Breve" title="Breve">breve</a> (⟨˘⟩), a tiny ⟨N⟩ or ⟨e⟩, a <a href="/wiki/Tilde" title="Tilde">tilde</a> (⟨˜⟩), and such variations are often used in stylized writing (e.g. logos). However, the breve – or the <a href="/wiki/Ring_(diacritic)" title="Ring (diacritic)">ring</a> (⟨°⟩) – was traditionally used in some scripts to distinguish a ⟨u⟩ from an ⟨n⟩. In rare cases, the ⟨n⟩ was underlined. The breved ⟨u⟩ was common in some <a href="/wiki/Kurrent" title="Kurrent">Kurrent</a>-derived handwritings; it was mandatory in <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCtterlin" title="Sütterlin">Sütterlin</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sharp_s">Sharp s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sharp s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Delikatess.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Delikatess.JPG/220px-Delikatess.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Delikatess.JPG/330px-Delikatess.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Delikatess.JPG/440px-Delikatess.JPG 2x" data-file-width="819" data-file-height="397" /></a><figcaption>German label "Delicacy / red cabbage." Left cap is with old orthography, right with new.</figcaption></figure> Eszett or scharfes S (⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%9F" title="ß">ß</a>⟩) represents the <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_sibilant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar sibilant">“s”</a> sound. The <a href="/wiki/German_spelling_reform_of_1996" class="mw-redirect" title="German spelling reform of 1996">German spelling reform of 1996</a> somewhat reduced usage of this letter in Germany and Austria. It is not used in <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein" title="Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a>. As ⟨ß⟩ derives from a ligature of lowercase letters, it is exclusively used in the middle or at the end of a word. The proper transcription when it cannot be used is ⟨ss⟩ (⟨sz⟩ and ⟨SZ⟩ in earlier times). This transcription can give rise to ambiguities, albeit rarely; one such case is in Maßen "in moderation" vs. in Massen "en masse". In all-caps, ⟨ß⟩ is replaced by ⟨SS⟩ or, optionally, by the <a href="/wiki/Capital_%C3%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital ß">uppercase ⟨ß⟩</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERat_für_deutsche_Rechtschreibung201829-12">[8]</a> The uppercase ⟨ß⟩ was included in <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode 5.1</a> as U+1E9E in 2008. Since 2010 its use is mandatory in official documentation in Germany when writing geographical names in all-caps.<a href="#cite_note-13">[9]</a> The option of using the uppercase ⟨ẞ⟩ in all-caps was officially added to the German orthography in 2017.<a href="#cite_note-14">[10]</a> Although nowadays substituted correctly only by ⟨ss⟩, the letter actually originates from a distinct ligature: long s with (round) z (⟨ſz/ſʒ⟩). Some people therefore prefer to substitute ⟨ß⟩ by ⟨sz⟩, as it can avoid possible ambiguities (as in the above Maßen vs Massen example). Incorrect use of the ⟨ß⟩ letter is a common type of spelling error even among native German writers. The spelling reform of 1996 changed the rules concerning ⟨ß⟩ and ⟨ss⟩ (no forced replacement of ⟨ss⟩ to ⟨ß⟩ at word's end). This required a change of habits and is often disregarded: some people even incorrectly assumed that the ⟨ß⟩ had been abolished completely. However, if the vowel preceding the ⟨s⟩ is long, the correct spelling remains ⟨ß⟩ (as in <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Stra%C3%9Fe" class="extiw" title="wikt:Straße">Straße</a>). If the vowel is short, it becomes ⟨ss⟩, e.g. Ich denke, dass… "I think that…". This follows the general rule in German that a long vowel is followed by a single consonant, while a short vowel is followed by a double consonant. This change towards the so-called Heyse spelling, however, introduced a new sort of spelling error, as the long/short pronunciation differs regionally. It was already mostly abolished in the late 19th century (and finally with the first unified German spelling of 1901) in favor of the Adelung spelling. Besides the long/short pronunciation issue, which can be attributed to dialect speaking (for instance, in the northern parts of Germany Spaß is typically pronounced short, i.e. Spass, whereas particularly in Bavaria elongated may occur as in Geschoss which is pronounced Geschoß in certain regions), Heyse spelling also introduces reading ambiguities that do not occur with Adelung spelling such as Prozessorientierung (Adelung: Prozeßorientierung) vs. Prozessorarchitektur (Adelung: Prozessorarchitektur). It is therefore recommended to insert hyphens where required for reading assistance, i.e. Prozessor-Architektur vs. Prozess-Orientierung. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long_s">Long s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Long s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wachstube.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Wachstube.svg/220px-Wachstube.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Wachstube.svg/330px-Wachstube.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Wachstube.svg/440px-Wachstube.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="513" /></a><figcaption>Wachstube and Wachſtube are distinguished in <a href="/wiki/Blackletter" title="Blackletter">blackletter</a> typesetting, though no longer in contemporary font styles.</figcaption></figure> In the <a href="/wiki/Fraktur_(script)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fraktur (script)">Fraktur</a> typeface and similar scripts, a <a href="/wiki/Long_s" title="Long s">long s</a> (⟨ſ⟩) was used except in syllable endings (cf. Greek <a href="/wiki/Sigma_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigma (letter)">sigma</a>) and sometimes it was historically used in <a href="/wiki/Antiqua_(typeface_class)" title="Antiqua (typeface class)">antiqua</a> fonts as well; but it went out of general use in the early 1940s along with the Fraktur typeface. An example where this convention would avoid ambiguity is Wachſtube (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>IPA: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈvax.ʃtuːbə]</a>) "guardhouse", written ⟨Wachſtube/Wach-Stube⟩ and Wachstube (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991">IPA: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈvaks.tuːbə]</a>) "tube of wax", written ⟨Wachstube/Wachs-Tube⟩. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sorting">Sorting</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sorting">edit</a>]</div> There are three ways to deal with the umlauts in <a href="/wiki/Collation" title="Collation">alphabetic sorting</a>. <ol><li>Treat them like their base characters, as if the umlaut were not present (<a href="/wiki/DIN" class="mw-redirect" title="DIN">DIN</a> 5007-1, section 6.1.1.4.1). This is the preferred method for dictionaries, where umlauted words (Füße "feet") should appear near their origin words (Fuß "foot"). In words which are the same except for one having an umlaut and one its base character (e.g. Müll vs. Mull), the word with the base character gets precedence.</li> <li>Decompose them (invisibly) to vowel plus ⟨e⟩ (DIN 5007-2, section 6.1.1.4.2). This is often preferred for personal and geographical names, wherein the characters are used unsystematically, as in German <a href="/wiki/Telephone_directory" title="Telephone directory">telephone directories</a> (Müller, A.; Mueller, B.; Müller, C.).</li> <li>They are treated like extra letters either placed <ol><li>after their base letters (Austrian phone books have ⟨ä⟩ between ⟨az⟩ and ⟨b⟩ etc.) or</li> <li>at the end of the alphabet (as in <a href="/wiki/Swedish_alphabet" title="Swedish alphabet">Swedish</a> or in extended ASCII).</li></ol></li></ol> <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a> in German versions offers the choice between the first two variants in its internationalisation settings. A sort of combination of nos. 1 and 2 also exists, in use in a couple of lexica: The umlaut is sorted with the base character, but an ⟨ae, oe, ue⟩ in proper names is sorted with the umlaut if it is actually spoken that way (with the umlaut getting immediate precedence). A possible sequence of names then would be Mukovic; Muller; Müller; Mueller; Multmann in this order. Eszett is sorted as though it were ⟨ss⟩. Occasionally it is treated as ⟨s⟩, but this is generally considered incorrect. Words distinguished only by ⟨ß⟩ vs. ⟨ss⟩ can only appear in the (presently used) Heyse writing and are even then rare and possibly dependent on local pronunciation, but if they appear, the word with ⟨ß⟩ gets precedence, and Geschoß (storey; South German pronunciation) would be sorted before Geschoss (projectile). Accents in French <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> are always ignored in collation. In rare contexts (e.g. in older indices) ⟨sch⟩ (phonetic value equal to English ⟨sh⟩) and likewise ⟨st⟩ and ⟨ch⟩ are treated as single letters, but the vocalic <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraphs</a> ⟨ai, ei⟩ (historically ⟨ay, ey⟩), ⟨au, äu, eu⟩ and the historic ⟨ui, oi⟩ never are. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_names_with_special_characters">Personal names with special characters</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Personal names with special characters">edit</a>]</div> German names containing umlauts (⟨ä, ö, ü⟩) and/or ⟨ß⟩ are spelled in the correct way in the non-machine-readable zone of the passport, but with ⟨AE, OE, UE⟩ and/or ⟨SS⟩ in the <a href="/wiki/Machine-readable_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine-readable zone">machine-readable zone</a>, e.g. ⟨Müller⟩ becomes ⟨MUELLER⟩, ⟨Weiß⟩ becomes ⟨WEISS⟩, and ⟨Gößmann⟩ becomes ⟨GOESSMANN⟩. The transcription mentioned above is generally used for aircraft tickets et cetera, but sometimes (like in US visas) simple vowels are used (MULLER, GOSSMANN). As a result, passport, visa, and aircraft ticket may display different spellings of the same name. The three possible spelling variants of the same name (e.g. Müller/Mueller/Muller) in different documents sometimes lead to confusion, and the use of two different spellings within the same document may give persons unfamiliar with German orthography the impression that the document is a forgery. Even before the introduction of the capital ⟨ẞ⟩, it was recommended to use the minuscule ⟨ß⟩ as a capital letter in family names in documents (e.g. HEINZ GROßE, today's spelling: HEINZ GROẞE). German naming law accepts umlauts and/or ⟨ß⟩ in family names as a reason for an official name change. Even a spelling change, e.g. from Müller to Mueller or from Weiß to Weiss is regarded as a name change. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Features_of_German_spelling">Features of German spelling</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Features of German spelling">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Capitalization">Capitalization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Capitalization">edit</a>]</div> A typical feature of German spelling is the general <a href="/wiki/Capitalization" title="Capitalization">capitalization</a> of nouns and of most <a href="/wiki/Nominalization" title="Nominalization">nominalized</a> words. In addition, capital letters are used: at the beginning of sentences (may be used after a colon, when the part of a sentence after the colon can be treated as a sentence); in the formal pronoun Sie 'you' and the determiner Ihr 'your' (optionally in other second-person pronouns in letters); in adjectives at the beginning of proper names (e.g. der Stille Ozean 'the Pacific Ocean'); in adjectives with the suffix '-er' from geographical names (e.g. Berliner); in adjectives with the suffix '-sch' from proper names if written with the apostrophe before the suffix (e.g. Ohm'sches Gesetz 'Ohm's law', also written ohmsches Gesetz). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compound_words">Compound words</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Compound words">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Compound_(linguistics)" title="Compound (linguistics)">Compound words</a>, including nouns, are usually written together, e.g. Haustür (Haus + Tür; 'house door'), Tischlampe (Tisch + Lampe; 'table lamp'), Kaltwasserhahn (Kalt + Wasser + Hahn; 'cold water tap/faucet). This can lead to long words: the longest word in regular use, Rechtsschutzversicherungsgesellschaften<a href="#cite_note-15">[11]</a> ('legal protection insurance companies'), consists of 39 letters. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hyphen_in_compound_words">Hyphen in compound words</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Hyphen in compound words">edit</a>]</div> Compounds involving letters, abbreviations, or numbers (written in figures, even with added suffixes) are hyphenated: A-Dur 'A major', US-Botschaft 'US embassy', 10-prozentig 'with 10 percent', 10er-Gruppe 'group of ten'. The hyphen is used when adding suffixes to letters: n-te 'nth'. It is used in substantivated compounds such as Entweder-oder 'alternative' (literally 'either-or'); in phrase-word compounds such as Tag-und-Nacht-Gleiche 'equinox', Auf-die-lange-Bank-Schieben 'postponing' (substantivation of auf die lange Bank schieben 'to postpone'); in compounds of words containing hyphen with other words: A-Dur-Tonleiter 'A major scale'; in coordinated adjectives: deutsch-englisches Wörterbuch 'German-English dictionary'. Compound adjectives meaning colours are written with a hyphen if they mean two colours: rot-braun 'red and brown', but without a hyphen if they mean an intermediate colour: rotbraun 'reddish brown' (from the spelling reform of 1996 to the 2024 revision of the orthographic rules, both variants could be used in both meanings). Optionally the hyphen can be used to emphasize individual components, to clarify the meaning of complicated compounds, to avoid misunderstandings or when three identical letters occur together (in practice, in this case it is mostly used when writing nouns with triple vowels, e. g. See-Elefant 'elephant seal'). The hyphen is used in compounds where the second part or both parts are proper names, e. g. Foto-Hansen 'the photographer Hansen', Müller-Lüdenscheid '<a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCdenscheid" title="Lüdenscheid">Lüdenscheid</a>, the city of millers', double-barrelled surnames such as Meyer-Schmidt; geographical names such as <a href="/wiki/Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Baden-Württemberg">Baden-Württemberg</a>. Double given names are variously written as Anna-Maria, Anna Maria, Annamaria. Some compound geographical names are written as one word (e. g. Nordkorea 'North Korea') or as two words (e. g. geographical names beginning with Sankt or Bad). The hyphen is not used when compounds with a proper name in the second part are used as common nouns, e. g. Heulsuse 'crybaby'; also in the name of the fountain <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A4nseliesel" title="Gänseliesel">Gänseliesel</a>. The hyphen is used in words derived from proper names with hyphen, from proper names of more than one word, or from more than one proper name (optional in derivations with the suffix -er from geographical names from more than one word). Optionally the hyphen can be used in compounds where the first part is a proper name. Compounds of the type "geographical name+specification" are written with a hyphen or as two words: München-Ost or München Ost. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowel_length">Vowel length</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Vowel length">edit</a>]</div> Even though <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">vowel length</a> is <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemic</a> in German, it is not consistently represented. However, there are different ways of identifying long vowels: <ul><li>A vowel in an open syllable (a <a href="/wiki/Free_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Free vowel">free vowel</a>) is long, for instance in ge-ben ('to give'), sa-gen ('to say'). The rule is unreliable in given names, cf. Oliver [ˈɔlivɐ].</li> <li>It is rare to see a bare ⟨i⟩ used to indicate a long vowel /iː/. It occurs mainly in loanwords, e. g. Krise 'crisis', but also in some native German words, e. g. wir 'we', gib 'give (imperative)'. Mostly, the long vowel /iː/ is represented in writing by the <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraph</a> ⟨ie⟩, for instance in Liebe ('love'), hier ('here'). This use is a historical spelling based on the Middle High German diphthong /iə/ which was <a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">monophthongized</a> in Early New High German. It has been <a href="/wiki/Generalization" title="Generalization">generalized</a> to words that etymologically never had that diphthong, for instance viel ('much'), Friede ('peace') (Middle High German vil, vride). Occasionally – typically in word-final position – this digraph represents /iː.ə/ as in the plural noun Knie /kniː.ə/ ('knees') (cf. singular Knie /kniː/). In the words Viertel (viertel) /ˈfɪrtəl/ ('quarter'), vierzehn /ˈfɪʁt͡seːn/ ('fourteen'), vierzig /ˈfɪʁt͡sɪç/ ('forty'), ⟨ie⟩ represents a short vowel, cf. vier /fiːɐ̯/ ('four'). In <a href="/wiki/Fraktur" title="Fraktur">Fraktur</a>, where capital ⟨I⟩ and ⟨J⟩ are identical or near-identical <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {J}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="fraktur">J</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {J}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/053e06f583204663ebbc8f8a8638796cef973a61" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; margin-left: -0.022ex; width:1.305ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {J}}}">, the combinations Ie and Je are confusable; hence ⟨ie⟩ is not used at the start of a word, for example Igel ('hedgehog'), Ire ('Irishman').</li> <li>A silent ⟨h⟩ indicates the vowel length in certain cases. That ⟨h⟩ derives from an old /x/ in some words, for instance sehen ('to see') zehn ('ten'), but in other words it has no etymological justification, for instance gehen ('to go') or mahlen ('to mill'). Occasionally a digraph can be redundantly followed by ⟨h⟩, either due to analogy, such as sieht ('sees', from sehen) or etymology, such as Vieh ('cattle', MHG vihe), rauh ('rough', pre-1996 spelling, now written rau, MHG ruh).</li> <li>The letters ⟨a, e, o⟩ are doubled in a few words that have long vowels, for instance Saat ('seed'), See ('sea'/'lake'), Moor ('moor').</li> <li>A doubled consonant after a vowel indicates that the vowel is short, while a single consonant often indicates the vowel is long, e.g. Kamm ('comb') has a short vowel /kam/, while kam ('came') has a long vowel /kaːm/. Two consonants are not doubled: ⟨k⟩, which is replaced by ⟨ck⟩ (until the spelling reform of 1996, however, ⟨ck⟩ was divided across a line break as ⟨k-k⟩), and ⟨z⟩, which is replaced by ⟨tz⟩. In loanwords, ⟨kk⟩ (which may correspond with ⟨cc⟩ in the original spelling) and ⟨zz⟩ can occur.</li> <li>For different consonants and for sounds represented by more than one letter (⟨ch⟩ and ⟨sch⟩) after a vowel, no clear rule can be given, because they can appear after long vowels, yet are not redoubled if belonging to the same stem, e.g. Mond /moːnt/ 'moon', Hand /hant/ 'hand'. On a stem boundary, reduplication usually takes place, e.g., nimm-t 'takes'; however, in fixed, no longer productive derivatives, this too can be lost, e.g., Geschäft /ɡəˈʃɛft/ 'business' despite schaffen 'to get something done'.</li> <li>⟨ß⟩ indicates that the preceding vowel is long, e.g. Straße 'street' vs. a short vowel in Masse 'mass' or 'host'/'lot'. In addition to that, texts written before the 1996 spelling reform also use ⟨ß⟩ at the ends of words and before consonants, e.g. naß 'wet' and mußte 'had to' (after the reform spelled nass and musste), so vowel length in these positions could not be detected by the ⟨ß⟩, cf. Maß 'measure' and fußte 'was based' (both unaffected by the reform).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Double_or_triple_consonants">Double or triple consonants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Double or triple consonants">edit</a>]</div> Even though German does not have phonemic <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">consonant length</a>, there are many instances of doubled or even tripled consonants in the spelling. A single consonant following a <a href="/wiki/Checked_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Checked vowel">checked vowel</a> is doubled if another vowel follows, for instance immer 'always', lassen 'let'. These consonants are analyzed as <a href="/wiki/Ambisyllabicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambisyllabicity">ambisyllabic</a> because they constitute not only the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_onset" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable onset">syllable onset</a> of the second syllable but also the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_coda" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable coda">syllable coda</a> of the first syllable, which must not be empty because the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable nucleus">syllable nucleus</a> is a checked vowel. By analogy, if a word has one form with a doubled consonant, all forms of that word are written with a doubled consonant, even if they do not fulfill the conditions for consonant doubling; for instance, rennen 'to run' → er rennt 'he runs'; Küsse 'kisses' → Kuss 'kiss'. Doubled consonants can occur in composite words when the first part ends in the same consonant the second part starts with, e.g. in the word Schaffell ('sheepskin', composed of Schaf 'sheep' and Fell 'skin, fur, pelt'). Composite words can also have tripled letters. While this is usually a sign that the consonant is actually spoken long, it does not affect the pronunciation per se: the ⟨fff⟩ in Sauerstoffflasche ('oxygen bottle', composed of Sauerstoff 'oxygen' and Flasche 'bottle') is exactly as long as the ff in Schaffell. According to the spelling before 1996, the three consonants would be shortened before vowels, but retained before consonants and in hyphenation, so the word Schifffahrt ('navigation, shipping', composed of Schiff 'ship' and Fahrt 'drive, trip, tour') was then written Schiffahrt, whereas Sauerstoffflasche already had a triple ⟨fff⟩. With the aforementioned change in ⟨ß⟩ spelling, even a new source of triple consonants ⟨sss⟩, which in pre-1996 spelling could not occur as it was rendered ⟨ßs⟩, was introduced, e.g. Mussspiel ('compulsory round' in certain card games, composed of muss 'must' and Spiel 'game'). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Typical_letters">Typical letters</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Typical letters">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>⟨ei⟩: This digraph represents the <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthong</a> /aɪ̯/. The spelling goes back to the Middle High German pronunciation of that diphthong, which was [ei̯]. The spelling ⟨ai⟩ is found in only a very few native words (such as Saite 'string', Waise 'orphan') but is commonly used to romanize /aɪ̯/ in foreign loans from languages such as Chinese.</li> <li>⟨eu⟩: This digraph represents the diphthong [ɔʏ̯], which goes back to the Middle High German monophthong [<a href="/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close front rounded vowel">yː</a>] represented by ⟨iu⟩. When the sound is created by <a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">umlaut</a> of ⟨au⟩ [aʊ̯] (from MHG [<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a>]), it is spelled ⟨äu⟩.</li> <li>⟨ß⟩: This letter alternates with ⟨ss⟩. For more information, see <a href="#Sharp_s">above</a>.</li> <li>⟨st, sp⟩: At the beginning of a word or syllable, these digraphs are pronounced [ʃt, ʃp]. In the Middle Ages, the <a href="/wiki/Sibilant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibilant consonant">sibilant</a> that was inherited from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ was pronounced as an <a href="/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_consonant" title="Alveolo-palatal consonant">alveolo-palatal consonant</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a>] or [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative">ʑ</a>] unlike the <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">voiceless alveolar sibilant</a> /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ that had developed in the <a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a>. In the Late Middle Ages, certain instances of [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a>] merged with /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/, but others developed into [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>]. The change to [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>] was represented in certain spellings such as Schnee 'snow', Kirsche 'cherry' (Middle High German snê, kirse). The digraphs ⟨st, sp⟩, however, remained unaltered.</li> <li>⟨v⟩: The letter ⟨v⟩ occurs only in a few native words and then, it represents /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/. That goes back to the 12th and 13th century, when prevocalic /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ was voiced to [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>]. The voicing was lost again in the late Middle Ages, but the ⟨v⟩ still remains in certain words such as in Vogel (cf. Scandinavian fugl or English fowl) 'bird' (hence, ⟨v⟩ is sometimes called Vogel-vau), viel 'much'. For further information, see <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_v_in_German" title="Pronunciation of v in German">Pronunciation of v in German</a>.</li> <li>⟨w⟩: The letter ⟨w⟩ represents the sound /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>/. In the 17th century, the former sound [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>] became [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>], but the spelling remained the same. An analogous sound change had happened in <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">late-antique</a> Latin.</li> <li>⟨z⟩: The letter ⟨z⟩ represents the sound /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">t͡s</a>/. The sound, a product of the <a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a>, has been written with ⟨z⟩ since <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> in the 8th century.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_words">Foreign words</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Foreign words">edit</a>]</div> For technical terms, the foreign spelling is often retained such as ⟨ph⟩ /f/ or ⟨y⟩ /yː/ in the word Physik (physics) of Greek origin. For some common affixes however, like -graphie or Photo-, it is allowed to use -grafie or Foto- instead.<a href="#cite_note-canoo-fotogr-16">[12]</a> Both Photographie and Fotografie are correct, but the mixed variants *Fotographie or *Photografie are not.<a href="#cite_note-canoo-fotogr-16">[12]</a> For other foreign words, both the foreign spelling and a revised German spelling are correct such as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Delphin" class="extiw" title="wikt:Delphin">Delphin</a> / Delfin<a href="#cite_note-canoo-delphin-17">[13]</a> or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Portemonnaie" class="extiw" title="wikt:Portemonnaie">Portemonnaie</a> / Portmonee, though in the latter case the revised one does not usually occur.<a href="#cite_note-canoo-port-18">[14]</a> For some words for which the Germanized form was common even before the reform of 1996, the foreign version is no longer allowed. A notable example is the word Foto "photograph", which may no longer be spelled as Photo.<a href="#cite_note-canoo-foto-19">[15]</a> Other examples are Telephon (telephone) which was already Germanized as Telefon some decades ago or Bureau (office) which got replaced by the Germanized version Büro even earlier. Except for the common sequences sch (/ʃ/), ch ([x] or [ç]) and ck (/k/), the letter ⟨c⟩ appears only in <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> or in <a href="/wiki/Proper_noun" title="Proper noun">proper nouns</a>. In many loanwords, including most words of Latin origin, the letter ⟨c⟩ pronounced (/k/) has been replaced by ⟨k⟩. Alternatively, German words which come from Latin words with ⟨c⟩ before ⟨e, i, y, ae, oe⟩ are usually pronounced with (/ts/) and spelled with ⟨z⟩. However, certain older spellings occasionally remain, mostly for decorative reasons, such as Circus instead of Zirkus. The letter ⟨q⟩ in German appears only in the sequence ⟨qu⟩ (/kv/) except for loanwords such as <a href="/wiki/Coq_au_vin" title="Coq au vin">Coq au vin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Qigong" title="Qigong">Qigong</a> (the latter is also written Chigong). The letter ⟨x⟩ (Ix, /ɪks/) occurs almost exclusively in loanwords such as Xylofon (xylophone) and names, e.g. Alexander and Xanthippe. Native German words now pronounced with a /ks/ sound are usually written using ⟨chs⟩ or ⟨(c)ks⟩, as with Fuchs (fox). Some exceptions occur such as Hexe (<a href="/wiki/Witch" class="mw-redirect" title="Witch">witch</a>), Nixe (<a href="/wiki/Mermaid" title="Mermaid">mermaid</a>), Axt (<a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">axe</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Xanten" title="Xanten">Xanten</a>. The letter ⟨y⟩ (Ypsilon, /ˈʏpsilɔn/) occurs almost exclusively in loanwords, especially words of Greek origin, but some such words (such as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Typ" class="extiw" title="wikt:Typ">Typ</a>) have become so common that they are no longer perceived as foreign. It used to be more common in earlier centuries, and traces of this earlier usage persist in proper names. It is used either as an alternative letter for ⟨<a href="/wiki/I" title="I">i</a>⟩, for instance in Mayer / Meyer (a common <a href="/wiki/German_family_name" class="mw-redirect" title="German family name">family name</a> that occurs also in the spellings Maier / Meier), or especially in the Southwest, as a representation of [iː] that goes back to an old <a href="/wiki/IJ_(digraph)" title="IJ (digraph)">IJ (digraph)</a>, for instance in <a href="/wiki/Schwyz" title="Schwyz">Schwyz</a> or Schnyder (an <a href="/wiki/Alemannic_German" title="Alemannic German">Alemannic</a> variant of the name Schneider).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Another notable exception is Bayern ("<a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>") and derived words like bayrisch ("Bavarian"); this actually used to be spelt with an ⟨i⟩ until the King of Bavaria introduced the ⟨y⟩ as a sign of his <a href="/wiki/Philhellenism" title="Philhellenism">philhellenism</a> (his son would become King of Greece later). The Latin and Ancient Greek diphthongs ⟨ae (αι)⟩ and ⟨oe (οι)⟩ are normally rendered as ⟨ä⟩ and ⟨ö⟩ in German, whereas English usually uses a simple ⟨e⟩ (but see <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_that_may_be_spelled_with_a_ligature" title="List of English words that may be spelled with a ligature">List of English words that may be spelled with a ligature</a>): Präsens '<a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">present tense</a>' (Latin tempus praesens), Föderation 'federation' (Latin foederatio). The etymological spelling ⟨-ti-⟩ for the sounds [tsɪ̯] before vowels is used in many words of Latin origin, mostly ending in ⟨-tion⟩, but also ⟨-tiell, -tiös⟩, etc. Latin ⟨-tia⟩ in feminine nouns is typically simplified to ⟨-z⟩ in German; in related words, both ⟨-ti-⟩ and ⟨-zi-⟩ are allowed: Potenz 'power' (from Latin potentia), Potential/Potenzial 'potential' (noun), potentiell/potenziell 'potential' (adj.). Latin ⟨-tia⟩ in neuter plural nouns may be retained, but is also Germanized orthographically and morphologically to ⟨-zien⟩: Ingrediens 'ingredient', plural Ingredienzien; Solvens 'expectorant', plural Solventia or Solvenzien. In loan words from the <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French language</a>, spelling and accents are usually preserved. For instance, café in the sense of "coffeehouse" is always written Café in German; accentless Cafe would be considered erroneous, and the word cannot be written Kaffee, which means "coffee". (Café is normally pronounced /kaˈfeː/; Kaffee is mostly pronounced /ˈkafe/ in Germany but /kaˈfeː/ in Austria.) Thus, German <a href="/wiki/Typewriter" title="Typewriter">typewriters</a> and computer keyboards offer two <a href="/wiki/Dead_key" title="Dead key">dead keys</a>: one for the <a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grave_accent" title="Grave accent">grave accents</a> and one for <a href="/wiki/Circumflex" title="Circumflex">circumflex</a>. Other letters occur less often such as ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%87" title="Ç">ç</a>⟩ in loan words from French or Portuguese, and ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%91" title="Ñ">ñ</a>⟩ in loan words from Spanish. A number of loanwords from French are spelled in a partially adapted way: Quarantäne /kaʁanˈtɛːnə/ (quarantine), Kommuniqué /kɔmyniˈkeː, kɔmuniˈkeː/ (communiqué), Ouvertüre /u.vɛʁˈtyː.ʁə/ (overture) from French quarantaine, communiqué, ouverture. In Switzerland, where French is one of the official languages, people are less prone to use adapted and especially partially adapted spellings of loanwords from French and more often use original spellings, e.g. Communiqué. In one curious instance, the word Ski ('ski') is pronounced as if it were *Schi all over the German-speaking areas (reflecting its pronunciation in its source language <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a>), but only written that way in Austria.<a href="#cite_note-20">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grapheme-to-phoneme_correspondences">Grapheme-to-phoneme correspondences</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Grapheme-to-phoneme correspondences">edit</a>]</div> This section lists German letters and letter combinations, and how to pronounce them transliterated into the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a>. This is the pronunciation of <a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a>. Note that the pronunciation of standard German varies slightly from region to region. In fact, it is possible to tell where most German speakers come from by their accent in standard German (not to be confused with the different <a href="/wiki/German_dialects" title="German dialects">German dialects</a>). Foreign words are usually pronounced approximately as they are in the original language. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>]</div> Double <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a> are pronounced as single consonants, except in compound words. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Grapheme(s) </th> <th>Phoneme(s) </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">b </td> <td>otherwise </td> <td>[b] or [b̥] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>syllable final </td> <td>[p] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">c </td> <td>otherwise </td> <td>[k] </td> <td rowspan="2">Used in some loanwords and proper names. In many cases, ⟨k⟩ or ⟨z⟩ have replaced an etymological ⟨c⟩. In proper names, the letter ⟨c⟩ before ⟨ö⟩ may be pronounced either [ts] (e. g. Cölestin) or [k] (e. g. <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B6lbe" title="Cölbe">Cölbe</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <td>before ⟨ä, e, i, ö⟩ </td> <td>[ts] </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">ch </td> <td>after ⟨a, o, u⟩ </td> <td>[x] </td> <td rowspan="5">In <a href="/wiki/Austro-Bavarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Bavarian">Austro-Bavarian</a>, especially in Austria, [ç] may always be substituted by [x]. Word-initial ⟨ch⟩ is used only in loanwords. In words of Ancient Greek origin, word-initial ⟨ch⟩ is pronounced [k] before ⟨a, o, l, r⟩ (with rare exceptions : Charisma, where both [k] and [ç] are possible); normally [ç] before ⟨e, i, y⟩ (but [k] in Southern Germany and Austria); [ç] before ⟨th⟩. In the word Orchester and in geographical names such as <a href="/wiki/Chemnitz" title="Chemnitz">Chemnitz</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chur" title="Chur">Chur</a>, ⟨ch⟩ is [k] (Chur is also sometimes pronounced with [x]). </td></tr> <tr> <td>after other vowels or consonants </td> <td>[ç] </td></tr> <tr> <td>word-initially in words of Ancient Greek origin </td> <td>[ç] or [k] </td></tr> <tr> <td>the suffix -chen </td> <td>[ç] </td></tr> <tr> <td>In loanwords and foreign proper names </td> <td>[tʃ], [ʃ] </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">chs </td> <td>within a <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> (e.g. Dachs [daks] "badger") </td> <td>[ks] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>across a morpheme boundary (e.g. Dachs [daxs] "roof (gen.)") </td> <td>[çs] or [xs] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ck </td> <td>[k] </td> <td>Follows short vowels </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">d </td> <td>otherwise </td> <td>[d] or [d̥] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>syllable final </td> <td>[t] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">dsch </td> <td>[dʒ] or [tʃ] </td> <td>Used in loanwords and transliterations only. Words borrowed from English can alternatively retain the original ⟨j⟩ or ⟨g⟩. Many speakers pronounce ⟨dsch⟩ as [t͡ʃ] (= ⟨tsch⟩), because [dʒ] is not native to German. </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">dt </td> <td>[t] </td> <td>Used in the word Stadt, in morpheme bounds (e.g. beredt, verwandt), and in some proper names. </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">f </td> <td>[f] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">g </td> <td>otherwise </td> <td>[ɡ] or [ɡ̊] </td> <td>[ʒ] before ⟨e, i⟩ in loanwords from French (as in Genie) </td></tr> <tr> <td>syllable final </td> <td>[k] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>when part of word-final -⟨ig⟩ </td> <td>[ç] or [k] (Southern Germany) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">h </td> <td>before a vowel </td> <td>[h] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>when lengthening a vowel </td> <td>silent </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">j </td> <td>[j] </td> <td>[ʒ] in loanwords from French, e.g. Journalist [ʒʊʁnaˈlɪst], from French journaliste. </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">k </td> <td>[k] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">l </td> <td>[l] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">m </td> <td>[m] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">n </td> <td>[n] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">ng </td> <td>usually </td> <td>[ŋ] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Across morpheme boundaries </td> <td>[nɡ] or [nɡ̊] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">nk </td> <td>[ŋk] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">p </td> <td>[p] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">pf </td> <td>[pf] </td> <td>For some speakers [f] morpheme initially. </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ph </td> <td>[f] </td> <td>Used in words of Ancient Greek origin. </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">qu </td> <td>[kv] or [kw] (in a few regions) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">r </td> <td> </td> <td>[ʁ] before vowels, [ɐ] otherwise, or [ɐ] after long vowels (except [aː]), [ʁ] otherwise </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-21">[17]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>(Austro-Bavarian) </td> <td>[r ~ ɾ] before vowels, [ɐ] otherwise </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Swiss_Standard_German" title="Swiss Standard German">Swiss Standard German</a>) </td> <td>[r] in all cases </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">rh </td> <td>same as r </td> <td>Used in words of Ancient Greek origin and in some proper names. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">s </td> <td>before vowel (except after obstruents) </td> <td>[z] or [z̥] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>before consonants, after obstruents, or when final </td> <td>[s] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>before ⟨p, t⟩ at the beginning of a word or syllable </td> <td>[ʃ] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">sch </td> <td>otherwise </td> <td>[ʃ] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>when part of the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-chen" class="extiw" title="wikt:-chen">-chen</a> diminutive of a word ending on ⟨s⟩, (e.g. Mäuschen "little mouse") </td> <td>[sç] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ss </td> <td>[s] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ß </td> <td>[s] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">t </td> <td>[t] </td> <td>Silent at the end of loanwords from French (although spelling may be otherwise Germanized: Debüt, Eklat, Kuvert, Porträt) </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">th </td> <td>[t] </td> <td>Used in words of Ancient Greek origin and in some proper names. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">ti </td> <td>otherwise </td> <td>[ti] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>in -⟨tion, tia, tial, tiar, tiär, tie, tiell, tient, tiös, tium⟩ </td> <td>[tsɪ̯] </td> <td>Used in words of Latin origin. </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">tsch </td> <td>[tʃ] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">tz </td> <td>[ts] </td> <td>follows short vowels </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">tzsch </td> <td>[tʃ] </td> <td>Used in some proper names. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_v_in_German" title="Pronunciation of v in German">v</a> </td> <td>otherwise </td> <td>[f] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>in foreign borrowings not at the end of a word </td> <td>[v] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">w </td> <td>[v] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">x </td> <td>[ks] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">y </td> <td>[j] </td> <td>Used in some loanwords, e. g. Yeti /ˈjeːti/ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">z </td> <td>[ts] </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">zsch </td> <td>[tʃ] </td> <td>Used in some proper names. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Monophthongs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3"> </th> <th colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">front</a> </th> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">central</a> </th> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Unrounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Unrounded vowel">unrounded</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Rounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rounded vowel">rounded</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Short_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Short vowel">short</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Long_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Long vowel">long</a> </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">close</a> </th> <td>([i]) </td> <td>[iː] ⟨i, ie, ih, ieh⟩ </td> <td>([y]) </td> <td>[yː] ⟨ü, üh, y⟩ </td> <td colspan="2">  </td> <td>([u]) </td> <td>[uː] ⟨u, uh⟩ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Near-close_vowel" title="Near-close vowel">near-close</a> </th> <td>[ɪ] ⟨i⟩ </td> <td>  </td> <td>[ʏ] ⟨ü, y⟩ </td> <td>  </td> <td colspan="2">  </td> <td>[ʊ] ⟨u⟩ </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">close-mid</a> </th> <td>([e]) </td> <td>[eː] ⟨e, eh, ee⟩ </td> <td>([ø]) </td> <td>[øː] ⟨ö, öh⟩ </td> <td colspan="2">  </td> <td>([o]) </td> <td>[oː] ⟨o, oh, oo⟩ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">open-mid</a> </th> <td>[ɛ] ⟨ä, e⟩ </td> <td>[ɛː] ⟨ä, äh⟩ </td> <td>[œ] ⟨ö⟩ </td> <td>  </td> <td>[ə] ⟨e⟩ </td> <td>  </td> <td>[ɔ] ⟨o⟩ </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Near-open_vowel" title="Near-open vowel">near-open</a> </th> <td colspan="4">  </td> <td>[ɐ] -⟨er⟩ </td> <td>  </td> <td colspan="2">  </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">open</a> </th> <td colspan="4">  </td> <td>[a] ⟨a⟩ </td> <td>[aː] ⟨a, ah, aa⟩ </td> <td colspan="2">  </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Diphthongs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">  </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">front</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Unrounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Unrounded vowel">unrounded</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Rounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rounded vowel">rounded</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">close</a> </th> <td> </td> <td>[ɔʏ] ⟨eu, äu⟩ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">open</a> </th> <td>[aɪ] ⟨ei, ai⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td>[aʊ] ⟨au⟩ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Short_vowels">Short vowels</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Short vowels">edit</a>]</div> Consonants are often doubled in writing to indicate the preceding vowel is to be pronounced as a short vowel, mostly when the vowel is stressed. Only consonants written by single letters can be doubled; compare Wasser 'water' to waschen 'wash', not *waschschen. Hence, short and long vowels before the digraph ⟨ch⟩ are not distinguished in writing: Drache /ˈdʁaxə/ 'dragon', Sprache /ˈʃpʁaːxə/ 'language'. Most one-syllable words that end in a single consonant are pronounced with long vowels, but there are some exceptions such as an, das, es, in, mit, and von. The suffixes -in, -nis and the word endings -as, -is, -os, -us contain short unstressed vowels, but duplicate the final consonants in the plurals: Leserin 'female reader' — Leserinnen 'female readers', Kürbis 'pumpkin' — Kürbisse 'pumpkins'. <ul><li>⟨a⟩: [a] as in Wasser 'water'</li> <li>⟨ä⟩: [ɛ] as in Männer 'men'</li> <li>⟨e⟩: [ɛ] as in Bett 'bed';</li> <li>⟨i⟩: [ɪ] as in Mittel 'medium'</li> <li>⟨ie⟩: [ɪ] only in the words Viertel/viertel, vierzehn, vierzig</li> <li>⟨o⟩: [ɔ] as in kommen 'to come'</li> <li>⟨ö⟩: [œ] as in Göttin 'goddess'</li> <li>⟨u⟩: [ʊ] as in Mutter 'mother'</li> <li>⟨ü⟩: [ʏ] as in Müller 'miller'</li> <li>⟨y⟩: [ʏ] as in Dystrophie 'dystrophy'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unstressed_short_vowels">Unstressed short vowels</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Unstressed short vowels">edit</a>]</div> The ⟨e⟩ in the ending -en is often silent, as in bitten 'to ask, request'. The ending -er is often pronounced [ɐ], but in some regions, people say [ʀ̩] or [r̩]. The ⟨e⟩ in the endings -el ([əl~l̩], e.g. Tunnel, Mörtel 'mortar') and -em ([əm~m̩] in the dative case of adjectives, e.g. kleinem from klein 'small') is pronounced as a schwa (after which consonant letters are usually not doubled) or is mute altogether. <ul><li>⟨e⟩: [ə] as in Ochse 'ox' or mute, making the following sound syllabic as in bitten [ˈbɪtn̩] 'to ask, request';</li> <li>⟨er⟩ [ɐ] or [ɛɐ̯], as in Wasser 'water', [ə] in Österreich 'Austria' and derivatives</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Long_vowels">Long vowels</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Long vowels">edit</a>]</div> A vowel usually represents a long sound if the vowel in question occurs: <ul><li>as the final letter (except for ⟨e⟩)</li> <li>in any stressed open syllable as in Wagen "car"</li> <li>followed by a single consonant as in bot "offered"</li> <li>doubled as in Boot "boat"</li> <li>followed by an ⟨h⟩ as in Weh "pain"</li></ul> Long vowels are generally pronounced with greater <a href="/wiki/Tenseness" title="Tenseness">tenseness</a> than short vowels. The long vowels map as follows: <ul><li>⟨a, ah, aa⟩: [aː] as in Bahn 'railway'</li> <li>⟨ä, äh⟩: [ɛː] or [eː] as in regelmäßig 'regularly'</li> <li>⟨e, eh, ee⟩: [eː] as in Meer 'sea'</li> <li>⟨i, ih⟩: [iː] as in wir 'we'</li> <li>⟨ie, ieh⟩: [iː] as in riesig 'huge'</li> <li>⟨o, oh, oo⟩: [oː] as in Sohn 'son'</li> <li>⟨ö, öh⟩: [øː] as in Österreich 'Austria'</li> <li>⟨u, uh⟩: [uː] as in Kuh 'cow'</li> <li>⟨ü, üh⟩: [yː] as in über 'above/about'</li> <li>⟨y⟩: [yː] as in psychisch 'psychological'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diphthongs">Diphthongs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Diphthongs">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>⟨au⟩: [aʊ] as in laut 'loud'</li> <li>⟨eu, äu⟩: [ɔʏ] as in Deutschland 'Germany'</li> <li>⟨ei, ai, ey, ay⟩: [aɪ] as in Seite 'side'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shortened_long_vowels">Shortened long vowels</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Shortened long vowels">edit</a>]</div> A pre-stress long vowel shortens, mostly in the unstressed position: <ul><li>⟨i⟩: [i]</li> <li>⟨y⟩: [y]</li> <li>⟨u⟩: [u]</li> <li>⟨e⟩: [e]</li> <li>⟨ö⟩: [ø]</li> <li>⟨o⟩: [o]</li></ul> A vowel bearing secondary stress may also shorten, as in Monolog 'monologue' [ˌmonoˈloːk]. Phonemically, they are typically analyzed as allophones of the long /iː, yː, uː, eː, øː, oː/ (thus /ˌmoːnoːˈloːk/ etc.) and are mostly restricted to loanwords. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unusual_spellings_in_proper_names">Unusual spellings in proper names</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Unusual spellings in proper names">edit</a>]</div> In some German proper names, unusual spellings occur, e. g. ⟨ui⟩ [yː]: <a href="/wiki/Duisburg" title="Duisburg">Duisburg</a> /dyːsbʊʁk/; ⟨ow⟩ [oː]: <a href="/wiki/Treptow" title="Treptow">Treptow</a> /ˈtʁeːptoː/. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Punctuation">Punctuation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Punctuation">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Full_stop" title="Full stop">period (full stop)</a> is used at the end of sentences, for abbreviations, and for ordinal numbers, such as der 1. for der erste (the first). It is omitted before a full stop at the end of a sentence. The <a href="/wiki/Comma" title="Comma">comma</a> is used between for enumerations (but the <a href="/wiki/Serial_comma" title="Serial comma">serial comma</a> is not used), before adversative conjunctions, after vocative phrases, for clarifying words such as appositions, before and after infinitive and participle constructions, and between clauses in a sentence. A comma may link two independent clauses without a conjunction. The comma is not used before the direct speech; in this case, the colon is used. Using the comma in infinitive phrases was optional before 2024, when the revision of the orthographic rules made it mandatory. The <a href="/wiki/Exclamation_mark" title="Exclamation mark">exclamation mark</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Question_mark" title="Question mark">question mark</a> are used for exclamative and interrogative sentences. The exclamation mark may be used for addressing people in letters. The <a href="/wiki/Semicolon" title="Semicolon">semicolon</a> is used for divisions of a sentence greater than that with the comma. The <a href="/wiki/Colon_(punctuation)" title="Colon (punctuation)">colon</a> is used before direct speech and quotes, after a generalizing word before enumerations (but not when the words das ist, das heißt, nämlich, zum Beispiel are inserted), before explanations and generalizations, and after words in questionnaires, timetables, etc. (e. g. Vater: Franz Müller). The <a href="/wiki/Dash" title="Dash">em dash</a> is used for marking a sharp transition from one thought to another one, between remarks of a dialogue (as a <a href="/wiki/Quotation_dash" class="mw-redirect" title="Quotation dash">quotation dash</a>), between keywords in a review, between commands, for contrasting, for marking unexpected changes, for marking an unfinished direct speech, and sometimes instead of parentheses in parenthetical constructions. The <a href="/wiki/Ellipsis" title="Ellipsis">ellipsis</a> is used for unfinished thoughts and incomplete citations. The <a href="/wiki/Parenthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Parenthesis">parentheses</a> are used for parenthetical information. The <a href="/wiki/Square_brackets" class="mw-redirect" title="Square brackets">square brackets</a> are used instead of parentheses inside parentheses and for editor's words inside quotations. The <a href="/wiki/Quotation_marks" class="mw-redirect" title="Quotation marks">quotation marks</a> are written as »…« or „…“. They are used for direct speech, quotes, names of books, periodicals, films, etc., and for words in unusual meaning. Quotation inside a quotation is written in single quotation marks: ›…‹ or ‚…‘. If a quotation is followed by a period or a comma, it is placed outside the quotation marks. The <a href="/wiki/Apostrophe" title="Apostrophe">apostrophe</a> is used for contracted forms (such as ’s for es) except forms with omitted final ⟨e⟩ (was sometimes used in this case in the past) and preposition+article contractions. It is also used for genitive of proper names ending in ⟨s, ß, x, z, ce⟩, but not if preceded by the definite article. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_German_orthography">History of German orthography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: History of German orthography">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> The oldest known <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> texts date back to the 8th century. They were written mainly in <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monasteries</a> in different local dialects of <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a>. In these texts, ⟨z⟩ along with combinations such as ⟨tz, cz, zz, sz, zs⟩ was chosen to transcribe the sounds /ts/ and /s(ː)/, which is ultimately the origin of the modern German letters ⟨z, tz⟩ and ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%9F" title="ß">ß</a>⟩ (an old ⟨sz⟩ <a href="/wiki/Typographic_ligature" class="mw-redirect" title="Typographic ligature">ligature</a>). After the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a>, however, during the reigns of the <a href="/wiki/Ottonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottonian">Ottonian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salian" class="mw-redirect" title="Salian">Salian</a> dynasties in the 10th century and 11th century, German was rarely written, the literary language being almost exclusively <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>. <a href="/wiki/Notker_the_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Notker the German">Notker the German</a> is a notable exception in his period: not only are his German compositions of high stylistic value, but his orthography is also the first to follow a strictly coherent system. Significant production of German texts only resumed during the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Hohenstaufen" title="Hohenstaufen">Hohenstaufen</a> dynasty (in the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a>). Around the year 1200, there was a tendency towards a standardized <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a> language and spelling for the first time, based on the <a href="/wiki/East_Franconian_German" title="East Franconian German">Franconian</a>-<a href="/wiki/Swabian_German" title="Swabian German">Swabian</a> language of the Hohenstaufen court. However, that language was used only in the <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic poetry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minnesang" title="Minnesang">minnesang</a> lyric of the <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knight</a> culture. These early tendencies of standardization ceased in the <a href="/wiki/Interregnum" title="Interregnum">interregnum</a> after the death of the last Hohenstaufen king in 1254. Certain features of today's German <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a> still date back to Middle High German: the use of the <a href="/wiki/Trigraph_(orthography)" title="Trigraph (orthography)">trigraph</a> ⟨sch⟩ for /ʃ/ and the occasional use of ⟨v⟩ for /f/ because around the 12th and 13th century, the prevocalic /f/ was voiced. In the following centuries, the only variety that showed a marked tendency to be used across regions was the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a>, based on the variety of <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck" title="Lübeck">Lübeck</a> and used in many areas of northern Germany and indeed northern Europe in general. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern_period">Early modern period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Early modern period">edit</a>]</div> By the 16th century, a new interregional standard developed on the basis of the <a href="/wiki/East_Central_German" title="East Central German">East Central German</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austro-Bavarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Bavarian">Austro-Bavarian</a> varieties. This was influenced by several factors: <ul><li>Under the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburg</a> dynasty, there was a strong tendency to a common language in the <a href="/wiki/German_Chancellery" title="German Chancellery">chancellery</a>.</li> <li>Since Eastern Central Germany had been colonized only during the High and Late Middle Ages in the course of the <a href="/wiki/Ostsiedlung" title="Ostsiedlung">Ostsiedlung</a> by people from different regions of Germany, the varieties spoken were compromises of different dialects.</li> <li>Eastern Central Germany was culturally very important, being home to the universities of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Erfurt" title="University of Erfurt">Erfurt</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leipzig" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Leipzig">Leipzig</a> and especially with the <a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Luther Bible</a> translation, which was considered exemplary.</li> <li>The invention of <a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printing</a> led to an increased production of books, and the printers were interested in using a common language to sell their books in an area as wide as possible.</li></ul> Mid-16th century <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> reintroduced <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a> to Austria and Bavaria, prompting a rejection of the Lutheran language. Instead, a specific southern interregional language was used, based on the language of the Habsburg chancellery. In northern Germany, the Lutheran East Central German replaced the <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a> written language until the mid-17th century. In the early 18th century, the Lutheran standard was also introduced in the southern states and countries, Austria, Bavaria and Switzerland, due to the influence of northern German writers, grammarians such as <a href="/wiki/Johann_Christoph_Gottsched" title="Johann Christoph Gottsched">Johann Christoph Gottsched</a> or language cultivation societies such as the <a href="/wiki/Fruitbearing_Society" title="Fruitbearing Society">Fruitbearing Society</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century_and_early_20th_century">19th century and early 20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: 19th century and early 20th century">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:924px;max-width:924px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">19th century German alphabet</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:82px;max-width:82px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:19th_century_German_alphabet_(Becker).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/19th_century_German_alphabet_%28Becker%29.jpg/80px-19th_century_German_alphabet_%28Becker%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="32" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/19th_century_German_alphabet_%28Becker%29.jpg/120px-19th_century_German_alphabet_%28Becker%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/19th_century_German_alphabet_%28Becker%29.jpg/160px-19th_century_German_alphabet_%28Becker%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8840" data-file-height="3584" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">(Becker, 1896)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:82px;max-width:82px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:19th_century_German_alphabet_(Falck-Lebahn).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/19th_century_German_alphabet_%28Falck-Lebahn%29.jpg/80px-19th_century_German_alphabet_%28Falck-Lebahn%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/19th_century_German_alphabet_%28Falck-Lebahn%29.jpg/120px-19th_century_German_alphabet_%28Falck-Lebahn%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/19th_century_German_alphabet_%28Falck-Lebahn%29.jpg/160px-19th_century_German_alphabet_%28Falck-Lebahn%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3728" data-file-height="2914" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">(Falck-Lebahn, 1851)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:82px;max-width:82px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_1.jpg/80px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_1.jpg/120px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_1.jpg/160px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1708" data-file-height="2751" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">(Smissen-Fraser, 1900)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:82px;max-width:82px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_2.jpg/80px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_2.jpg/120px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_2.jpg/160px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1708" data-file-height="2751" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:82px;max-width:82px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_3.jpg/80px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_3.jpg/120px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_3.jpg/160px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1708" data-file-height="2751" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:82px;max-width:82px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_4.jpg/80px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_4.jpg/120px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_4.jpg/160px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1708" data-file-height="2751" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:82px;max-width:82px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_5.jpg/80px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_5.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_5.jpg/120px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_5.jpg/160px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1708" data-file-height="2751" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:82px;max-width:82px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_handwriting_style_-_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_handwriting_style_-_1.jpg/80px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_handwriting_style_-_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_handwriting_style_-_1.jpg/120px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_handwriting_style_-_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_handwriting_style_-_1.jpg/160px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_handwriting_style_-_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2164" data-file-height="3282" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:82px;max-width:82px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_handwriting_style_-_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_handwriting_style_-_2.jpg/80px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_handwriting_style_-_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_handwriting_style_-_2.jpg/120px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_handwriting_style_-_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_handwriting_style_-_2.jpg/160px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_handwriting_style_-_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2164" data-file-height="3282" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:82px;max-width:82px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_1_(Schlomka).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_1_%28Schlomka%29.jpg/80px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_1_%28Schlomka%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_1_%28Schlomka%29.jpg/120px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_1_%28Schlomka%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_1_%28Schlomka%29.jpg/160px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_1_%28Schlomka%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2820" data-file-height="4250" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">(Schlomka, 1885)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:82px;max-width:82px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_2_(Schlomka).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_2_%28Schlomka%29.jpg/80px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_2_%28Schlomka%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_2_%28Schlomka%29.jpg/120px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_2_%28Schlomka%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_2_%28Schlomka%29.jpg/160px-19th_century_German_alphabet_written_in_Fraktur_typefaces_-_2_%28Schlomka%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2820" data-file-height="4263" /></a></div></div></div></div></div> Though, by the mid-18th century, one norm was generally established, there was no institutionalized standardization. Only with the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_education" title="Compulsory education">compulsory education</a> in late 18th and early 19th century was the spelling further standardized, though at first independently in each state because of the political fragmentation of Germany. Only the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> in 1871 allowed for further standardization. In 1876, the Prussian government instituted the <a href="/w/index.php?title=German_Orthographic_Conference_of_1876&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="German Orthographic Conference of 1876 (page does not exist)">First Orthographic Conference</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthographische_Konferenz_von_1876" class="extiw" title="de:Orthographische Konferenz von 1876">de</a>] to achieve a standardization for the entire German Empire. However, its results were rejected, notably by <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Minister of Prussia">Prime Minister of Prussia</a> <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a>. In 1880, <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(school)" title="Gymnasium (school)">Gymnasium</a> director <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Duden" title="Konrad Duden">Konrad Duden</a> published the Vollständiges Orthographisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache ('Complete Orthographic Dictionary of the German Language'), known simply as the "<a href="/wiki/Duden" title="Duden">Duden</a>". In the same year, the Duden was declared to be authoritative in Prussia.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Since Prussia was, by far, the largest state in the German Empire, its regulations also influenced spelling elsewhere, for instance, in 1894, when <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> recognized the Duden.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1901, the <a href="/wiki/Interior_minister" title="Interior minister">interior minister</a> of the German Empire instituted the <a href="/wiki/German_Orthographic_Conference_of_1901" title="German Orthographic Conference of 1901">Second Orthographic Conference</a>. It declared the Duden to be authoritative, with a few innovations. In 1902, its results were approved by the governments of the German Empire, Austria and Switzerland. In 1944, the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi German</a> government planned a <a href="/wiki/German_spelling_reform_of_1944" class="mw-redirect" title="German spelling reform of 1944">reform of the orthography</a>, but because of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, it was never implemented. After 1902, German spelling was essentially decided de facto by the editors of the Duden dictionaries. After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, this tradition was followed with two different centers: <a href="/wiki/Mannheim" title="Mannheim">Mannheim</a> in <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a> in <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a>. By the early 1950s, a few other publishing houses had begun to attack the Duden monopoly in the West by putting out their own dictionaries, which did not always hold to the "official" spellings prescribed by Duden. In response, the Ministers of Culture of the federal states in West Germany officially declared the Duden spellings to be binding as of November 1955. The Duden editors used their power cautiously because they considered their primary task to be the documentation of usage, not the creation of rules. At the same time, however, they found themselves forced to make finer and finer distinctions in the production of German spelling rules, and each new <a href="/wiki/Print_run" class="mw-redirect" title="Print run">print run</a> introduced a few reformed spellings. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_spelling_reform_of_1996">German spelling reform of 1996</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: German spelling reform of 1996">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/German_orthography_reform_of_1996" title="German orthography reform of 1996">German orthography reform of 1996</a></div> German spelling and punctuation was changed in 1996 (Reform der deutschen Rechtschreibung von 1996) with the intent to simplify German orthography, and thus to make the language easier to learn,<a href="#cite_note-Upward-22">[18]</a> without substantially changing the rules familiar to users of the language. The rules of the new spelling concern correspondence between sounds and written letters (including rules for spelling <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loan words</a>), capitalisation, joined and separate words, hyphenated spellings, punctuation, and hyphenation at the end of a line. Place names and family names were excluded from the reform. The reform was adopted initially by Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein and Switzerland, and later by Luxembourg as well. The new orthography is mandatory only in schools. A 1998 decision of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Constitutional_Court_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Constitutional Court of Germany">Federal Constitutional Court of Germany</a> confirmed that there is no law on the spelling people use in daily life, so they can use the old or the new spelling.<a href="#cite_note-23">[19]</a> While the reform is not very popular in opinion polls, it has been adopted by all major dictionaries and the majority of publishing houses. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiqua-Fraktur_dispute" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiqua-Fraktur dispute">Antiqua-Fraktur dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binnen-I" title="Binnen-I">Binnen-I</a>, a convention for gender-neutral language in German</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_orthography" title="Dutch orthography">Dutch orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_orthography" title="English orthography">English orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_braille" class="mw-redirect" title="German braille">German braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_phonology" class="mw-redirect" title="German phonology">German phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-English_usage_of_quotation_marks" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-English usage of quotation marks">Non-English usage of quotation marks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Basler" title="Otto Basler">Otto Basler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spelling" title="Spelling">Spelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuation" title="Punctuation">Punctuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_letter#German" title="Silent letter">Silent letter#German</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/German_orthography" title="Special:EditPage/German orthography">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22German+orthography%22">"German orthography"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22German+orthography%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22German+orthography%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22German+orthography%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22German+orthography%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22German+orthography%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (December 2010) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a href="/wiki/DIN_5009" title="DIN 5009">DIN 5009</a>:2022-06, section 4.2 „Buchstaben“ (letters), table 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rechtschreibrat.com/DOX/rfdr_PM_2017-06-29_Aktualisierung_Regelwerk.pdf">Official rules of German spelling updated</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rat_f%C3%BCr_deutsche_Rechtschreibung" class="mw-redirect" title="Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung">Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung</a>, 29 June 2017, retrieved 29 June 2017. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Andrew_West_(linguist)" title="Andrew West (linguist)">Andrew West</a> (2006): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.babelstone.co.uk/Blog/2006/06/rules-for-long-s.html">"The Rules for Long S"</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERat_für_deutsche_Rechtschreibung201815-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERat_für_deutsche_Rechtschreibung201815_8-0">^</a> <a href="#abcRfdR">Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung 2018</a>, p. 15, section 0 [Vorbemerkungen] (1): "Die Umlautbuchstaben ä, ö, ü"; p. 29, § 25 E2: "der Buchstabe ß"; et passim. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.buchstabieralphabet.org/cms/wie-viele-buchstaben.php">"Das deutsche Alphabet – Wie viele Buchstaben hat das ABC?"</a> (in German). www.buchstabieralphabet.org. Retrieved 2018-09-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Das+deutsche+Alphabet+%E2%80%93+Wie+viele+Buchstaben+hat+das+ABC%3F&rft.pub=www.buchstabieralphabet.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.buchstabieralphabet.org%2Fcms%2Fwie-viele-buchstaben.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+orthography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Die Erde: Haack Kleiner Atlas; VEB Hermann Haack geographisch-kartographische Anstalt, Gotha, 1982; pages: 97, 100, 153, 278 </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Italien: Straßenatlas 1:300.000 mit Ortsregister; Kunth Verlag GmbH & Co. KG 2016/2017; München; page: III </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERat_für_deutsche_Rechtschreibung201829-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERat_für_deutsche_Rechtschreibung201829_12-0">^</a> <a href="#abcRfdR">Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung 2018</a>, p. 29, § 25 E3 </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> (in German) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stagn.de/Portals/0/101125_TopR5.pdf">Empfehlungen und Hinweise für die Schreibweise geographischer Namen, 5. Ausgabe 2010</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110703113103/http://www.stagn.de/Portals/0/101125_TopR5.pdf">Archived</a> 2011-07-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> (in German) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zeit.de/kultur/2017-06/rechtschreibreform-regeln-aenderung-scharfes-s">Rechtschreibrat führt neuen Buchstaben ein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Die_Zeit" title="Die Zeit">Die Zeit</a>, 29 June 2017, retrieved 29 June 2017. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> (according to the <a href="/wiki/Guinness_Book_of_Records" class="mw-redirect" title="Guinness Book of Records">Guinness Book of Records</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-canoo-fotogr-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-canoo-fotogr_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-canoo-fotogr_16-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://canoo.net/services/Controller?input=photographie&service=spelling">canoo.net: Spelling for "Photographie/Fotografie"</a> 2011-03-13 </li> <li id="cite_note-canoo-delphin-17"><a href="#cite_ref-canoo-delphin_17-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://canoo.net/services/Controller?input=delphin&service=spelling">canoo.net: Spelling for "Delphin/Delfin"</a> 2011-03-13 </li> <li id="cite_note-canoo-port-18"><a href="#cite_ref-canoo-port_18-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://canoo.net/services/Controller?input=portemonnaie&service=spelling">canoo.net: Spelling for "Portemonnaie/Portmonee"</a> 2011-03-13 </li> <li id="cite_note-canoo-foto-19"><a href="#cite_ref-canoo-foto_19-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://canoo.net/services/Controller?input=foto&service=spelling">canoo.net: Spelling for "Foto"</a> 2011-03-13 </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Wortherkunft, Sprachliches Das Wort Ski wurde im 19. Jahrhundert vom norwegischen ski ‚Scheit (gespaltenes Holz); Schneeschuh‘ entlehnt, das seinerseits von dem gleichbedeutenden altnordischen skíð abstammt und mit dem deutschen Wort Scheit urverwandt ist.[1] Als Pluralform sind laut Duden Ski und Skier bzw. Schi und Schier üblich.[2] Die Aussprache ist vornehmlich wie „Schi“ (wie auch original im Norwegischen), lokal bzw. dialektal kommt sie auch als „Schki“ (etwa in Graubünden oder im Wallis) vor. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPreuStötzer1985" class="citation book cs1">Preu, Otto; Stötzer, Ursula (1985). Sprecherziehung für Studenten pädagogischer Berufe (4th ed.). Berlin: Verlag Volk und Wissen, Volkseigener Verlag. p. 104.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sprecherziehung+f%C3%BCr+Studenten+p%C3%A4dagogischer+Berufe&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=104&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Verlag+Volk+und+Wissen%2C+Volkseigener+Verlag&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Preu&rft.aufirst=Otto&rft.au=St%C3%B6tzer%2C+Ursula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+orthography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Upward-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Upward_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUpward1997" class="citation journal cs1">Upward, Chris (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150905063542/http://spellingsociety.org/uploaded_journals/j21-journal.pdf">"Spelling Reform in German"</a> (PDF). Journal of the Simplified Spelling Society. J21: 22–24, 36. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spellingsociety.org/uploaded_journals/j21-journal.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2015-09-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Simplified+Spelling+Society&rft.atitle=Spelling+Reform+in+German&rft.volume=J21&rft.pages=22-24%2C+36&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Upward&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspellingsociety.org%2Fuploaded_journals%2Fj21-journal.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+orthography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bverfg.de/entscheidungen/rs19980714_1bvr164097.html">Bundesverfassungsgericht, Urteil vom 14. Juli 1998, Az.: 1 BvR 1640/97</a> (in German), <a href="/wiki/Federal_Constitutional_Court" title="Federal Constitutional Court">Federal Constitutional Court</a>, 14 July 1998.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bundesverfassungsgericht%2C+Urteil+vom+14.+Juli+1998%2C+Az.%3A+1+BvR+1640%2F97&rft.pub=Federal+Constitutional+Court&rft.date=1998-07-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bverfg.de%2Fentscheidungen%2Frs19980714_1bvr164097.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+orthography" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=German_orthography&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="abcRfdR" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rechtschreibrat.com/DOX/RfdR_Amtliches-Regelwerk_2024.pdf">Amtliches Regelwerk der deutschen Rechtschreibung</a> (PDF) (in German), Mannheim: Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung, 2024, retrieved 2024-07-09</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Amtliches+Regelwerk+der+deutschen+Rechtschreibung&rft.place=Mannheim&rft.pub=Rat+f%C3%BCr+deutsche+Rechtschreibung&rft.date=2024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rechtschreibrat.com%2FDOX%2FRfdR_Amtliches-Regelwerk_2024.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerman+orthography" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output 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style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_orthographies" title="Template:Language orthographies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_orthographies" title="Template talk:Language orthographies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_orthographies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language orthographies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div 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<li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_pronouns" title="Template:Language pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_verbs" title="Template:Language verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Afrikaans alphabet">Afrikaans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_orthography" title="Danish orthography">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_orthography" title="Dutch orthography">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_orthography" title="English orthography">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_orthography" title="Faroese orthography">Faroese</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_orthography" title="Icelandic orthography">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_orthography" title="Norwegian orthography">Norwegian</a></li> <li>Swedish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_alphabet" title="Swedish alphabet">alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_orthography" title="Swedish orthography">orthography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_alphabet" title="West Frisian alphabet">West Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_orthography" title="Yiddish orthography">Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_language#Orthography" title="Breton language">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_language#Orthography" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kernewek_Kemmyn" title="Kernewek Kemmyn">Kernewek Kemmyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Written_Form" title="Standard Written Form">Standard Written Form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kernowek_Standard" title="Kernowek Standard">Kernowek Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Cornish" title="Modern Cornish">Modern Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Cornish" title="Unified Cornish">Unified Cornish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_orthography" title="Irish orthography">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_language#Orthography" title="Manx language">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_orthography" title="Scottish Gaelic orthography">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_orthography" title="Welsh orthography">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aromanian_alphabet" title="Aromanian alphabet">Aromanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_orthography" title="Catalan orthography">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_orthography" title="French orthography">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanian_alphabet" title="Istro-Romanian alphabet">Istro-Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_orthography" title="Italian orthography">Italian</a></li> <li>Latin <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_phonology_and_orthography" title="Latin phonology and orthography">Phonology & ortography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">alphabet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_orthography" title="Portuguese orthography">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_alphabet" title="Romanian alphabet">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_orthography" title="Sicilian orthography">Sicilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_orthography" title="Spanish orthography">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walloon_orthography" title="Walloon orthography">Walloon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_orthography" title="Latvian orthography">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_orthography" title="Lithuanian orthography">Lithuanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_alphabet" title="Belarusian alphabet">Belarusian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_alphabet" title="Belarusian alphabet">Cyrillic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Latin_alphabet" title="Belarusian Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara%C5%A1kievica" title="Taraškievica">Classical orthography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_alphabet" title="Bulgarian alphabet">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_orthography" title="Czech orthography">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_alphabet" title="Macedonian alphabet">Macedonian</a></li> <li>Polish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_alphabet" title="Polish alphabet">alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_orthography" title="Polish orthography">orthography</a></li></ul></li> <li>Russian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_alphabet" title="Russian alphabet">alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_orthography" title="Russian orthography">orthography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_orthography" title="Silesian orthography">Silesian</a></li> <li>Serbo-Croatian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Serbian Cyrillic alphabet">Cyrillic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaj%27s_Latin_alphabet" title="Gaj's Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_alphabet" title="Montenegrin alphabet">Montenegrin alphabet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_orthography" title="Slovak orthography">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_alphabet" title="Slovene alphabet">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorbian_alphabet" title="Sorbian alphabet">Sorbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_orthography" title="Ukrainian orthography">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_alphabet" title="Ukrainian alphabet">Cyrillic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Latin_alphabet" title="Ukrainian Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_alphabet" title="Avestan alphabet">Avestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_alphabets" title="Kurdish alphabets">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_alphabet" title="Pashto alphabet">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_alphabet" title="Persian alphabet">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_alphabet" title="Tajik alphabet">Tajik</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_alphabet" title="Bengali alphabet">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakma_script" title="Chakma script">Chakma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurmukhi" title="Gurmukhi">Gurmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_orthography" title="Hindustani orthography">Hindustani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urdu_alphabet" title="Urdu alphabet">Urdu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_writing_systems" title="Maldivian writing systems">Maldivian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thaana" title="Thaana">Thaana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balbodh" title="Balbodh">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_script" title="Odia script">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_alphabets" title="Romani alphabets">Romani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_alphabet" title="Albanian alphabet">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_alphabet" title="Armenian alphabet">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_orthography" title="Greek orthography">Greek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_orthography" title="Estonian orthography">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_orthography" title="Finnish orthography">Finnish</a></li> <li>Hungarian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_alphabet" title="Hungarian alphabet">alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_orthography" title="Hungarian orthography">orthography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karelian_alphabet" title="Karelian alphabet">Karelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komi_alphabets" title="Komi alphabets">Komi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livonian_language" title="Livonian language">Livonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansi_alphabets" title="Mansi alphabets">Mansi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordvinic_alphabets" title="Mordvinic alphabets">Mordvinic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moksha_language" title="Moksha language">Moksha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzya_language" title="Erzya language">Erzyan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_orthography" title="Sámi orthography">Sámi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kildin_S%C3%A1mi_orthography" title="Kildin Sámi orthography">Kildin Sámi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_alphabets" title="Udmurt alphabets">Udmurt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_alphabet" title="Azerbaijani alphabet">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashkir_alphabet" title="Bashkir alphabet">Bashkir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatar_alphabet" title="Crimean Tatar alphabet">Crimean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gagauz_alphabet" title="Gagauz alphabet">Gagauz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_alphabets" title="Kazakh alphabets">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khakas_alphabets" title="Khakas alphabets">Khakas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_alphabets" title="Kyrgyz alphabets">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nogai_alphabets" title="Nogai alphabets">Nogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_alphabet" title="Tatar alphabet">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_alphabet" title="Turkish alphabet">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_alphabet" title="Turkmen alphabet">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_alphabets" title="Uyghur alphabets">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_alphabet" title="Uzbek alphabet">Uzbek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakut_scripts" title="Yakut scripts">Yakut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungus—Manchu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Even_alphabets" title="Even alphabets">Even</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_orthography" title="Evenki orthography">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udege_alphabets" title="Udege alphabets">Udege</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_alphabet" title="Abkhaz alphabet">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_alphabet" title="Basque alphabet">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dargin_writing" title="Dargin writing">Dargwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_scripts" title="Georgian scripts">Georgian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic</a></li> <li>Aramaic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Ethiopian Semitic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_spelling" title="Hebrew spelling">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew_orthography" title="Biblical Hebrew orthography">Biblical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_alphabets" title="Somali alphabets">Somali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_alphabets" title="Fula alphabets">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesotho_orthography" title="Sesotho orthography">Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai_syllabary" title="Vai syllabary">Vai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_script" title="Telugu script">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_script" title="Kannada script">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_writing_system" title="Japanese writing system">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_scripts" title="Okinawan scripts">Okinawan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Chinese</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dungan_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Dungan alphabet">Dungan</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_writing_systems" title="Mongolian writing systems">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_script" title="Thai script">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nivkh_alphabets" title="Nivkh alphabets">Nivkh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filipino_orthography" title="Filipino orthography">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_alphabet" title="Hawaiian alphabet">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_orthography" title="Malay orthography">Malay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_writing_systems" title="Massachusett writing systems">Massachusett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_writing_systems" title="Ojibwe writing systems">Ojibwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuktitut_syllabics" title="Inuktitut syllabics">Inuktitut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahuatl_orthography" title="Nahuatl orthography">Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_script" title="Osage script">Osage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creole</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 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