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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>PTSD rates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-PTSD_rates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noise-induced_hearing_loss" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noise-induced_hearing_loss"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Noise-induced hearing loss</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noise-induced_hearing_loss-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_and_usage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_usage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History and usage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_and_usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " 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Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A9" title="معدل السنة الحياتية للإعاقة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="معدل السنة الحياتية للإعاقة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anys_de_vida_ajustats_per_discapacitat" title="Anys de vida ajustats per discapacitat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Anys de vida ajustats per discapacitat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ztracen%C3%A1_l%C3%A9ta_%C5%BEivota_v_d%C5%AFsledku_nemoci" title="Ztracená léta života v důsledku nemoci – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ztracená léta života v důsledku nemoci" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/DALY" title="DALY – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="DALY" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%B1os_de_vida_ajustados_por_discapacidad" title="Años de vida ajustados por discapacidad – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Años de vida ajustados por discapacidad" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esp%C3%A9rance_de_vie_corrig%C3%A9e_de_l%27incapacit%C3%A9" title="Espérance de vie corrigée de l'incapacité – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Espérance de vie corrigée de l'incapacité" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Disability-adjusted life year" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%97%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%AA%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%9C%D7%A0%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%AA" title="שנות חיים מותאמות לנכות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שנות חיים מותאמות לנכות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_years" title="Disability-adjusted life years – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Disability-adjusted life years" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9A%9C%E5%AE%B3%E8%AA%BF%E6%95%B4%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD%E5%B9%B4" title="障害調整生命年 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="障害調整生命年" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wska%C5%BAnik_DALY" title="Wskaźnik DALY – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wskaźnik DALY" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperan%C3%A7a_de_vida_corrigida_pela_incapacidade" title="Esperança de vida corrigida pela incapacidade – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Esperança de vida corrigida pela incapacidade" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anii_de_via%C8%9B%C4%83_ajusta%C8%9Bi_cu_incapacitate" title="Anii de viață ajustați cu incapacitate – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Anii de viață ajustați cu incapacitate" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B8,_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%BE_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Годы жизни, скорректированные по нетрудоспособности – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Годы жизни, скорректированные по нетрудоспособности" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Disability-adjusted life year" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nezmo%C5%BEnosti_prilagojena_leta_%C5%BEivljenja" title="Nezmožnosti prilagojena leta življenja – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Nezmožnosti prilagojena leta življenja" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/DALY-arvo" title="DALY-arvo – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="DALY-arvo" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funktionsjusterade_levnads%C3%A5r" title="Funktionsjusterade levnadsår – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Funktionsjusterade levnadsår" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%8D%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B0" title="การสูญเสียปีสุขภาวะ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การสูญเสียปีสุขภาวะ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%82%D1%8F_%D0%B7_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%8E_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Роки життя з поправкою на інвалідність – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Роки життя з поправкою на інвалідність" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%E1%BB%91_n%C4%83m_s%E1%BB%91ng_%C4%91%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3c_%C4%91i%E1%BB%81u_ch%E1%BB%89nh_theo_m%E1%BB%A9c_%C4%91%E1%BB%99_b%E1%BB%87nh_t%E1%BA%ADt" title="Số năm sống được điều chỉnh theo mức độ bệnh tật – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Số năm sống được điều chỉnh theo mức độ bệnh tật" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%B1%E8%83%BD%E8%AA%BF%E6%95%B4%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD%E5%B9%B4" title="失能調整生命年 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="失能調整生命年" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/All_Causes_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/280px-All_Causes_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/All_Causes_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/420px-All_Causes_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/All_Causes_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/560px-All_Causes_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>Disability-adjusted life years lost per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004:<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 10em;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#b3b3b3; color:black;"> </span> No data</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffff65; color:black;"> </span> Fewer than 9,250</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#fff200; color:black;"> </span> 9,250–16,000</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffdc00; color:black;"> </span> 16,000–22,750</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffc600; color:black;"> </span> 22,750–29,500</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffb000; color:black;"> </span> 29,500–36,250</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff9a00; color:black;"> </span> 36,250–43,000</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff8400; color:black;"> </span> 43,000–49,750</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff6e00; color:black;"> </span> 49,750–56,500</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff5800; color:black;"> </span> 56,500–63,250</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff4200; color:black;"> </span> 63,250–70,000</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff2c00; color:black;"> </span> 70,000–80,000</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#cb0000; color:white;"> </span> More than 80,000</div> </div></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Disability-adjusted life years</b> (<b>DALYs</b>) are a measure of overall <a href="/wiki/Disease_burden" title="Disease burden">disease burden</a>, expressed as the number of years lost due to ill-health, disability, or early death. It was developed in the 1990s as a way of comparing the overall health and life expectancy of different countries. </p><p>DALYs have become more common in the field of <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> and <a href="/wiki/Health_Impact_Assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Health Impact Assessment">health impact assessment</a> (HIA). They include not only the potential years of life lost due to premature <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a> but also equivalent years of 'healthy' life lost by virtue of being in states of poor health or <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">disability</a>. In so doing, <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">mortality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morbidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Morbidity">morbidity</a> are combined into a single, common metric.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Calculation">Calculation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disability-adjusted_life_year&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Calculation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:DALY_disability_affected_life_year_infographic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See formula for calculation of DALYs in text, figure emphasizes that DALYs are cumulative and may result from temporary disability at different points in lifespan in addition to permanent disability" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/DALY_disability_affected_life_year_infographic.svg/750px-DALY_disability_affected_life_year_infographic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="750" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/DALY_disability_affected_life_year_infographic.svg/1125px-DALY_disability_affected_life_year_infographic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/DALY_disability_affected_life_year_infographic.svg/1500px-DALY_disability_affected_life_year_infographic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="394" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>Disability-adjusted life years are a societal measure of the <a href="/wiki/Disease_burden" title="Disease burden">disease or disability burden</a> in populations. DALYs are calculated by combining measures of <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a> as well as the adjusted quality of life during a burdensome disease or disability for a population. DALYs are related to the <a href="/wiki/Quality-adjusted_life_year" title="Quality-adjusted life year">quality-adjusted life year</a> (QALY) measure; however, QALYs only measure the benefit with and without medical intervention and therefore do not measure the total burden. Also, QALYs tend to be an individual measure and not a societal measure. </p><p>Traditionally, health liabilities were expressed using one measure, the <a href="/wiki/Years_of_potential_life_lost" title="Years of potential life lost">years of life lost</a> (YLL) due to dying early. A medical condition that did not result in dying younger than expected was not counted. The burden of living with a disease or disability is measured by the <a href="/wiki/Years_lost_due_to_disability" class="mw-redirect" title="Years lost due to disability">years lost due to disability</a> (YLD) component, sometimes also known as years lost due to disease or years lived with disability/disease.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>DALYs are calculated by taking the sum of these two components:<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><b>DALY = YLL + YLD</b></dd></dl> <p>The DALY relies on an acceptance that the most appropriate measure of the effects of chronic illness is time, both time lost due to premature death and time spent disabled by disease. One DALY, therefore, is equal to one year of healthy life lost. </p><p>How much a medical condition affects a person is called the <i>disability weight</i> (DW). This is determined by disease or disability and does not vary with age. Tables have been created of thousands of diseases and disabilities, ranging from Alzheimer's disease to loss of finger, with the disability weight meant to indicate the level of disability that results from the specific condition. </p> <table class="wikitable floatright"> <caption>Examples of disability weight </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Condition</th> <th>DW 2004<sup id="cite_ref-GBD2004_DisabilityWeights_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GBD2004_DisabilityWeights-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>DW 2010<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWHO2013_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWHO2013-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Alzheimer's and other dementias</td> <td>0.666</td> <td>0.666 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Blindness</td> <td>0.594</td> <td>0.195 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Schizophrenia</td> <td>0.528</td> <td>0.576 </td></tr> <tr> <td>AIDS, not on <a href="/wiki/Management_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Management of HIV/AIDS">ART</a></td> <td>0.505</td> <td>0.547 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Burns 20%–60% of body</td> <td>0.441</td> <td>0.438 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fractured femur</td> <td>0.372</td> <td>0.308 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Moderate depression episode</td> <td>0.350</td> <td>0.406 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Amputation of foot</td> <td>0.300</td> <td>0.021–0.1674 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Deafness</td> <td>0.229</td> <td>0.167–0.281 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Infertility</td> <td>0.180</td> <td>0.026–0.056 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Amputation of finger</td> <td>0.102</td> <td>0.030 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lower back pain</td> <td>0.061</td> <td>0.0322–0.0374 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Examples of the disability weight are shown on the right. Some of these are "short term", and the long-term weights may be different. </p><p>The most noticeable change between the 2004 and 2010 figures for disability weights above are for blindness as it was considered the weights are a measure of health rather than well-being (or welfare) and a blind person is not considered to be ill. "In the <abbr title="Global Burden of Disease">GBD</abbr> terminology, the term disability is used broadly to refer to departures from optimal health in any of the important domains of health."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWHO201315_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWHO201315-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the population level, the disease burden as measured by DALYs is calculated by adding YLL to YLD. YLL uses the life expectancy at the time of death.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> YLD is determined by the number of years disabled weighted by level of disability caused by a disability or disease using the formula: </p> <dl><dd><b>YLD = I × DW × L</b></dd></dl> <p>In this formula, I = number of incident cases in the population, DW = disability weight of specific condition, and L = average duration of the case until remission or death (years). There is also a prevalence (as opposed to incidence) based calculation for YLD. Number of years lost due to premature death is calculated by </p> <dl><dd><b>YLL = N × L</b></dd></dl> <p>where N = number of deaths due to condition, L = standard life expectancy at age of death.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Life expectancies are not the same at different ages. For example, in the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> era, life expectancy at birth was 33 years, but life expectancy at the age of 15 was an additional 39 years (total 54).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historically <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japanese</a> <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a> statistics have been used as the standard for measuring premature death, as the Japanese have the longest life expectancies.<sup id="cite_ref-menken_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-menken-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other approaches have since emerged, include using national life tables for YLL calculations, or using the reference life table derived by the GBD study.<sup id="cite_ref-brechtd_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brechtd-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gmawyper_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gmawyper-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Age_weighting">Age weighting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disability-adjusted_life_year&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Age weighting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Disability_Adjusted_Life_Year_Weight_Plot.v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Disability_Adjusted_Life_Year_Weight_Plot.v2.svg/220px-Disability_Adjusted_Life_Year_Weight_Plot.v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Disability_Adjusted_Life_Year_Weight_Plot.v2.svg/330px-Disability_Adjusted_Life_Year_Weight_Plot.v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Disability_Adjusted_Life_Year_Weight_Plot.v2.svg/440px-Disability_Adjusted_Life_Year_Weight_Plot.v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="591" /></a><figcaption> Some studies use DALYs calculated to place greater value on a year lived as a young adult. This formula produces average values around age 10 and age 55, a peak around age 25, and lowest values among very young children and very old people.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) used age weighting and time discounting at 3 percent in DALYs prior to 2010 but discontinued using them starting in 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two components to this differential accounting of time: age-weighting and time-discounting. Age-weighting is based on the theory of human capital. Commonly, years lived as a young adult are valued more highly than years spent as a young child or older adult, as these are years of peak productivity. Age-weighting receives considerable criticism for valuing young adults at the expense of children and the old. Some criticize, while others rationalize, this as reflecting society's interest in <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a> and receiving a return on its investment in raising children. This age-weighting system means that somebody disabled at 30 years of age, for ten years, would be measured as having a higher loss of DALYs (a greater burden of disease), than somebody disabled by the same disease or injury at the age of 70 for ten years. </p><p>This age-weighting function is by no means a universal methodology in <abbr title="health-adjusted life years">HALY</abbr> studies, but is common when using DALYs. Cost-effectiveness studies using <abbr title="quality-adjusted life years">QALYs</abbr>, for example, do not discount time at different ages differently.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This age-weighting function applies only to the calculation of DALYs lost due to disability. Years lost to premature death are determined from the age at death and life expectancy. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Global_Burden_of_Disease_Study" title="Global Burden of Disease Study">Global Burden of Disease Study</a> (GBD) 2001–2002 counted disability adjusted life years equally for all ages, but the GBD 1990 and GBD 2004 studies used the formula<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle W=0.1658Ye^{-0.04Y}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>W</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.1658</mn> <mi>Y</mi> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>0.04</mn> <mi>Y</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle W=0.1658Ye^{-0.04Y}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/50dc62f62476d12676d624421d473e68fa028d60" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:20.538ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle W=0.1658Ye^{-0.04Y}}"></span><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y}"></span> is the age at which the year is lived and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle W}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>W</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle W}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/54a9c4c547f4d6111f81946cad242b18298d70b7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.435ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle W}"></span> is the value assigned to it relative to an average value of 1. </p><p>In these studies, future years were also <a href="/wiki/Discounted" class="mw-redirect" title="Discounted">discounted</a> at a 3% rate to account for future health care losses. <a href="/wiki/Time_discounting" class="mw-redirect" title="Time discounting">Time discounting</a>, which is separate from the age-weighting function, describes preferences in time as used in economic models.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The effects of the interplay between life expectancy and years lost, discounting, and social weighting are complex, depending on the severity and duration of illness. For example, the parameters used in the GBD 1990 study generally give greater weight to deaths at any year prior to age 39 than afterward, with the death of a newborn weighted at 33 DALYs and the death of someone aged 5–20 weighted at approximately 36 DALYs.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result of numerous discussions, by 2010 the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> had abandoned the ideas of age weighting and time discounting.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had also substituted the idea of <a href="/wiki/Prevalence" title="Prevalence">prevalence</a> for <i>incidence</i> (when a condition started) because this is what surveys measure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_applications">Economic applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disability-adjusted_life_year&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Economic applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The methodology is not an economic measure. It measures how much healthy life is lost. It does not assign a monetary value to any person or condition, and it does not measure how much productive work or money is lost as a result of death and disease. However, HALYs, including DALYs and QALYs, are especially useful in guiding the allocation of health resources as they provide a common numerator, allowing for the expression of utility in terms of dollar/DALY, or dollar/QALY.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in Gambia, provision of the <a href="/wiki/Pneumococcal_conjugate_vaccine" title="Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine">pneumococcal conjugate vaccine</a> costs $670 per DALY saved.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example being Stroke, for which the total economic consequences are estimated to amount to $2 trillion.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These numbers can be compared to other treatments for other diseases, to determine whether investing resources in preventing or treating a different disease would be more efficient in terms of overall health. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disability-adjusted_life_year&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Schizophrenia has a 0.53 weighting and a broken femur a 0.37 weighting in the latest WHO weightings.<sup id="cite_ref-GBD2004_DisabilityWeights_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GBD2004_DisabilityWeights-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disability-adjusted_life_year&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a> (25.1/1,000), cardiovascular (23.8/1,000), mental problems (17.6/1,000), neurological (15.7/1,000), chronic respiratory (9.4/1,000) and diabetes (7.2/1,000) are the main causes of good years of expected life lost to disease or premature death.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this, Australia has one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_life_expectancy" title="List of countries by life expectancy">longest life expectancies in the world</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disability-adjusted_life_year&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These illustrate the problematic diseases and outbreaks occurring in 2013 in Zimbabwe, shown to have the greatest impact on health disability were typhoid, anthrax, malaria, common diarrhea, and dysentery.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="PTSD_rates">PTSD rates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disability-adjusted_life_year&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: PTSD rates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Posttraumatic stress disorder">Posttraumatic stress disorder</a> (PTSD) DALY estimates from 2004 for the world's 25 most populous countries give Asian/Pacific countries and the United States as the places where PTSD impact is most concentrated (as shown <a href="/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder#Epidemiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Posttraumatic stress disorder">here</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noise-induced_hearing_loss">Noise-induced hearing loss</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disability-adjusted_life_year&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Noise-induced hearing loss"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The disability-adjusted life years attributable to hearing impairment for noise-exposed U.S. workers across all industries was calculated to be 2.53 healthy years lost annually per 1,000 noise-exposed workers. Workers in the mining and construction sectors lost 3.45 and 3.09 healthy years per 1,000 workers, respectively. Overall, 66% of the sample worked in the manufacturing sector and represented 70% of healthy years lost by all workers.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_usage">History and usage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disability-adjusted_life_year&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: History and usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Originally developed by <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> for the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> in 1990, the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> subsequently adopted the method in 1996 as part of the Ad hoc Committee on Health Research "Investing in Health Research & Development" report. The DALY was first conceptualized by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_J._L._Murray" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher J. L. Murray">Christopher J. L. Murray</a> and Lopez in work carried out with the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> and the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Global_Burden_of_Disease_Study" title="Global Burden of Disease Study">Global Burden of Disease Study</a>, which was undertaken in 1990.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is now a key measure employed by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> in such publications as its <i>Global Burden of Disease</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The DALY was also used in the 1993 <a href="/wiki/World_Development_Report" title="World Development Report">World Development Report</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: x">: x </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disability-adjusted_life_year&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Cleanup plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Cleanup" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may <b>require <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup" title="Wikipedia:Cleanup">cleanup</a></b> to meet Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a>. The specific problem is: <b>The section contains some original research, does not follow a logical order, and appears to be missing prominent criticisms.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Special:EditPage/Disability-adjusted life year">improve this section</a> if you can.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Both DALYs and <a href="/wiki/QALY" class="mw-redirect" title="QALY">QALYs</a> are forms of <a href="/w/index.php?title=HALY&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HALY (page does not exist)">HALYs</a>, health-adjusted life years. </p><p>Some critics have alleged that DALYs are essentially an economic measure of human <a href="/wiki/Productive_capacity" title="Productive capacity">productive capacity</a> for the affected individual.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="doesn't criticize DALYs for this reason (July 2016)">irrelevant citation</span></a></i>]</sup> In response, defenders of DALYs have argued that while DALYs have an age-weighting function that has been rationalized based on the economic productivity of persons at that age, health-related <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a> measures are used to determine the disability weights, which range from 0 to 1 (no disability to 100% disabled) for all disease. These defenders emphasize that disability weights are based not on a person's ability to work, but rather on the effects of the disability on the person's life in general. Hence, mental illness is one of the leading diseases as measured by global burden of disease studies, with depression accounting for 51.84 million DALYs. Perinatal conditions, which affect infants with a very low age-weight function, are the leading cause of lost DALYs at 90.48 million. Measles is fifteenth at 23.11 million.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disability-adjusted_life_year&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhutan_GNH_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhutan GNH Index">Bhutan GNH Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broad_measures_of_economic_progress" title="Broad measures of economic progress">Broad measures of economic progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_burden" title="Disease burden">Disease burden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_cost_accounting" class="mw-redirect" title="Full cost accounting">Full cost accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_national_product" title="Green national product">Green national product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_gross_domestic_product" title="Green gross domestic product">Green gross domestic product</a> (Green GDP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-related_Development_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender-related Development Index">Gender-related Development Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genuine_Progress_Indicator" class="mw-redirect" title="Genuine Progress Indicator">Genuine Progress Indicator</a> (GPI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_burden_of_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Global burden of disease">Global burden of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Peace_Index" title="Global Peace Index">Global Peace Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross_National_Happiness" title="Gross National Happiness">Gross National Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross_National_Well-being" title="Gross National Well-being">Gross National Well-being</a> (GNW)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happy_Planet_Index" title="Happy Planet Index">Happy Planet Index</a> (HPI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Index" title="Human Development Index">Human Development Index</a> (HDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISEW" class="mw-redirect" title="ISEW">ISEW</a> (Index of sustainable economic welfare)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Health_Metrics_and_Evaluation" title="Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation">Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation</a> (IHME)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress_(history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Progress (history)">Progress (history)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_utilization_theory" title="Progressive utilization theory">Progressive utilization theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatum_Prosperity_Index" title="Legatum Prosperity Index">Legatum Prosperity Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leisure_satisfaction" title="Leisure satisfaction">Leisure satisfaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_planet_index" class="mw-redirect" title="Living planet index">Living planet index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millennium_Development_Goals" title="Millennium Development Goals">Millennium Development Goals</a> (MDGs)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-materialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-materialism">Post-materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_life_satisfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjective life satisfaction">Subjective life satisfaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Where-to-be-born_Index" title="Where-to-be-born Index">Where-to-be-born Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikiprogress" title="Wikiprogress">Wikiprogress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Values_Survey" title="World Values Survey">World Values Survey</a> (WVS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Happiness_Report" title="World Happiness Report">World Happiness Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality-adjusted_life_year" title="Quality-adjusted life year">Quality-adjusted life year</a> (QALY)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacoeconomics" title="Pharmacoeconomics">Pharmacoeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_Life_Years" title="Healthy Life Years">Healthy Life Years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Ages_of_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Ages of Man">Seven Ages of Man</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disability-adjusted_life_year&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output 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Mobarak Hossain Khan, Frauke Kraas (2011). <i>Health in megacities and urban areas</i>. Heidelberg: Physica-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7908-2732-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7908-2732-3"><bdi>978-3-7908-2732-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Health+in+megacities+and+urban+areas&rft.place=Heidelberg&rft.pub=Physica-Verlag&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-7908-2732-3&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Alexander%2C+Md.+Mobarak+Hossain+Khan%2C+Frauke+Kraas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisability-adjusted+life+year" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> 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href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8062401">8062401</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bull+World+Health+Organ&rft.atitle=Quantifying+the+burden+of+disease%3A+the+technical+basis+for+disability-adjusted+life+years&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=429-445&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2486718%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8062401&rft.au=Murray+CJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2486718&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisability-adjusted+life+year" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disability-adjusted_life_year&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Effective_altruism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Effective altruism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Effective_altruism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effective_altruism" title="Effective altruism">Effective altruism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aid_effectiveness" title="Aid effectiveness">Aid effectiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_assessment" title="Charity assessment">Charity assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demandingness_objection" title="Demandingness objection">Demandingness objection</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Disability-adjusted life year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_burden" title="Disease burden">Disease burden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributional_cost-effectiveness_analysis" title="Distributional cost-effectiveness analysis">Distributional cost-effectiveness analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earning_to_give" title="Earning to give">Earning to give</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_consideration_of_interests" title="Equal consideration of interests">Equal consideration of interests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longtermism" title="Longtermism">Longtermism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_utility" title="Marginal utility">Marginal utility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_circle_expansion" title="Moral circle expansion">Moral circle expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_barriers_to_effective_altruism" title="Psychological barriers to effective altruism">Psychological barriers to effective altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality-adjusted_life_year" title="Quality-adjusted life year">Quality-adjusted life year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_philanthropy" title="Venture philanthropy">Venture philanthropy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Bankman-Fried" title="Sam Bankman-Fried">Sam Bankman-Fried</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liv_Boeree" title="Liv Boeree">Liv Boeree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Bostrom" title="Nick Bostrom">Nick Bostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Greaves" title="Hilary Greaves">Hilary Greaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holden_Karnofsky" title="Holden Karnofsky">Holden Karnofsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_MacAskill" title="William MacAskill">William MacAskill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dustin_Moskovitz" title="Dustin Moskovitz">Dustin Moskovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yew-Kwang_Ng" title="Yew-Kwang Ng">Yew-Kwang Ng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toby_Ord" title="Toby Ord">Toby Ord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cari_Tuna" title="Cari Tuna">Cari Tuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliezer_Yudkowsky" title="Eliezer Yudkowsky">Eliezer Yudkowsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/80,000_Hours" title="80,000 Hours">80,000 Hours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Against_Malaria_Foundation" title="Against Malaria Foundation">Against Malaria Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Charity_Evaluators" title="Animal Charity Evaluators">Animal Charity Evaluators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Ethics_(organization)" title="Animal Ethics (organization)">Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Effective_Altruism" title="Centre for Effective Altruism">Centre for Effective Altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Enabling_EA_Learning_%26_Research" title="Centre for Enabling EA Learning & Research">Centre for Enabling EA Learning & Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_High_Impact_Philanthropy" title="Center for High Impact Philanthropy">Center for High Impact Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_the_Study_of_Existential_Risk" title="Centre for the Study of Existential Risk">Centre for the Study of Existential Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_Media_International" title="Development Media International">Development Media International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_Action" title="Evidence Action">Evidence Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faunalytics" title="Faunalytics">Faunalytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fistula_Foundation" title="Fistula Foundation">Fistula Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Humanity_Institute" title="Future of Humanity Institute">Future of Humanity Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Life_Institute" title="Future of Life Institute">Future of Life Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founders_Pledge" title="Founders Pledge">Founders Pledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GiveDirectly" title="GiveDirectly">GiveDirectly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GiveWell" title="GiveWell">GiveWell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giving_Multiplier" title="Giving Multiplier">Giving Multiplier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giving_What_We_Can" title="Giving What We Can">Giving What We Can</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_Food_Fund" title="Good Food Fund">Good Food Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Good_Food_Institute" title="The Good Food Institute">The Good Food Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_Ventures" title="Good Ventures">Good Ventures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Humane_League" title="The Humane League">The Humane League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercy_for_Animals" title="Mercy for Animals">Mercy for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_Intelligence_Research_Institute" title="Machine Intelligence Research Institute">Machine Intelligence Research Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_Consortium" title="Malaria Consortium">Malaria Consortium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Threat_Initiative" title="Nuclear Threat Initiative">Nuclear Threat Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Philanthropy_(organization)" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Philanthropy (organization)">Open Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raising_for_Effective_Giving" title="Raising for Effective Giving">Raising for Effective Giving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentience_Institute" title="Sentience Institute">Sentience Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlimit_Health" title="Unlimit Health">Unlimit Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_Animal_Initiative" title="Wild Animal Initiative">Wild Animal Initiative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Focus areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_risk" title="Biotechnology risk">Biotechnology risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_stability" title="Economic stability">Economic stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential risk from artificial general intelligence">Existential risk from artificial general intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_poverty" class="mw-redirect" title="Global poverty">Global poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">Intensive animal farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_extension" title="Life extension">Life extension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_prevention" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaria prevention">Malaria prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_deworming" title="Mass deworming">Mass deworming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neglected_tropical_diseases" title="Neglected tropical diseases">Neglected tropical diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_of_astronomical_suffering" title="Risk of astronomical suffering">Risk of astronomical suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_animal_suffering" title="Wild animal suffering">Wild animal suffering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Doing_Good_Better" title="Doing Good Better">Doing Good Better</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_Animal_Farming" title="The End of Animal Farming">The End of Animal Farming</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Famine,_Affluence,_and_Morality" title="Famine, Affluence, and Morality">Famine, Affluence, and Morality</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Life_You_Can_Save" title="The Life You Can Save">The Life You Can Save</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Living_High_and_Letting_Die" title="Living High and Letting Die">Living High and Letting Die</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Most_Good_You_Can_Do" title="The Most Good You Can Do">The Most Good You Can Do</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Precipice:_Existential_Risk_and_the_Future_of_Humanity" title="The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity">The Precipice</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Superintelligence:_Paths,_Dangers,_Strategies" title="Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies">Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/What_We_Owe_the_Future" title="What We Owe the Future">What We Owe the Future</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effective_Altruism_Global" title="Effective Altruism Global">Effective Altruism Global</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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style="width:1%">Accreditation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_accreditation" title="Hospital accreditation">Hospital accreditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_healthcare_accreditation" title="International healthcare accreditation">International healthcare accreditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_healthcare_accreditation_organizations" title="List of international healthcare accreditation organizations">List of international healthcare accreditation organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Costs and benefits</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incremental_cost-effectiveness_ratio" title="Incremental cost-effectiveness ratio">Incremental 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