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href="#Various_recommendations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Various recommendations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Various_recommendations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prostate_cancer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prostate_cancer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Prostate cancer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prostate_cancer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cardiovascular" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cardiovascular"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Cardiovascular</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cardiovascular-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hypertension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypertension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Hypertension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypertension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mental_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mental_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Mental health</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mental_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Antidepressant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antidepressant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.1</span> <span>Antidepressant</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antidepressant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alzheimer's_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alzheimer's_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Alzheimer's disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alzheimer's_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psoriasis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psoriasis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Psoriasis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psoriasis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pregnancy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pregnancy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Pregnancy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pregnancy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crohn's_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crohn's_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Crohn's disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crohn's_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Supplements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supplements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Supplements</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Supplements-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Supplements subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Supplements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Formulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Formulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-EPA_and_DHA_content" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#EPA_and_DHA_content"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>EPA and DHA content</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-EPA_and_DHA_content-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quality_and_concerns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quality_and_concerns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Quality and concerns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quality_and_concerns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Contamination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contamination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Contamination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contamination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dioxins_and_PCBs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dioxins_and_PCBs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Dioxins and PCBs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dioxins_and_PCBs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spoilage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spoilage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.3</span> <span>Spoilage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spoilage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prescription_fish_oil-based_medications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prescription_fish_oil-based_medications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Prescription fish oil-based medications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prescription_fish_oil-based_medications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dangers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dangers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Dangers</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dangers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dangers subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dangers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maximum_intake" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maximum_intake"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Maximum intake</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maximum_intake-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vitamins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vitamins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Vitamins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vitamins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toxic_pollutants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toxic_pollutants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Toxic pollutants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toxic_pollutants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Fish oil</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 43 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-43" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">43 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%83" title="زيت السمك – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="زيت السمك" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bal%C4%B1q_ya%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Balıq yağı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Balıq yağı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%A1_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8B" title="Балыҡ майы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Балыҡ майы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%88%D1%87" title="Рыбін тлушч – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рыбін тлушч" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%88%D1%87" title="Рыбін тлушч – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Рыбін тлушч" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oli_de_peix" title="Oli de peix – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Oli de peix" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryb%C3%AD_tuk" title="Rybí tuk – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Rybí tuk" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiskeolie" title="Fiskeolie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fiskeolie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisch%C3%B6l" title="Fischöl – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Fischöl" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aceite_de_pescado" title="Aceite de pescado – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Aceite de pescado" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fi%C5%9Doleo" title="Fiŝoleo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fiŝoleo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C" title="روغن ماهی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روغن ماهی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huile_de_poisson" title="Huile de poisson – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Huile de poisson" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%9D%EC%84%A0%EA%B8%B0%EB%A6%84" title="생선기름 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="생선기름" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%81%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B2" title="Ձկան յուղ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ձկան յուղ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="मछली का तेल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मछली का तेल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riblje_ulje" title="Riblje ulje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Riblje ulje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minyak_ikan" title="Minyak ikan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Minyak ikan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BDsi" title="Lýsi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Lýsi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olio_di_pesce" title="Olio di pesce – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Olio di pesce" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%9F_%D7%93%D7%92%D7%99%D7%9D" title="שמן דגים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שמן דגים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_iwak" title="Lenga iwak – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Lenga iwak" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8B" title="Балық майы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Балық майы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zivju_e%C4%BC%C4%BCa" title="Zivju eļļa – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Zivju eļļa" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Рибино масло – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Рибино масло" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A3" title="മീനെണ്ണ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മീനെണ്ണ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minyak_ikan" title="Minyak ikan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Minyak ikan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Oil derived from the tissues of oily fish</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For Omegaven, see <a href="/wiki/Fish_oil_(medical_use)" title="Fish oil (medical use)">Fish oil (medical use)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p><b>Fish oil</b> is oil derived from the <a href="/wiki/Biological_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological tissue">tissues</a> of <a href="/wiki/Oily_fish" title="Oily fish">oily fish</a>. Fish oils contain the <a href="/wiki/Omega%E2%88%923_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega−3 fatty acid">omega−3 fatty acids</a> <a href="/wiki/Eicosapentaenoic_acid" title="Eicosapentaenoic acid">eicosapentaenoic acid</a> (EPA) and <a href="/wiki/Docosahexaenoic_acid" title="Docosahexaenoic acid">docosahexaenoic acid</a> (DHA), precursors of certain <a href="/wiki/Eicosanoid" title="Eicosanoid">eicosanoids</a> that are known to reduce <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a> in the body and improve <a href="/wiki/Hypertriglyceridemia" title="Hypertriglyceridemia">hypertriglyceridemia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There has been a great deal of controversy in the 21st century about the role of fish oil in <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular disease</a>, with recent <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analyses</a> reaching different conclusions about its potential impact. </p><p>The fish used as sources do not actually produce omega−3 fatty acids. Instead, the fish accumulate the acids by consuming either <a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">microalgae</a> or <a href="/wiki/Prey_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Prey fish">prey fish</a> that have accumulated omega−3 fatty acids. Fatty predatory fish like sharks, <a href="/wiki/Swordfish" title="Swordfish">swordfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tilefish" title="Tilefish">tilefish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Albacore_tuna" class="mw-redirect" title="Albacore tuna">albacore tuna</a> may be high in omega−3 fatty acids, but due to their position at the top of the <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a>, these species may also accumulate <a href="/wiki/Toxic" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxic">toxic</a> substances through <a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">biomagnification</a>. For this reason, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">United States Environmental Protection Agency</a> recommends limiting consumption (especially for women of childbearing age) of certain (predatory) fish species (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Albacore_tuna" class="mw-redirect" title="Albacore tuna">albacore tuna</a>, shark, <a href="/wiki/King_mackerel" title="King mackerel">king mackerel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tilefish" title="Tilefish">tilefish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swordfish" title="Swordfish">swordfish</a>) due to high levels of the toxic contaminant <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>. <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxins" title="Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins">Dioxins</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl" title="Polychlorinated biphenyl">PCBs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chlordane" title="Chlordane">chlordane</a>, as well as other chlorinated cyclodiene insecticides are also present.<sup id="cite_ref-petsworldtoday_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-petsworldtoday-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fish oil is used in <a href="/wiki/Commercial_fish_feed" title="Commercial fish feed">aquaculture feed</a>, in particular for feeding <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_salmon" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquaculture of salmon">farmed salmon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Marine and freshwater fish oil vary in contents of <a href="/wiki/Arachidonic_acid" title="Arachidonic acid">arachidonic acid</a>, EPA and DHA.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid7666244_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid7666244-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The various species range from lean to fatty, and their oil content in the tissues has been shown to vary from 0.7% to 15.5%.<sup id="cite_ref-Gruger1964_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gruger1964-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also differ in their effects on organ lipids.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid7666244_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid7666244-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies have revealed that there is no relation between either 1) total fish intake or 2) estimated omega−3 fatty acid intake from all fish and serum omega−3 fatty acid concentrations.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17158409_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17158409-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only fatty fish intake, particularly salmonid, and estimated EPA + DHA intake from fatty fish has been observed to be significantly associated with increase in serum EPA + DHA.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17158409_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17158409-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2019,<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> the US <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) has approved four fish oil-based prescription drugs, namely Lovaza, Omtryg (both <a href="/wiki/Omega-3-acid_ethyl_esters" title="Omega-3-acid ethyl esters">omega-3-acid ethyl esters</a>), Vascepa (<a href="/wiki/Ethyl_eicosapentaenoic_acid" title="Ethyl eicosapentaenoic acid">ethyl eicosapentaenoic acid</a>), and Epanova (<a href="/wiki/Omega-3-carboxylic_acids" title="Omega-3-carboxylic acids">omega-3-carboxylic acids</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-skulas19_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skulas19-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> None of these drugs are actually fish oil; they are all derivatives of acids found in fish oil. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Often marketed and sold for consumption as part of the diet or in dietary supplements in contemporary societies, fish oils also have found roles in external use, as <a href="/wiki/Emollient" class="mw-redirect" title="Emollient">emollients</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or as general <a href="/wiki/Ointment" class="mw-redirect" title="Ointment">ointments</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as in <a href="/wiki/Body_art" title="Body art">body art</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or for alleged insulation against cold temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FMIB_36337_Rendering_Room_where_the_Fish_Waste_was_Treated_to_Separate_the_Valuable_Oil_Content,_Port_Dover,_Ont.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/FMIB_36337_Rendering_Room_where_the_Fish_Waste_was_Treated_to_Separate_the_Valuable_Oil_Content%2C_Port_Dover%2C_Ont.jpeg/220px-FMIB_36337_Rendering_Room_where_the_Fish_Waste_was_Treated_to_Separate_the_Valuable_Oil_Content%2C_Port_Dover%2C_Ont.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/FMIB_36337_Rendering_Room_where_the_Fish_Waste_was_Treated_to_Separate_the_Valuable_Oil_Content%2C_Port_Dover%2C_Ont.jpeg/330px-FMIB_36337_Rendering_Room_where_the_Fish_Waste_was_Treated_to_Separate_the_Valuable_Oil_Content%2C_Port_Dover%2C_Ont.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/FMIB_36337_Rendering_Room_where_the_Fish_Waste_was_Treated_to_Separate_the_Valuable_Oil_Content%2C_Port_Dover%2C_Ont.jpeg/440px-FMIB_36337_Rendering_Room_where_the_Fish_Waste_was_Treated_to_Separate_the_Valuable_Oil_Content%2C_Port_Dover%2C_Ont.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="638" /></a><figcaption>Fish oil rendering in <a href="/wiki/Port_Dover,_Ontario" class="mw-redirect" title="Port Dover, Ontario">Port Dover, Ontario</a>, 1918</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Food_sources">Food sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Food sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most widely available dietary source of EPA and DHA is cold-water <a href="/wiki/Oily_fish" title="Oily fish">oily fish</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Salmon" title="Salmon">salmon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herring" title="Herring">herring</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mackerel" title="Mackerel">mackerel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anchovies" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchovies">anchovies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sardine" title="Sardine">sardines</a>. Oils from these fish have a profile of around seven times as much <a href="/wiki/Omega%E2%88%923_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega−3 fatty acid">omega−3 oils</a> as <a href="/wiki/Omega-6_fatty_acid" title="Omega-6 fatty acid">omega−6 oils</a>. Other oily fish, such as <a href="/wiki/Tuna" title="Tuna">tuna</a>, also contain omega−3 in somewhat lesser amounts. Although fish is a dietary source of omega−3 oils, fish do not synthesize them; they obtain them from the <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> (<a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">microalgae</a> in particular) or <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a> in their diets.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>EPA and DHA are available as dietary supplements most commonly as fish oil <a href="/wiki/Capsule_(pharmacy)" title="Capsule (pharmacy)">capsules</a>, <a href="/wiki/Softgel" title="Softgel">softgels</a>, and gummies,<sup><a href="#Notes">1</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Krill_oil" title="Krill oil">krill oil</a>, and less commonly as <a href="/wiki/Seaweed_oil" title="Seaweed oil">algae oil</a>.<sup><a href="#Notes">2</a></sup> Generally, salmon oil has more DHA than EPA while other fish oils such as herring, mackerel, anchovies, sardines, and pollock have more EPA than DHA. (See Supplements section below.) </p> <table class="sortable wikitable" style="border-collapse:collapse;width:360px;"> <caption>Grams of omega−3 fatty acids per 3 oz (85 g) serving of popular fish.<sup id="cite_ref-ahao3_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ahao3-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-KrisEtherton2002_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KrisEtherton2002-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Common name</th> <th>grams </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Herring" title="Herring">Herring</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sardine" title="Sardine">sardines</a></td> <td>1.3–2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Spanish_mackerel" title="Spanish mackerel">Spanish mackerel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_mackerel" title="Atlantic mackerel">Atlantic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pacific_mackerel" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific mackerel">Pacific</a></td> <td>1.1–1.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Salmon" title="Salmon">Salmon</a></td> <td>1.1–1.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Halibut" title="Halibut">Halibut</a></td> <td>0.60–1.12 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tuna" title="Tuna">Tuna</a></td> <td>0.21–1.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Swordfish" title="Swordfish">Swordfish</a></td> <td>0.97 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_green-lipped_mussel" class="mw-redirect" title="New Zealand green-lipped mussel">Greenshell/lipped mussels</a></td> <td>0.95<sup id="cite_ref-o3c_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-o3c-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tilefish" title="Tilefish">Tilefish</a></td> <td>0.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tuna" title="Tuna">Tuna</a> (canned, light)</td> <td>0.17–0.24 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pollock" title="Pollock">Pollock</a></td> <td>0.45 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cod" title="Cod">Cod</a></td> <td>0.15–0.24 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Catfish" title="Catfish">Catfish</a></td> <td>0.22–0.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Flounder" title="Flounder">Flounder</a></td> <td>0.48 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Grouper" title="Grouper">Grouper</a></td> <td>0.23 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mahi_mahi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahi mahi">Mahi mahi</a></td> <td>0.13 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Orange_roughy" title="Orange roughy">Orange roughy</a></td> <td>0.028 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Red_snapper_(fish)" class="mw-redirect" title="Red snapper (fish)">Red snapper</a></td> <td>0.29 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Shark</td> <td>0.83 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/King_mackerel" title="King mackerel">King mackerel</a></td> <td>0.36 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Blue_grenadier" title="Blue grenadier">Hoki (blue grenadier)</a></td> <td>0.41 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Silver_gemfish" title="Silver gemfish">Silver gemfish</a></td> <td>0.40 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cod#Perciformes" title="Cod">Blue eye cod</a></td> <td>0.31 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sydney_rock_oyster" class="mw-redirect" title="Sydney rock oyster">Sydney rock oyster</a></td> <td>0.30 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Canned_tuna" class="mw-redirect" title="Canned tuna">Tuna, canned</a></td> <td>0.23 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lutjanidae" title="Lutjanidae">Snapper</a></td> <td>0.22 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Barramundi" title="Barramundi">Barramundi, saltwater</a></td> <td>0.100 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Giant_tiger_prawn" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant tiger prawn">Giant tiger prawn</a></td> <td>0.100 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>For comparison, note the omega−3 levels in some common non-fish foods: </p> <table class="sortable wikitable" style="border-collapse:collapse;width:300px;"> <caption>Grams of omega−3 fatty acids per 3 oz (85 g) serving of common non-fish foods.<sup id="cite_ref-ahao3_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ahao3-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Name</th> <th>grams </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Flaxseeds" class="mw-redirect" title="Flaxseeds">Flaxseeds</a></td> <td>19.55 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chia_seeds" class="mw-redirect" title="Chia seeds">Chia seeds</a></td> <td>14.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hemp_seeds" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemp seeds">Hemp seeds</a></td> <td>7.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Walnut" title="Walnut">Walnut</a></td> <td>1.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Soybean" title="Soybean">Soybean</a></td> <td>1.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Butter</td> <td>0.27 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Egg_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg (food)">Eggs, large regular</a></td> <td>0.109<sup id="cite_ref-o3c_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-o3c-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Red_meat" title="Red meat">Lean red meat</a></td> <td>0.031 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Turkey_(bird)" title="Turkey (bird)">Turkey (bird)</a></td> <td>0.030 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">Cereals, rice, pasta, etc.</a></td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a></td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">Milk, regular</a></td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">Bread, regular</a></td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vegetables</td> <td>0.00 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_effects">Health effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Health effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kepler_Cod_Liver_Oil,_by_Burroughs_Wellcome_%26_Co_Wellcome_L0016947.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Kepler_Cod_Liver_Oil%2C_by_Burroughs_Wellcome_%26_Co_Wellcome_L0016947.jpg/220px-Kepler_Cod_Liver_Oil%2C_by_Burroughs_Wellcome_%26_Co_Wellcome_L0016947.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Kepler_Cod_Liver_Oil%2C_by_Burroughs_Wellcome_%26_Co_Wellcome_L0016947.jpg/330px-Kepler_Cod_Liver_Oil%2C_by_Burroughs_Wellcome_%26_Co_Wellcome_L0016947.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Kepler_Cod_Liver_Oil%2C_by_Burroughs_Wellcome_%26_Co_Wellcome_L0016947.jpg/440px-Kepler_Cod_Liver_Oil%2C_by_Burroughs_Wellcome_%26_Co_Wellcome_L0016947.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3300" data-file-height="3335" /></a><figcaption>Kepler <a href="/wiki/Cod_liver_oil" title="Cod liver oil">cod liver oil</a> with <a href="/wiki/Malt_extract" class="mw-redirect" title="Malt extract">malt extract</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History">History</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fish oil became one of the earliest dietary supplements, and by the end of the 19th century, was used as a treatment for many diseases, including such ailments as <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Female_hysteria" title="Female hysteria">hysteria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The possible effects of fish oil and omega−3 fatty acids have since been studied in clinical depression,<sup id="cite_ref-Su2003_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Su2003-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pp_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pp-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> cancer, and <a href="/wiki/Macular_degeneration" title="Macular degeneration">macular degeneration</a>, yet they have not been proven effective.<sup id="cite_ref-medline_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-medline-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Various_recommendations">Various recommendations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Various recommendations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a 2009 letter on a pending revision to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, the American Heart Association recommended 250–500 mg/day of EPA and DHA.<sup id="cite_ref-AHA-2012_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AHA-2012-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Guidelines were revised again for 2015–2020; included is a recommendation that adults consume at least eight ounces of a variety of types of fish per week, equating to at least 250 mg/day of EPA + DHA.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Food and Drug Administration recommends not exceeding 3 grams per day of EPA + DHA from all sources, with no more than 2 grams per day from dietary supplements.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prostate_cancer">Prostate cancer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Prostate cancer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The effect of fish oil consumption on <a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a> is controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-Hein2012_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hein2012-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, one study showed decreased risk with higher blood levels of <a href="/wiki/Docosapentaenoic_acid#all-cis-7,10,13,16,19-docosapentaenoic_acid_(clupanodonic_acid)" title="Docosapentaenoic acid">DPA</a>. However, another reported increased risk of more aggressive prostate cancer with higher blood levels of combined <a href="/wiki/Eicosapentaenoic_acid" title="Eicosapentaenoic acid">EPA</a> and <a href="/wiki/Docosahexaenoic_acid" title="Docosahexaenoic acid">DHA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some evidence indicated an association between high blood levels of omega−3 fatty acids and an increased prostate cancer risk.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, this evidence from the Select Trial has been challenged on the grounds of methodology and that the quantitative difference between those who developed prostate cancer and those who did not "is so small as to be biologically irrelevant".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cardiovascular">Cardiovascular</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cardiovascular"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is uncertainty about the role of fish oil in cardiovascular disease, with reviews reaching different conclusions about its potential impact. Multiple evaluations suggest fish oil has little or no reduction on cardiovascular mortality, although there may be a small reduction in the incidence of actual cardiac events and strokes with its use.<sup id="cite_ref-abdel_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abdel-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cochrane_2018_2_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cochrane_2018_2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2007, the <a href="/wiki/American_Heart_Association" title="American Heart Association">American Heart Association</a> recommended the consumption of 1 gram of fish oil daily,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> preferably by eating fish, for patients with <a href="/wiki/Coronary_artery_disease" title="Coronary artery disease">coronary artery disease</a>, but cautioned pregnant and nursing women to avoid eating fish with high potential for <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a> contaminants including mackerel, shark, and swordfish.<sup id="cite_ref-AHA-2007_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AHA-2007-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Optimal dosage was related to body weight.) </p><p>The US <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> lists three conditions for which fish oil and other omega−3 sources are most highly recommended: <a href="/wiki/Hypertriglyceridemia" title="Hypertriglyceridemia">hypertriglyceridemia</a> (high triglyceride level), preventing secondary <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular disease</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a> (high blood pressure). It then lists 27 other conditions for which there is less evidence. It also lists possible safety concerns: "Intake of 3 grams per day or greater of omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of bleeding, although there is little evidence of significant bleeding risk at lower doses. Very large intakes of fish oil or omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of hemorrhagic (bleeding) stroke."<sup id="cite_ref-medline_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-medline-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were studies to determine if fish oil had an effect on certain <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_dysrhythmia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiac dysrhythmia">abnormal heart rhythms</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although a 2012 <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a> found no significant effect.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2008 <a href="/wiki/Meta-study" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-study">meta-study</a> found fish oil supplementation did not demonstrate any preventative benefit to cardiac patients with <a href="/wiki/Ventricular_arrhythmia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventricular arrhythmia">ventricular arrhythmias</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2012 meta-analysis covering 20 studies and 68,680 patients, found that omega−3 fatty acid supplementation did not reduce the chance of death, cardiac death, heart attack, or stroke.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2018 meta-analysis of 77,000 participants found a 3% reduction in the relative risk for those who supplemented fish oil; however, this effect was deemed insignificant.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hypertension">Hypertension</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Hypertension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There have been some human trials that have concluded that consuming omega−3 fatty acids slightly reduces blood pressure (DHA could be more effective than EPA). Because omega−3 fatty acids can increase the risk of bleeding, a qualified healthcare provider should be consulted before supplementing with fish oil.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mental_health">Mental health</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Mental health"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2008 <a href="/wiki/Cochrane_Library" title="Cochrane Library">Cochrane</a> <a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic review</a> found that limited data is available. In the one eligible study, omega−3s were an effective adjunctive therapy for depressive but not manic symptoms in <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a>. The authors found an "acute need" for more randomised controlled trials.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2009 metastudy found that patients taking omega−3 supplements with a higher EPA:DHA ratio experienced fewer depressive symptoms. The studies provided evidence that EPA may be more efficacious than DHA in treating depression. However, this metastudy concluded that due to the identified limitations of the included studies, larger, randomized trials are needed to confirm these findings.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a 2011 <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a> of <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PubMed</a> articles about fish oil and depression from 1965 to 2010, researchers found that "nearly all of the treatment efficacy observed in the published literature may be attributable to publication bias."<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2014 meta-analysis of eleven trials conducted respectively on patients with a DSM-defined diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD) and of eight trials with patients with depressive symptomatology but no diagnosis of MDD demonstrated significant clinical benefit of omega−3 PUFA treatment compared to placebo. The study concluded that: "The use of omega-3 PUFA is effective in patients with diagnosis of MDD and on depressive patients without diagnosis of MDD."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Antidepressant">Antidepressant</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Antidepressant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2019 <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a> concluded that EPA ≥ 60% at a dosage of ≤1 g/d may have antidepressant effect.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alzheimer's_disease"><span id="Alzheimer.27s_disease"></span>Alzheimer's disease</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Alzheimer's disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Cochrane_Library" title="Cochrane Library">Cochrane</a> <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a> published in June 2012 found no significant protective effect for cognitive decline for those aged 60 and over and who started taking fatty acids after this age. A co-author of the study said to <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i>, "Our analysis suggests that there is currently no evidence that omega-3 fatty acid supplements provide a benefit for memory or concentration in later life".<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psoriasis">Psoriasis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Psoriasis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Diets supplemented with <a href="/wiki/Cod_liver_oil" title="Cod liver oil">cod liver oil</a> have shown beneficial effects on <a href="/wiki/Psoriasis" title="Psoriasis">psoriasis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Pregnancy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some studies reported better psychomotor development at 30 months of age in infants whose mothers received fish oil supplements for the first four months of lactation.<sup id="cite_ref-Jensen10_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jensen10-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, five-year-old children whose mothers received modest algae based docosahexaenoic acid supplementation for the first 4 months of breastfeeding performed better on a test of sustained attention. This suggests that <a href="/wiki/Docosahexaenoic_acid" title="Docosahexaenoic acid">docosahexaenoic acid</a> intake during early infancy confers long-term benefits on specific aspects of neurodevelopment.<sup id="cite_ref-Jensen10_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jensen10-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, provision of fish oil during pregnancy may reduce an infant's sensitization to common food allergens and reduce the prevalence and severity of certain skin diseases in the first year of life. This effect may persist until adolescence with a reduction in prevalence and/or severity of eczema, hay fever and asthma.<sup id="cite_ref-Calder10_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Calder10-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crohn's_disease"><span id="Crohn.27s_disease"></span>Crohn's disease</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Crohn's disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2014 Cochrane review found that, based on two large studies, fish oil supplements did not appear to be effective for maintenance of remission in <a href="/wiki/Crohn%27s_disease" title="Crohn's disease">Crohn's disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Supplements">Supplements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Supplements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lachs%C3%B6lkapsel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Lachs%C3%B6lkapsel.jpg/220px-Lachs%C3%B6lkapsel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Lachs%C3%B6lkapsel.jpg/330px-Lachs%C3%B6lkapsel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Lachs%C3%B6lkapsel.jpg/440px-Lachs%C3%B6lkapsel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Fish oil capsules</figcaption></figure> <p>Fish oil is a commonly used <a href="/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">dietary supplement</a>, with sales in the US alone reaching $976 million in 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-clpr_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clpr-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2020 the global omega−3 supplement market size had reached $5.58 billion, and fish oil based supplements accounted for 63.1% of that market.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formulation">Formulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Formulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fish oil supplements are available mainly as liquids or capsules. Most of these capsules are <a href="/wiki/Capsule_(pharmacy)#Single-piece_gel_encapsulation_("soft_capsules")" title="Capsule (pharmacy)">single-piece gel capsules</a> or <a href="/wiki/Softgel" title="Softgel">softgels</a>. Also available are <a href="/wiki/Enteric_coating" title="Enteric coating">enteric-coated</a> capsules that pass through the stomach before dissolving in the small intestine, thus helping prevent indigestion and "fish burps". Poorly manufactured enteric-coated products have the potential to release ingredients too early. ConsumerLab.com, a for-profit supplement testing company, reported that 1 of the 24 enteric-coated fish oil supplements it evaluated released ingredients prematurely.<sup id="cite_ref-clpr_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clpr-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fish oil products may use other techniques to hide the fishy taste. For example, added lemon or strawberry <a href="/wiki/Flavoring" title="Flavoring">flavor</a> tends to produce a more agreeable product<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are usually present in fish oil <a href="/wiki/Gummies" class="mw-redirect" title="Gummies">gummies</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="EPA_and_DHA_content">EPA and DHA content</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: EPA and DHA content"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Generally, oily fish have more EPA than DHA versus salmon which has more DHA than EPA. To illustrate the amounts of EPA and DHA in supplements, a softgel capsule containing fish oil derived from pollock might contain a total of 642 mg of total fish oil, of which 584 mg are omega−3 fatty acids, with 377 mg EPA and 158 mg DHA.<sup><a href="#Notes">3</a></sup> That same company's salmon oil softgel contains 1008 mg of total fish oil, of which 295 mg are omega−3 fatty acids, with 95 mg EPA and 118 mg DHA.<sup><a href="#Notes">4</a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/ConsumerLab.com" title="ConsumerLab.com">ConsumerLab.com</a> tests, the concentrations of EPA and DHA in supplements can vary from between 8 and 80% fish oil content. The concentration depends on the source of the omega−3s, how the oil is processed, and the amounts of other ingredients included in the supplement.<sup id="cite_ref-review12_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-review12-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the bioavailability of EPA and DHA from both capsular and emulsified fish oils has been shown to be high.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A ConsumerLab.com publication in 2010 stated that 3 of 24 fish oil supplements tested contained less EPA and/or DHA than was claimed on the label.<sup id="cite_ref-clpr_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clpr-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2012 report stated that 4 of 35 fish oil supplements that were tested contained less EPA or DHA than was claimed on the label, and 3 of 35 contained more.<sup id="cite_ref-review12_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-review12-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quality_and_concerns">Quality and concerns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Quality and concerns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Problems of quality have been identified in periodic tests by independent researchers of marketed supplements containing fish oil and other marine oils. These problems may include contamination, inaccurate listing of EPA and DHA levels, spoilage, and formulation issues.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Contamination">Contamination</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Contamination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A report by the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Medical_School" title="Harvard Medical School">Harvard Medical School</a> studied five popular brands of fish oil, including Nordic Ultimate, Kirkland and CVS. They found that the brands had "negligible amounts of mercury, suggesting either that mercury is removed during the manufacturing of purified fish oil or that the fish sources used in these commercial preparations are relatively mercury-free".<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There appears to be little risk of contamination by microorganisms, proteins, lysophospholipids, cholesterol, and trans-fats.<sup id="cite_ref-norstudy_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-norstudy-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dioxins_and_PCBs">Dioxins and PCBs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Dioxins and PCBs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dioxins and PCBs may be carcinogenic at low levels of exposure over time. These substances are identified and measured in one of two categories, dioxin-like PCBs and total PCBs. While the US FDA has not set a limit for PCBs in supplements, the Global Organization for EPA and DHA (GOED) has established a guideline allowing for no more than 3 picograms of dioxin-like PCBs per gram of fish oil. In 2012, samples from 35 fish oil supplements were tested for PCBs. Trace amounts of PCBs were found in all samples, and two samples exceeded the GOED's limit.<sup id="cite_ref-review12_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-review12-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although trace amounts of PCBs contribute to overall PCB exposure, Consumerlab.com claims the amounts reported by tests it ordered on fish oil supplements are far below those found in a single typical serving of fish.<sup id="cite_ref-review12_56-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-review12-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spoilage">Spoilage</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Spoilage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Peroxides can be produced when fish oil spoils. A study commissioned by the government of Norway concluded there would be some health concern related to the regular consumption of oxidized (<a href="/wiki/Rancidification" title="Rancidification">rancid</a>) fish/marine oils, particularly in regards to the gastrointestinal tract, but there is not enough data to determine the risk. The amount of spoilage and contamination in a supplement depends on the raw materials and processes of extraction, refining, concentration, encapsulation, storage and transportation.<sup id="cite_ref-norstudy_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-norstudy-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ConsumerLab.com reports in its review that it found spoilage in test reports it ordered on some fish oil supplement products.<sup id="cite_ref-review12_56-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-review12-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prescription_fish_oil-based_medications">Prescription fish oil-based medications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Prescription fish oil-based medications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Omega-3-acid_ethyl_esters" title="Omega-3-acid ethyl esters">Omega-3-acid ethyl esters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fish_oil_(medical_use)" title="Fish oil (medical use)">Fish oil (medical use)</a></div> <p>Fish oil itself is available as a prescription, but the majority of fish oil products available via prescription are derivatives of fish oil. Such products are described elsewhere in this article. These preparations, with the purpose of treating or preventing medical disorder, are only available with a doctor's prescription. In the US, such prescriptions undergo the same <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) regulatory requirements as other prescription medications, including with regard to both efficacy and safety.<sup id="cite_ref-bays2007_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bays2007-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Purity is also regulated by the FDA. The prescription fish oil derivative medicines differ from <a href="/wiki/Over-the-counter_drug" title="Over-the-counter drug">over-the-counter</a> fish oil supplements.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prescription fish oil is considered a safe and effective option to reduce <a href="/wiki/Triglyceride" title="Triglyceride">triglycerides</a>. There are various prescription fish oil products that have been approved and permitted by the FDA for decreasing triglyceride levels. Prescription fish oil products having DHA work by raising LDL-C levels to reduce triglycerides, like <a href="/wiki/Fibrate" title="Fibrate">fibrates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heart experts advise that prescription fish oil helps in decreasing additional levels of blood fats. Prescription fish oils might only help when triglycerides reach a specific upper level.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prescription fish oil pills, capsules and tablets have more omega−3 fatty acids than those which are non-prescription. The FDA regularly monitors prescription fish oil for standards like purity and for quality and safety.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2019, four fish oil-based prescription drugs have been approved in the United States for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia,<sup id="cite_ref-skulas19_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skulas19-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> namely: </p> <ol><li>Epanova (omega-3-carboxylic acids) was approved on 23 April 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clinical trial on mixed <a href="/wiki/Dyslipidaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyslipidaemia">dyslipidaemia</a> (hypertriglyceridemia with hypocholesterolemia) started in 2014<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found that it has no medical benefits, and the clinical trial was called off on 13 January 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-reuters20_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reuters20-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although FDA-approved, Epanova is not available in any market.</li> <li>Lovaza (omega-3-acid ethyl esters) was approved on 10 November 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Omtryg (omega-3-acid ethyl esters) was approved on 23 April 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Vascepa (ethyl eicosapentaenoic acid; icosapent ethyl) was approved on 26 July 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 13 December 2019, the FDA also approved it as the first drug specifically "to reduce cardiovascular risk among patients with elevated triglyceride levels." Vascepa is not approved as a monotherapy for lowering TGs: it must be taken with a statin, per product labeling.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Some fish-oil products are approved for <a href="/wiki/Parenteral_nutrition" title="Parenteral nutrition">parenteral nutrition</a>: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Fish_oil_(medical_use)" title="Fish oil (medical use)">Omegaven</a>, approved in July 2018, is indicated as a source of calories and fatty acids in children with parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis (PNAC).<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Smoflipid, approved in July 2016, is indicated in adults as a source of calories and essential fatty acids for parenteral nutrition when oral or enteral nutrition is not possible, insufficient, or contraindicated.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dangers">Dangers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Dangers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2013 review concluded that the potential for adverse events among older adults taking fish oil "appear mild–moderate at worst and are unlikely to be of clinical significance".<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maximum_intake">Maximum intake</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Maximum intake"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The FDA recommends that consumers do not exceed more than 3 grams per day of EPA and DHA combined, with no more than 2 grams from a dietary supplement.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is not the same as 3000 mg of fish oil. A 1000 mg pill typically has only 300 mg of omega−3; 10 such pills would equal 3000 mg of omega−3. According to the <a href="/wiki/European_Food_Safety_Authority" title="European Food Safety Authority">European Food Safety Authority</a>'s (EFSA) Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies, supplementation of 5 grams of EPA and DHA combined does not pose a safety concern for adults.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 1987 study found that healthy <a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Inuit" title="Greenlandic Inuit">Greenlandic Inuit</a> had an average intake of 5.7 grams of omega−3 EPA per day which had many effects including prolonged bleeding times, such as slower <a href="/wiki/Blood_clotting" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood clotting">blood clotting</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Research">Research</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two 2021 <a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic reviews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analyses</a> concluded that more than 1 g/d marine omega−3 fatty acids is associated with an increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Atrial_fibrillation" title="Atrial fibrillation">atrial fibrillation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vitamins">Vitamins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Vitamins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The liver and liver products (such as <a href="/wiki/Cod_liver_oil" title="Cod liver oil">cod liver oil</a>) of fish and many animals (such as seals and whales) contain omega−3, but also the active form of <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A" title="Vitamin A">vitamin A</a>. At high levels, this form of the vitamin can be dangerous (<a href="/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_A" title="Hypervitaminosis A">Hypervitaminosis A</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-lips2003_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lips2003-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toxic_pollutants">Toxic pollutants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Toxic pollutants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Consumers of oily fish should be aware of the potential presence of <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metals">heavy metals</a> and fat-soluble pollutants like <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl" title="Polychlorinated biphenyl">PCBs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxins" title="Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins">dioxins</a>, which are known to <a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">accumulate up the food chain</a>. After extensive review, researchers from <a href="/wiki/Harvard_School_of_Public_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard School of Public Health">Harvard's School of Public Health</a> in the <i>Journal of the American Medical Association</i> (2006) reported that the benefits of fish intake generally far outweigh the potential risks. </p><p>Fish oil supplements came under scrutiny in 2006, when the <a href="/wiki/Food_Standards_Agency" title="Food Standards Agency">Food Standards Agency</a> in the UK and the <a href="/wiki/Food_Safety_Authority_of_Ireland" title="Food Safety Authority of Ireland">Food Safety Authority of Ireland</a> reported <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl" title="Polychlorinated biphenyl">polychlorinated biphenyl</a> (PCB) levels that exceeded the European Union maximum limits in several fish oil brands,<sup id="cite_ref-foodprod_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-foodprod-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bbc_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which required temporary withdrawal of these brands. To address the concern over contaminated fish oil supplements, the International Fish Oil Standards (IFOS) Program, a third-party testing and accreditation program for fish oil products, was created by Nutrasource Diagnostics Inc. in Guelph, Ontario, Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A March 2010 lawsuit filed by a California environmental group claimed that eight brands of fish oil supplements contained excessive levels of PCBs, including <a href="/wiki/CVS/pharmacy" class="mw-redirect" title="CVS/pharmacy">CVS/pharmacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nature_Made" title="Nature Made">Nature Made</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rite_Aid" title="Rite Aid">Rite Aid</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_Nutrition_Centers" class="mw-redirect" title="General Nutrition Centers">GNC</a>, Solgar, <a href="/wiki/Twinlab" title="Twinlab">Twinlab</a>, Now Health, <a href="/wiki/Omega_Protein" title="Omega Protein">Omega Protein</a> and Pharmavite. The majority of these products were either cod liver or shark liver oils. Those participating in the lawsuit claim that because the liver is the major filtering and detoxifying organ, PCB content may be higher in liver-based oils than in fish oil produced from the processing of whole fish.<sup id="cite_ref-abcnews_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abcnews-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An analysis based on data from the Norwegian Women and Cancer Study (NOWAC) with regards to the dangers of <a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">persistent organic pollutants</a> (POPs) in cod liver came to the conclusion that "in Norwegian women, fish liver consumption was not associated with an increased cancer risk in breast, uterus, or colon. In contrast, a decreased risk for total cancer was found."<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">Microalgae</a> oil is a vegetarian alternative to fish oil. Supplements produced from microalgae oil provide a balance of omega−3 fatty acids similar to fish oil, with a lower risk of pollutant exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cod_liver_oil" title="Cod liver oil">Cod liver oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docosahexaenoic_acid" title="Docosahexaenoic acid">Docosahexaenoic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eicosapentaenoic_acid" title="Eicosapentaenoic acid">Eicosapentaenoic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krill_oil" title="Krill oil">Krill oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Lovaza">Lovaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omega-3-acid_ethyl_esters" title="Omega-3-acid ethyl esters">Omega-3-acid ethyl esters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_liver_oil" title="Shark liver oil">Shark liver oil</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMoghadasian2008" class="citation journal cs1">Moghadasian, Mohammed H. (2008). "Advances in Dietary Enrichment with N-3 Fatty Acids". <i>Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition</i>. <b>48</b> (5): 402–10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10408390701424303">10.1080/10408390701424303</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18464030">18464030</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:41311376">41311376</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+Reviews+in+Food+Science+and+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Advances+in+Dietary+Enrichment+with+N-3+Fatty+Acids&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=402-10&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A41311376%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18464030&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10408390701424303&rft.aulast=Moghadasian&rft.aufirst=Mohammed+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFish+oil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClelandJamesProudman2006" class="citation journal cs1">Cleland, Leslieg; James, Michaelj; Proudman, Susannam (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1526555">"Fish oil: What the prescriber needs to know"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Arthritis_Research_%26_Therapy" title="Arthritis Research & Therapy">Arthritis Research & Therapy</a></i>. <b>8</b> (1): 679–81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Far1876">10.1186/ar1876</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1526555">1526555</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16542466">16542466</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arthritis+Research+%26+Therapy&rft.atitle=Fish+oil%3A+What+the+prescriber+needs+to+know&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=679-81&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1526555%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16542466&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Far1876&rft.aulast=Cleland&rft.aufirst=Leslieg&rft.au=James%2C+Michaelj&rft.au=Proudman%2C+Susannam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1526555&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFish+oil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-petsworldtoday-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-petsworldtoday_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVenus_Nandi2020" class="citation web cs1">Venus Nandi (9 February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.petsworldtoday.in/2020/02/best-fish-to-eat.html">"Best fish to eat"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Best+fish+to+eat&rft.date=2020-02-09&rft.au=Venus+Nandi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.petsworldtoday.in%2F2020%2F02%2Fbest-fish-to-eat.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFish+oil" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/FAO" class="mw-redirect" title="FAO">FAO</a>: World Review of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2008: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/i0250e/i0250e03.pdf">Highlights of Special Studies</a>|date=February 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Rome.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid7666244-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid7666244_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid7666244_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInnisRiouxAuestadAckman1995" class="citation journal cs1">Innis, Sheila M.; Rioux, France M.; Auestad, Nancy; Ackman, Robert G. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jn.nutrition.org/content/125/9/2286.short">"Marine and freshwater fish oil varying in arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids differ in their effects on organ lipids and fatty acids in growing rats"</a>. <i>The Journal of Nutrition</i>. <b>125</b> (9): 2286–93. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjn%2F125.9.2286">10.1093/jn/125.9.2286</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7666244">7666244</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Marine+and+freshwater+fish+oil+varying+in+arachidonic%2C+eicosapentaenoic+and+docosahexaenoic+acids+differ+in+their+effects+on+organ+lipids+and+fatty+acids+in+growing+rats&rft.volume=125&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=2286-93&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjn%2F125.9.2286&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7666244&rft.aulast=Innis&rft.aufirst=Sheila+M.&rft.au=Rioux%2C+France+M.&rft.au=Auestad%2C+Nancy&rft.au=Ackman%2C+Robert+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjn.nutrition.org%2Fcontent%2F125%2F9%2F2286.short&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFish+oil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gruger1964-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gruger1964_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrugerNelsonStansby1964" class="citation journal cs1">Gruger EH, Nelson RW, Stansby ME (1 October 1964). "Fatty acid composition of oils from 21 species of marine fish, freshwater fish and shellfish". <i>Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society</i>. <b>41</b> (10): 662–67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02661403">10.1007/BF02661403</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84057431">84057431</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oil+Chemists%27+Society&rft.atitle=Fatty+acid+composition+of+oils+from+21+species+of+marine+fish%2C+freshwater+fish+and+shellfish&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=662-67&rft.date=1964-10-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02661403&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A84057431%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gruger&rft.aufirst=EH&rft.au=Nelson%2C+RW&rft.au=Stansby%2C+ME&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFish+oil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid17158409-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid17158409_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid17158409_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilibertVanierAbdelouahabChan2006" class="citation journal cs1">Philibert A, Vanier C, Abdelouahab N, Chan HM, Mergler D (December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F84.6.1299">"Fish intake and serum fatty acid profiles from freshwater fish"</a>. <i>The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition</i>. <b>84</b> (6): 1299–307. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F84.6.1299">10.1093/ajcn/84.6.1299</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17158409">17158409</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Clinical+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Fish+intake+and+serum+fatty+acid+profiles+from+freshwater+fish&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1299-307&rft.date=2006-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fajcn%2F84.6.1299&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17158409&rft.aulast=Philibert&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Vanier%2C+C&rft.au=Abdelouahab%2C+N&rft.au=Chan%2C+HM&rft.au=Mergler%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fajcn%252F84.6.1299&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFish+oil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-skulas19-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-skulas19_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skulas19_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkulas-RayWilsonHarrisBrinton2019" class="citation journal cs1">Skulas-Ray, Ann C.; Wilson, Peter W.F.; Harris, William S.; Brinton, Eliot A.; Kris-Etherton, Penny M.; Richter, Chesney K.; Jacobson, Terry A.; Engler, Mary B.; et al. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1161%2FCIR.0000000000000709">"Omega-3 Fatty Acids for the Management of Hypertriglyceridemia: A Science Advisory From the American Heart Association"</a>. <i>Circulation</i>. <b>140</b> (12): e673–e691. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1161%2FCIR.0000000000000709">10.1161/CIR.0000000000000709</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31422671">31422671</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Circulation&rft.atitle=Omega-3+Fatty+Acids+for+the+Management+of+Hypertriglyceridemia%3A+A+Science+Advisory+From+the+American+Heart+Association&rft.volume=140&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=e673-e691&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1161%2FCIR.0000000000000709&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31422671&rft.aulast=Skulas-Ray&rft.aufirst=Ann+C.&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Peter+W.F.&rft.au=Harris%2C+William+S.&rft.au=Brinton%2C+Eliot+A.&rft.au=Kris-Etherton%2C+Penny+M.&rft.au=Richter%2C+Chesney+K.&rft.au=Jacobson%2C+Terry+A.&rft.au=Engler%2C+Mary+B.&rft.au=Miller%2C+Michael&rft.au=Robinson%2C+Jennifer+G.&rft.au=Blum%2C+Conrad+B.&rft.au=Rodriguez-Leyva%2C+Delfin&rft.au=de+Ferranti%2C+Sarah+D.&rft.au=Welty%2C+Francine+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1161%252FCIR.0000000000000709&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFish+oil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTalakoubNeuhausYu2008" class="citation book cs1">Talakoub, Lily; Neuhaus, Isaac M.; Yu, Siegrid S. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lUI9zg7GDuUC">"Chapter 2: Cosmoceuticals"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Murad_Alam" title="Murad Alam">Alam, Murad</a>; Gladstone, Hayes B.; Tung, Rebecca (eds.). <i>Cosmetic Dermatology</i>. Requisites in dermatology. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780702031434" title="Special:BookSources/9780702031434"><bdi>9780702031434</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 October</span> 2014</span>. <q>Other oils used as emollients include fish oil, petrolatum, shea butter, and sunflower seed oil.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+Cosmoceuticals&rft.btitle=Cosmetic+Dermatology&rft.series=Requisites+in+dermatology&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Elsevier+Health+Sciences&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780702031434&rft.aulast=Talakoub&rft.aufirst=Lily&rft.au=Neuhaus%2C+Isaac+M.&rft.au=Yu%2C+Siegrid+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlUI9zg7GDuUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFish+oil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurch2006" class="citation book cs1">Burch, Ernest S. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tfQzWXTtifsC"><i>Social Life in Northwest Alaska: The Structure of Iñupiaq Eskimo Nations</i></a>. University of Alaska Press. p. 278. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781889963921" title="Special:BookSources/9781889963921"><bdi>9781889963921</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 October</span> 2014</span>. <q>Oil was also used externally as an ointment to heal cold sores, cuts, insect bites, frostbite, rashes - in short, skin problems of all kinds. Duck or goose body-cavity fat was apparently as useful as seal or fish oil in dealing with skin problems.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Life+in+Northwest+Alaska%3A+The+Structure+of+I%C3%B1upiaq+Eskimo+Nations&rft.pages=278&rft.pub=University+of+Alaska+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781889963921&rft.aulast=Burch&rft.aufirst=Ernest+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtfQzWXTtifsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFish+oil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeartney2007" class="citation book cs1">Heartney, Eleanor (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304215026/http://www.zhanghuan.com/ShowText.asp?id=30&sClassID=1">"Zhang Huan: Becoming the Body"</a>. <i>Zhang Huan: Altered States</i>. Charta and Asia Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8881586417" title="Special:BookSources/978-8881586417"><bdi>978-8881586417</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zhanghuan.com/ShowText.asp?id=30&sClassID=1">the original</a> on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 October</span> 2014</span>. <q>This becomes abundantly clear in the work of Chinese body artist Zhang Huan. In the course of his career, Zhang Huan has subjected himself to painful trials: sitting motionless for hours in an outhouse covered in honey and fish oil while flies crawled over his body [...].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Zhang+Huan%3A+Becoming+the+Body&rft.btitle=Zhang+Huan%3A+Altered+States&rft.pub=Charta+and+Asia+Society&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-8881586417&rft.aulast=Heartney&rft.aufirst=Eleanor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zhanghuan.com%2FShowText.asp%3Fid%3D30%26sClassID%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFish+oil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Ilse Schreiber: <i>Die Schwestern aus Memel</i> (1936), quoted, and extract translated in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrzelczyk2014" class="citation book cs1">Strzelczyk, Florentine (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G_ezAwAAQBAJ">"16: 'Fighting against Manitou': German Identity and Ilse Schreiber's Canada Novels <i>Die Schwestern aus Memel</i> (1936) and <i>Die Flucht in Paradies</i> (1939)"</a>. In McFarland, Rob; James, Michelle Stott (eds.). <i>Sophie Discovers Amerika: German-Speaking Women Write the New World</i>. Studies in German Literature Linguistics and Culture. Vol. 148. Boydell & Brewer. p. 207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781571135865" title="Special:BookSources/9781571135865"><bdi>9781571135865</bdi></a>. <q>Hoffentlich zogen die Eltern in eine Gegend, wo es recht viele Eingeborene gab. Indianer, die nur von Jagd und Fischfang leben. Ach, und womöglich Eskimos, die sich mit Tran einschmieren, um sich gegen die Kälte zu schützen und rohes Fleisch essen [...]. [She hoped her parents would move to an area where there were many aboriginals. Indians who live solely by hunting and fishing. 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For example, one supplier, Trident Food's Pure Alaska salmon oil product label reports per serving DHA 220 mg and EPA 180 mg (total omega−3 = 600 mg), but their fish oil based on pollock has DHA 144 mg and EPA 356 mg (total omega−3 = 530 mg). Equivalent products from another producer, Fish Oils, Puritan's Pride, reports DHA 180 mg and EPA 150 mg for their salmon oil product (total omega−3 = 420 mg), but DHA 204 mg and EPA 318 mg for fish oil derived from anchovy, sardine, and mackerel (total omega−3 = 600 mg). For information and comparison purposes only, no endorsements are implied.</li> <li>Plant-based omega−3s are rich in ALA but completely lack EPA and DHA, so vegetarians and vegans seeking non-fish sources turn to more expensive algae derived oils. There is generally a pattern of more DHA than EPA in most of these products. For example, Nordic Naturals reports per serving DHA 390 mg and EPA 195 mg (total omega−3 = 715 mg), Calgee reports DHA 300 mg and EPA 150 mg (total omega−3 = 550 mg) and so on, but iwi Life reports DHA 100 mg and EPA 150 mg (total omega−3 = 252 mg). For information and comparison purposes only, no endorsements are implied.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.purealaskaomega.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/PAO-Bottle-451093-Lot-UC220030-Alaskan-Omega-3-625-mg-180-ct.pdf">Trident Seafoods Pure Alaska Alaskan Omega-3 625 mg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.purealaskaomega.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/PAO-Bottle-446314-Lot-UC200037-Wild-Alaskan-Salmon-Oil-1000-mg-Vit-D3.pdf">Trident Seafoods Pure Alaska Omega Wild Alaskan Salmon Oil 1000 mg Certificate of Analysis</a></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>FAO (1986) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/X6899E/X6899E00.HTM"><i>The production of fish meal and oil</i></a> FAO Fishery Technical Paper 142. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-5-102464-2" title="Special:BookSources/92-5-102464-2">92-5-102464-2</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_oil&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Fish_oil" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Fish oil">Fish oil</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.issfal.org/goed-recommendations-for-epa-dha">Global Organisation for EPA and DHA (GOED) Recommendation for EPA + DHA</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nutrasource.ca/ifos/">International Fish Oil Standards</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190329121813/http://www.nutrasource.ca/ifos/">Archived</a> 29 March 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – An organization concerned with the <a href="/wiki/Quality_(business)" title="Quality (business)">quality</a> of omega−3 products as it relates to the <a href="/wiki/International_standard" title="International standard">international standards</a> established by the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> and the Council For Responsible Nutrition for purity and concentration.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoyce_A._Nettleton" class="citation web cs1">Joyce A. Nettleton (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fatsoflife.com">"PUFA Newsletter"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PUFA+Newsletter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fatsoflife.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFish+oil" class="Z3988"></span> Two newsletters, both quarterly, reviewing recent publications in essential fatty acids. One is written for researchers, the second is for consumers. Industry sponsored, academic contributors.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/TreatmentsandSideEffects/ComplementaryandAlternativeMedicine/DietandNutrition/omega-3-fatty-acids">Omega-3 Fatty Acids</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150430082337/http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/TreatmentsandSideEffects/ComplementaryandAlternativeMedicine/DietandNutrition/omega-3-fatty-acids">Archived</a> 30 April 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>American Cancer Society</i>. Updated 11 January 2008.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchovies_as_food" title="Anchovies as food">Anchovy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barramundi#As_food" title="Barramundi">Barramundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billfish#As_food" title="Billfish">Billfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carp#As_food" title="Carp">Carp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catfish#Catfish_as_food" title="Catfish">Catfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cod_as_food" title="Cod as food">Cod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eel_as_food" title="Eel as food">Eel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatfish#As_food" title="Flatfish">Flatfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flounder#As_food" title="Flounder">Flounder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herring_as_food" title="Herring as food">Herring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mackerel_as_food" title="Mackerel as food">Mackerel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_as_food" title="Salmon as food">Salmon</a></li> <li><a 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molluscs">Molluscs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other seafood</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jellyfish_as_food" title="Jellyfish as food">Jellyfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_as_food" title="Marine mammals as food">Marine mammals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whale_meat" title="Whale meat">Whale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octopus_as_food" title="Octopus as food">Octopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_cucumbers_as_food" title="Sea cucumbers as food">Sea cucumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edible_seaweed" title="Edible seaweed">Seaweed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squid_as_food" title="Squid as food">Squid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Edible_algae" title="Category:Edible algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_seafood" title="List of types of seafood">List of seafoods</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Seafood" title="Category:Seafood">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fish_processing" title="Fish processing">Processed<br />seafood</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caviar" title="Caviar">Caviar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dried_fish" title="Dried fish">Dried fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canned_fish" title="Canned fish">Canned fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cod_liver_oil" title="Cod liver oil">Cod liver oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cured_fish" title="Cured fish">Cured fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermented_fish" title="Fermented fish">Fermented fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_fillet" title="Fish fillet">Fish fillet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_head" title="Fish head">Fish head</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fish oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_sauce" title="Fish sauce">Fish sauce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_paste" title="Fish paste">Fish paste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_steak" title="Fish steak">Fish steak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_stock_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fish stock (food)">Fish stock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutefisk" title="Lutefisk">Lutefisk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salted_fish" title="Salted fish">Salted fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salted_squid" title="Salted squid">Salted squid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_liver_oil" title="Shark liver oil">Shark liver oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrimp_paste" title="Shrimp paste">Shrimp paste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoked_fish" title="Smoked fish">Smoked fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockfish" title="Stockfish">Stockfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surimi" title="Surimi">Surimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roe" title="Roe">Roe</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Fish_processing" title="Category:Fish processing">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Seafood_dishes" title="Seafood dishes">Seafood dishes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_seafood_dishes" title="List of seafood dishes">List of seafood dishes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_crab_dishes" title="List of crab dishes">List of crab dishes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fish_dishes" title="List of fish dishes">List of fish dishes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_raw_fish_dishes" title="List of raw fish dishes">List of raw fish dishes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tuna_dishes" title="List of tuna dishes">List of tuna dishes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisque_(food)" title="Bisque (food)">Bisque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chowder" title="Chowder">Chowder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_and_chips" title="Fish and chips">Fish and chips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_pie" title="Fish pie">Fish pie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_soup" title="Fish soup">Fish soup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fried_fish" title="Fried fish">Fried fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafood_boil" title="Seafood boil">Seafood boil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_fin_soup" title="Shark fin soup">Shark fin soup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sushi" title="Sushi">Sushi</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Seafood_dishes" title="Category:Seafood dishes">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health hazards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ciguatera" class="mw-redirect" title="Ciguatera">Ciguatera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_diseases_and_parasites" title="Fish diseases and parasites">Fish diseases and parasites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_in_fish" title="Mercury in fish">Mercury in fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metagonimiasis" title="Metagonimiasis">Metagonimiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scombroid_food_poisoning" title="Scombroid food poisoning">Scombroid food poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shellfish_poisoning" title="Shellfish poisoning">Shellfish poisoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Advisory services</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seafood_mislabelling" title="Seafood mislabelling">Seafood mislabelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_seafood" title="Sustainable seafood">Sustainable seafood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_seafood_advisory_lists_and_certification" title="Sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification">Sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal welfare</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Declawing_of_crabs" title="Declawing of crabs">Declawing of crabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyestalk_ablation" title="Eyestalk ablation">Eyestalk ablation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eating_live_seafood" title="Eating live seafood">Eating live seafood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_fish_trade" title="Live fish trade">Live fish trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_fish" title="Pain in fish">Pain in fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_crustaceans" title="Pain in crustaceans">Pain in crustaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_finning" title="Shark finning">Shark finning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fish_preservation" title="Fish preservation">Fish preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_processing" title="Fish processing">Fish processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gathering_seafood_by_hand" class="mw-redirect" title="Gathering seafood by hand">Gathering seafood by hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_seafood" title="History of seafood">History of seafood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sushi" title="History of sushi">History of sushi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_seafood_companies" title="List of seafood companies">List of seafood companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pescetarianism" title="Pescetarianism">Pescetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raw_bar" title="Raw bar">Raw bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_cannery" title="Salmon cannery">Salmon cannery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafood_restaurant" title="Seafood restaurant">Seafood restaurant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Foodlogo2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/16px-Foodlogo2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/24px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/32px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="146" data-file-height="106" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Food" title="Portal:Food">Food portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Seafood" title="Category:Seafood">Category: Seafood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Edible_fats_and_oils" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fats_and_oils" title="Template:Fats and oils"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fats_and_oils" title="Template talk:Fats and oils"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fats_and_oils" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fats and oils"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Edible_fats_and_oils" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Edible fats and oils</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">Fats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pork_fat" class="mw-redirect" title="Pork fat">Pork fats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fatback" title="Fatback">Fatback</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lardo" title="Lardo">Lardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salo_(food)" title="Salo (food)">Salo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lard" title="Lard">Lard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lardon" title="Lardon">Lardon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Beef" title="Beef">Beef</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mutton" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutton">Mutton</a> fats</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dripping" title="Dripping">Dripping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suet" title="Suet">Suet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tail_fat" title="Tail fat">Tail fat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallow" title="Tallow">Tallow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dairy_product" title="Dairy product">Dairy</a> fats</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Butter" title="Butter">Butter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarified_butter" title="Clarified butter">Clarified butter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghee" title="Ghee">Ghee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manteiga-da-terra" title="Manteiga-da-terra">Manteiga-da-terra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niter_kibbeh" title="Niter kibbeh">Niter kibbeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smen" title="Smen">Smen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urfa_butter" title="Urfa butter">Urfa butter</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Poultry" title="Poultry">Poultry</a> fats</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chicken_fat" title="Chicken fat">Chicken fat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duck_fat" class="mw-redirect" title="Duck fat">Duck fat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goose_fat" class="mw-redirect" title="Goose fat">Goose fat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schmaltz" title="Schmaltz">Schmaltz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other animal fats</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blubber#Human_influences" title="Blubber">Blubber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muktuk" title="Muktuk">Muktuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whale_oil" title="Whale oil">Whale oil</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vegetable fats</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borneo_tallow" class="mw-redirect" title="Borneo tallow">Borneo tallow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocoa_butter" title="Cocoa butter">Cocoa butter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coconut_oil" title="Coconut oil">Coconut oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mango_butter" class="mw-redirect" title="Mango butter">Mango butter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margarine" title="Margarine">Margarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_kernel_oil" title="Palm kernel oil">Palm kernel oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shea_butter" title="Shea butter">Shea butter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_shortening" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegetable shortening">Vegetable shortening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oil" title="Oil">Oils</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Marine oils</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cod_liver_oil" title="Cod liver oil">Cod liver oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krill_oil" title="Krill oil">Krill oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seaweed_oil" title="Seaweed oil">Seaweed oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_liver_oil" title="Shark liver oil">Shark liver oil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_oil" title="Vegetable oil">Vegetable <br /> oils</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils" title="List of vegetable oils">List</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stone_fruit" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone fruit">Fruit</a> oils</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avocado_oil" title="Avocado oil">Avocado oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olive_oil" title="Olive oil">Olive oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">Palm oil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nut_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nut (food)">Nut</a> oils</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almond_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Almond oil">Almond oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argan_oil" title="Argan oil">Argan oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cashew_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Cashew oil">Cashew oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazelnut_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazelnut oil">Hazelnut oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macadamia_oil" title="Macadamia oil">Macadamia oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marula_oil" title="Marula oil">Marula oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongongo#Traditional_uses" title="Mongongo">Mongongo nut oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pecan_oil" title="Pecan oil">Pecan oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pine_nut_oil" title="Pine nut oil">Pine nut oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pistachio_oil" title="Pistachio oil">Pistachio oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walnut_oil" title="Walnut oil">Walnut oil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Seed_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Seed oil">Seed oils</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambadi_seed_oil" title="Ambadi seed oil">Ambadi seed oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apple_seed_oil" title="Apple seed oil">Apple seed oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castor_oil" title="Castor oil">Castor oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corn_oil" title="Corn oil">Corn oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cottonseed_oil" title="Cottonseed oil">Cottonseed oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grape_seed_oil" title="Grape seed oil">Grape seed oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemp_oil" title="Hemp oil">Hemp oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linseed_oil" title="Linseed oil">Linseed (flaxseed) oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustard_oil" title="Mustard oil">Mustard oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peanut_oil" title="Peanut oil">Peanut oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequi_oil" title="Pequi oil">Pequi oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perilla_oil" title="Perilla oil">Perilla oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poppyseed_oil" title="Poppyseed oil">Poppyseed oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_seed_oil" title="Pumpkin seed oil">Pumpkin seed oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapeseed_oil" title="Rapeseed oil">Rapeseed (canola) oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice_bran_oil" title="Rice bran oil">Rice bran oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safflower_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Safflower oil">Safflower oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesame_oil" title="Sesame oil">Sesame oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soybean_oil" title="Soybean oil">Soybean oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunflower_oil" title="Sunflower oil">Sunflower oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_seed_oil" title="Tea seed oil">Tea seed oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watermelon_seed_oil" title="Watermelon seed oil">Watermelon seed oil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt>See also</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cooking_oil" title="Cooking oil">Cooking oil</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Types_of_plant_oils" title="Types of plant oils">Plant oil</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Essential_oil" title="Essential oil">Essential oil</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Dietary_supplements" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Dietary_supplement" title="Template:Dietary supplement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Dietary_supplement" title="Template talk:Dietary supplement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dietary_supplement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Dietary supplement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Dietary_supplements" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">Dietary supplements</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodybuilding_supplement" title="Bodybuilding supplement">Bodybuilding supplement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_drink" title="Energy drink">Energy drink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_bar" title="Energy bar">Energy bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essential_fatty_acid" title="Essential fatty acid">Fatty acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbal_medicine" title="Herbal medicine">Herbal supplements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_(nutrient)" title="Mineral (nutrient)">Minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prebiotic_(nutrition)" title="Prebiotic (nutrition)">Prebiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probiotic" title="Probiotic">Probiotics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lactobacillus" title="Lactobacillus">Lactobacillus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bifidobacterium" title="Bifidobacterium">Bifidobacterium</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_supplement" title="Protein supplement">Protein supplements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">Vitamins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">Vitamins</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Mineral_(nutrient)" title="Mineral (nutrient)">chemical elements<br /> ("minerals")</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A" title="Vitamin A">Retinol (Vitamin A)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_vitamins" title="B vitamins">B vitamins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thiamine" title="Thiamine">Thiamine (B<sub>1</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riboflavin" title="Riboflavin">Riboflavin (B<sub>2</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niacin_(nutrient)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niacin (nutrient)">Niacin (B<sub>3</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantothenic_acid" title="Pantothenic acid">Pantothenic acid (B<sub>5</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B6" title="Vitamin B6">Pyridoxine (B<sub>6</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotin" title="Biotin">Biotin (B<sub>7</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folate" title="Folate">Folic acid (B<sub>9</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanocobalamin" title="Cyanocobalamin">Cyanocobalamin (B<sub>12</sub>)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C" title="Vitamin C">Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">Ergocalciferol and Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_E" title="Vitamin E">Tocopherol (Vitamin E)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_K" title="Vitamin K">Naphthoquinone (Vitamin K)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcium_supplement" title="Calcium supplement">Calcium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choline" title="Choline">Choline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Chromium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">Cobalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">Fluorine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">Iodine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Magnesium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Manganese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Molybdenum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">Potassium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">Selenium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Sodium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">Sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zinc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other common <br />ingredients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arginine_alpha-ketoglutarate" title="Arginine alpha-ketoglutarate">AAKG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta-Hydroxy_beta-methylbutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-Hydroxy beta-methylbutyric acid">β-hydroxy β-methylbutyrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnitine" title="Carnitine">Carnitine</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Guarana" title="Guarana">Guarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_supplement" title="Iron supplement">Iron supplements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lonicera_japonica" title="Lonicera japonica">Japanese honeysuckle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krill_oil" title="Krill oil">Krill oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingzhi_(mushroom)" title="Lingzhi (mushroom)">Lingzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linseed_oil" title="Linseed oil">Linseed oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipoic_acid" title="Lipoic acid">Lipoic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silybum_marianum#Health_benefits" title="Silybum marianum">Milk thistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melatonin_(supplement)" class="mw-redirect" title="Melatonin (supplement)">Melatonin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_yeast_rice" title="Red yeast rice">Red yeast rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_jelly" title="Royal jelly">Royal jelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saw_palmetto_extract" title="Saw palmetto extract">Saw palmetto</a></li> <li><a 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