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<span>Government policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pedagogical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pedagogical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Pedagogical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pedagogical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peer_seminar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peer_seminar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Peer seminar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peer_seminar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peer_review_in_writing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peer_review_in_writing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Peer review in writing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peer_review_in_writing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critiques_of_peer_review" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critiques_of_peer_review"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Critiques of peer review</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critiques_of_peer_review-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_and_improvement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_and_improvement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Comparison and improvement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_and_improvement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Peer review</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 48 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-48" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">48 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kollegiale_toetsing" title="Kollegiale toetsing – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kollegiale toetsing" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C3%A4rd%C3%A1s%C3%A2%C5%A1%C3%A1rvu%C5%A1t%C3%A2ll%C3%A2m" title="Viärdásâšárvuštâllâm – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Viärdásâšárvuštâllâm" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Anarâškielâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مراجعة الأقران – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مراجعة الأقران" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82" title="पियर रिव्यू – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="पियर रिव्यू" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Рецензиране – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Рецензиране" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avaluaci%C3%B3_d%27experts" title="Avaluació d'experts – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Avaluació d'experts" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recenzn%C3%AD_%C5%99%C3%ADzen%C3%AD" title="Recenzní řízení – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Recenzní řízení" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fagf%C3%A6llebed%C3%B8mmelse" title="Fagfællebedømmelse – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fagfællebedømmelse" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_Review" title="Peer Review – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Peer Review" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%B7_%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Ομότιμη αναθεώρηση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ομότιμη αναθεώρηση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisi%C3%B3n_por_pares" title="Revisión por pares – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Revisión por pares" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolega_reviziado" title="Kolega reviziado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kolega reviziado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parekoen_ebaluazio" title="Parekoen ebaluazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Parekoen ebaluazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%87%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%A7" title="داوری همتا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="داوری همتا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89valuation_par_les_pairs" title="Évaluation par les pairs – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Évaluation par les pairs" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisi%C3%B3n_por_expertos" title="Revisión por expertos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Revisión por expertos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%99%EB%A3%8C_%ED%8F%89%EA%B0%80" title="동료 평가 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="동료 평가" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recenziranje" title="Recenziranje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Recenziranje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitra_bestari" title="Mitra bestari – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mitra bestari" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revision_per_pares" title="Revision per pares – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Revision per pares" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritr%C3%BDni" title="Ritrýni – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ritrýni" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisione_paritaria" title="Revisione paritaria – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Revisione paritaria" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kollegi%C3%A1lis_lektor%C3%A1l%C3%A1s" title="Kollegiális lektorálás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kollegiális lektorálás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7_%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="വിദഗ്ദ്ധ നിരൂപണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വിദഗ്ദ്ധ നിരൂപണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulasan_sejawat" title="Ulasan sejawat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ulasan sejawat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peerreview" title="Peerreview – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Peerreview" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fagfellevurdering" title="Fagfellevurdering – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fagfellevurdering" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recenzja_naukowa" title="Recenzja naukowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Recenzja naukowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revis%C3%A3o_por_pares" title="Revisão por pares – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Revisão por pares" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recenziya" title="Recenziya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Recenziya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluare_colegial%C4%83" title="Evaluare colegială – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Evaluare colegială" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Рецензирование – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Рецензирование" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishikimi_nga_koleg%C3%ABt" title="Rishikimi nga kolegët – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Rishikimi nga kolegët" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Peer review" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Peer review" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strokovna_recenzija" title="Strokovna recenzija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Strokovna recenzija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Стручна рецензија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Стручна рецензија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recenzija_(nauka)" title="Recenzija (nauka) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Recenzija (nauka)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertaisarviointi" title="Vertaisarviointi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Vertaisarviointi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referentgranskning" title="Referentgranskning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Referentgranskning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%95_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81" title="சக மதிப்பாய்வு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சக மதிப்பாய்வு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B9%8C" title="พิชญพิจารณ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พิชญพิจารณ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Independent review" redirects here. For the academic journal, see <a href="/wiki/The_Independent_Review" title="The Independent Review">The Independent Review</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Peer_review_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Peer review (disambiguation)">Peer review (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ScientificReview.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/ScientificReview.jpg/260px-ScientificReview.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/ScientificReview.jpg/390px-ScientificReview.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/ScientificReview.jpg/520px-ScientificReview.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1044" data-file-height="588" /></a><figcaption>A reviewer at the American National Institutes of Health evaluating a <a href="/wiki/Grant_(money)" title="Grant (money)">grant</a> proposal</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Peer review</b> is the evaluation of work by one or more people with similar competencies as the producers of the work (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/peer#Etymology_2" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:peer">peers</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It functions as a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant <a href="/wiki/Field_of_study" class="mw-redirect" title="Field of study">field</a>. Peer review methods are used to maintain quality standards, improve performance, and provide credibility. In <a href="/wiki/Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">academia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scholarly_peer_review" title="Scholarly peer review">scholarly peer review</a> is often used to determine an <a href="/wiki/Academic_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic paper">academic paper</a>'s suitability for publication. Peer review can be categorized by the type of activity and by the field or profession in which the activity occurs, e.g., <a href="#Medical">medical peer review</a>. It can also be used as a teaching tool to help students improve writing assignments.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Henry_Oldenburg" title="Henry Oldenburg">Henry Oldenburg</a> (1619–1677) was a German-born British philosopher who is seen as the 'father' of modern scientific peer review.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It developed over the following centuries with, for example, the journal <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a> making it standard practice in 1973. The term "peer review" was first used in the early 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 2017 a monument to peer review is at the <a href="/wiki/Higher_School_of_Economics" title="Higher School of Economics">Higher School of Economics</a> in Moscow.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Professional">Professional</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peer_review&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Professional"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Professional peer review focuses on the performance of professionals, with a view to improving quality, upholding standards, or providing certification. In academia, peer review is used to inform decisions related to faculty advancement and tenure.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A prototype professional peer review process was recommended in the <i><a href="/wiki/Adab_al-Tabib" title="Adab al-Tabib">Ethics of the Physician</a></i> written by <a href="/wiki/Al-Ruhawi" title="Al-Ruhawi">Ishāq ibn ʻAlī al-Ruhāwī</a> (854–931). He stated that a visiting physician had to make duplicate notes of a patient's condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would decide whether the treatment had met the required standards of medical care.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Professional peer review is common in the field of health care, where it is usually called <i><a href="/wiki/Clinical_peer_review" title="Clinical peer review">clinical peer review</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, since peer review activity is commonly segmented by clinical discipline, there is also physician peer review, nursing peer review, dentistry peer review, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many other professional fields have some level of peer review process: accounting,<sup id="cite_ref-:5_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> law,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> engineering (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Software_peer_review" title="Software peer review">software peer review</a>, <a href="/wiki/Technical_peer_review" title="Technical peer review">technical peer review</a>), aviation, and even forest fire management.<sup id="cite_ref-fire_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fire-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peer review is used in education to achieve certain learning objectives, particularly as a tool to reach higher order processes in the affective and cognitive domains as defined by <a href="/wiki/Bloom%27s_taxonomy" title="Bloom's taxonomy">Bloom's taxonomy</a>. This may take a variety of forms, including closely mimicking the scholarly peer review processes used in science and medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-sims_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sims-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Liu_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scholarly">Scholarly</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peer_review&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Scholarly"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Scholarly_peer_review" title="Scholarly peer review">Scholarly peer review</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scholarly_peer_review&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Scholarly_peer_review" title="Scholarly peer review">Scholarly peer review</a> or academic peer review (also known as refereeing) is the process of having a draft version of a researcher's <a href="/wiki/Scholarly_method" title="Scholarly method">methods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">findings</a> reviewed (usually anonymously) by <a href="/wiki/Expert" title="Expert">experts</a> (or "peers") in the same field. Peer review is widely used for helping the academic publisher (that is, the <a href="/wiki/Editor-in-chief" title="Editor-in-chief">editor-in-chief</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Editorial_board" title="Editorial board">editorial board</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Academic_conference" title="Academic conference">program committee</a>) decide whether the work should be accepted, considered acceptable with revisions, or rejected for official publication in an <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">academic journal</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Monograph" title="Monograph">monograph</a> or in the <a href="/wiki/Conference_proceeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Conference proceeding">proceedings</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Academic_conference" title="Academic conference">academic conference</a>. If the identities of authors are not revealed to each other, the procedure is called dual-anonymous peer review. </p> Academic peer review requires a community of experts in a given (and often narrowly defined) <a href="/wiki/Academic_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic field">academic field</a>, who are qualified and able to perform reasonably impartial review. Impartial review, especially of work in less narrowly defined or inter-disciplinary fields, may be difficult to accomplish, and the significance (good or bad) of an idea may never be widely appreciated among its contemporaries. Peer review is generally considered necessary to academic quality and is used in most major scholarly journals. However, peer review does not prevent publication of invalid research,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as experimentally controlled studies of this process are difficult to arrange, direct evidence that peer review improves the quality of published papers is scarce.<sup id="cite_ref-Scholarly_peer_review_sci1309_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scholarly_peer_review_sci1309-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical">Medical</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peer_review&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Medical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Clinical_peer_review" title="Clinical peer review">Clinical peer review</a></div> <p><b>Medical peer review</b> may be distinguished in four classifications:<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_peer_review" title="Clinical peer review">Clinical peer review</a> is a procedure for assessing a patient's involvement with experiences of care. It is a piece of progressing proficient practice assessment and centered proficient practice assessment—significant supporters of supplier credentialing and privileging.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Peer evaluation of clinical teaching skills for both physicians and nurses.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Scientific peer review of journal articles.</li> <li>A secondary round of peer review for the clinical value of articles concurrently published in <a href="/wiki/Medical_journal" title="Medical journal">medical journals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Additionally, "medical peer review" has been used by the <a href="/wiki/American_Medical_Association" title="American Medical Association">American Medical Association</a> to refer not only to the process of improving quality and safety in health care organizations, but also to the process of rating clinical behavior or compliance with professional society membership standards.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The clinical network believes it to be the most ideal method of guaranteeing that distributed exploration is dependable and that any clinical medicines that it advocates are protected and viable for individuals. Thus, the terminology has poor standardization and specificity, particularly as a database search term.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technical">Technical</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peer_review&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Technical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Technical_peer_review" title="Technical peer review">Technical peer review</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>, technical peer review is a type of engineering review. Technical peer reviews are a well defined review process for finding and fixing defects, conducted by a team of peers with assigned roles. Technical peer reviews are carried out by peers representing areas of life cycle affected by material being reviewed (usually limited to 6 or fewer people). Technical peer reviews are held within development phases, between milestone reviews, on completed products or completed portions of products.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA-6105_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-6105-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government_policy">Government policy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peer_review&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Government policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/U.S._Government_peer_review_policies" title="U.S. Government peer review policies">U.S. Government peer review policies</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> has been using peer review in the "Open Method of Co-ordination" of policies in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Active_labour_market_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Active labour market policy">active labour market policy</a> since 1999.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2004, a program of peer reviews started in <a href="/wiki/Social_inclusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Social inclusion">social inclusion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each program sponsors about eight peer review meetings in each year, in which a "host country" lays a given policy or initiative open to examination by half a dozen other countries and the relevant European-level <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">NGOs</a>. These usually meet over two days and include visits to local sites where the policy can be seen in operation. The meeting is preceded by the compilation of an <a href="/wiki/Expert_report" title="Expert report">expert report</a> on which participating "peer countries" submit comments. The results are published on the web. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Economic_Commission_for_Europe" title="United Nations Economic Commission for Europe">United Nations Economic Commission for Europe</a>, through <a href="/wiki/UNECE_Environmental_Performance_Reviews" title="UNECE Environmental Performance Reviews">UNECE Environmental Performance Reviews</a>, uses peer review, referred to as "peer learning", to evaluate progress made by its member countries in improving their environmental policies. </p><p>The State of California is the only U.S. state to mandate scientific peer review. In 1997, the Governor of California signed into law Senate Bill 1320 (Sher), Chapter 295, statutes of 1997, which mandates that, before any <a href="/wiki/California_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="California Environmental Protection Agency">CalEPA</a> Board, Department, or Office adopts a final version of a rule-making, the scientific findings, conclusions, and assumptions on which the proposed rule are based must be submitted for independent external scientific peer review. This requirement is incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/California_Health_and_Safety_Code" title="California Health and Safety Code">California Health and Safety Code</a> Section 57004.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pedagogical">Pedagogical</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peer_review&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Pedagogical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Peer_feedback" title="Peer feedback">Peer feedback</a></div> <p>Peer review, or student peer assessment, is the method by which editors and writers work together in hopes of helping the author establish and further flesh out and develop their own writing.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peer review is widely used in secondary and post-secondary education as part of the writing process. This collaborative learning tool involves groups of students reviewing each other's work and providing feedback and suggestions for revision.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather than a means of critiquing each other's work, peer review is often framed as a way to build connection between students and help develop writers' identity.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While widely used in <a href="/wiki/English_studies" title="English studies">English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Composition_studies" title="Composition studies">composition</a> classrooms, peer review has gained popularity in other disciplines that require writing as part of the curriculum including the <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peer review in classrooms helps students become more invested in their work, and the classroom environment at large.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Understanding how their work is read by a diverse readership before it is graded by the teacher may also help students clarify ideas and understand how to persuasively reach different audience members via their writing. It also gives students professional experience that they might draw on later when asked to review the work of a colleague prior to publication.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process can also bolster the confidence of students on both sides of the process. It has been found that students are more positive than negative when reviewing their classmates' writing.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peer review can help students not get discouraged but rather feel determined to improve their writing.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Critics of peer review in classrooms say that it can be ineffective due to students' lack of practice giving constructive criticism, or lack of expertise in the writing craft at large.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peer review can be problematic for developmental writers, particularly if students view their writing as inferior to others in the class as they may be unwilling to offer suggestions or ask other writers for help.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peer review can impact a student's opinion of themselves as well as others as sometimes students feel a personal connection to the work they have produced, which can also make them feel reluctant to receive or offer criticism.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Teachers using peer review as an assignment can lead to rushed-through feedback by peers, using incorrect praise or criticism, thus not allowing the writer or the editor to get much out of the activity.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a response to these concerns, instructors may provide examples, model peer review with the class, or focus on specific areas of feedback during the peer review process.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instructors may also experiment with in-class peer review vs. peer review as homework, or peer review using technologies afforded by learning management systems online. Students that are older can give better feedback to their peers, getting more out of peer review, but it is still a method used in classrooms to help students young and old learn how to revise.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With evolving and changing technology, peer review will develop as well. New tools could help alter the process of peer review.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Peer_seminar">Peer seminar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peer_review&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Peer seminar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Peer seminar is a method that involves a speaker that presents ideas to an audience that also acts as a "contest".<sup id="cite_ref-:10_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To further elaborate, there are multiple speakers that are called out one at a time and given an amount of time to present the topic that they have researched. Each speaker may or may not talk about the same topic but each speaker has something to gain or lose which can foster a competitive atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach allows speakers to present in a more personal tone while trying to appeal to the audience while explaining their topic. </p><p>Peer seminars may be somewhat similar to what conference speakers do, however, there is more time to present their points, and speakers can be interrupted by audience members to provide questions and feedback upon the topic or how well the speaker did in presenting their topic.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Peer_review_in_writing">Peer review in writing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peer_review&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Peer review in writing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Professional peer review focuses on the performance of professionals, with a view to improving quality, upholding standards, or providing certification. Peer review in writing is a pivotal component among various peer review mechanisms, often spearheaded by educators and involving student participation, particularly in academic settings. It constitutes a fundamental process in academic and professional writing, serving as a systematic means to ensure the quality, effectiveness, and credibility of scholarly work. However, despite its widespread use, it is one of the most scattered, inconsistent, and ambiguous practices associated with writing instruction.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many scholars questioning its effectiveness and specific methodologies. Critics of peer review in classrooms express concerns about its ineffectiveness due to students' lack of practice in giving constructive criticism or their limited expertise in the writing craft overall. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Critiques_of_peer_review">Critiques of peer review</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peer_review&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Critiques of peer review"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Academic peer review has faced considerable criticism, with many studies highlighting inherent issues in the peer review process. </p><p>The editorial peer review process has been found to be strongly biased against ‘negative studies,’ i.e. studies that do not work. This then biases the information base of medicine. Journals become biased against negative studies when values come into play. “Who wants to read something that doesn’t work?” asks Richard Smith in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. “That’s boring.” </p> <pre>This is also particularly evident in university classrooms, where the most common source of writing feedback during student years often comes from teachers, whose comments are often highly valued. Students may become influenced to provide research in line with the professor’s viewpoints, because of the teacher’s position of high authority. The effectiveness of feedback largely stems from its high authority. Benjamin Keating, in his article "A Good Development Thing: A Longitudinal Analysis of Peer Review and Authority in Undergraduate Writing," conducted a longitudinal study comparing two groups of students (one majoring in writing and one not) to explore students' perceptions of authority. This research, involving extensive analysis of student texts, concludes that students majoring in non-writing fields tend to undervalue mandatory peer review in class, while those majoring in writing value classmates' comments more. This reflects that peer review feedback has a certain threshold, and effective peer review requires a certain level of expertise. For non-professional writers, peer review feedback may be overlooked, thereby affecting its effectiveness.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </pre> <p>Elizabeth Ellis Miller, Cameron Mozafari, Justin Lohr and Jessica Enoch state, "While peer review is an integral part of writing classrooms, students often struggle to effectively engage in it." The authors illustrate some reasons for the inefficiency of peer review based on research conducted during peer review sessions in university classrooms: </p> <ol><li>Lack of Training: Students and even some faculty members may not have received sufficient training to provide constructive feedback. Without proper guidance on what to look for and how to provide helpful comments, peer reviewers may find it challenging to offer meaningful insights.</li> <li>Limited Engagement: Students may participate in peer review sessions with minimal enthusiasm or involvement, viewing them as obligatory tasks rather than valuable learning opportunities. This lack of investment can result in superficial feedback that fails to address underlying issues in the writing.</li> <li>Time Constraints: Instructors often allocate limited time for peer review activities during class sessions, which may not be adequate for thorough reviews of peers' work. Consequently, feedback may be rushed or superficial, lacking the depth required for meaningful improvement.</li></ol> <p>This research demonstrates that besides issues related to expertise, numerous objective factors contribute to students' poor performance in peer review sessions, resulting in feedback from peer reviewers that may not effectively assist authors. Additionally, this study highlights the influence of emotions in peer review sessions, suggesting that both peer reviewers and authors cannot completely eliminate emotions when providing and receiving feedback. This can lead to peer reviewers and authors approaching the feedback with either positive or negative attitudes towards the text, resulting in selective or biased feedback and review, further impacting their ability to objectively evaluate the article. It implies that subjective emotions may also affect the effectiveness of peer review feedback.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pamela Bedore and Brian O’Sullivan also hold a skeptical view of peer review in most writing contexts. The authors conclude, based on comparing different forms of peer review after systematic training at two universities, that "the crux is that peer review is not just about improving writing but about helping authors achieve their writing vision." Feedback from the majority of non-professional writers during peer review sessions often tends to be superficial, such as simple grammar corrections and questions. This precisely reflects the implication in the conclusion that the focus is only on improving writing skills. Meaningful peer review involves understanding the author's writing intent, posing valuable questions and perspectives, and guiding the author to achieve their writing goals.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_and_improvement">Comparison and improvement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peer_review&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Comparison and improvement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Magda Tigchelaar compares peer review with self-assessment through an experiment that divided students into three groups: self-assessment, peer review, and no review. Across four writing projects, she observed changes in each group, with surprisingly results showing significant improvement only in the self-assessment group. The author's analysis suggests that self-assessment allows individuals to clearly understand the revision goals at each stage, as the author is the most familiar with their own writing. Thus, self-checking naturally follows a systematic and planned approach to revision. In contrast, the effectiveness of peer review is often limited due to the lack of structured feedback, characterized by scattered, meaningless summaries and evaluations that fail to meet author's expectations for revising their work.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stephanie Conner and Jennifer Gray highlight the value of most students' feedback during peer review. They argue that many peer review sessions fail to meet students' expectations, as students, even as reviewers themselves, feel uncertain about providing constructive feedback due to their lack of confidence in their own writing. The authors further offer numerous improvement strategies across various dimensions, such as course content and specific implementation steps. For instance, the peer review process can be segmented into groups, where students present the papers to be reviewed, while other group members take notes and analyze them. Then, the review scope can be expanded to the entire class. This widens the review sources and further enhances the level of professionalism.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With evolving and changing technology, peer review is also expected to evolve. New tools have the potential to transform the peer review process. Mimi Li discusses the effectiveness and feedback of an online peer review software used in their freshman writing class. Unlike traditional peer review methods commonly used in classrooms, the online peer review software offers a plethora of tools for editing articles, along with comprehensive guidance. For instance, it lists numerous questions peer reviewers can ask and allows for various comments to be added to the selected text. Based on observations over the course of a semester, students showed varying degrees of improvement in their writing skills and grades after using the online peer review software. Additionally, they highly praised the technology of online peer review.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peer_review&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_publishing" title="Academic publishing">Academic publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">Scientific literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_critique" title="Peer critique">Peer critique</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peer_review&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/peer-review-process">"peer review process"</a>. <i>National Cancer Institute Dictionary of Cancer Terms</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Gray, Jennifer (15 April 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/journalrw/vol9/iss1/4">"Resisting the Deficit Model: Embedding Writing Center Tutors during Peer Review in Writing-Intensive Courses"</a>. <i>Journal of Response to Writing</i>. <b>9</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2575-9809">2575-9809</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Response+to+Writing&rft.atitle=Resisting+the+Deficit+Model%3A+Embedding+Writing+Center+Tutors+during+Peer+Review+in+Writing-Intensive+Courses&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2023-04-15&rft.issn=2575-9809&rft.aulast=Conner&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rft.au=Gray%2C+Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarsarchive.byu.edu%2Fjournalrw%2Fvol9%2Fiss1%2F4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeer+review" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2018" class="citation journal cs1">Li, Mimi (1 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/journalrw/vol4/iss2/5">"Online Peer Review Using Turnitin PeerMark"</a>. <i>Journal of Response to Writing</i>. <b>4</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2575-9809">2575-9809</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Response+to+Writing&rft.atitle=Online+Peer+Review+Using+Turnitin+PeerMark&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2018-01-01&rft.issn=2575-9809&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Mimi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarsarchive.byu.edu%2Fjournalrw%2Fvol4%2Fiss2%2F5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeer+review" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peer_review&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeSugimotoZhangCronin2013" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Carole J.; <a href="/wiki/Cassidy_Sugimoto" title="Cassidy Sugimoto">Sugimoto, Cassidy R.</a>; Zhang, Guo; Cronin, Blaise (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/asi.22784">"Bias in peer review"</a>. <i>Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology</i>. <b>64</b> (1): 2–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fasi.22784">10.1002/asi.22784</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Society+for+Information+Science+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Bias+in+peer+review&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2-17&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fasi.22784&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Carole+J.&rft.au=Sugimoto%2C+Cassidy+R.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Guo&rft.au=Cronin%2C+Blaise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2Fasi.22784&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeer+review" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBazi2020" class="citation journal cs1">Bazi, Toni (2020). "Peer Review: Single-blind, Double-blind, or All the Way-blind?". <i>International Urogynecology Journal</i>. <b>31</b> (3) (published 9 December 2019): 481–483. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00192-019-04187-2">10.1007/s00192-019-04187-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31820012">31820012</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:208869313">208869313</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Urogynecology+Journal&rft.atitle=Peer+Review%3A+Single-blind%2C+Double-blind%2C+or+All+the+Way-blind%3F&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=481-483&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A208869313%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31820012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00192-019-04187-2&rft.aulast=Bazi&rft.aufirst=Toni&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeer+review" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTomkinsZhangHeavlin2017" class="citation journal cs1">Tomkins, Andrew; Zhang, Min; Heavlin, William D. (2017) [Composed October 2017]. <a href="/wiki/Susan_T._Fiske" class="mw-redirect" title="Susan T. Fiske">Fiske, Susan T.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5715744">"Reviewer Bias in Single- Versus Double-blind Peer Review"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</a></i>. <b>114</b> (48) (published November 2017): 12708–12713. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017PNAS..11412708T">2017PNAS..11412708T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1707323114">10.1073/pnas.1707323114</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5715744">5715744</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29138317">29138317</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Reviewer+Bias+in+Single-+Versus+Double-blind+Peer+Review&rft.volume=114&rft.issue=48&rft.pages=12708-12713&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5715744%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29138317&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1707323114&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017PNAS..11412708T&rft.aulast=Tomkins&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Min&rft.au=Heavlin%2C+William+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5715744&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeer+review" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartín2016" class="citation journal cs1">Martín, Eloisa (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0011392116656711">"How Double-blind Peer Review Works and What It Takes To Be A Good Referee"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Current_Sociology" title="Current Sociology">Current Sociology</a></i>. <b>64</b> (5): 691–698. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0011392116656711">10.1177/0011392116656711</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Sociology&rft.atitle=How+Double-blind+Peer+Review+Works+and+What+It+Takes+To+Be+A+Good+Referee&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=691-698&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0011392116656711&rft.aulast=Mart%C3%ADn&rft.aufirst=Eloisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F0011392116656711&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeer+review" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHames2007" class="citation book cs1">Hames, Irene (2007). <i>Peer Review and Manuscript Management in Scientific Journals: Guidelines for Good Practice</i>. Oxford, UK: <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishing">Blackwell Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3159-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3159-9"><bdi>978-1-4051-3159-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peer+Review+and+Manuscript+Management+in+Scientific+Journals%3A+Guidelines+for+Good+Practice&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-3159-9&rft.aulast=Hames&rft.aufirst=Irene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeer+review" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peer_review&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit 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scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Impact and ranking</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acknowledgment_index" title="Acknowledgment index">Acknowledgment index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altmetrics" title="Altmetrics">Altmetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article-level_metrics" title="Article-level metrics">Article-level metrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Author-level_metrics" title="Author-level metrics">Author-level metrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citation_impact" title="Citation impact">Citation impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citation_index" title="Citation index">Citation index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_ranking" title="Journal ranking">Journal ranking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eigenfactor" title="Eigenfactor">Eigenfactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H-index" title="H-index">h-index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_factor" title="Impact factor">Impact factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCImago_Journal_Rank" title="SCImago Journal Rank">SCImago Journal Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reform and access</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_journal_publishing_reform" title="Academic journal publishing reform">Academic journal publishing reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="Open access">Open access</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Open_access_citation_advantage" title="Open access citation advantage">Citation advantage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serials_crisis" title="Serials crisis">Serials crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sci-Hub" title="Sci-Hub">Sci-Hub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ICanHazPDF" title="ICanHazPDF">#ICanHazPDF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Versioning</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preprint" title="Preprint">Preprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postprint" title="Postprint">Postprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Version_of_record" title="Version of record">Version of record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erratum" title="Erratum">Erratum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing" title="Retraction in academic publishing">Retraction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_databases_and_search_engines" title="List of academic databases and search engines">Indexes and search engines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar">Google Scholar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AMiner_(database)" title="AMiner (database)">AMiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BASE_(search_engine)" title="BASE (search engine)">BASE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CORE_(research_service)" title="CORE (research service)">CORE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_Scholar" title="Semantic Scholar">Semantic Scholar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scopus" title="Scopus">Scopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_of_Science" title="Web of Science">Web of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paperity" title="Paperity">Paperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenAlex" title="OpenAlex">OpenAlex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imprint_(trade_name)" title="Imprint (trade name)">Imprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_writing" title="Scientific writing">Scientific writing</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Peer review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholarly_communication" title="Scholarly communication">Scholarly communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">Scientific literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learned_society" title="Learned society">Learned society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_research" title="Open research">Open research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_scientific_data" title="Open scientific data">Open scientific data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ORCID" title="ORCID">ORCID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_publishing" title="Electronic publishing">Electronic publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingelfinger_rule" title="Ingelfinger rule">Ingelfinger rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Least_publishable_unit" title="Least publishable unit">Least publishable unit</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Publish_or_perish" title="Publish or perish">Publish or perish</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_academic_journals" title="Lists of academic journals">Academic journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_scientific_journals" title="List of scientific journals">Scientific journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_open-access_journals" title="List of open-access journals">Open-access journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_databases_and_search_engines" title="List of academic databases and search engines">Academic databases and search engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_university_presses" title="List of university presses">University presses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_policies_of_academic_publishers" title="Copyright policies of academic publishers">Copyright policies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_publishers_by_preprint_policy" title="List of academic publishers by preprint policy">Preprint policies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_style_guides#Academic" title="List of style guides">Style/formatting guides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Academic_publishing" title="Category:Academic publishing">Category:Academic publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scientific_documents" title="Category:Scientific documents">Category:Scientific documents</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Peer review"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85099224">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Évaluation par des pairs"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13328196k">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText 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